PREPARING OUR YOUTH FOR AN INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE WORLD The OECD PISA global competence framework INTRODUCTION: Foreword THE IMPORTANCE OF Contents AN INTERNATIONAL GLOBAL COMPETENCE “Reinforcing global competence is vital for “In 2015, 193 countries committed ASSESSMENT individuals to thrive in a rapidly changing to achieving the UN’s 17 Sustainable P.04 world and for societies to progress without Development Goals (SDGs), a shared vision leaving anyone behind. Against a context of humanity that provides the missing piece in which we all have much to gain from of the globalisation puzzle. The extent to THE CONCEPT THE ASSESSMENT growing openness and connectivity, and which that vision becomes a reality will OF GLOBAL OF GLOBAL much to lose from rising inequalities and depend on today’s classrooms; and it is THE DIMENSIONS COMPETENCE AND COMPETENCE THE ASSESSMENT OF GLOBAL ITS IMPLICATIONS radicalism, citizens need not only the skills educators who hold the key to ensuring that IN PISA STRATEGY COMPETENCE FOR EDUCATION to be competitive and ready for a new world the SDGs become a real social contract P.21 P.07 P.21 of work, but more importantly they also with citizens. Goal 4, which commits to P.07 need to develop the capacity to analyse quality education for all, is intentionally THE BUILDING and understand global and intercultural BLOCKS OF GLOBAL SELF-REPORTED not limited to foundation knowledge and COMPETENCE THE COGNITIVE TEST ON GLOBAL INFORMATION IN issues. The development of social and skills such as literacy, mathematics and – KNOWLEDGE, THE STUDENT SKILLS, ATTITUDES UNDERSTANDING emotional skills, as well as values like science, but places strong emphasis on QUESTIONNAIRE AND VALUES P.23 CONCLUSIONS P.34 respect, self-confidence and a sense of learning to live together sustainably. But P.12 belonging, are of the utmost importance such goals are only meaningful if they P.38 to create opportunities for all and advance become visible. This has inspired the a shared respect for human dignity. The OECD Programme for International Student OECD is actively working on assessing Assessment (PISA), the global yardstick global competence in PISA 2018. Together, for educational success, to include global we can foster global competence for more competence in its metrics for quality, equity ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF inclusive societies.” and effectiveness in education. PISA will REFERENCES ANNEXES SCENARIOS FOR assess global competence for the first time THE COGNITIVE P.39 P.43 ASSESSMENT Gabriela Ramos ever in 2018. In that regard, this framework OF GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING provides its conceptual underpinning.” OECD Chief of Staff and Sherpa to the G20 P.43

Andreas Schleicher DESCRIPTION QUESTIONS OF POSSIBLE RELATED TO GLOBAL Director, OECD Directorate for Education TOPICS FOR THE COMPETENCE and Skills, and Special Advisor on Education SCENARIOS OF THE IN THE STUDENT Policy to the Secretary-General COGNITIVE TEST QUESTIONNAIRE P.46 P.50

This framework is the product of a collaborative effort between the countries participating in PISA and the OECD Secretariat, under the guidance of Andreas Schleicher and Yuri Belfali. The framework was developed by Mario Piacentini with Martyn Barrett, Veronica Boix Mansilla, Darla Deardorff and Hye-Won Lee. Rose Bolognini and Natalie Foster edited the framework. Natasha Robinson provided excellent research assistance and Mattia Baiutti, helpful comments. This framework builds on earlier work by the experts who led the first phase of development of the assessment: Darla Deardorff, David Kerr, Peter Franklin, Sarah Howie, Wing On Lee, Jasmine B-Y Sim and Sari Sulkinen. The OECD would also like to thank Project Zero at Harvard University for their invaluable input and dissemination efforts. immigrants in numerous countries, communities people tend to “flock together” (Zuckerman, have to redefine their identity and local culture. 2014) favouring interactions with a small set of Contemporary societies call for complex forms people with whom they have much in common. of belonging and citizenship where individuals Likewise, access to an unlimited amount of must interact with distant regions, people and information is often paired with insufficient ideas while also deepening their understanding media literacy, meaning that young people are of their local environment and the diversity easily fooled by partisan, biased or fake news. Introduction: within their own communities. By appreciating In this context, cultivating students’ global the differences in the communities to which competence can help them to capitalise on they belong - the nation, the region, the city, the digital spaces, better understand the world The importance of an neighbourhood, the school – young people can they live in and responsibly express their voice learn to live together as global citizens (Delors online. international global et al., 1996; UNESCO, 2014b). While education cannot bear the sole responsibility for ending To support the Sustainable Development racism and discrimination, it can teach young Goals competence assessment people the importance of challenging cultural biases and stereotypes. Finally, educating for global competence can help form new generations who care To thrive in a changing labour market about global issues and engage in tackling Twenty-first century students live in an significant to both the world at large and to social, political, economic and environmental interconnected, diverse and rapidly changing their own lives. They can teach students how Educating for global competence can boost challenges. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable world. Emerging economic, digital, cultural, to critically, effectively and responsibly use employability. Effective communication and Development recognises the critical role of demographic and environmental forces are digital information and social media platforms. appropriate behaviour within diverse teams are education in reaching sustainability goals, shaping young people’s lives around the planet, Schools can encourage intercultural sensitivity keys to success in many jobs, and will remain calling on all countries “to ensure, by 2030, that and increasing their intercultural encounters and respect by allowing students to engage so as technology continues to make it easier for all learners acquire the knowledge and skills on a daily basis. This complex environment in experiences that foster an appreciation people to connect across the globe. Employers needed to promote sustainable development, presents an opportunity and a challenge. Young for diverse peoples, languages and cultures increasingly seek to attract learners who easily including, among others, through education people today must not only learn to participate (Bennett, 1993; Sinicrope, Norris and Watanabe, adapt and are able to apply and transfer their for sustainable development and sustainable in a more interconnected world but also 2007). Schools are also uniquely positioned to skills and knowledge to new contexts. Work lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, appreciate and benefit from cultural differences. enhance young people’s ability to understand readiness in an interconnected world requires promotion of a culture of peace and non- Developing a global and intercultural outlook is their place in the community and the world, and young people to understand the complex violence, global citizenship and appreciation a process – a lifelong process – that education improve their ability to make judgements and dynamics of globalisation, be open to people of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution can shape (Barrett et al., 2014; Boix Mansilla take action (Hanvey, 1975). from different cultural backgrounds, build trust to sustainable development” (Target 4.7, and Jackson, 2011; Deardorff, 2009; UNESCO, in diverse teams and demonstrate respect for Education 2030, Incheon Declaration and 2013, 2014a, 2016). others (British Council, 2013). Framework for Action, page 20). Why do we need global competence? To use media platforms effectively and What is global competence? Should we assess global To live harmoniously in multicultural responsibly Global competence is a multidimensional communities competence? capacity. Globally competent individuals Over the past two decades radical Every school should encourage its students can examine local, global and intercultural Education for global competence can promote transformations in digital technologies have to try and make sense of the most pressing issues, understand and appreciate different cultural awareness and respectful interactions shaped young people’s outlook on the issues defining our times. The high demands perspectives and world views, interact in increasingly diverse societies. Since the world, their interactions with others and their placed on schools to help their students cope successfully and respectfully with others, and end of the Cold War, ethno-cultural conflicts perception of themselves. Online networks, and succeed in an increasingly interconnected take responsible action toward sustainability have become the most common source of social media and interactive technologies are environment can only be met if education and collective well-being. political violence in the world, and they show giving rise to new types of learning, where systems define new learning objectives based no sign of abating (Brubacker and Laitin, young people exercise greater control over on a solid framework, and use different types 1998; Kymlicka, 1995; Sen, 2007). The many what and how they learn. At the same time, of assessment to reflect on the effectiveness of Can schools promote global episodes of indiscriminate violence in the name young people’s digital lives can cause them their initiatives and teaching practices. In this competence? of a religious or ethnic affiliation challenge to disconnect from themselves and the world, context, PISA aims to provide a comprehensive Schools play a crucial role in helping young the belief that people with diverse cultures and ignore the impact that their actions may overview of education systems’ efforts to people to develop global competence. They are able to live peacefully in close proximity, have on others. Moreover, while technology create learning environments that invite young can provide opportunities for young people to accept differences, find common solutions and helps people to easily connect around the people to understand the world beyond their critically examine global developments that are resolve disagreements. With the high influx of world, online behaviour suggests that young immediate environment, interact with others

4 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 5 with respect for their rights and dignity, and take Taken together, the cognitive assessment and action towards building sustainable and thriving the background questionnaire address the communities. A fundamental goal of this work following educational policy questions: is to support evidence-based decisions on how to improve curricula, teaching, assessments • To what degree are students able to critically and schools’ responses to cultural diversity examine contemporary issues of local, global in order to prepare young people to become and intercultural significance? The concept of global citizens. • To what degree are students able to understand and appreciate multiple cultural global competence How do we assess global perspectives (including their own) and competence? manage differences and conflicts? and its implications The global competence assessment in PISA 2018 is composed of two parts: a cognitive • To what degree are students prepared assessment and a background questionnaire. to interact respectfully across cultural for education The cognitive assessment is designed to elicit differences? students’ capacities to critically examine global issues; recognise outside influences • To what degree do students care about the on perspectives and world views; understand world and take action to make a positive The dimensions of global competence how to communicate with others in intercultural difference in other peoples’ lives and to contexts; and identify and compare different safeguard the environment? Education for global competence builds an individual to reflect upon and engage with courses of action to address global and on the ideas of different models of global global problems that have deep implications intercultural issues. • What inequalities exist in access to education education, such as intercultural education, for current and future generations). Acquiring for global competence between and within global citizenship education and education global competence is a life-long process – In the background questionnaire, students will countries? for democratic citizenship (UNESCO, 2014a; there is no single point at which an individual be asked to report how familiar they are with Council of Europe, 2016a). Despite differences becomes completely globally competent. PISA global issues; how developed their linguistic • What approaches to multicultural, in their focus and scope (cultural differences or will assess at what stage 15-year-old students and communication skills are; to what extent intercultural and global education are most democratic culture, rather than human rights are situated in this process, and whether their they hold certain attitudes, such as respect for commonly used in school systems around or environmental sustainability), these models schools effectively address the development people from different cultural backgrounds; the world? share a common goal to promote students’ of global competence. and what opportunities they have at school understanding of the world and empower them to develop global competence. Answers to • How are teachers being prepared to develop to express their views and participate in society. The PISA 2018 assessment uses the following the school and teacher questionnaires will students’ global competence? definition of global competence: provide a comparative picture of how education PISA contributes to the existing models by systems are integrating global, international proposing a new perspective on the definition and intercultural perspectives throughout the and assessment of global competence. These Global competence is the capacity to curriculum and in classroom activities. conceptual foundations and assessment examine local, global and intercultural guidelines will help policy makers and school issues, to understand and appreciate leaders create learning resources and curricula the perspectives and world views of that approach global competence as a others, to engage in open, appropriate multifaceted cognitive, socio-emotional and civic and effective interactions with people learning goal (Boix Mansilla, 2016). They will also from different cultures, and to act for facilitate governments’ ability to monitor progress collective well-being and sustainable and ensure systematic and long-term support. development.

“Competence” is not merely a specific skill but is a combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes This definition outlines four target dimensions and values successfully applied to face-to-face, of global competence that people need to apply virtual or mediated1 encounters with people successfully in their everyday life: who are perceived to be from a different cultural background, and to individuals’ experiences 1. the capacity to examine issues and situations of global issues (i.e. situations that require of local, global and cultural significance

1 ‘Mediated’ here refers to encounters that occur through images in the media (for example, on television, on the Internet, in a movie or book, in a newspaper, etc.).

6 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 7 (e.g. poverty, economic interdependence, These four dimensions are strongly Dimension 1: Examine issues of local, global and cultural significance. migration, inequality, environmental interdependent and overlapping, justifying the risks, conflicts, cultural differences and use of the singular term “global competence”. This dimension refers to globally competent questions, analyse data and arguments, explain stereotypes); For example, students from two different people’s practices of effectively combining phenomena, and develop a position concerning cultural backgrounds who work together for a knowledge about the world and critical a local, global or cultural issue (Boix Mansilla 2. the capacity to understand and appreciate school project demonstrate global competence reasoning whenever they form their own and Jackson, 2011). Development in this different perspectives and world views; as they: get to know each other better (examine opinion about a global issue. People who dimension also requires media literacy, defined their cultural differences); try to understand how acquire a mature level of development in this as the ability to access, analyse and critically 3. the ability to establish positive interactions each perceives his or her role in the project dimension use higher-order thinking skills, evaluate media messages, as well as to create with people of different national, ethnic, and the other's perspective (understand such as selecting and weighing appropriate new media content (Buckingham, 2007; religious, social or cultural backgrounds or perspectives); negotiate misunderstandings evidence to reason about global developments. Kellner and Share, 2005). Globally competent gender; and and clearly communicate expectations and Globally competent students can draw on people are effective users and creators of both feelings (interact openly, appropriately and and combine the disciplinary knowledge and traditional and digital media. 4. the capacity and disposition to take effectively); and take stock of what they learn modes of thinking acquired in schools to ask constructive action toward sustainable from each other to improve social relationships development and collective well-being. in their classroom and school (act for collective well-being). Examining issues of global significance: an example

In her history course, a student learns about industrialisation and economic growth in developing countries, and how these have been influenced by foreign investments. She Defining culture learns that many girls of her age work in poor conditions in factories for up to ten hours a day, “Culture” is difficult to define because cultural groups are always internally heterogeneous instead of going to school. Her teacher encourages each student to bring one item of clothing and contain individuals who adhere to a range of diverse beliefs and practices. Furthermore, to class and look at the label to see where it was manufactured. The student is surprised to the core cultural beliefs and practices that are most typically associated with any given group notice that most of her clothes were made in Bangladesh. The student wonders under what are also constantly changing and evolving over time. However, distinctions may be drawn conditions her clothes were made. She looks at the websites of various high-street brand between the material, social and subjective aspects of culture, that is, between the material shops to see if the websites can tell her about their manufacturing standards and policies. artefacts that are commonly used by the members of a cultural group (e.g. the tools, foods, She discovers that some clothing brands are more concerned with human rights in their clothing, etc.), the social institutions of the group (e.g. the language, the communicative factories than others, and she also discovers that some clothing brands have a long history conventions, folklore, religion, etc.), and the beliefs, values, discourses and practices that of poor conditions in their factories. She reads different journalistic articles about the issue group members commonly use as a frame of reference for thinking about and relating to and watches a short documentary on YouTube. Based on what she discovers, she starts to the world. Culture is a composite formed from all three of these aspects, consisting of a buy fair-trade clothing and becomes an advocate for ethically responsible manufacturing. network of material, social and subjective resources. The full set of cultural resources is distributed across the entire group, but each individual member of the group only uses a subset of the full set of cultural resources that is potentially available to them (Barrett et al., Dimension 2: Understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others. 2014; Council of Europe, 2016a). Defining culture in this way means that any kind of social group can have its own distinctive This dimension highlights that globally assumptions. This in turn implies a profound culture: national groups, ethnic groups, faith groups, linguistic groups, occupational groups, competent people are willing and capable of respect for and interest in who the other is, generational groups, family groups, etc. The definition also implies that all individuals considering global problems and other people’s their concept of reality and their emotions. belong to multiple groups, and therefore have multiple cultural affiliations and identities perspectives and behaviours from multiple Individuals with this competence also account (e.g. national, religious, linguistic, generational, familial, etc.). Although all people belong to viewpoints. As individuals acquire knowledge for and appreciate the connections (e.g. basic multiple cultures, each person participates in a different constellation of cultures, and the about other cultures’ histories, values, human rights and needs, common experiences) way in which they relate to any one culture depends, at least in part, on the perspectives that communication styles, beliefs and practices, that enable them to bridge differences and are shaped by other cultures to which they also belong. In other words, cultural affiliations they acquire the means to recognise that their create common ground. They retain their intersect, and each individual has a unique cultural positioning. perspectives and behaviours are shaped by cultural identity but are simultaneously aware of multiple influences, that they are not always the cultural values and beliefs of people around People’s cultural affiliations are dynamic and fluid; what they think defines them culturally fully aware of these influences, and that others them. Recognising another’s position or belief is fluctuates as an individual moves from one situation to another. These fluctuations depend have views of the world that are profoundly not necessarily to accept that position or belief. on the extent to which a social context focuses on a particular identity, and on the individual’s different from their own (Hanvey, 1975). However, the ability to see through ‘another needs, motivations, interests and expectations within that situation (Council of Europe, cultural filter’ provides opportunities to deepen 2016a). Engaging with different perspectives and world and question one’s own perspectives, and thus views requires individuals to examine the make more mature decisions when dealing with origins and implications of others’ and their own others (Fennes and Hapgood, 1997).

