Queer-Feminist Punk Countercultures, Theory, Art and Action Katharina Wiedlack 15

Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3

Editors: Alexa Athelstan, University of Leeds, UK Rosemary Deller, University of Manchester, UK [email protected]

Guest Editors: Maya Nitis, Whitney Stark, Marianna Szczygielska

Book Review Editor: Melissa Kelly, Uppsala University, SE Sanaz Raji, University of Leeds, UK [email protected]

Copy-Editors: Megan O’Branski, Newcastle University, UK Apostol Péter Zaproš, University of Leeds, UK Nadia Hai, University of Calgary, Canada

Web-Editor: Robert Kulpa, Birkbeck College, London, UK

Liaison Officer: Adam Pearson, Durham University, UK

Cover design: Marianna Szczygielska

The Graduate Journal of Social Science (ISSN: 1572-3763) is an open-access online journal focusing on methodological issues of interdisciplinary relevance. The journal publishes two issues per year, one of which is thematic and one of which groups innovative and instructive papers from all disciplines. GJSS welcomes submissions from both senior and junior academics, thus providing a forum of publication and exchange among different generations engaged in interdisciplinary research. GJSS is published by EBSCO publishing.

For subscription inquiries, requests, and changes, please visit: http://gjss.org/index.php?/ Contact-us/Graduate-Journal-of-Social-Science.html. or Email: [email protected]

Contributors 5

Editorial The Conditions of Praxis: Theory and Practice in Activism and Academia Whitney Stark, Marianna Szczygielska and Maya Nitis 8

Articles

‘Do We Scare Ya’ Cuz, We’re Not Afraid To Fuck?’: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures, Theory, Art and Action Katharina Wiedlack 15

Gender as a Category of Analysis: Reconciling Feminist Theory with Feminist Methodology Charlotte Wu 38

(Re-)Occupy Critique! The Condition of Theory and Praxis in Contemporary American Academia Marco Briziarelli 54

Neoliberalism and Depoliticisation in the Academy: Understanding the ‘New Student Rebellions’ Leon Sealey-Huggins and André Pusey 80

Researching DIY Cultures: Towards a Situated Ethical Practice for Activist-Academia Julia Downes, Maddie Breeze and Naomi Griffin 100

Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject: Activism, Academia and the Lived Experience of Impairment Harriet Cooper 125

Investigating Genderless Utopias: Exposing the Sexual Harassment of Female Protestors in the Egyptian Uprisings of 2011 Emily Miles 138 Book Reviews

IMPORT – EXPORT – TRANSPORT. Queer Theory, Queer Critique and Activism in Motion edited by Sushila Mesquita, Maria Katharina Wiedlack, and Katrin Lasthofer Evelien Geerts 150

Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism by Judith Butler Maya Nitis 155

On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life by Sara Ahmed Anna Kuslits 159 Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science CONTRIBUTORS

Maddie Breeze is an ESRC-funded PhD researcher in Sociology at the University of Edinburgh, where she is currently working on her thesis based in ethnographic work with one women’s roller derby league. Maddie contributed to founding Edinburgh’s roller derby league in 2008 and played and organized roller derby with them for four years. Her PhD work develops an analysis of seriousness, as skaters negotiate sociologically familiar trajectories of institutionalization and organizational solidification. Her research interests focus on collaborative methods, gender, social change and ambivalence.

Marco Briziarelli’s scholarly interests range widely from Critical and Cul- tural approaches to Media, Persuasion and Social Change. His current research project explores the relationship between social movements and their media/communicative strategies.

Harriet Cooper is a doctoral candidate in the Department of English and Humanities at Birkbeck, University of London. Her research explores the figure of the disabled child in contemporary culture. Drawing on both her personal experience of growing up with a physical impairment, and on a wide range of cultural objects and texts, Harriet’s work seeks to understand how the disabled child gets ‘made’ by culture, with a particular focus on the impact of gazes and discourses. Email: [email protected]

Julia Downes is a Research Associate in the School of Applied Social Sciences at Durham University where she is currently working on a project about domestic violence. Julia’s ESRC-funded PhD critically examined contemporary queer feminist grassroots activist cultures in the UK including riot grrrl, Ladyfest and local collectives. Julia has been active in DIY queer feminist cultural activism for over ten years within Manifesta, Lady- fest Leeds, Ladies Rock UK, Star and Shadow Cinema and even clean hands cause damage and as a drummer in the bands The Holy Terror, Fake Tan, Vile Vile Creatures, the Physicists and the collective Power Vag. Her research interests focus on activism-academia, social movements, feminist activism, and gendered violence. Email: [email protected]

Evelien Geerts obtained an M.A. in Philosophy from Antwerp University (Belgium), was an international exchange student at UCLA’s Women’s Studies department (USA), and recently graduated from the Gender and Ethnicity Research Master programme at Utrecht University (the Nether- lands). Her interests include Continental and feminist philosophy, Irigaray Studies, sexual difference philosophy and cultural studies. And as a journalist and feminist activist, she writes about gender and women’s issues,

multiculturalism, the representation of women in politics and culture, and female artists in alternative music. http://uu.academia.edu/EvelienGeerts

Naomi Griffin is a PhD Researcher in Sociology at Northumbria University. She is currently undertaking (auto)ethnographic research into DIY cultures with a focus on DIY punk in the North East of England. Naomi has been involved in DIY and DIY punk to varying degrees for just over a decade. She co-founded the Equestrian Collective (a collective based in Durham City which organises punk shows and other events), she is involved in the running of a DIY record label (Discount Horse records) and has also been in several bands over the years (most recently Martha and No Ditching). Her research interests focus on DIY culture and DIY cultural activism, subcultures, punk, activism, social change and gender.

