Jock Young (1942-2013): El “Causante” De La Herencia Crítica De La Criminología

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Jock Young (1942-2013): El “Causante” De La Herencia Crítica De La Criminología Jock Young (1942-2013): el “causante” de la herencia crítica de la criminología. Por Gabriel Ignacio Anitua1 Muy recientemente, el 16 de noviembre de 2013, falleció Jock Young, el sociólogo reconocido como el fundador de la llamada “criminología crítica”, del “realismo de izquierda” y de la “criminología cultural”. Había nacido el 4 de marzo de 1942 como William Young en Vogrie, Midlothian, Escocia, aunque desde los cinco años vivió en zonas fabriles de Inglaterra. Siempre reivindicó sus orígenes humildes, de clase obrera, ya que era hijo de un camionero y su destino parecía marcado para formar parte de tal grupo social. Quizás por ese orgullo de clase, que explicaba en su currículo diciendo ser el primero de su familia en ir a la Universidad, al volcarse académicamente en un proyecto universitario para la clase trabajadora y en los propios objetivos teóricos y prácticos de sus trabajos, es pensable que rechazara el concepto mismo de herencia. Pero lo cierto es que su producción ha dejado mucho, un importante legado, sobremanera para la criminología, y jugando con el título del muy valioso libro de Elena Larrauri (La herencia de la criminología crítica). Sus pasos sobre ese campo polivalente de estudios y prácticas sociales y criminológicas lo lleva desde York a Nueva York. De la ruptura con la criminología oficial hacia la criminología cultural, pasando por cierto por la criminología de, y para, la clase obrera, como se ha dicho. Me refiero a York puesto que fue allí, donde, en 1968 unos siete jóvenes profesores y estudiantes decidieron romper con la reunión oficial de cri- minólogos, que organizaba el Instituto de Criminología de Cambridge, y formar un movimiento crítico con toda esa institucionalización ligada al Home Office. El joven Jock aportó sus inquietudes políticas socialistas y sus agudos estudios desarrollados en ciencias sociales en la prestigiosa London 1 Doctor en Derecho, Universidad de Barcelona. Profesor de derecho penal y criminología, Universidad de Buenos Aires. School of Economics. Desde 1962 estudiaba allí, siguiendo el contacto del sociólogo crítico Steve Box, y tras abandonar una beca para estudiar bioquímica y, antes, una muy dura experiencia educativa casi militar, de la que guardó cierta mirada escéptica y una experiencia en organizar resistencias a la disciplina y el control, así como su apodo de “Jock”. Sus primeras publicaciones son los artículos “Student Culture and Youth Culture”, en Twentieth Century en el año 1969; y de 1970 el muy citado luego “The Zookeepers of Deviancy”, en Catalyst (traducido en 1977 por Rosa del Olmo en la compilación Estigmatización y conducta desviada). En sociología obtuvo su doctorado con un trabajo etnográfico sobre el consumo de drogas en el barrio de Notting Hill, hoy un barrio bastante “cheto” del oeste de Londres pero entonces ocupado por jóvenes rebeldes y marginales. En esa investigación, publicada en 1971 en Londres y por McGibbon and Kee como The Drugtakers: The Social Meaning of Drug Use, es donde desarrolló por vez primera el concepto de pánico moral. En aquella reunión de York nació la National Deviance Conference, pri- mero integrada por esos siete jóvenes, entre los que destacaba Jock Young, pero que, tras periódicas reuniones, contactos con los movi- mientos sociales, y unas cuantas publicaciones, logró aumentar espec- tacularmente su número. Políticamente el grupo era muy heterodoxo, pues había anarquistas, marxistas, liberales, humanistas; pero los unía la insatisfacción frente al positivismo criminológico y frente a una pre- tensión de neutralidad del criminólogo ante las pautas políticas y eco- nómicas de la sociedad en que se planteaba la “desviación”. La primera publicación importante del grupo fue Images of Deviance publicado en en Harmondsworth por la prestigiosa editorial Penguin en 1971. La colaboración de Jock fue su artículo “The Role of the Police as Amplifiers of Deviancy, Negotiators of Reality and Translators of Fantasy”, parte de su tesis doctoral y su presentación en la NDC. Lo importante es que ese libro, y con las distintas colaboraciones, ejemplificó la unión del compromiso político libertario de los años se- senta con la reflexión intelectual sobre el terreno sociológico y que esa unión permitía realizar una nueva aproximación crítica a la criminolo- gía. Ese tipo de reflexión crítica fue la generadora de la obra más importan- te, y con mayor trascendencia dentro y fuera de su país de origen, para plantear una nueva criminología radical, crítica y materialista: The New Criminology escrita por Jock Young junto a sus amigos Ian Taylor (1944-2001) y Paul Walton y publicada en Londres por Routledge & Kegan Paul en 1973. En sus propias palabras, esta criminología debería comprometerse con la abolición de las desigualdades de riquezas y de poder, desde una perspectiva marxista a la que se proponían completar con la percepción del delito como una consecuencia de la estructura so- cial en la que se desarrolla. Evitaban estos autores caer en un determi- nismo en tal sentido, al reconocer