8 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 9 Dimension 4: Take action for collective well-being and sustainable development. Understanding perspectives and worldviews: an example A student notices that certain members of his class have stopped eating lunch. When he This dimension focuses on young people’s role on the refugee crisis via social media. Globally enquires, they tell him that they are participating in a religious fast. The student is curious as active and responsible members of society, competent people are engaged to improve and asks more about what that involves: for how long will they fast? When can they eat? and refers to individuals’ readiness to respond living conditions in their own communities and What can they eat? What is the religious significance of the fast? The student learns that to a given local, global or intercultural issue also to build a more just, peaceful, inclusive and for his classmates fasting is something that they do every year, along with their families or situation. This dimension recognises that environmentally sustainable world. and religious community. He also learns that fasting is significant to his classmates as for young people have multiple realms of influence them it is a way of demonstrating control over their bodies. The student reflects on this ranging from personal and local to digital and Figure 1 shows how global competence significance. Although he does not fast he recognises that the themes of community, global. Competent people create opportunities is defined as the combination of the four sacrifice and material transcendence are common to many different religions, including that to take informed, reflective action and have their dimensions (examining issues, understanding of his own religious heritage. He recognises that different groups can attribute the same voices heard. Taking action may imply standing perspectives, interacting across cultural meaning to different practices. He furthermore asks his classmates whether he can fast up for a schoolmate whose human dignity is in differences and taking action), and how each with them for a day, as a way of experiencing what fasting means for them. His classmates jeopardy, initiating a global media campaign at dimension builds on specific knowledge, skills, warmly agree and invite him to join their families for dinner in the evening to break the fast school, or disseminating a personal view point attitudes and values. together. Although the student does not attribute the same significance to fasting, through this experience he better understands the perspectives of his classmates and his respect for religious diversity increases. Taking action for well-being and sustainable development: an example A group of students decides to initiate an environmental awareness campaign on the ways in which their school contributes to local and global waste and pollution. With support from their teachers, they arrange a series of talks on how to reduce waste and energy consumption. Dimension 3: Engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions across cultures. They also design and strategically distribute information posters that help guide students to make better choices when buying products and when disposing of waste. Furthermore, This dimension describes what globally interact with others across differences in ways they collaborate with both student representatives and school administrators to introduce competent individuals are able to do when that are open, appropriate and effective. Open recycling bins and energy conservation strategies on the school premises. they interact with people from different interactions mean relationships in which all cultures. They understand the cultural norms, participants demonstrate sensitivity towards, interactive styles and degrees of formality of curiosity about and willingness to engage with intercultural contexts, and they can flexibly others and their perspectives. Appropriate Figure 1. The dimensions of global competence adapt their behaviour and communication to refers to interactions that respect the expected suit. This dimension addresses appreciation cultural norms of both parties. In effective dge for respectful dialogue, desire to understand communication, all participants are able to wle no the other and efforts to include marginalised make themselves understood and understand K groups. It emphasises individuals’ capacity to the other (Barrett et al., 2014).

Understand Interacting openly, effectively and appropriately across cultural differences: and appreciate an example Examine local, global and the perspectives V intercultural and world views a Jo and Ai are collaborating on a school project with a student from another country, Mike. The l u issues of others e students set up a video chat on a web platform to brainstorm ideas, but at the convened time s

for the meeting, they cannot find Mike online. When, a few hours later, the students manage to connect on the web platform, Jo complains that not showing up at the first meeting Global

is not a good way to start, and gets angry when she receives no explanation at all from competence

s

Mike, who remains silent at the other end of the line. At this point, Ai demonstrates global l

l i

competence as she successfully de-escalates the conflict. She knows that silence is used k Engage in open,

S Take action appropriate and in some cultures as a strategy to deal with perceived aggressions, and is not necessarily an for collective effective well-being admission of guilt or indifference. She is also aware that some people refrain from speaking interactions and sustainable out directly for fear of a disagreement that may hurt the other person’s feeling and threaten across cultures development their relationship. Ai thus suspends her judgement about Mike’s behaviour and asks Mike politely why they could not find him online. Mike explains that this is probably due to a misunderstanding about the meeting time, as Jo and Ai’s country moved to daylight saving

time the night before while his country did not. Thanks to Ai’s intervention, the students

A

t

t

i

t

u

d

e s could laugh about their little incident and successfully start to work on their project.

10 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 11 The building blocks of global competence – knowledge, skills, attitudes In the worst cases, these misunderstandings cases of conflict or successful integration 2 and values degenerate into negative stereotypes, between cultural groups. discrimination and violent conflict. The four dimensions of global competence attitudes should also be adapted to the context The domain of socio-economic development are supported by four inseparable factors: in which the school operates. More than in other domains of knowledge, and interdependence refers to the study of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. For global competence requires engaging with development patterns in different regions example, examining a global issue (dimension Knowledge about the world and controversial issues. Schools can provide of the world, with a focus on the links and 1) requires knowledge of a particular issue, the other cultures a safe space in which students can explore interdependences between societies and skills to transform this awareness into a deeper complex and controversial global issues that economies. Students can analyse, at different understanding, and the attitudes and values Global competence is supported by knowledge they encounter through the media and their levels of complexity and in developmentally to reflect on the issue from multiple cultural of global issues that affect lives locally and own experiences. appropriate ways, the many forms of perspectives, keeping in mind the interest of around the globe as well as intercultural globalisation, such as international migration, all parties involved. knowledge, that is, knowledge about the The list of relevant global or intercultural issues transnational production, global brands and similarities, differences and relations between that can be introduced to children and young technologies. By doing so, students can start Effective education for global competence gives cultures. This knowledge helps people to people in school is a long one. There have been to make sense of how local, national and global students the opportunity to mobilise and use challenge misinformation and stereotypes recent attempts to systematise these complex processes jointly shape the development their knowledge, attitudes, skills and values about other countries and people, and thus sets of issues into a coherent sequence of patterns of countries, and the inequalities in together while exchanging ideas on a global counters intolerance and oversimplified lessons and learning materials at all curriculum opportunities available to individuals. issue in and outside of school or interacting representations of the world. levels (IBO, 2012; OXFAM, 2015; Reimers, with people from different cultural backgrounds 2017). A curriculum should pay attention Students need a solid foundation in (for example, engaging in a debate, questioning Global issues are those that affect all individuals, to the following four knowledge domains: environmental issues in order to promote and viewpoints, asking for explanations or identifying regardless of their nation or social group. They culture and intercultural relations; socio- support sustainability. Learning activities in the directions for deeper exploration and action). range from trade to poverty, human rights, economic development and interdependence; domain of environmental sustainability help geopolitics and the environment. Global issues environmental sustainability; and global students understand the complex systems and A school community that wishes to nurture reveal how different regions around the world institutions, conflicts and human rights. policies surrounding the demand for and use global competence should focus on clear are interconnected by shedding light on the Teaching these four domains should highlight of natural resources. and manageable learning goals. This means diversity and commonality of their experiences differences in opinions and perspectives, engaging all educators to reflect on teaching (Boix Mansilla and Jackson, 2011). For example, questioning concepts such as “truth” and The fourth knowledge domain of global topics that are globally significant, the types pollution in one place affects the ozone layer “information”. For example, while examining competence focuses on formal and informal of skills that foster a deeper understanding of somewhere else; floods in agricultural areas not inequalities in economic development across institutions that support peaceful relationships the world and facilitate respectful interactions only ruin the local environment and economy, but the world, the teacher can explain that there are between people and the respect of fundamental in multicultural contexts, and the attitudes and also affect markets worldwide and drive waves of different interpretations of what development human rights. Students can learn how global values that drive autonomous learning and migration. Global issues are also local issues: they means and implies, inciting students to measure institutions such as the United Nations were inspire responsible action. are global in their reach but local communities development according to different metrics. established, can reflect on the contested nature experience them in very diverse ways. of global governance in a world with highly This section provides a general description of the The first key domain of knowledge for global unbalanced power relationships, review causes content knowledge, attitudes, skills and values As global issues emerge when ecological competence relates to the manifold expressions of and solutions for current and historical that individuals need in order to be globally and socio-economic interests cross borders, of culture and intercultural relations, such conflicts between countries, ethnic or social competent. Policy makers, school leaders intercultural issues (situations) arise from as languages, arts, knowledge, traditions and groups, and examine spaces and opportunities and teachers can refer to this section as they the interaction of people with different cultural norms. Acquiring knowledge in this domain can for young people to play an active role in society, define strategies for teaching and assessing backgrounds. In this interaction, each party’s help young people become more aware of their take responsibility and exercise their rights. global competence. However, this description way of thinking, believing, feeling and acting own cultural identity, help them understand Acquiring deep knowledge in this domain does not pretend to be conclusive or omni- are interpreted by the other. This process can differences and similarities among and within is instrumental for young people to develop comprehensive (other perspectives on global be smooth if there are not extreme differences cultures, and encourage them to value the values such as peace, non-discrimination, competence might put more emphasis on other between cultures, and individuals are open to importance of protecting cultural differences equality, justice, non-violence, tolerance and important skills or attitudes, such as problem learning about and accepting those differences. and diversity. As they engage in learning about respect. framing or emotional self-management). The But intercultural interactions can also face other cultures and individual differences, definition and targeting of relevant skills and miscommunication and misunderstanding. students start to recognise multiple, complex Skills to understand the world and identities and avoid categorising people to take action through single markers of identity (e.g. black, 2  The discussion regarding knowledge, attitudes, skills and values in this section draws upon the conceptualisation of these white, woman, poor). Students can acquire Global competence also builds on specific components provided by the Council of Europe (2016a) which was developed through an extensive process. It involved auditing 101 existing conceptual global, intercultural and civic competence schemes. The basic values, attitudes, skills, knowledge knowledge in this domain by reflecting on their cognitive, communication and socio-emotional and understanding throughout the schemes were then identified, and a set of criteria identifying the core values, attitudes, own cultural identity and that of their peers, by “skills”. Skills are defined as the capacity to skills, knowledge and understanding was established. Next, a first draft of the resulting model was produced and academic experts, education practitioners and policy makers reviewed and endorsed the model. It was then fine-tuned and finalised, analysing common stereotypes towards people carry out a complex and well-organised pattern taking into account the experts’ feedback. Full details of the development process can be found in Council of Europe (2016a). in their community, or by studying illustrative of thinking (in the case of a cognitive skill) or

12 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 13 behaviour (in the case of a behavioural skill) Perspective taking refers to the cognitive Integrating global and intercultural issues in the curriculum in order to achieve a particular goal. Global and social skills individuals need in order to Research on global education tends to focus on social studies and foreign language classes, competence requires numerous skills, including understand how other people think and feel. often in the upper grade levels (Gaudelli, 2006; Karamon and Tochon, 2007; Merryfield, 2008; reasoning with information, communication It is the capacity to identify and take on often Myers, 2006; Rapoport, 2010; Suarez, 2003). However, the local, global and intercultural skills in intercultural contexts, perspective conflicting points of view, “stepping into issues that students should learn about, in order to take responsibility for and act upon taking, conflict resolution skills and adaptability. someone else’s shoes”. Perspective taking does them, cut across education levels and academic disciplines (Gaudelli, 2003; O’Connor and not only involve imagining another person’s Zeichner, 2011). For global education to move from abstraction to action, many advocates Globally competent students are able to reason point of view but also entails understanding how recommend integrating global issues and topics into existing subjects (Klein, 2013; UNESCO, with information from different sources, i.e. various perspectives are related to one another. 2014). In practice, several countries are pursuing a dual approach, where content knowledge textbooks, peers, influential adults, traditional Understanding others’ perspectives facilitates related to global competence is both integrated into the existing curriculum and also taught in and digital media. They can autonomously more mature and tolerant interpretations of specific subjects or courses (e.g. human rights education). Students can come to understand identify their information needs, and select differences among groups. local, global and intercultural issues across ages, beginning in early childhood when such sources purposefully on the basis of their issues are presented in developmentally appropriate ways (Boix Mansilla and Jackson, relevance and reliability. They use a logical, Competent students approach conflicts in a 2011; UNESCO, 2015). systematic and sequential approach to examine constructive manner, recognising that conflict information in a text or any other form of media, is a process to be managed rather than seeking The way that a teacher frames a topic in the curriculum can significantly shape its contribution examining connections and discrepancies. to negate it. Taking an active part in conflict to global competence. When framing a topic to explore with students, teachers may consider They can evaluate the worth, validity and management and resolution requires listening the ways in which this topic addresses local and global dynamics, and how it can enable reliability of any material on the basis of its and seeking common solutions. Possible students to understand broad global patterns and the impact on their local environment. internal consistency, and its consistency with ways to address conflict include: analysing For instance, a mathematics teacher might invite students to decide whether linear or evidence and with one’s own knowledge and key issues, needs and interests (e.g. power, exponential functions best fit the data on world population growth, or a music teacher may experience. Competent students question recognition of merit, division of work, equity); explore how today’s hip hop is expressed differently around the world. and reflect on the source author’s motives, identifying the origins of the conflict and the In order to avoid the risk that global education becomes a catch-all curriculum where purposes and points of view, the techniques perspectives of those involved in the conflict, everything fits, teachers must have clear ideas about the global and intercultural issues used to attract attention, the use of image, recognising that the parties might differ in status that they want students to reflect upon. Teachers need to collaboratively research topics sound and language to convey meaning, and or power; identifying areas of agreement and and carefully plan the curriculum, giving students multiple opportunities to learn about a the range of different interpretations which are disagreement; reframing the conflict; managing core set of issues that increase in complexity throughout their education (Gaudelli, 2006). likely for different individuals. and regulating emotions, interpreting changes Professional learning communities can be highly effective to engage all teachers and to in one’s own and others’ underlying emotions facilitate collaboration and peer learning. For example, Lee et al. (2017) show that highly Competent students are able to communicate and motivation and dealing with stress, anxiety motivated teachers in Thailand followed a training course on global competence promoted effectively and respectfully with people and insecurity, both in oneself and in others; by the Ministry of Education, and then created professional learning communities in their who are perceived to have different cultural and prioritising needs and goals, deciding on school to engage other teachers, help them integrate global and intercultural topics in their backgrounds. Effective communication requires possible compromises and the circumstances courses and promote school-wide projects (Lee et al., 2017). being able to express oneself clearly, confidently, under which to reach them (Rychen and and without anger, even when expressing Salganik, 2003). However, approaches to Teaching about minority cultures in different subject areas requires accurate content about a fundamental disagreement. Respectful managing and resolving conflict may vary by and comprehensive portrayals of ethnically and racially diverse groups and experiences. communication requires understanding the societal expectations, so not all adhere to the Curricula should promote the integration of knowledge of other people, places and expectations and perspectives of diverse steps outlined here. perspectives into the everyday workings of the classroom throughout the year (UNESCO, audiences, and applying that understanding 2014a), rather than using a “tourist approach”, giving students a superficial glimpse of life to meet the audience’s needs. Respectful refers to the ability to adapt in different countries every now and then. Adaptability communicators also check and clarify the one’s thinking and behaviours to the prevailing Textbooks and other instructional materials can also distort cultural and ethnic differences meanings of words and phrases when they cultural environment, or to novel situations and (Gay, 2015). Teachers and their students should thus critically analyse their textbook and engage in an intercultural dialogue. Speaking contexts that might present new demands or teaching resources, and compensate for inadequacies when necessary. more than one language is a clear asset for challenges. Individuals who acquire this skill Connecting global and intercultural topics to the reality, contexts and needs of the learning effective intercultural communication. Smooth are able to handle the feelings of “culture group is an effective methodological approach to make them relevant to adolescents communication in intercultural contexts is shock”, such as frustration, stress and (North-South Centre of the Council of Europe, 2012). People learn better and become also facilitated by active listening – this means alienation in ambiguous situations caused by more engaged when the content relates to them, and when they can see the parallels looking for not only what is being said but also new environments. Adaptable learners can between many global issues and their immediate environment. For example, students can how it is being said, through the use of voice more easily develop long-term interpersonal become aware of the risks related to climate change by studying the effects that natural and accompanying body language. Competent relationships with people from other cultures, phenomena (e.g. hurricanes, floods) have on their own community. Capitalising on local students are capable speakers who can use and remain resilient in changing circumstances. expertise and the experience of young people in culturally responsive ways is particularly their body language and voice effectively when relevant when teaching less privileged or immigrant youth (Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco they discuss and debate global issues, express and Todorova, 2008). and justify a personal opinion and persuade others to pursue a particular course of action.

14 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 15 Pedagogies for promoting global competence Attitudes of openness, respect Respect consists of positive regard and for people from different cultural esteem for someone or something based on Various student-centred pedagogies can help students to develop critical thinking with regards backgrounds and global mindedness the judgement that they have intrinsic worth. In to global issues, respectful communication, conflict management skills, perspective taking this framework, respect assumes the dignity of and adaptability. Global competence embodies and is propelled all human beings and their inalienable right to Group-based co-operative project work can improve reasoning and collaborative skills. It by key dispositions or attitudes. Attitudes choose their own affiliations, beliefs, opinions involves topic- or theme-based tasks suitable for various levels and ages, in which goals and refer to the mind-set that an individual adopts or practices. Being respectful of cultural content are negotiated by all participants, and learners can create their own learning materials towards a person, a group, an institution, an differences does not require minimising or that they present and evaluate together. In order to co-operate effectively, learners need to issue, a behaviour, or a symbol. This mind-set ignoring significant and profound differences feel safe and comfortable, and the task and its goals must be clearly set for them. Learners integrates beliefs, evaluations, feelings and that might exist between oneself and others, participating in co-operative tasks soon realise that in order to be efficient, they need to be tendencies to behave in a particular way. nor does it require agreeing with, adopting respectful, attentive, honest and empathic (Barrett et al., 2014). Project work can effectively Globally competent behaviour requires an or converting to others’ beliefs. Respect for connect students within and across borders. For example, Global Cities has created a digital attitude of openness towards people from others also has certain limits that are set by exchange program (Global Scholar) through which students in 26 countries are given the other cultural backgrounds, an attitude of the principle of human dignity. For example, opportunity to work in e-classrooms across the world (Global Cities, 2017). Harvard Project respect for cultural differences, and an attitude respect should not be accorded to the contents Zero also established a digital exchange program in 57 countries. of global mindedness (i.e. that one is a citizen of beliefs and opinions or to lifestyles and of the world with commitments and obligations practices which undermine or violate the dignity Students can voice their differences, biases and culturally determined beliefs through toward the planet and others, irrespective of of others (Council of Europe, 2016a). organised discussions in the classroom. In order to stimulate discussion, a teacher typically their particular cultural or national background). uses a thought-provoking video clip, image or text (Costa and Kallick, 2013). Students can Such attitudes can be fostered explicitly, The concept of respect should be distinguished then present supporting evidence, comment and express their differing points of view. Class through participatory and learner-centred from the concept of tolerance. Tolerance may, discussion is, by nature, an interactive endeavour, and reflective dialogue engenders proactive teaching, as well as implicitly through a in some contexts, simply mean enduring listening and responding to ideas expressed by one’s peers. By exchanging views in the curriculum characterised by fair practices and difference. Respect is a less ambiguous classroom, students learn that there is not always a single right answer to a problem to be a welcoming school climate for all students. and more positive concept. It is based on memorised and presented; they learn to understand the reasons why others hold different recognition of the dignity, rights and freedoms views and are able to reflect on the origins of their own beliefs (Ritchhart et al., 2011). Openness toward people from other cultural of the other in a relationship of equality. Structured debates constitute a specific format of class discussion that is increasingly backgrounds involves sensitivity toward, used in secondary and higher education as a way to raise students’ awareness about global curiosity about and willingness to engage Global mindedness is defined as “a worldview and intercultural issues, and to let them practice their communication and argumentation with other people and other perspectives on in which one sees oneself as connected to skills (see the web platform “idebate.org” and Schuster and Meany (2005) for resources on the world (Byram, 2008; Council of Europe, the world community and feels a sense of debates in school education). In this format, students are given instructions to join a team 2016a). It requires an active willingness to responsibility for its members” (Hett cited in either supporting or opposing a polemic point of view – for instance, “the Internet should be seek out and embrace opportunities to engage Hansen, 2010). A globally-minded person has censored” or “hosting the Olympics is a good investment”. It is often helpful for students to with people from other cultural backgrounds, concerns for other people in other parts of the articulate views that may be different from their own. to discover and learn about their cultural world, as well as feelings of moral responsibility Service learning is another tool that can help students to develop multiple global skills through perspectives and how they interpret familiar to try to improve others’ conditions irrespective real-world experience. This requires learners to participate in organised activities that are and unfamiliar phenomena, and to learn about of distance and cultural differences (Boix based on what has been learnt in the classroom and that benefit their communities. After the their linguistic and behavioural conventions. Mansilla and Gardner, 2007). Globally-minded activities, learners are required to reflect critically on their service experience to gain further Another important characteristic of open people care about future generations, and so understanding of course content, and enhance their sense of role in society with regard to learners is their willingness to suspend their act to preserve the environmental integrity of civic, social, economic and political issues (Bringle and Clayton, 2012). Service learning is own cultural values, beliefs and behaviours the planet. Globally-minded individuals exercise strongly tied to the curriculum and differs both from other types of educational experiences when interacting with others, and not to assume agency and voice with a critical awareness of in the community and from volunteering. Through service learning, students not only “serve that their own values, beliefs and behaviours the fact that other people might have a different to learn,” which is applied learning, but also “learn to serve” (Bringle et al., 2016). are the only possible correct ones. The attitude vision of what humanity needs, and are open of openness towards cultural otherness needs to reflecting on and changing their vision as The Story Circle approach has been used in numerous classrooms around the world to to be distinguished from only being interested they learn about these different perspectives. let students practice key intercultural skills, including respect, cultural self-awareness and in collecting ‘exotic’ experiences merely for Rather than believing that all differences can empathy (Deardorff, forthcoming). The students, in groups of 5-6, take turns sharing a 3-minute one’s own personal enjoyment or benefit. be eliminated, globally-minded people strive story from their own experience based on specific prompts such as “Tell us about your first Rather, intercultural openness is demonstrated to create space for different ways of living with experience when you encountered someone who was different from you.” After all students through a willingness to engage, cooperate and dignity. in the group have shared their personal stories, students then take turns briefly sharing the interact with those who are perceived to have most memorable point from each story in a “flash back” activity. Other types of intercultural cultural affiliations that differ from one’s own, engagement involve simulations, interviews, role plays and online games (for examples of on an equal footing. specific activities to use in the classroom, see Anna Lindh Foundation, 2017; Berardo and Deardorff, 2012; Council of Europe, 2015; Fantini, 1997; Seelye, 1996; Storti, 2017; Stringer and Cassiday, 2009).

16 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 17 Valuing human dignity and diversity beings who care for and respect others (Delors many different traditions, with many different reflections on human dignity can be found et al., 1996), deciding which values education conceptions of “good”, can agree on these core in several different countries and cultures. Values go beyond attitudes: they transcend systems around the world should promote is capabilities as the necessary basis for pursuing For example, the indigenous African concept specific objects or situations. They are more subject to debate. It is not easy to identify a a good life (Nussbaum, 1997). of Ubuntu has a strong connection with the general beliefs about the desirable goals that core set of rights that are universally valid and conceptualisation of human dignity in Western individuals strive for in life, reflecting modes of interpreted in the same way everywhere and A controversial issue relates to the Western philosophy. Ubuntu generally translates conduct or states of being that an individual in every circumstance, as morals and social roots of the concept of human dignity and to as humaneness, and its spirit emphasises finds preferable to all other alternatives. In institutions vary across cultures and historical the Western dominance in the discussion and respect for human dignity, marking a shift from this way, values serve as standards and contexts (Donnelly, 2007). definitions of human rights. However, deep confrontation to conciliation (Mogkoro, 1995). criteria that people use both consciously and unconsciously in their judgements. They have a Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human normative prescriptive quality about what ought Rights describes the constitutive elements Perspectives on global competence from different cultures to be done or thought in different situations. of a minimum core of rights that can guide The literature, theories and frameworks on intercultural competence, global competence and Values therefore motivate certain behaviours education around the world: “All human beings global citizenship emerge predominantly from a Western, Euro-American context. However, and attitudes. For example, people for whom are born free and equal in dignity and rights. related concepts exist in many countries and cultures around the world. One interesting independence is an important value are They are endowed with reason and conscience perspective on global competence comes from South Africa and involves the concept of triggered if their independence is threatened, and should act towards one another in a spirit Ubuntu. There is much literature written about Ubuntu (Nwosu, 2009; Khoza, 2011), found in feel despair when they are helpless to protect of brotherhood”. The article defines two basic a Zulu proverb Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu – meaning that a person is a person because it, and are happy when they can enjoy it foundations of human dignity: the first is that of others. This concept of Ubuntu can be used to illustrate a collective identity, as well (Schwartz, 2012). every human being possesses an intrinsic as connectedness, compassion, empathy and humility. There are other similar concepts worth, merely by being human; the second is to Ubuntu found in different cultures around the world including in indigenous cultures Valuing human dignity and valuing cultural that this intrinsic worth should be recognised in the Andes and in Malaysia. Collective identity, relationships and context (as impacted diversity contribute to global competence and respected by others, and certain forms by historical, social, economic and political realities) all become major emphases in other because they constitute critical filters through of treatment by others are inconsistent with cultural discourses on global competence. In summarising some central themes across which individuals process information about respect for this intrinsic worth. Individuals different cultures with regard to global competence, Deardorff (2013) noted the following other cultures and decide how to engage have a distinct moral obligation to treat each key elements: respect, listening, adaptation, relationship-building, seeing from multiple with others and the world. Individuals who other in ways that are constrained by certain perspectives, self-awareness and cultural humility. cultivate these values become more aware of inviolable limits. Embracing this value often themselves and their surroundings, and are means helping others to protect what is most strongly motivated to fight against exclusion, important to them in life. Even if the cultural context varies, the common and discrimination, improving the school ignorance, violence, oppression and war. core value of respecting human dignity is environment and social relationships in the The concept of respecting the fundamental sufficiently robust to challenge the legitimacy of communities that schools serve. Education has a deep influence on the values right of human dignity is often associated a wide array of systems that abuse their power of individuals. During their time at school, with protection from discrimination. Andrew against individuals and groups3. Abuses of Respecting human beings’ core rights and young citizens form habits of mind, beliefs and Clapham (2006) has suggested that valuing power against vulnerable individuals are not a dignity is, in most cases, compatible with principles that will stay with them throughout the equality of core rights and dignity has prerogative of war-torn regions or fragile states. respecting and valuing cultural diversity. their lives. This is why it is so crucial to reflect four aspects: (1) the prohibition of all types of They can happen everywhere: neighbourhoods, Globally competent learners should not only on the type of education that best “cultivates inhuman treatment, humiliation or degradation offices or schools. Schools, in particular, have a positive attitude towards cultural humanity” (Nussbaum, 1997). An education that by one person over another; (2) the assurance are places where human dignity takes on a diversity (the attitude of “openness” and encourages valuing dignity, human rights and of the possibility for individual choice and the concrete meaning, because every student “respect” defined above), but should also diversity emphasises shared commonalities conditions for each individual’s self-fulfilment, deserves equal justice, equal opportunity value cultural diversity as an asset for societies that unite people around the world, rather than autonomy or self-realisation; (3) the recognition and equal dignity. Discrimination at school and a desirable goal for the future. However, the issues that divide them; provides learning that the protection of group identity and culture can be overtly displayed through xenophobic valuing cultural diversity has certain limits that experiences so that students see the world from may be essential for the protection of personal comments, bullying, name-calling, segregation are determined by the inviolability of human many different perspectives, enabling them to dignity; and (4) the creation of the necessary and physical altercations. Discrimination dignity (UNESCO, 2001). The possible tension examine their own thoughts and beliefs, and conditions for each individual to have their can also be less apparent but still present in between valuing cultural diversity and valuing their society’s norms and traditions; encourages essential needs satisfied (Clapham, 2006). stereotypes, fear of others and unconscious human rights can be solved by establishing a people to understand the significance of Martha Nussbaum has argued that a minimally reactions to or intentional avoidance of certain normative hierarchy between the two: valuing another person’s sufferings; and emphasises just society has to endeavour to nurture and groups. Teaching youth to use human rights core human rights is more important than the importance of reasoning, careful argument, support a core set of basic “capabilities”, as a frame of reference for their behaviour can valuing cultural diversity, in cases where the logical analysis, self-questioning, the pursuit of defined as opportunities for choice and action allow them to break down stereotypes, biases two values are in conflict with each other. truth and objectivity. (e.g. being secure against violent assault, being able to imagine, to think and to reason, being While most people would agree that education able to love, to grieve, to experience longing, 3 Here system is used in a broad sense to include not just states and markets, but also husbands, parents, officials, landowners, social authorities etc. In other words, all those who have power and can use it to control or interfere in people’s lives. should help students develop into human gratitude and justified anger, etc.). People from

18 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 19 Promoting the value of cultural diversity in situations. While assessing such values is education practice involves encouraging beyond the scope of the PISA 2018 assessment students to take actions to safeguard both of global competence, the inclusion of values in tangible and intangible cultural heritage around this framework hopes to stimulate a productive the world, as well as actions to promote the debate on how education can shape children’s rights of all people to embrace their own development of an ethical decision-making perspectives, views, beliefs and opinions framework grounded on human rights, while (UNESCO, 2009). It also means conveying fully preserving the value of diverse opinions the message to all students that their cultural and beliefs. Acknowledging the importance of The assessment heritage is important and enriches society. values in education does not mean promoting a uniform and fixed way to interpret the world; Evaluating how much students care about and it rather implies giving students some essential of global competence cherish the values of human dignity and cultural references to navigate a world where not diversity is complex and calls for a broad everyone holds their views, but everyone has a in PISA repertoire of assessment strategies ranging duty to uphold the principles that allow different from interviews or conversations to observation people to co-exist and to prosper. of students in more and less structured

The assessment strategy Teaching attitudes and values related to global competence Assessing global competence in all of its in all countries. On the other hand, leaning Allocating teaching time to a specific subject dealing with human rights issues and non- complexity requires a multi-method, multi- too much towards “cultural neutrality” in the discrimination is an important first step in cultivating values for global competence. But perspective approach. The PISA 2018 design of scenarios and questions reduces even more can be achieved by mainstreaming the principle of respect for human dignity assessment of global competence contributes the authenticity and relevance of the tasks. and for cultural diversity across all subjects. For example teachers can use multi-ethnic a development in this direction, although clear The test design is further limited by the time and multicultural examples to illuminate general principles and concepts, or emphasise the challenges and limitations remain. The most constraints of the assessment and the narrow contributions of people from different ethnic groups to our collective knowledge and quality salient challenge for the PISA assessment is availability of internationally-valid instruments of life. Teachers thus need to develop repertoires of culturally diverse examples, the skills that — through a single international instrument that measure the behavioural elements of to use them fluidly and routinely in classroom instruction, and the confidence to do so. — it needs to account for the large variety of global competence. Values and attitudes are partly communicated through the formal curriculum but also through geographic and cultural contexts represented in the ways in which educators and students interact, how discipline is encouraged and the participating countries. Students who perform Accounting for these limitations and challenges, types of opinions and behaviour that are validated in the classroom. For example, a history well on a question assessing their reasoning the PISA 2018 global competence assessment lesson on the American Civil War may emphasise valuing racial equality; however if the about a global issue are likely to have some has two components: 1) a cognitive test teacher disciplines minority students more severely, he or she communicates a contradictory prior knowledge of the issue, and the type of exclusively focused on the construct of “global value system. It is likely that students will assimilate the culture of the classroom more knowledge students already have of global understanding”, defined as the combination readily than they will learn the curriculum. Therefore, recognising the school and classroom issues is influenced by their experiences within of background knowledge and cognitive skills environments’ influence on developing students’ values can help educators to become their unique social context. On the one hand, required to solve problems related to global and more aware of the effects that their teaching has on students. For example, a teacher might cultural variability in the tested population intercultural issues; 2) a set of questionnaire reconsider the seating plan of the classroom if he is hoping to promote racial and gender requires that the test material cannot be too items collecting self-reported information integration among his students. biased towards a particular perspective, for on students’ awareness of global issues and Teachers can be instrumental in replacing stereotypes of minority and disadvantaged example the perspective of a student in a rich cultures, skills (both cognitive and social) and students with more positive ones. However, teachers often find it difficult to engage in open country who thinks about a problem in a poor attitudes, as well as information from schools discussions about diversity and discrimination. Part of the problem is a lack of experience country. Similarly, the test units should focus on and teachers on activities to promote global with people who are different, and the assumption that conversations about discrimination issues that are relevant for 15-year-old students competence. and ethics will always be contentious. Consequently, teachers may concentrate only on “safe” topics about cultural diversity, such as cross-group similarities, ethnic customs, cuisines, costumes and celebrations, while neglecting more troubling issues such as inequities, injustices and oppression (Gay, 2015). These difficulties can be overcome by giving educators access to continual professional development throughout their career. Specific training programmes and modules can help teachers to acquire: a critical awareness of the role that different subject and teaching approaches can play in the struggle against racism and discrimination; the skills to acknowledge and take into account the diversity of learners’ needs, especially those of minority groups; and a command of basic methods and techniques of observation, listening and intercultural communication (UNESCO, 2007). 20 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 21 Figure 2. The PISA approach to assessing global competence problems, and to weigh the direct and indirect competent ways, but whose measurement goes consequences of such actions. beyond the parameters of the PISA cognitive Global competence test. Self-reported skills and attitudes will The student questionnaire will provide be measured through Likert-type scales that complementary information on the attitudes, have been selected on the basis of a review of knowledge and skills that people need to empirical studies. navigate everyday life in globally and culturally Knowledge Cognitive skills Social skills Values and attitudes Figure 3. Elements of a typical PISA 2018 global competence test unit