la racionalidad del comportamiento delictivo cuando la oportunidad le permite a su autor recurrir a esta op- ción para solucionar determinados problemas ocasionados por las con- tradicciones de un Estado represivo y una sociedad injusta. Para estu- diar todo ello proponían visualizar los orígenes estructurales y superes- tructurales de la desviación, así como las más inmediatas reacciones de las instancias oficiales y del público. Pero para llegar a ello realizaron una obra teórica que aún hoy sigue siendo una referencia ineludible pa- ra los estudiosos de los pensamientos criminológicos. Es una de las primeras exposiciones críticas sobre la historia de los pensamientos criminológicos, con el agregado de relacionar esas teorías con el momento de las esferas de consumo y de producción. Los autores realizaron en esta obra una crítica tanto a las posiciones conservadoras de la criminología como a las liberales de los teóricos del etiquetamien- to, el naturalismo y la etnometodología. Seguían, para ello, las críticas que había realizado anteriormente el sociólogo Alvin Gouldner –prologa- dor de la obra– al enfoque liberal que se mostraba cercano a los “pobres diablos”, pero que hacía muy poco para cambiar la situación estructural que les afectaba. Por ello el enfoque escéptico más relacionado con la teoría del etiquetamiento fue calificado más tarde de “idealista” por el propio Jock Young. En todo caso, la crítica a los “idealistas” no se dirigía solamente al enfo- que del etiquetamiento, sino que también revelaba las tensiones exis- tentes dentro del pensamiento criminológico crítico inglés. Pero ello se advirtió más adelante. Para los primeros años setenta todos los críticos estaban de acuerdo en objetar el autoritarismo estatal y la economía capitalista que manipulaba ciertos hechos a través de la agenda criminal mediante los “pánicos morales”. En ese sentido, además de lo ya dicho sobre su tesis doctoral, es de destacar que Jock coeditó junto a su amigo Stan Cohen (1940-2013) el muy importante libro The Manufacture of News: Social Problems, Deviance and the Mass Media en 1973, publicado en Londres por la editorial Constable. Son de su autoría o en conjunto con Stanley Cohen los siguientes artículos: 'The Process of Selection of News', 'Models of the Media', 'The Myth of the Drugtaker in the Mass Media', 'Effects and Consequences of the Media', 'The Media and Amplification', y 'Do-it- Yourself Media Sociology'. Allí investigan cómo los medios de comunicación masiva seleccionan los acontecimientos relativos a la desviación, las nociones que utilizan en la realización de las noticias y el papel de los media en el control social. Esta investigación es un intento por destapar los sistemas ideológicos presentes en dichas instituciones públicas y en los medios de comunicación. Pero a la vez complejiza la cuestión y da cuenta de una siempre difícil relación entre el delito y la prensa. Permite, Young, una visión crítica e inteligente de esa relación. Otra obra suya de ese período es “The Consensual Myth in the Mass Media”' publicada en P. Rock y M. McIntosh eds. Deviance and Social Control, Tavistock, London, 1975. En las sociedades capitalistas se crean empresas de medios que pueden ser tan peligrosas como el Estado si persiguen sólo un interés político. Pero también tienen un interés de lucro, que no es el único relevante tampoco. Estas instituciones mediáticas deben ser analizadas como formas complejas de control. Pero, como intermediarios del proceso comunicacional, los medios están más propensos que cualquier otro agente de control a recibir las influencias de los sectores populares y no dominantes, puesto que, como decía Jock “El carácter de mercancía de las noticias asegura que haya una tendencia a la autonomía en la producción de noticias” (lo decía Young en otro artículo agregado en la segunda edición de aquel libro, de 1981, “Beyond Consensual Paradigm Theory”, cito de “Más allá del paradigma consensual: una crítica al funcionalismo de izquierda en la teoría de las comunicaciones de masas” publicado en la revista dirigida por Roberto Bergalli y Juan Bustos Poder y Control nro. 1 Planteamientos sobre el control informal, Barcelona, PPU, 1987, p. 80; el artículo también está publicado en italiano en Grandi, Roberto, Pavarini, Massimo y Sismondi, Mario comps., I segni di Caino. L’immagine della devianza nella comunicazione di massa). La empresa de noticias indudablemente refleja lo que demanda la audiencia ya que su fin es lucrar, y ello puede hacer que se cumpla la misión de construcción de lo “público” sin determinaciones conformistas. La función control de las interesadas empresas comerciales, en tanto se está en un sistema de competencia, debe ajustarse a la función audiencia. Y, como señalaba Young, ello también actúa sobre el sistema judicial en clave crítica: “No siempre se muestra que se ha hecho justicia; una cierta sensación de anomalía, de indignación y de injusticia produce noticia. No en cambio los principios sugeridos por la teoría del paradigma” (que confirman estereotipos de héroes y villanos, que aseguran que cada uno de ellos sea adecuadamente recompensado, que difundan el lenguaje del libre arbitrio y del consenso, p.
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