Pisa 2018 Beyond the scope assessment ASSESSED IN THE COGNITIVE TEST of the PISA 2018 assessment ASSESSED IN THE STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE Scenario: Depicts real-life situations, in the form of case studies, from which John is doing a project about renewable energy. He learns that there any The reporting of the results will reflect the Global understanding is assessed in the PISA many types of renewable energy. He also learns that not everybody is differences between these two assessment cognitive test by asking students to complete various tasks (test supportive of certain types of renewable energy. He decides to watch a items) are derived. documentary about... components. Students’ answers to the several test units. Each test unit is composed Each scenario has questions in the cognitive test can be of one scenario (or case study) and various multiple corresponding objectively scored as right (or partially right) or scenario-based tasks (see Figure 3). In a test items. Question 1 What are examples of...? wrong, and can thus be presented on a scale. typical test unit, students read about a case Categorised by: Circle “Yes” or “No” for each example below. content domain, context, Given that the capacity to understand global and respond to questions (otherwise referred Test Item: Any individual complexity and format. Is this an example of...? Yes or No? or intercultural issues and situations can be to as test items) that evaluate their capacity task that the student has developed at school, the PISA proficiency to understand its complexity and the multiple Statement A Yes / No to perform in relation to a Statement B Yes / No given scenario. The scale is expected to yield results that can be perspectives of the diverse actors involved. Statement C Yes / No response format of test interpreted in educational policy terms. For Each scenario will expose students to a range items can be either open- some of the questions measuring attitudinal of different situations, and test their capacity or closed-response or socio-emotional traits (e.g. “openness”), to apply their background knowledge and Question 2 questions. Explain why an inhabitant of a nearby village might be unhappy with however, defining right or wrong answers is cognitive skills in order to analyse the situation the decision to.... Categorised by: cognitive more controversial because the development and suggest solutions. process. of these traits and their contribution towards global competence might be non-linear (beyond The cognitive skills demanded by global Test Unit: The combination of a a certain threshold, more “openness” may not understanding are relevant measures of all four scenario and its corresponding test items. Each test unit is independent necessarily be better). Measurement issues dimensions of students’ global competence. and self-contained. The PISA are also more acute in self-reported items, Test items asking students to critically analyse cognitive test is made up of several so ranking students or countries on the basis statements and information will provide different test units. of students’ responses to the questionnaire relevant information about students’ capacity risks errors of misrepresentation and to “examine global and intercultural issues” misinterpretation. For example, people from (dimension 1). “Understanding perspectives” some cultural backgrounds tend to exaggerate (dimension 2) can be assessed through The cognitive test on global understanding their responses to typical questionnaire items test items examining students’ capacity to: based on a Likert-type scale (e.g. questions recognise different perspectives while being A short review of cognitive and trends, and legal and policy frameworks asking students whether they strongly aware of one’s own cultural lens and biases, assessments in this area associated with 13 global themes. disagree, disagree, agree or strongly agree as well as those of other people; consider with a statement), whereas others tend to the contexts (cultural, religious, regional) Research in this area has predominantly been Test items in the Global Understanding Survey take a middle ground (Harzing, 2006). The that influence these perspectives; and find based on student self-reports, and only a few addressed real-world issues. Students who responses to the questionnaire items will thus possible connections or “common ground” examples of cognitive assessments exist. In the reported regular news consumption scored not be used to position countries and students across perspectives. Elsewhere, “engage Global Understanding Survey (Barrows et al., higher on the test. However, the authors found on a scale. Instead, they will be used only to in appropriate and effective interactions” 1981), the authors define global understanding only weak relationships between students’ illustrate general patterns and differences (dimension 3) can be assessed through items as a sum of four components: (a) knowledge; educational experiences—coursework, within countries in the development of the testing students’ capacity to understand (b) attitudes and perceptions; (c) general language study or study abroad—and their skills and attitudes that contribute to global communicative contexts and the norms of background correlations; and (d) language levels of international knowledge. The final competence among 15-year-old students, as respectful dialogue. Finally “take action for proficiency. The knowledge domain in the report also recognised that the assessment well as to analyse the relationship between sustainability and well-being” (dimension 4) Global Understanding Survey consisted of provided only limited insights into the nature those skills and attitudes and students’ results can be assessed vis-a-vis students’ capacity 101 multiple-choice questions that addressed and development of global understanding. on the cognitive test. to consider possible actions to combat global international institutions, major historical events

22 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 23 The IEA Studies on Civic Education (the Civic students to not only use and process texts but Defining the construct of global students need to use in order to fully understand Education Study) and the International Civic also to employ other cognitive, language and understanding global or intercultural issues and situations: and Citizenship Study are other relevant social reasoning skills, as well as call upon their examples that could guide item development own knowledge, strategies and dispositions. Access to global information and opportunities 1. The capacity to evaluate information, in PISA. The key research questions for ICCS Unlike traditional reading assessments that for intercultural encounters have greatly formulate arguments and explain complex concern student achievement in civic and present students with a set of unrelated texts increased over the last decade, meaning that situations and problems by using and citizenship education and their disposition to and no purpose for reading them, GISA uses the majority of PISA students are exposed to connecting evidence, identifying biases and engage with such issues. ICCS measures the a scenario-based approach with a carefully a wide range of perspectives on global issues gaps in information and managing conflicting cognitive processes of knowledge, reasoning structured sequence of tasks. By employing and intercultural experiences even if they arguments. and analysis across four content domains scenarios that provide authentic contexts and do not actively search for them. However, including: (a) civic society and systems, (b) civic purposes for reading, the assessment better access to information about the world and 2. The capacity to identify and analyse principles, (c) civic participation, and (d) civic reflects the cognitive processes that students other cultures does not always go together multiple perspectives and world views, identities (Schulz et al., 2010; Torney-Purta et engage in when confronted with real learning with understanding. The oversimplification of positioning and connecting their own and al., 2015). The item format combines multiple- activities. complex knowledge is a significant contributing others’ perspectives on the world. choice and open-ended questions. factor to deficiencies in learning (Spiro et The GISA assessments also include collaborative al., 1988), and is particularly frequent in the 3. The capacity to understand differences in Some of the items in ICCS measure students’ activities. For example, test takers “interact” domain of global and cultural issues. Although communication, recognising the importance ability to analyse and reason. Reasoning with simulated peers to identify errors, correct misconceptions often arise from a lack of of socially-appropriate communication asks students to apply knowledge and misconceptions and provide feedback. The information, they are compounded by the fact conventions and adapting communication understanding of familiar concrete situations members of the simulated interactions can that initial and deeply-held beliefs about how to the demands of diverse cultural contexts. in order to reach conclusions about complex, state facts, present incorrect information, give the world works are difficult to subsequently multifaceted, unfamiliar and abstract situations their opinions and go off topic, just as people change. Given that humans learn by creating 4. The capacity to evaluate actions and (Schulz et al., 2008). do in real life. Performance moderators such classification systems, a lack of new knowledge consequences by identifying and comparing as background knowledge, self-regulatory or experiences can lead to oversimplified different courses of action and weighing Outside of the context of global and civic strategies and motivation are also measured in categorisations and generalisations which, in these actions against one another on the education, an increasing number of assessments GISA and are used to interpret the reading score. turn, can result in prejudice and stereotyping. basis of short- and long-term consequences. have attempted to measure students’ capacity However, misconceptions also arise even when to evaluate information and think critically about Relatively few assessments of perspective- students are exposed to appropriate information Globally competent students should thus be problems.4 In many of these tests, students taking skills exist. One relevant example but absorb this information in a passive way, able to perform a wide variety of tasks utilising read a short text and decide whether a series for the PISA test is the perspective-taking without reflecting on its deeper meaning or different cognitive processes. The first of these of statements related to the text are likely measure developed within the Catalyzing using the information to adjust their prior beliefs. cognitive processes requires students to be to be true or false. Some of these tests also Comprehension through Discussion and able to: reason with evidence about an issue include constructed response questions, where Debate (CCDD) initiative.5 The assessment Students need to use knowledge and skills or situation of local, global and intercultural students need to develop logical arguments is designed to assess students’ ability to simultaneously in order to develop global significance; search effectively for useful or explain how someone else’s conclusions acknowledge, articulate, position and interpret understanding (Figure 4). If a student does sources of information; evaluate information could be verified or strengthened. All these the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in not know much about a certain issue, they on the basis of its relevance and reliability; assessments emphasise reasoning, analysis, a social conflict, and provide solutions that will find it difficult to identify flaws in texts, synthesise information in order to describe the argumentation and evaluation (Liu et al., consider and integrate their respective different consider multiple perspectives (Willingham, main ideas in an argumentative text or the salient 2014). These tests treat those skills as generic, positions. The assessment puts students in the 2007), communicate in rich ways and consider passages of a conversation; and combine however, while PISA will look at the application shoes of an “advisor”, who needs to address the consequences of actions related to the their background knowledge, new information of these capacities in the specific context of social conflicts that can occur in different issue in question. However, knowledge alone and critical reasoning to build multi-causal global and intercultural issues. contexts. In a sample assessment unit, test of intercultural and global issues without explanations of global or intercultural issues. takers read a story about a student named understanding adds little value. One can know, The Global Integrated Scenario-Based “Casey” who is a victim of bullying, and are and continue to judge and dismiss superficially Furthermore, a solid understanding of a Assessment of Reading, or GISA for short, is asked what they would recommend Casey (Williams-Gualandi, 2015). Understanding is global or intercultural problem also requires another relevant reference for the PISA test should do, why, and to identify potential negative the ability to use knowledge to find meaning recognising that one’s beliefs and judgements (O’Reilly and Sabatini, 2013; Sabatini et al., consequences of their recommendation. and connection between different pieces of are always contingent upon one’s own cultural 2014; Sabatini et al., 2015). GISA assesses Students have to provide answers to these information and perspectives. affiliations and perspectives. Students should students’ “global reading literacy ability”, a questions in the form of short, open responses. therefore be able to recognise the perspectives multidimensional competence that requires The cognitive processes that support of other people or groups and the factors that global understanding might influence them, including their access to information and resources. Students need to be 4 Measurement instruments of critical thinking include the Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test (Ennis and Weir, 1985), Cornell Critical Thinking Test (Ennis, Millman and Tomko, 1985), ETS HEIghten™ Critical Thinking Assessment (Liu, Frankel, For analytical and assessment purposes, this able to explain how perspectives and contexts and Roohr, 2014; Liu et al., 2016) and the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (Halpern, 2010). framework distinguishes four, interrelated shape human interactions and interpretations 5 See http://ccdd.serpmedia.org/ for more information. cognitive processes that globally competent of events, issues or phenomena.

24 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 25 Globally competent students should also issue. For example, students can be asked to 3) is especially complex and might require a Table 1 describes students’ abilities at identify ways to manage conflicts that emerge select the most reliable among a selection of longer period of development and validation. basic, intermediate and advanced levels of from communication problems, by analysing different sources of information about an issue; This cognitive process is thus expected to be development in the four typologies of cognitive communicative contexts and conventions and they can evaluate whether a statement is valid less represented than the other three in the processes that constitute global understanding, recognising markers of respect. and based on evidence; they can be asked to 2018 PISA test. the cognitive facet of global competence. summarise and explain an issue or situation, Finally, students demonstrate their level of or choose among possible summaries; they Table 1. Typologies of cognitive processes by level in the PISA 2018 test of global global understanding when they can evaluate can be asked to identify passages of a media competence different courses of action, propose solutions message transmitting negative stereotypes or and consider the immediate and indirect making hasty generalisations; they can identify Cognitive process Sub-category Basic Intermediate Advanced implications of actions. The last constitutive the different stakeholders in a case and list the cognitive process of global understanding possible contextual and cultural drivers of their 1. Evaluate Selecting The student prefers using The student searches The student is able to frame information, sources sources stemming from for and selects sources the search systematically therefore involves the ability to draw sound respective positions; they can identify which formulate (range) her own cultural context stemming from geographic in a way which enables her arguments and without having an apparent and cultural contexts (region, to identify the nature and conclusions from the information one passages in a conversation demonstrate a explain complex strategy to search for, select language, perspective) extent of information needed situations or or differentiate between beyond her own. She can to address the issue. She possesses and acquires. clear ignorance of intercultural communication problems sources. also search for and select selects sources purposefully more than one source drawing on contexts and approaches; or they can be asked to list or type (e.g. newspapers, types that will inform her Different types of tasks can test students’ level of select the possible consequences of a publications, personal understanding of the issue testimonies, government at hand. proficiency in applying each of these interrelated proposed solution to a problem. reports). However, no concrete strategy beyond cognitive processes to a global or intercultural a commitment to using different sources is apparent. Figure 4. The relationship between the cognitive test of global understanding and the Weighing The student takes the The student weighs sources The student pays attention dimensions of global competence sources information at face value for their relevance vis-a-vis to contextual factors to (reliability and without considering the topic or claim at hand. establish the source’s relevance) contextual factors (author, The student also considers reliability and its relevance. geo-perspective, culture) contextual factors that can She understands the or source kind. She cannot inform her evaluation of significance of different yet detect clear biases or a source’s reliability. She sources’ perspectives, PISA cognitive test of global understanding inconsistencies. The student can detect clear biases can distinguish the does not weigh the sources’ and inconsistencies, communicative intentions of relevance vis-a-vis the topic yet she shows a rather sources and claims (facts, or claim at hand. binary view of reliability opinions, propaganda), Dimensions of (“biased”/“non-biased”). evaluate whether the Knowledge Cognitive assumptions or premises are skills/processes global competence reasonable or well-grounded in evidence, and identify assumptions or claims that reveal stereotypes. Evaluate information, formulate arguments Examine local, global Employing The student views the The student understands the The student recognises and explain complex and intercultural issues Knowledge of sources use of sources as a need for multiple sources the provisional nature of situations or problems (reasoning simple, unproblematic but uses a mechanistic evidence and that multiple global issues with evidence) matter of copying and approach when including arguments can stem from pasting information into an sources in an argument (e.g. similar sources. The student argument. two “pro”- two “against” can consider evidence to sources) explore and meet counter- Understand and appreciate Identify and analyse arguments. She can also the perspectives and multiple perspectives address conflicting claims or + world views of others sources.

Describing The student can produce The student can describe The student can describe Intercultural Understand Engage in open, and explaining short summaries of the issue/situation at hand the issue/situation at hand knowledge differences in appropriate and complex information or perspectives. in ways that connect larger in ways that connect larger communication effective interactions situations or Summaries read as a string concepts (e.g. culture, concepts (e.g. culture, problems of information with little identity, migration) and identity, migration) and substantive organisation. simple examples. She relevant examples. She The student is not yet can order content in a can develop and express Take action for collective capable of classifying the way that supports others’ clear, sound and effective Evaluate actions well-being and sustainable information. understanding of the issues. arguments synthesising and consequences and connecting information development provided in the task and information she acquired in or outside of school.

GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING

While all four cognitive processes are important cover all four cognitive processes in a balanced indicators of a globally competent individual’s way. In particular, creating test items that skills, the test items in the PISA 2018 global validly measure students’ understanding of competence assessment are not expected to communication norms and differences (process

26 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 27 Basic Intermediate Advanced Basic Intermediate Advanced

2. Identify and Recognising The student has a simplistic The student can identify The student can describe 3. Understand Understanding The student does not The student is aware of The student is aware analyse multiple perspectives view of perspectives: one different actors and points of and interpret multiple differences in communicative yet understand how to her way of communicating of her own styles of perspectives and and world person-one perspective. view on an issue. perspectives and world communication contexts and effectively and appropriately and attempts to make communication and world views views She cannot yet explain the The student begins to views. respectful communicate based on that communication fit the understands that source of the perspective. recognise that differences The student understands dialogue audience and context. context. effective and appropriate The student views context in perspectives or world that perspectives are rooted Specifically, she does The student can identify communication must be as either irrelevant or as views are rooted in cultural, in cultural, religious, socio- not recognise cultural some interactive styles, adapted to audience, deterministic (“context as religious, socio-economic, economic, regional and norms, interactive styles, expectations, or levels purpose and context. destiny”). regional and other other backgrounds, and she expectations, or levels of of formality in a given Specifically, she is sensitive She views perspectives backgrounds, and that she understands how someone’s formality in a given social social and cultural to nuances in cultural (cultural, religious, linguistic) also holds a particular view geographic and cultural and cultural context and context but cannot yet norms, interactive styles, as relatively fixed, bounded of the world. context can shape how that audience. calibrate her language and expectations, or levels of or impermeable markers of a The student cannot yet person sees the world. The student is not yet able communication choices formality of a given social person’s identity and world articulate how multiple She also understands that to observe, listen actively, accordingly. and cultural context and view. The student views perspectives relate to one an individual’s identity is and interpret social and The student can respond audience. She listens an individual’s identity as another. Differences in complex (one can be at once contextual clues such to breakdowns in actively, observes carefully predominantly one category perspectives or world view a girl, a daughter, a farmer, as body language, tone, communication, (for example and gathers insight, (such as nationality or start to be seen as rooted and a citizen). diction, physical interactions, by requesting repetitions or including social and cultural religion). in cultural, religious, socio- She can articulate dress code, or silences. reformulations) but does so clues that inform her The student does not economic, regional and relationships among The student is surprised very tentatively. communicative choices. consider herself as having a other backgrounds. perspectives, placing the by any breakdowns in The student can break down distinct cultural perspective perspectives in a broader communication and lacks her messages, providing or world view and rather encompassing frame (e.g. a communicative repertoire re-statements, revisions or believes that what she when the student sees that can resolve or prevent simplifications of her own knows is “the norm”. that two classmates from such breakdowns. communication. different ethnic groups She employs linguistic fight because of cultural devices such as avoiding prejudices, she understands categorical claims, that their relationship reflects connecting to what others broader tensions in today's say, sharing questions and society). puzzles, and acknowledging The student views herself contributions in ways that as holding perspectives advance civil and reciprocal and blind spots. She dialogue. understands that her perspective is informed by Basic Intermediate Advanced her cultural context and experiences and that others may perceive her in ways 4. Evaluate Considering The student considers one The student understands The student demonstrates that may differ from the way actions and actions course of action as obvious that multiple courses of an ability to identify and she sees herself. consequences and unproblematic. For action are possible and evaluate different courses example, when presented necessary to address an of action to solve an issue/ with a problem about issue/situation or contribute situation. She weighs these Identifying The student does not The student recognises The student appreciates industrial pollution, her to the well-being of actions against one another, Connections recognise connections that people from different common human rights immediate conclusion would individuals and societies. for example, by looking at among human beings apart cultures share most basic and needs and reflects be “just close all polluting She can identify directions precedents, considering from physical connotations human rights and needs on individual, cultural or factories”. for future investigations if and evaluating available and evident cultural markers. (e.g. food, shelter, work, contextual differences the available evidence is evidence, and assessing the The student does not education, happiness). critically, understanding the insufficient for reaching conditions that may make recognise the impact that She understands the obstacles that individuals conclusions about the best actions possible. actions have on others meaning of these rights or and societies may confront course of action. and sees individuals from needs and some of the ways (economic inequality, different cultures or contexts in which they can be met. unequal power relations, as distant or exotic who violence or unsustainable Assessing The student understands The student understands The student considers think and behave differently conduct) in affirming their consequences the implications of simple the most likely immediate the immediate and and do not share similar rights to diversity and well- and actions in linear terms consequences of a given indirect consequences or rights or needs. being. implications without weighing multiple position or course of action, implications of different She also understands that actions and implications and can assess how these possible actions and universal human rights or considering unintended consequences compare decisions. She can weigh leave considerable space consequences. with available alternative short- and long-term for national, regional and positions/views. consequences as well as cultural individuality and short-range and spatially- other forms of diversity, and distant consequences. The that they allow individuals student also considers the and groups to pursue possibility of unintended their own vision of what consequences as a result of constitutes a good life as actions. long as their choices do not impede others’ core human rights.

Content of the test units identify a set of ‘big issues’ that all young people should learn about, regardless of where they A typical test unit is based on a scenario that live or their socio-cultural background. However focuses on one global or intercultural issue and an exact delimitation of relevant content for presents different perspectives on the issue. the scenarios is difficult because global and Scenarios are often used as teaching tools, intercultural issues are in constant evolution. and their use in the test units can yield useful Nonetheless, Table 2 outlines four content evidence for education policy and teachers as domains, and their related subdomains, which they encourage students to think logically and can be considered relevant for all students. systematically. Every scenario in the PISA cognitive test can therefore be categorised according to one of A scenario-based design in an international these content (sub)domains. assessment assumes that it is possible to

28 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 29 Table 2. Content domains and subdomains of the scenarios asked to reflect about a particular case study Table 3 sets out the categorisations of complexity presented in a test unit. of the test units, according to the level of content Content Domain 1: Culture and intercultural relations knowledge and general reading skills required

Subdomain 1.1: Identity formation in multicultural societies When students read a text or follow a by the scenario and test items. Although Subdomain 1.2: Cultural expressions and cultural exchanges conversation presented in the scenario of each general language decoding and comprehension Subdomain 1.3: Intercultural communication test unit, their understanding is constrained skills are not integral components of global Subdomain 1.4: Perspective taking, stereotypes, discrimination and intolerance by both the content and complexity of the competence, the language used in the test Content Domain 2: Socio-economic development and interdependence material in the scenario, and the development scenarios and items will inescapably influence Subdomain 2.1: Economic interactions and interdependence of the cognitive processes necessary for the difficulty of test units. Highly complex Subdomain 2.2: Human capital, development and inequality global understanding. The cognitive demand language thus needs to be avoided to reduce Content Domain 3: Environmental sustainability of individual test units is therefore defined by the risk that the test results become heavily Subdomain 3.1: Natural resources and environmental risks the level of content knowledge and cognitive influenced by differences in text decoding and Subdomain 3.2: Policies, practices and behaviours for environmental sustainability skills that students need to activate in order language comprehension skills. As for domain- Content Domain 4: Institutions, conflicts and human rights to solve the tasks. In more demanding test specific content knowledge, the requirement units the student must generally contribute of prior exposure to relevant information and Subdomain 4.1: Prevention of conflicts and hate crimes Subdomain 4.2: Universal human rights and local traditions information from his or her own knowledge intercultural situations is an important driver Subdomain 4.3: Political participation and global engagement about the content domain that is not explicitly of a test unit’s difficulty, and thus of students’ stated in the scenario. performance on the cognitive test. Test developers should aim at a balanced gender, religion, socio-economic differences coverage of the four content domains across and so on — students can be assessed on their Table 3. Dimensions and levels of complexity of the scenarios the different units that constitute each 1-hour intercultural communication and understanding Levels of Percentage General knowledge (text and Percentage cognitive test, favouring scenarios that cut skills (cognitive processes 2 and 3, and content Domain-specific knowledge complexity of scenarios language) of scenarios across multiple content domains. The test domain 1). Scenarios that incorporate histories Low The topic analysed in the test unit is Around 40% The scenario is framed in very simple Around 60% units should privilege stimulus material that is of conflicts or positive cultural exchanges in familiar to the vast majority of students. language, without technical words or familiar and relevant to 15-year-olds, in order to multicultural neighbourhoods (local context) Very limited prior knowledge of the expressions that are unique to a certain topic/issue is required from students to socio-cultural or demographic group. facilitate students’ engagement with the task. can serve as useful background for test items understand what the unit requires.

The risk associated with sensitive topics (e.g. a assessing students’ understanding of the Medium Most students regularly hear about the Around 40% The language in the scenario is familiar Around 30% topic/issue but they are not necessarily to the majority of 15-year-old students. case study on hate violence against minorities challenges of social integration within their familiar with all its aspects. Students The choice of words is typical of who have had some exposure to the communication addressed to non- may be sensitive for a student from a minority local community; scenarios in which students topic/issue in or outside of school can specialist audiences. Differences in group) should be carefully assessed and are required to analyse global news or work be expected to perform better on the communication styles across groups unit. are minimised whenever fictional minimised during the design of the scenarios remotely on a project with other students in conversations are used as scenarios. Single texts are internally coherent and and related test items. The combination of a different country can tap into a wide variety multiple texts are clearly connected.

appropriate media, such as texts, comic strips of content domains and cognitive processes. High Most students have heard about the Around 20% The scenario is framed in more complex Around 10% and photography, can increase the quality and topic/issue but, given its complexity, only language that is typical of formal a minority of students can be expected writing or professional conversation, relevance of the scenario for students, reducing Complexity of the test units to be familiar with the content of the unit. and can include a limited amount of Students who have had some exposure content-specific or technical vocabulary. the reading load and increasing students’ to the topic/issue in or outside of school Communication between actors in can more easily engage with the test unit the scenario can reflect differences in engagement with the tasks. It is also important The effective use of the assessed cognitive and are expected to perform significantly communication styles among groups, better. although most students are expected to avoid scenarios which present a stereotypical processes (described in Table 1) is intimately tied to be able to follow the conversation representation of certain identities or cultural to the students' content knowledge of the issue and understand its overall meaning (no jargon or convoluted phrasing is used). groups, and could thus further contribute to or situation they are asked to work on. While single stories and prejudice. the cognitive skills of analysing and evaluating information are intrinsically general in nature, International asymmetries in a student’s other cultures can be traced to the varying As well as varying by content, the scenarios in global and intercultural issues present their own opportunity to learn the subject matter are socio-cultural environments in which they live each test unit can vary by context. For example specific challenges that require knowledge of the probably more important in an assessment and learn. Learning for global competence is they can refer to the personal context of the world and of cultural differences. For example, of global competence than in assessments of a cultural activity, not just because it is partly student (situations relating to the self, family and only those students who have some degree more traditional subjects, such as science or acquired through social interactions but also peer groups), to their local context (wider social of knowledge of the consequences of climate mathematics. This is because only a minority because the process is influenced by the way networks, neighbourhood, city or country) or change can fully understand conflicting positions of schools already consciously include global in which specific cultural groups interpret the to a global context (life across the world, as in a debate on the reduction of carbon emission education in their curriculum, and the content world and transmit information. experienced through exposure to the media and in cities. Similarly, if a student does not know of global education varies significantly across participation in social networks). For example, anything about an issue, they will find it difficult countries. Moreover, the learning process of These asymmetries in content knowledge are in the personal context of student interaction to consider the issue from multiple perspectives. global competence takes place within a context expected to matter for performance on the within a multicultural classroom — whereby a Background content knowledge is considered, that extends far beyond the classroom: an test. However, the design of the test makes multicultural classroom encompasses not only in this framework, as an important facilitator of important factor determining the extent to the PISA cognitive assessment fundamentally differences in national backgrounds but also in the cognitive processes that students use when which students know about global issues and different from a knowledge quiz. Firstly, no

30 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 31 test item directly assesses factual knowledge perspective-taking abilities can be assessed Finally the ‘student as debaters’ scenarios that include detailed qualitative descriptions (for example, an item would not ask students by asking them to examine the causes of a require test takers to develop arguments and of performance standards (Andrade, 2005; to specify the increase in global temperature misunderstanding or conflict between two compare different perspectives on an issue Popham, 1997; Popp, Ryan and Thompson, reported in the last International Panel on Climate members on the research team. in a debate format. The scenario typically 2009; Stellmack et al., 2009; Thaler, Kazemi Change report). Secondly, only a minority of test provides some background information and Huscher, 2009)6. Most units in the test units will require students to have a high level of The second format presents performance on the issue that students can use for their should include at least one question with an background knowledge of global and intercultural tasks that students should solve by acting as responses. The questions in the scenario ask open-response format. issues (Table 2). While background content reporters: the scenario asks students to put the students to develop (or select) arguments knowledge assists students’ understanding of themselves in the shoes of a journalist who for their side, and address and rebut the Moderators of performance: the scenario, performance on the test should wants to write an article about a piece of news arguments their opponent’s side has made. If reading comprehension, attitudes mainly reflect students’ capacities to use he or she has heard. The text in this type of properly transposed to an assessment format, and values their reasoning and perspective-taking skills scenario typically takes the form of an extract the debate format can stimulate students’ to connect their general knowledge of global from a newspaper or from social media where engagement and give them the opportunity Certain individual factors that are not explicitly issues to new and unanticipated problems and the main elements of a case are presented. to demonstrate their grasp of thinking and assessed in the PISA cognitive test may situations. The test design mitigates international A first question or set of questions typically communication skills. nonetheless moderate students’ performance. asymmetries in students’ opportunity to learn verifies whether the students understand the In the 2018 iteration of the test, the scenarios background content knowledge because it asks message, can assess the quality and credibility This description of scenario formats is not are mostly based on written texts, despite students to work on several short test units in of information reported in the source, and can exhaustive, and other types of scenarios can be efforts to efficiently integrate texts and images. different content domains. Test takers from a reason beyond the text questioning possible explored during the test development process. The capacities that students need in order to given socio-cultural context will thus likely have motivations and subjective interpretations of perform well on the global competence test more background knowledge on some areas, the information by the author. The scenario Response format therefore overlap to a certain extent with those but not on others. then develops as students are asked to search required for reading literacy, because the PISA for their own information and sources, for The form in which the evidence is collected definition of reading literacy has progressively Format of the scenarios example by asking students to identify which – the response format – varies according to put more emphasis on students’ capacities stakeholders they would like to interview, the cognitive process that is assessed and to analyse, synthesise, integrate and interpret The scenarios used in the test should reflect the and/or selecting relevant questions to ask the chosen format of the scenario. Various multiple texts (OECD, 2016). However, this variety of contexts and roles in which students different actors in order to better understand response formats can require different skills. For framework identifies a set of perspective- can learn about global issues or explore the their actions and perspectives. This type of example, closed and multiple-choice response taking and reasoning abilities that clearly go complexity of intercultural interactions. The scenario can assess all the cognitive processes items depend more on decoding skills, because beyond reading proficiency, and focuses on the authenticity and relevance of the tasks are in the framework, and works particularly well readers have to eliminate incorrect responses, application of these abilities to specific content critically important to stimulate a sufficient level for assessing students’ capacity to select, when compared to open-constructed response areas (global and intercultural issues). The of engagement with the test. The scenarios can use information and assess the validity of items (Cain & Oakhill, 2006). specificities of global issues and intercultural be designed using the following four formats information. The investigative nature of the relations contribute to defining and determining that assign a particular role to the student, tasks should be sufficiently stimulating and As in any large-scale assessment, the range the cognitive processes and skills employed providing a clear purpose to engage in the task: realistic for most students. of feasible item formats is limited to some in the tasks. combination of open and closed response 1. students as researchers The ‘students as mediators/team-members’ questions. However, contextualised open- It will be possible to measure and partially 2. students as reporters scenarios ask students what they would suggest response items are particularly relevant for account for the correlation between reading 3. students as mediators or team-members to moderate or solve a conflict in their schools or this assessment as they ask the learner to skills and global understanding as students 4. students as debaters. neighbourhood. The text typically takes the form assemble relevant, abstract, conceptual and tested in global competence in 2018 will also of a conversation, where two or more actors case-specific knowledge components for be tested in reading. Thus, individual students’ In the first format – students as researchers have a conflict over an issue. The questions a problem-solving task (Spiro et al., 1995). and countries’ results on the assessment could – the test takers are asked to imagine that ask students to identify who is involved in the Open-response items were already used and be compared before and after accounting for they are enrolled in a course at their school situation, how the different stakeholders are validated in the ICCS’s International Cognitive their performance in reading. and that they need to submit a collaborative likely to feel, think and react, and why they think Test (Schulz et al., 2008), NAEP Civics (National research paper with other fellow students at and react in this way, based on the relationships Assessment Governing Board, 2010), and in the end of the school term. In this scenario, the between characters and their social and cultural the United Kingdom’s GCSE examination in student has to examine information from web characteristics. The test-taker can also be asked Citizenship Studies (Department for Education searches or from inputs from other students to generate or identify possible solutions that (UK), 2014). The open-response items are on the team. This format tests multiple types consider the interests of all or most parties. This scored using rubrics – scoring guidelines of cognitive processes: students’ capacities type of scenario can effectively test students’ to select information can be assessed by ability to acknowledge, articulate, position and presenting them with multiple results from web interpret multiple stakeholders’ perspectives in 6 Doscher (2012) explores the validity and reliability of two rubrics for the Global Learning Initiative at Florida International University (FIU). The rubrics referred to two case studies measuring university students’ global awareness and perspectives. queries and asking them to select the one that a given social conflict, and provide solutions that The rubrics yielded scores that reliably measured students’ global learning outcomes. Students who attended global learning is most appropriate to the research; students’ consider and integrate these different positions. courses scored significantly higher on the performance tasks than students who did not attend such courses.

32 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 33 Attitudes can facilitate global and intercultural intercultural understanding. While values are Global-Mindedness Scale, for example, was relating to global issues, such as explaining how understanding at the affective level, and can an integral part of global competence, the developed in order to “measure attitudes of carbon-dioxide emissions affect global climate thus act as moderators of performance in the PISA cognitive test does not assess values. students related to their sense of connection change. Another question asks students to cognitive test. Some examples of attitudes The proposed test asks students to reflect on to, interest in, and responsibility for, the global report how familiar they are with different global that support the practice and development the validity and consequences of statements, community and the behaviours associated with issues, such as climate change and global of cognitive skills with respect to global and to elaborate their own conclusions about this perspective” (Hett, 1993). The items in the warming, global health and migration. competence are: curiosity about other cultures; a specific issue or situation. scale addressed both beliefs and behaviours: inquisitiveness with regard to a wide range for example, students were asked to report the Self-reported ability to communicate in of global issues; conscious efforts to remain This issue requires a careful choice of the extent to which they agreed with the statement multicultural contexts well-informed about current events at the test questions that can be included in the “I tend to judge the values of others based on local and global level; a positive and respectful international cognitive assessment. Students my own value system”. A second set of questions refers to the linguistic, regard of cultural differences; and a desire to could be asked to evaluate statements that are communication and behavioural skills that are do something about global problems that clearly right or wrong on the basis of objective Following this literature, the student required to communicate with other people, threaten the needs and freedoms of current criteria, because they adhere to or contradict questionnaire in PISA 2018 includes multi- to manage breakdowns in communication, and future generations (global mindedness). agreed scientific or historical evidence. statement items using Likert-type methods. and to mediate between speakers of different These attitudes will not be measured directly However, all the questions in the cognitive test These items are based, as much as possible, languages or cultures. Students’ progression in the cognitive test. However in the contextual should not aim at assessing students on their on pre-existing works, taking into account in this component can be evaluated according PISA questionnaire, students will report the ethics and opinions, but rather on their capacity issues of testing time and question sensitivity to their proficiency in a foreign language and extent to which they agree with a series of to recognize and explain the complexity of a and adapted as best can be to the reality of through their self-reported ability to handle statements related to such attitudes (see case and the multiplicity of possible positions. 15-year-old students. Annex C includes the communication with people from other cultural section on self-reported information in the For example, in a hypothetical scenario questions and items on global competence backgrounds and in unfamiliar contexts. student questionnaire). The triangulation describing the case of a father who steals in that will be included in the PISA 2018 student of results of the cognitive test and the self- order to feed his starving children, the students questionnaire. These questions are a subset Self-reported data on foreign language reported information from the questionnaire would not be asked to conclude whether or of a larger set of material that was field trialled proficiency can be used to examine the will provide relevant evidence on how attitudes not the action deserves a given punishment; across all countries participating in PISA. In the relationships between acquiring a second support global and intercultural understanding. the questions would rather ask the students to transition from the field trial to the main study, language and measured levels of global demonstrate an understanding that the law may some questions were deleted and some scales understanding or positive dispositions Arguably, the most complex issue for the in some cases and under certain perspectives were shortened in order to save testing time, all toward other countries and cultures. Such an operationalisation of this assessment collide with basic human needs, and to identify/ the while still ensuring the proper coverage of investigation could have several relevant policy framework relates to a clear definition of explain the possible risks and uncertainties of this framework and preserving the psychometric implications for both language teaching efforts the way in which values affect global and establishing ad-hoc exceptions to the law. validity of the scales. The longer questionnaire and curricular programmes aimed at increasing tested in the PISA field trial, as well as the field the level of students’ understanding of global trial analysis of the psychometric quality of the issues. Self-reported information in the student questionnaire material, are available upon request. In addition to the results of the cognitive desirability. Attitudes, in particular, are related The student questionnaire for PISA 2018 assessment, the reporting on global to self-image and social acceptance. In order to The analysis of the responses to these items reports how many languages students and competence in PISA 2018 will include preserve a positive self-image, students may be is expected to support the future development their parents speak well enough to be able to country- or sub-population level information tempted to answer questionnaire items in a way of questions on attitudes and behavioural or converse with others. The questionnaire also on students’, school principals’, teachers’ and that they believe is socially acceptable. Self- emotional skills that might be included in future includes one question asking the students the parents’ responses to questionnaire items. reported scales that measure attitudes towards rounds of PISA. Future work beyond 2018 extent to which they would explain things very race, religion, sex, etc. are particularly affected might also consider integrating other methods carefully, check understanding or adapt their For socio-emotional skills and attitudes, finding by social desirability bias. Respondents for measuring attitudes and “soft skills” that are language when talking in their native language the right method of assessment is arguably who harbour a negative attitude towards a less prone to social desirability bias. with people whose native language is different. more a stumbling block than deciding what particular group may not wish to admit, even to to assess. It is practically not possible to themselves, that they have these feelings. In a Self-reported knowledge and skills Self-reported adaptability define scales for self-reported attitudes and study of attitudes towards refugees, Schweitzer skills that are always 100% valid. The strategy et al. (2005) found that social desirability bias Self-reported knowledge of global and Research on intercultural communication adopted in PISA 2018 has privileged the use accounted for 8% of the variance in attitudes. intercultural issues has developed and validated several items and adaptation of scales that have already been and scales on adaptability and flexibility. For validated in other empirical assessments. A large number of Likert-type scales appear A first set of questions in the student example, the Intercultural Effectiveness Scale of in the literature on civic and democratic questionnaire covers knowledge of global and Portalla and Chen (2010) includes self-reported The most common problem with assessing attitudes and a number of them are related to intercultural issues. One question in the PISA measures of behavioural flexibility, such as the self-reported skills and attitudes is that of social global competence as defined in PISA7. The 2018 questionnaire asks students to report level of agreement with the statement “I often how easily they could perform a series of tasks act like a very different person when interacting

7 Likert scales involve a series of statements to which respondents indicate agreement or disagreement on, for example, a 4- or 5-point response scale. 34 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 35 with people from different cultures”. The PISA Self-reported global mindedness The student questionnaire also provides particular, asks students to report whether they 2018 question includes one multi-statement information on teachers’ behaviours from the think that their teachers treat students from all question on adaptability, asking students how The PISA questionnaire includes one question perspective of the students. One question, in cultural groups with equal respect. they deal with challenging interactions with on global mindedness. The six items in the people from other cultural backgrounds. The question are expected to assess the following six items in the question were adapted from facets of global mindedness: ‘sense of world validated scales in Martin and Rubin (1995) and citizenship’ (item no. 1), ‘responsibility for Dennis and Vander Wal (2010). others in the world’ (items 2, 4 and 6), ‘sense of inter-connectedness’ (item 3) and ‘global Self-reported perspective taking self-efficacy’ (item 5).

As in the case of adaptability, there are several Questionnaire items on strategies, scales on perspective taking and on empathy pedagogies and attitudes to teach that have been specifically designed for global competence adolescents and have been reviewed for the PISA questionnaire. These include the Index of The PISA 2018 questionnaire will provide Empathy for Children and Adolescents (IECA, information on innovations in curricula and Bryant, 1982), the empathy subscale from the teaching methods aimed at preparing students Children’s Behaviour Questionnaire (Rothbart for global citizenship. Two questions focus on et al., 1994), the Interpersonal Reactivity the curriculum. One question asks principals Index (IRI, Davis, 1980), the Basic Empathy and teachers whether the curriculum includes Scale (Jolliffe and Farrington, 2006), and the global topics such as climate change and Adolescent Measure of Empathy and Sympathy global warming, global health or migration. (AMES, Vossen et al., 2015). In the PISA student Another question asks principals and teachers questionnaire, one question comprised of five whether the formal curriculum refers to global items assesses perspective taking. The five competence skills and dispositions, such as items have been adapted from Davis (1983) communicating with people from different and are expected to form a uni-dimensional cultural backgrounds or countries, or openness construct. to intercultural experiences.

Self-reported attitudes A second set of questions focuses on educators’ beliefs and practices. One question asks Self-reported openness toward people from principals to report on their teachers’ general other cultural backgrounds beliefs about how the school should handle ethnic diversity. A second enquires about The PISA questionnaire includes one question specific practices for multicultural learning at assessing students’ “interest in learning about the school level, such as teaching about the other cultures”. The question assesses a beliefs, customs or arts of diverse cultural student’s desire or willingness to learn about groups that live in the country, or encouraging other countries, religions and cultures. The students to communicate with people from four items included in the question have been other cultures via the internet and social media. adapted from different sources, such as Chen et al. (2016) and Mahon and Cushner (2014). Two questions in the PISA teacher questionnaire enquire about the teachers’ level of preparation Self-reported respect for people from other to respond to different student communities, cultural backgrounds potentially through different teaching strategies. One question provides information on whether One question in the PISA questionnaire asks the a teacher has studied intercultural issues or students to report to what extent they feel they received training in pedagogical methods to respect and value other people as equal human teach effectively in multicultural environments. beings, no matter their cultural background. Another question in the teacher questionnaire The five items were adapted from the Council will provide information about teachers’ self- of Europe (2016b), Munroe and Pearson (2006), efficacy in coping with the challenges of a Lázár (2012), and Fritz et al. (2002). multicultural classroom and adapting their teaching to the cultural diversity of students.

36 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 37 Conclusions References

How schools respond to growing economic around the world, and on how teachers are Andrade, H. G. (2005), “Teaching with rubrics: The good, the bad, and the ugly”, College Teaching, Vol. 53/1, interdependence, cultural divides, new digital being prepared to promote global competence. pp. 27-30. opportunities and calls for sustainability will Education systems will thus learn from each Anna Lindh Foundation (2017), The Anna Lindh Education Handbook, Intercultural Citizenship in the Euro have a significant impact on the well-being of other about how to best adapt curricula, Mediterranean Region, Anna Lindh Foundation. all members of the communities they serve. promote innovative teaching methods and adjust Barrett, M., M. Byram, I. Lázár, P. Mompoint-Gaillard and S. Philippou (2014), Developing Intercultural Competence through Education, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg. All people, in both diverse and homogenous teachers’ initial education and training so as to communities, are called upon to challenge facilitate the development of global competence. Barrows, T. S. et al. (1981), College students’ knowledge and beliefs: A survey of global understanding, Change Magazine Press, New Rochelle, NY. cultural stereotypes, reflect on the causes of racial, religious and hate violence, and The results of the assessment can also Bennett, M. (1993), “Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity” in M. Paige (ed.), Education for the intercultural experience, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME, pp. 21-71. participate in the creation of respectful, stimulate innovation at the level of individual integrated and sustainable societies. schools, as schools seek effective approaches Berardo, K. and D. Deardorff (2012), Building Cultural Competence: Innovative Models and Activities. Stylus, Sterling, VA. to enhance their students’ global competence. Achieving global competence through A broad range of learning activities in the Boix Mansilla, V. (2016), “How to be a global thinker”, Educational Leadership, Vol.74/4, pp. 10-16. education will require significant changes in the classroom can in fact influence students’ global Boix Mansilla, V. and H. Gardner (2007), “From teaching globalization to nurturing global consciousness” classroom: changes concerning what students competence and involve teachers in all subject in Suárez-Orozco, M. (ed.) Learning in the Global Era; International Perspectives on Globalization and Education, University of California Press, California, pp. 47-66. learn about the world and other cultures, the areas, although to differing degrees. These opportunities they have to practice what they may include role-playing activities that allow Boix Mansilla, V. and A. Jackson (2011), Educating for Global Competence: Preparing Our Youth to Engage the World, Asia Society and Council of Chief State School Officers. learn, and how teachers support this learning by students to take on different perspectives, Bringle, R. G. and P. H. Clayton (2012), “Civic education through service-learning: What, how, and why? working with diverse students. Some national discussions on prejudice and discrimination, in L. McIlrath, A. Lyons and R. Munck (eds.), Higher Education and Civic Engagement: Comparative Perspectives, curricula now put emphasis on education for or project-based activities that encourage Palgrave, New York, pp. 101-124.

sustainable development and intercultural students to analyse and reflect on the root Bringle, R. G. et al. (2016), Service Learning in Psychology: Enhancing Undergraduate Education for the Public Good, education. Many teachers also encourage causes of global issues. American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.

students to analyse and reflect on the root British Council (2013), Culture at Work : The Value of Intercultural Skills in the Workplace, British Council, causes of global issues, and share ideas on No single assessment can fully account for United Kingdom. possible solutions. However, progress has the complexity of global competence as a Brubacker, R. and D. D. Laitin (1998), “Ethnic and nationalist violence”, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 24, been uneven and good practices have not been learning goal. Importantly, the PISA approach pp. 423-52. shared sufficiently at the international level. reflects the needs and the constraints of an Bryant, B. K. (1982), “An index of empathy for children and adolescents”, Child Development, Vol. 52/2, pp. 413-425. international, large-scale assessment. It is Buckingham, D. (2007), “Digital Media Literacies: rethinking media education in the age of the Internet”, The conceptual framework for global thus no substitute for formative assessments Research in Comparative and International Education, Vol.2/1, pp.43-55. competence, and the approach that PISA will of global competence at the classroom and Byram, M. (2008), From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural Citizenship, Multilingual Matters, take for its first international assessment in school level. More efforts, beyond 2018, will be Clevedon. 2018, described in this document, will offer needed to build on the lessons learnt from this Chen, S. X. et al. (2016), “Conceptualizing psychological processes in response to globalization: Components, the first comprehensive overview of education initiative to further improve the measurement antecedents, and consequences of global orientations”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol.110, systems’ success in equipping young people to of the constructs defined in this framework. pp. 302-31. address global developments and collaborate The most challenging, but perhaps most urgent Clapham, A. (2006), Human Rights Obligations of Non-state Actors, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

productively across cultural differences in their endeavour will be to experiment with and Costa, A. L. and B. Kallick (2013), Dispositions: Reframing Teaching and Learning, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. everyday lives. The data will provide insights on evaluate new methods to further improve the Council of Europe (2015), TASKs for democracy; 60 activities to learn and assess Transversal attitudes, skills, which policy approaches to global education measurement of the socio-emotional, attitudinal and knowledge, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. are most commonly used in school systems and value dimensions of global competence.

38 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 39 Council of Europe (2016a), Competences for Democratic Culture: Living Together as Equals in Culturally Diverse Kymlicka, W. (1995), Multicultural Citizenship : A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Democratic Societies, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Lázár, I. (ed.) (2012), Recognising Intercultural Competence: What Shows That I Am Interculturally Competent?, Council of Europe (2016b), Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC): 559 Validated Descriptors, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/Pestalozzi/home/What/ICCTool_en.asp Council of Europe, Strasbourg. (wording adapted)

Davis, M. H. (1980), “A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy”, JSAS Catalog of Selected Lee, H.-W., et al. (2017), An International Collaborative Study of GCED Policy and Practice (I), Korea Institute Documents in Psychology, Vol. 10/85. for Curriculum and Evaluation: Seoul. Research Report RRO 2017-1.

Davis, M. H. (1983), “Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach”, Liu, O. L., L. Frankel and K. C. Roohr (2014), Assessing critical thinking in higher education: Current state Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 44/1, pp. 113-126. and directions for next-generation assessment (ETS RR-14-10), Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ.

Deardorff, D. K. (2009), “Implementing Intercultural Competence Assessment” in The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Liu, O. L. et al. (2016), “Assessing critical thinking in higher education: the HEIghten approach and preliminary Competence, D. K. Deardorff (ed.), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 477-491. evidence”, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 41/5, pp. 677-694.

Deardorff, D. K. (2013), “Promoting understanding and development of intercultural dialogue and peace: Mahon, J. A. and K. Cushner (2014), “Revising and updating the inventory of cross-cultural sensitivity”, a comparative analysis and global perspective of regional studies on intercultural competence”, report prepared Intercultural Education, Vol.25/6, pp. 484-496. for UNESCO Division of Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue, UNESCO, Paris. Martin, M. M. and R. B. Rubin (1995), “A new measure of cognitive flexibility”, Psychological Reports, 76/2, Deardorff, D. K. (forthcoming), UNESCO Manual on Developing Intercultural Competence Based on Human Rights. pp. 623-626. UNESCO, Paris. Merryfield, M. M. (2008), “Scaffolding social studies for global awareness”, Social Education, Vol. 72/7, pp. 363-366. Delors, J. et al. (1996), Learning: The Treasure Within, UNESCO, Paris. Mogkoro J. (1995), “State v. Makwanyane and Mchunu”, (6) BCLR 665 (CC), para 308 Dennis, J. P. and J. S. Vander Wal (2010), “The Cognitive Flexibility Inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity”, Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 34/3, pp. 241-253 Munroe, A. and C. Pearson (2006), “The Munroe Multicultural Attitude Scale Questionnaire: A new instrument for multicultural studies”, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol.66/5, pp. 819-834. Donnelly, J. (2007), “The relative universality of Human Rights”, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 29/2, pp. 281-306 Myers, J. P. (2006), “Rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: Education for global Doscher, S. P. (2012), “The development of rubrics to measure undergraduate students’ global awareness and global citizenship in the US”, Theory & Research in Social Education, Vol. 34/3, pp. 370-394. perspective: a validity study”, Doctoral Dissertation, Florida International University. National Assessment Governing Board (NEA) (2010), Civics framework for the 2010 National Assessment Ennis, R. H. and E. Weir (1985), The Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test, Midwest Publications, Pacific Grove, CA. of Educational Progress, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C.

Ennis, R. H., J. Millman and T. N. Tomko (1985), Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Midwest Publications, Pacific Grove, North-South Centre of the Council of Europe (2012), Global Education Guidelines: Concepts and Methodologies CA. on Global Education for Educators and Policy Makers, North-South Centre of the Council of Europe, Lisbon.

Fantini, A. E. (1997), New ways in teaching culture. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Nussbaum, M. (1997), Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Fennes, H. and K. Hapgood (1997), Intercultural Learning in the Classroom: Crossing Borders, Cassell, London. Nwosu, P. (2009), “Understanding Africans’ conceptualizations of intercultural competence” in D. K. Deardorff (ed.), Fritz, W., A. Mollenberg and G. M. Chen (2002), “Measuring intercultural sensitivity in different cultural contexts”, The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Intercultural Communication Studies, Vol. 1/2, pp. 165-176. O’Connor, K. and K. Zeichner (2011), “Preparing US teachers for critical global education”, Globalisation, Societies Gaudelli, W. (2003), World Class: Teaching and Learning in Global Times, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., and Education, Vol. 9/3-4, pp. 521-536. Mahwah, NJ. OECD (2016), “PISA 2018 draft reading framework”, OECD working paper, OECD, Paris. Gaudelli, W. (2006), “Convergence of technology and diversity: Experiences of two beginning teachers in web-based distance learning for global/multicultural education”, Teacher Education Quarterly, Vol.33/1, pp. 97-116. O’Reilly, T. and Sabatini, J. (2013), Reading for understanding: How performance moderators and scenarios impact assessment design (ETS Research Report No. RR-13-31). Retrieved from http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/ Gay, G. (2015), “Teaching to and through cultural diversity”, Curriculum Inquiry, Vol. 43/1, pp. 48-70. RR-13-31.pdf (last accessed 28 November 2017).

Global Cities (2017), “A Framework for Evaluating Student Outcomes in Global Digital Education”, White Paper, Oxfam (2015), “Education for Global Citizenship, a guide for schools” (booklet). Global Cities Inc., New York. Popham, W. J. (1997), “What’s wrong—and what’s right—with rubrics”, Educational Leadership, Vol. 55/2, pp. 72-75. Halpern, D. F. (2010), Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment Manual, Schuhfried GmbH, Vienna, Austria. Popp, S. E. O., J. M. Ryan and M. S. Thompson (2009), “The critical role of anchor paper selection in writing Hansen, R. (2010), “Impact of study abroad on ethnocultural empathy and global-mindedness”, Unpublished Doctoral assessment”, Applied Measurement in Education, Vol. 22/3, pp. 255-271. Dissertation, Ball State University. Portalla,T. and G.-M. Chen (2010), “The development and validation of the intercultural effectiveness scale”, Hanvey, R. G. (1975), An Attainable Global Perspective, Center for War/ Peace Studies, New York. Intercultural Communication Studies, Vol. 19/3, pp. 21-37.

Harzing, A.-W. (2006), “Response styles in cross-national survey research”, International Journal of Cross Cultural Rapoport, A. (2010), “We cannot teach what we don’t know: Indiana teachers talk about global citizenship education”, Management, Vol. 6/2, pp. 243-266. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, Vol.5/3, pp. 179-190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1746197910382256

Hett, E. J. (1993), “The development of an instrument to measure global mindedness”, Unpublished Doctoral Reimers, F. (2017), “Empowering Students to Improve the World in Sixty Lessons. Version 1.0”, CreateSpace Dissertation, University of San Diego. Independent Publishing Platform

International Baccalaureat Organisation (2012), What is an IB Education? (brochure), IBO, Cardiff. Ritchhart, R. (2011), “Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners", Jossey Bass, San Francisco. Jolliffe, D. and D. P. Farrington (2006), “Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale”, Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 29/4, pp. 589-611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.010 Rothbart, M. K., S. A. Ahadi and K.L. Hershey (1994), “Temperament and social behavior in childhood”, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol.40, pp. 21-39. Karaman, A. C. and F. V. Tochon (2007), “International student teaching in world language education: Critical criteria for global teacherhood”, Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, Vol.4/2-3, pp. 237-264. Rychen, D. S. and L.H. Salganik (eds.) (2003), Key Competencies for a Successful Life and a Well-Functioning http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15427580701389714 Society, Hogrefe and Huber, Göttingen, Germany.

Kellner, D. and J. Share (2005), “Toward Critical Media Literacy: Core concepts, debates, organizations, and policy”, Sabatini, J. et al. (2014), “Broadening the scope of reading comprehension using scenario-based assessments: Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, Vol. 26/3, pp. 369-386. Preliminary findings and challenges”, International Journal Topics in Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 114, pp. 693-723.

Khoza, R. (2011), Attuned Leadership: African Humanism as Compass, Penguin, Johannesburg. Sabatini, J. et al. (2015), “Improving comprehension assessment for middle and high school students: Challenges and opportunities” in D. Reed and K. Santi (eds.), Improving Reading Comprehension of Middle and High Klein, J. D. (2013), “Making meaning in a standards-based world: Negotiating tensions in global education”, School Students, Springer, New York, pp. 119-151. Educational Forum, Vol. 77/4, pp. 481-490. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2013.822044

40 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 41 Schulz, W. et al. (2010), ICCS 2009 International Report. Civic Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement Among Lower- Secondary School Students in 38 Countries, IEA, Amsterdam.

Schuster, K. and J. Meany (2005), Speak out! Debate and Public Speaking in the Middle Grades, International Debate Education Association, New York.

Schwartz, S. H. (2012), “An overview of the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values”, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Vol. 2/1, http://dx.doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116

Schweitzer, R. et al. (2005), “Attitudes towards refugees: The dark side of prejudice in Australia”, Australian Journal of Psychology, Vol. 57/3, pp. 170-179.

Seelye, H. N. (1996), Experiential activities for intercultural learning. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Sen, A. (2007), Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny, Penguin Books, India. Annexes Sinicrope, C., J. M. Norris and Y. Watanabe (2007), “Understanding and assessing intercultural competence: A summary of theory, research, and practice”, Technical report for the Foreign Language Program Evaluation Project, Honolulu, HI.

Spiro, R. J. et al. (1988), “Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains” in V. Patel (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

Stellmack, M. A. et al. (2009), “An assessment of reliability and validity of a rubric for grading APA-style introductions”, Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 36/2, pp. 102-107.

Storti, C. (2017), Cross-Cultural Dialogues: 74 Brief Encounters with Cultural Differences,. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Stringer, D. M. and P. A. Cassidy (2009), 52 Activities for Improving Cross-Cultural Communication. Yarmouth, Annex A. Illustrative examples of scenarios for the cognitive ME: Intercultural Press assessment of global understanding8 Suarez, D. (2003), “The development of empathetic dispositions through global experiences”, Educational Horizons, Vol. 81/4, pp. 180-82.

Suárez-Orozco, C., M. M. Suárez-Orozco and I. Todorova (2008), Learning a New Land: Immigrant Students Are global temperatures rising? in American Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Content domain: 3. Environmental Sustainability (3.1 Natural resources and environmental risks). Thaler, N., E. Kazemi and C. Huscher (2009), “Developing a rubric to assess student learning outcomes using a class assignment”, Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 36/2, pp. 113-116. In her science class, Mei reads a research temperatures are not supported by the data. In Torney-Purta, J. et al. (2015), Assessing Civic Competency and Engagement in Higher Education: Research Background, Frameworks, and Directions for Next-Generation Assessment, ETS Research Report Series. article that was featured in the daily press. The fact, global temperatures were lower in 2011

UK Government Department for Education (2014), “Citizenship studies: Draft GCSE subject content author of the article uses the following graph to and 2012 than in 2008 and 2009. (DFE-00582-2014)”, Department of Education. argue that popular claims about a rise in global

UNESCO (2001), Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, Paris. Available at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271/127160m.pdf Global temperature

UNESCO (2007), Guidelines on Intercultural Education, UNESCO, Paris. Deviation UNESCO (2013), Intercultural Competences: Conceptual and Operational Framework, UNESCO, Paris. from mean

UNESCO (2014a), Global Citizenship Education: Preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st century, UNESCO, 0,7 Paris. 0,6 UNESCO (2014b), Learning to Live Together: Education Policies and Realities in the Asia-Pacific, UNESCO, Paris. 0,5 UNESCO (2014c), Teaching Respect for All, UNESCO, Paris. 0,4 UNESCO (2015), Global Citizenship Education: Topics and Learning Objectives, UNESCO, Paris. 0,3 UNESCO (2016), Global Education Monitoring Report, UNESCO, Paris. 0,2 Vossen, H. G. M., J. T. Piotrowski and P. M. Valkenburg (2015), “Development of the Adolescent Measure of Empathy and Sympathy (AMES)”, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol.74, pp. 66-71. 0,1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.040 0 Williams-Gualandi, D. (2015), “Intercultural Understanding: What are we looking for and how do we assess what we find?”, Working Papers Series: International and Global Issues for Research No. 2015/7, University of Bath. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Willingham, D. T. (2007), “Critical thinking: Why is it so hard to teach?”, American Educator, pp. 8-19. Mei’s teacher asks the class to have a look at another chart she produced from the same source Zuckerman, E. (2013), Rewire: Digital Cosmopolitans in the Age of Connection, W. W. Norton & Company. of data in the article.

8 These examples are provided only for illustrative purposes. They have not been prepared nor verified by the professional test developers who are responsible for developing the cognitive instruments for PISA 2018. No fully developed test item is included in these examples. The examples include questions and “answer keys” to these questions that are meant to guide the development of test items using either a multiple-choice or an open-response format.

42 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 43 Global temperature Question: What is a possible consequence Answer key: It can reinforce a belief that of the choice of nicknames? national players are smart, hardworking, team Deviation from mean players while foreign players are athletes who 0,5 Question classification: 4. Evaluate get by on their natural gifts. 0,4 actions and consequences (4.2 Assessing 0,3 consequences and implications). 0,2 0,1 0 A song in Quechua -0,1 -0,2 Content domain: 1. Culture and Intercultural Relations (1.1 Identity formation in multicultural -0,3 societies)/ 4. Institutions, conflicts and human rights (4.3 Political participation and global -0,4 engagement). -0,5 -0,6 In a YouTube video that reached over 2 million launched a version in Quechua and the New

1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1916 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1940 1944 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 viewers, Renata Flores sings in Quechua, her South Wales Government of Australia has native language, to Michael Jackson’s “The proposed legislation for protecting and reviving Question: What can you infer about the a study require the researchers to sign a Way You Make Me Feel” against the backdrop Aboriginal languages. However, keeping alive validity of the article’s claim by comparing nondisclosure agreement before they are of ancient Inca ruins. Renata is an activist a disappearing language is not an easy task. the two charts? funded, by which researchers waive their right participating in a project called ‘Las juventudes to release any results independently. tambien hablamos Quechua‘ (The youth, we Question: Which factors, among Question classification: 1. Evaluate speak Quechua too). the following, can contribute to the information, formulate arguments and explain Question: What is a possible consequence disappearance of languages? complex situations or problems (1.2 Weighing of allowing unregulated sponsoring Question: What messages do you think sources). of scientific research by industrial Renata is trying to convey? Question classification: 1. Evaluate companies? information, formulate arguments and explain Answer key: The author’s claim is not based Question classification: 2. Identify and complex situations or problems (1.4 Describing on solid evidence. The author should have Question classification: 4. Evaluate analyse multiple perspectives (2.1 Recognising and explaining complex situations or problems) considered a longer time frame to analyse actions and consequences (4.2 Assessing perspectives and contexts) changes in global temperatures. consequences and implications). Answer keys: Young people from minority Answer keys: She wants to combat young groups who think that speaking their heritage The teacher tells the class that the research Answer key: If not properly regulated, some people’s perceptions of the indigenous language is not cool; lack of Aboriginal in the article was financed by a major oil financing might result in a “funding bias”, due language as unhip and backwards. She wants and indigenous language teachers; few corporation. She also explains that some to the fact that a researcher might be induced to revive her culture and combat uniformity. disappearing languages have written grammar companies that hire researchers to perform to support the interests of the sponsor. and dictionaries that people can use to learn Several other initiatives are trying to revive them. disappearing languages. For example, A talented player one of the top Internet search engines has Content domain: 1. Culture and intercultural relations (1.4 Perspective taking, stereotypes, discrimination and intolerance).

Last weekend your team lost because a Answer key: Clear regulations enforced by foreign-born player decided to walk away from the referee in which he or she suspends a the game after putting up with racial insults by match whenever he/she hears racial insults, the visiting team’s fans for almost one hour, disqualifying the team whose supporters forcing your team to play 10 against 11. One of perpetrate racist acts. your friends was at the stadium, and told you that the player should have gone on with the As you keep talking about the player who game, and not have let the insults get to him. left the game, you realise that both you and your friend have never used his real name but Question: What could have prevented the always referred to him as “the Animal”. This is player leaving and destabilising his team? the nickname he got from the press after his first game with your team. The captain of your Question classification: 4. Evaluate actions team, who is also the captain of your national and consequences (4.1 Considering actions) team, is nicknamed “the Brain”.

44 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 45 Annex B. Description of possible topics for the scenarios of the such as schools, community organisations, and ways to combat these. Scenarios in cognitive test or workplaces become more effective as this subdomain can reproduce texts, media colleagues/peers adjust their communication messages or conversations that: exhibit some This annex lists global and intercultural issues this list that these complex topics have to be styles; people fail to understand each other explicit or implicit cultural bias against some that can be used as reference topics to develop developmentally appropriate for 15-year-olds because of different non-verbal communication groups; describe how individuals adjust and scenarios in the cognitive test. It is implied in and sufficiently engaging. styles (especially given that more is often suffer as a result of cultural prejudices; show communicated nonverbally than through how people correct their stereotypes as they spoken word); individuals adapt (or fail to adapt) acquire new information about others. Common 1. Culture and intercultural relations their communication style to different contexts expressions of prejudice and oversimplification This content domain relates to the manifold 1.2 Cultural expressions and cultural (academic/informal neighbourhood/online include: gender or socioeconomic-based expressions of cultural diversity, such as exchanges settings); or individuals seek to communicate stereotyping about what students can achieve in languages, arts, knowledge, traditions and while not sharing a language. These situations different subjects; gender or racial biases while norms. Acquiring knowledge in this domain can This subdomain focuses on issues related can be within informal contexts to which selecting applicants for a job; perceptions about help young people recognise that perspectives to preserving the world’s cultural capital 15-year-olds may better be able to relate certain groups’ predispositions to violence and are shaped by multiple cultural influences, (e.g. language, arts and traditions) and the such as a sports team, within a friend group, crime; stereotypes about indigenous cultures; better understand differences among cultures, relationships between dominant and non- in welcoming a new student (even from within intolerance towards sexual inclinations; and and value the importance of protecting cultural dominant cultures. Scenarios in this content the same country but different background), religious stereotypes. The scenarios may differences. area can describe: expression of different and so on. invite students to identify, articulate, explain cultures in a globalised world; significance and position different cultural perspectives. 1.1 Identity formation in of cultural diversity; public policies to protect 1.4 Perspective taking, stereotypes, They may ask students to engage with these multicultural societies and promote the diversity of language and discrimination and intolerance discrimination cases and manage dilemmas other cultural expressions; school initiatives to associated with conflicting value systems. This subdomain focuses on how young people encourage learning and appreciating different This subdomain refers to what students can Specifically, this could be a conversational develop their cultural identity in multicultural cultural traditions; different perspectives on learn about social/cultural understanding exchange in which a biased remark is made communities and interconnected societies. what development means and on how countries and perspective taking as well as the nature, and the respondent must determine how to Scenarios in this content area can describe: should support other countries’ development; manifestations and impact of cultural prejudices respond. designing art and cultural education situations where minority individuals and/ programmes in schools; new technologies’ or migrants must navigate between minority 2. Socio-economic development and interdependence role in providing access to cultural expressions; ethnic (home) culture and majority national diversity of public media (access, content and This domain focuses on economic links between instability; the emergence of global corporations; (peer group and school-academic) cultures; language); convergence of people’s habits and local, regional and worldwide levels and looks impacts of low-cost travel and shipping on local young citizens’ rights and responsibilities in consumption patterns and how transnational at how these links influence opportunities economic systems; technological investments different societies; complex views of identity ideas (e.g. hip hop, meditation) are culturally around the globe and across social or cultural and technology exchanges; wage differences (national, gender, religious); ideas of culture appropriated in local contexts and/or fused groups. Students who acquire an advanced and foreign investments; and the impact of job as fixed and determined versus dynamic and with other cultural practices to form hybrid level of knowledge in this domain more easily migration on countries. permeable; expectations of how adolescents cultures. Scenarios could include recognising understand how people, places and economies should behave in and outside of school; causes cultural elements or messages within such are strongly interrelated, and are aware that 2.2 Human capital, development of supportive and conflicting relationships expressions. economic policies and choices made at any level and inequality between teachers and students in multicultural have consequences at all levels, from individual classes; relationships with parents, family and 1.3 Intercultural communication to global. This subdomain focuses on the relationship community networks in different cultures; between economic integration and social tensions between cultural celebrations and This subdomain focuses on what students can 2.1 Economic interactions and development. Examples of topics in this attempts to affirm larger cultural identities; learn about the complexity of communicative interdependence subdomain include: inequality in education, understanding of power and privilege within processes involving individuals from different trends in income inequalities between and a society; distinction between collective and cultural backgrounds. Scenarios in this area This subdomain focuses on the connections within countries; economic integration and individual cultural orientations and the different can represent situations where: diverse and interdependencies of economic systems reducing poverty; developing sustainable value judgements which can arise from these. audiences interpret different meanings from at multiple levels. Some examples of tourism; changes in employment opportunities Scenarios may also address how young people the same information; two or more people fail scenario topics framed in this subdomain are: in the face of global automated production and construct and respond to digital identities. It will to understand each other because they follow transnational production of everyday goods computerisation; and education mobility and be important for these scenarios to address the different communication norms; individuals (cell phones, clothing); financial liberalisation, brain drain. multiple, complex identities held by individuals explore the idea that languages sometimes contagion and crisis; capital flow directions and so that they do not perpetuate the “single story” encode meanings which can be difficult to identity. access in other languages; multicultural settings

46 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 47 3. Environmental Sustainability 4.2 Universal human rights and local 4.3 Political participation and This content domain focuses on the complex balance; contamination from pesticide residues; traditions global engagement systems surrounding the demand for and use loss of biodiversity on the planet; access to clean, of natural resources. Students who are more fresh water; overfishing; and the clearing of forests. This subdomain includes human right This subdomain refers to the opportunities exposed to this area learn about the main drivers With any of these topics, it will be important to education and scenarios can refer to key young people across the world have to express that deplete the planet’s natural environment, select ones that are most relevant to 15-year-olds. documents such as the Universal Declaration their voice and make a difference in local or and better understand how improving the of Human Rights or the UN Convention on the global contexts. Scenarios in this area can quality of life should be pursued without 3.2 Policies, practices and Rights of the Child. Students might be asked describe real experiences of young people who damaging the planet for future generations. behaviours for environmental to reflect on the reasons why some people’s have taken action to improve peoples’ living sustainability rights are denied (e.g. why gender inequalities conditions in their own or other communities, 3.1 Natural resources and in access to education persist); enquire about or who are evaluating the actions they can environmental risks This subdomain focuses on what policy makers the political, legal, socio-cultural, religious and take on a social, civic or political issue. The and individuals can do to reduce resource economic factors that can undermine human situations presented in the scenarios can also In this subdomain students learn about the main depletion and better manage environmental rights in particular contexts; analyse opposing describe practical difficulties young people environmental risks facing our planet and about risks. Scenarios in this subdomain can ask arguments and evidence about the universality face when they start volunteering, such as lack the ecological interdependence of the natural students to reflect on tools and instruments (e.g. or relativity of human rights; reflect on the of knowledge about the people they wish to world. The environmental risks considered in standards, taxes, subsidies, communication obligations of states in relation to human rights help, recognising their limits in taking action as this subdomain are widespread, concerning campaigns, education) put in place to encourage and/or on the means to protect oneself which an individual, backlash, discouragement and both developed and developing countries, and sustainable consumption and production; how are available to citizens; and reflect on rights fatigue. This subdomain also includes issues cause harm to people who have not voluntarily environmental risks are communicated in the that are in conflict with one another and how related to how young people are exposed to chosen to suffer their consequences, requiring media; how governments weigh the risks of the to resolve such conflicts. political propaganda and develop their political public authority regulation. In most cases, these depletion of natural resources when making opinions. risks cannot be assessed precisely, and can be choices of economic policy; what role non- evaluated differently in different contexts and government organisations have in forming social terms. A partial list of these risks include: the public opinion about environmental issues climate change; air pollution and related health and changing policies; trade-offs between risks; pollution and over acidification of the development and environmental concerns and oceans; soil degradation; desertification and differences in how sustainable development drought; population growth and unsustainable is understood and political responsibilities are urbanisation; natural disasters; glacier mass allocated in different countries and contexts.

4. Institutions, conflicts and human rights This content domain focuses on the formal or religious conflicts and hate crimes against and informal institutions supporting peaceful particular groups. Scenarios in this area can relationships between people and the respect expose students to different interpretations of fundamental human rights. Students can about the causes of a particular violent conflict; learn how global institutions such as the United present different historical reconstructions of Nations have developed, can be asked to reflect conflicts driven by competition over scarce on the contested nature of global governance natural resources or by economic competition in a world with highly asymmetrical power between countries; encourage them to relationships, review factors of and solutions analyse strategies for managing, resolving to current and historical conflicts between and preventing conflicts; ask them to think countries, ethnic or social groups, and examine about why some conflicts are more difficult spaces and opportunities for young people to to resolve than others; let them reflect on the play an active part in society and exercise their psychological preconditions that might be rights and responsibilities. necessary for reconciliation between conflicting parties (e.g. willingness to admit that one’s own 4.1 Prevention of conflicts and hate group has perpetrated unacceptable acts, crimes etc.); make them examine the role of non- violent protests in social and political change, This subdomain relates to institutions and conflicting definitions of social justice, and strategies for managing, resolving and contrasting arguments about the conditions preventing violent conflicts. Relevant conflicts for lasting peace and greater social cohesion. include international wars, civil wars, ethnic

48 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 49 Annex C. Questions related to global competence in the student questionnaire

How easy do you think it would be for you to perform the following tasks How informed are you about the following topics? on your own? (Please select one response in each row.) (Please select one response in each row.) I have heard I know I am familiar about this something with this I would but I would I could do I have never about this and I would I couldn’t struggle to I could do not be able this with a bit heard of this and could be able to do this do this on this easily to explain of effort explain the explain this my own what it is general issue well really about Explain how carbon-dioxide emissions affect global climate 01 02 03 04 Climate change and global change warming 01 02 03 04 Establish a connection between prices of textiles and working Global health (e.g. epidemics) conditions in the countries of 01 02 03 04 01 02 03 04 production

Migration (movement of people) Discuss the different reasons why 01 02 03 04

people become refugees 01 02 03 04

Explain why some countries suffer International conflicts 01 02 03 04 more from global climate change 01 02 03 04 than others Hunger or malnutrition in different

Explain how economic crises in parts of the world 01 02 03 04 single countries affect the global 01 02 03 04 economy

Causes of poverty 01 02 03 04 Discuss the consequences of economic development on the 01 02 03 04 environment Equality between men and women

in different parts of the world 01 02 03 04 Construct: Self-efficacy regarding global issues Construct: Awareness of global issues

50 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 51 How well does each of the following statements below describe you? How well does each of the following statements below describe you?

(Please select one response in each row.) (Please select one response in each row.)

Very Very Mostly Somewhat Not much Not at all Mostly Somewhat Not much Not at all much like much like like me like me like me like me like me like me like me like me me me

I try to look at everybody's side of a disagreement before I make a I can deal with unusual situations. 01 02 03 04 05 01 02 03 04 05 decision.

I believe that there are two sides I can change my behaviour to

01 02 03 04 05 to every question and try to look meet the needs of new situations. 01 02 03 04 05 at them both. I can adapt to different situations I sometimes try to understand my even when under stress or 01 02 03 04 05 friends better by imagining how pressure. 01 02 03 04 05 things look from their perspective. I can adapt easily to a new Before criticizing somebody, I try culture. 01 02 03 04 05 to imagine how I would feel if I 01 02 03 04 05 were in their place. When encountering difficult When I’m upset at someone, I try situations with other people, I

01 02 03 04 05 to take the perspective of that can think of a way to resolve the 01 02 03 04 05 person for a while. situation.

Construct: Perspective-taking I am capable of overcoming my difficulties in interacting with 01 02 03 04 05 people from other cultures.

Construct: Adaptability

52 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 53 Imagine you are talking in your native language to people whose native language Are you involved in the following activities? is different from yours. (Please select one response in each row.) To what extent do you agree with the following statements?

(Please select one response in each row.) Yes No

Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree I reduce the energy I use at home (e.g. by turning the heating down disagree agree or turning the air conditioning up or down or by turning off the 01 02 lights when leaving a room) to protect the environment.

I carefully observe their reactions. 01 02 03 04 I choose certain products for ethical or environmental reasons,

even if they are a bit more expensive. 01 02 I frequently check that we are understanding each other 01 02 03 04 correctly. I sign environmental or social petitions online. 01 02

I listen carefully to what they say. 01 02 03 04 I keep myself informed about world events via or

. 01 02

I choose my words carefully. 01 02 03 04 I boycott products or companies for political, ethical or

environmental reasons. 01 02

I give concrete examples to

01 02 03 04 I participate in activities promoting equality between men and explain my ideas. women. 01 02

I explain things very carefully. 01 02 03 04 I participate in activities in favour of environmental protection. 01 02

If there is a problem with communication, I find ways I regularly read websites on international social issues (e.g. poverty,

around it (e.g. by using gestures, 01 02 03 04 human rights). 01 02 re-explaining, writing etc.). Construct: Student’s engagement (with others) regarding global issues Construct: Awareness of intercultural communication

54 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 55 How well does each of the following statements below describe you? How well does each of the following statements below describe you?

(Please select one response in each row.) (Please select one response in each row.)

Very Very Mostly Somewhat Not much Not at all Mostly Somewhat Not much Not at all much like much like like me like me like me like me like me like me like me like me me me

I want to learn how people live in I respect people from other

different countries. 01 02 03 04 05 cultures as equal human beings. 01 02 03 04 05

I want to learn more about the I treat all people with respect

01 02 03 04 05 regardless of their cultural religions of the world. 01 02 03 04 05 background. I am interested in how people from various cultures see the I give space to people from other 01 02 03 04 05 world. cultures to express themselves. 01 02 03 04 05

I am interested in finding out I respect the values of people about the traditions of other 01 02 03 04 05 from different cultures. 01 02 03 04 05 cultures.

Construct: Interest in learning about other cultures I value the opinions of people

from different cultures. 01 02 03 04 05

Construct: Respect for people from other cultural backgrounds Do you have contact with people from other countries?

(Please select one response in each row.)

Yes No

In your family 01 02

At school 01 02

In your neighbourhood 01 02

In your circle of friends 01 02

Construct: Contact with people from other countries

56 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 57 To what extent do you agree with the following statements? People are increasingly moving from one country to another. How much do you agree with the following statements about immigrants? (Please select one response in each row.) (Please select one response in each row.) Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree disagree agree Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree disagree agree I think of myself as a citizen of the

world. 01 02 03 04 Immigrant children should have the same opportunities for

When I see the poor conditions education that other children in the 01 02 03 04 that some people in the world live country have.

under, I feel a responsibility to do 01 02 03 04 something about it. Immigrants who live in a country for several years should have the 01 02 03 04 opportunity to vote in elections. I think my behaviour can impact

people in other countries. 01 02 03 04 Immigrants should have the opportunity to continue their own 01 02 03 04 It is right to boycott companies customs and lifestyle. that are known to provide poor

workplace conditions for their 01 02 03 04 Immigrants should have all the employees. same rights that everyone else in 01 02 03 04 the country has. I can do something about the

problems of the world. 01 02 03 04 Construct: Attitudes towards immigrants

Looking after the global

environment is important to me. 01 02 03 04 How many languages, including the language(s) you speak at home,

Construct: Global mindedness do you and your parents speak well enough to converse with others? (Please select one response in each row.)

One Two Three Four or more

You 01 02 03 04

Your mother 01 02 03 04

Your father 01 02 03 04

Construct: Number of languages spoken

58 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 59 How many foreign languages do you learn at your school this school Thinking about teachers in your school: to how many of them do the year? following statements apply?

(Please enter a number. Enter “0” (zero) if you do not have any foreign language courses this (Please select one response in each row.) school year.) To none or To all or To some of To most of Number of foreign languages ______01 almost none almost all of them them of them them Construct: Number of foreign languages learnt at school They have misconceptions about the history of some cultural 01 02 03 04 groups. Do you learn the following at school? They say negative things about (Please select one response in each row.) people of some cultural groups. 01 02 03 04

Yes No They blame people of some cultural groups for problems faced 01 02 03 04 by .

I learn about the interconnectedness of countries’ economies. 01 02 They have lower academic expectations for students of some 01 02 03 04 cultural groups. I learn how to solve conflicts with other people in our classrooms. 01 02 Construct: Intercultural attitudes of teachers

I learn about different cultures. 01 02

We read newspapers, look for news on the internet or watch the

news together during classes. 01 02

I am often invited by my teachers to give my personal opinion

about international news. 01 02

I participate in events celebrating cultural diversity throughout the

school year. 01 02

I participate in classroom discussions about world events as part of

the regular instruction. 01 02

I analyse global issues together with my classmates in small groups

during class. 01 02

I learn that how people from different cultures can have different

perspectives on some issues. 01 02

I learn how to communicate with people from different

backgrounds. 01 02

Construct: Global competence activities at school

60 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 61 62 ©OECD 2018 ©OECD 2018 63 Write to us Directorate for Education and Skills OECD 2, rue André Pascal 75 775 Paris Cedex 16 FRANCE edu.contact@oecd.org

Visit our website www.oecd.org/edu

Explore our data on education and skills gpseducation.oecd.org

Read our books on line www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/books

Subscribe to our online library www.oecd-ilibrary.org