Anna Kuslits has graduated with an MA in Gender Studies from Central European University and an MA in Comparative Literature from ELTE Uni- versity, Budapest. Her main field of interest is continental philosophy, deconstruction and queer theory. Her current research involves the concept of representation in 18th century aesthetics and political philosophy. Email: [email protected]

Emily Miles recently graduated with an MSc from the London School of Economics and Political Science, and has previously worked with various NGOs and charities that combat gender-based violence. She has written in student newspapers and blogs on issues of politics and gender, with a particular focus on the sexual harassment of women in protest movements. She currently works for a South African NGO that works with men and boys for gender equality, developing ways to improve men’s health-seeking behaviour and sexual health, reducing the impact of HIV and gender-based violence on both men and women.

Maya Nitis’s forthcoming dissertation, Languages of Resistance, addresses the chiasmic intertwining of language and action in performative terms, forging a path away from the collapse of language into violence. For an abstract see: www.ethnographyofflight.blogspot.com. After her defence this summer, she is also hoping to participate in starting an independent theoretical praxis zine in Berlin.

André Pusey is a PhD student in the School of Geography at the Univer- sity of Leeds researching the (re)production of the common(s) within social movements and a part-time lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan University.

Leon Sealey-Huggins is a PhD student in the School of Sociology and So- cial Policy at the University of Leeds researching the politics of responses to climate change in the Caribbean. Email: [email protected] Whitney Stark is a queer feminist into social justice. After a BA in Media Arts from Antioch College she spent several years doing activist and NGO work, producing and teaching socially conscious video, media literacy and rape culture 101s, and working with homeless teenagers- as well as pour- ing countless cups of coffee and working on a few terrible reality TV shows. Whitney is committed to principles of anti-oppression and increasingly shifting activism in order to work toward less violent ways of being, and to build beautiful, intentional community. She has just received a masters in gender studies through the GEMMA consortium.

Marianna Szczygielska is a PhD Candidate in the Gender Studies De- partment of the Central European University in Budapest. Her background is in philosophy and gender studies and she is interested in posthumanism, animals studies, queer theory and the philosophy of science. Her current project, entitled ‘Queer(ing) Naturecultures: The Study of Zoo Animals’, examines how the concepts of nature, animality, and humanness have been and continue to be constructed in relation to sexuality through the specific site of the modern zoological garden. Apart from her academic work Marianna is also a queer-feminist activist and performer involved in various groups.

Katharina Wiedlack has a diploma in German Literature and Gender Studies and a doctoral degree in English and American Studies from the University of Vienna. She teaches Gender, Queer and Disability Studies at University of Vienna, and currently works at the Gender Research Office, University of Vienna. Her research fields are queer and feminist theory, decolonial and disability studies as well as the studies of counterculters and punk rock, cultural studies and feminist literary criticism to name but a few. Since 2010, one important focus of her work and personal activism is on queer theory and activism within the global East, Western hegemonies and global solidarity. Additional to her scholarly work, she is active in the queer-feminist d.i.y. community of Vienna. Email: [email protected]

Charlotte Wu graduated from the University of Cambridge in 2012 with a MPhil in Multi-Disciplinary Gender Studies, having previously read English at BA level. Her research dissertation focused on the presentation of eating disorders online in communities such as Tumblr, and analysed how feminist, biomedical, and popular discourse were internalised, rejected and/or reconfigured in young women’s attempt to understand their identification as anorexic or ‘pro-ana’. After graduating Charlotte worked as a research analyst at the London School of Economics. She is currently working for a public policy consultancy while applying for PHD programmes. Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science Editorial The Conditions of Praxis: Theory and Practice in Activism and Academia

Whitney Stark, Marianna Szczygielska and Maya Nitis

Whitney: After the 8th European dimensions of recent revolution- Feminist Research Conference ‘The ary protests in different parts of the Politics of Location: Revisited’ held world or the global economic crisis in the summer of 2012 at Central and the impact of austerity mea- European University in Budapest, sures on the condition of feminist Hungary, Maya, Marianna and I be- movements, others joined local ac- gan the process of creating this spe- tivists on the streets of Budapest in cial edition of the Graduate Journal bringing attention to the current po- of Social Science, ‘The Conditions litical situation in Hungary. of Praxis: Theory and Practice in Activism and Academia’. Maya: In this edition we (if I might speak of a tentative editorial, ac- Marianna: Echoing the talk giv- tivist, and/or thinking and writing en by Adrianne Rich in 1984 at the ‘we’) wanted to address the ways in Conference on Women, Feminist which theory and practice are inter- Identity and Society in Utrecht (see twined, and whose division is con- Rich in Díaz Diocaretz and Zavala stantly assumed and affected with 1985), the 2012 Budapest confer- great stakes. To work and live, to ence aimed at revisiting the con- speak and write, in ways which hon- cept of the politics of location. As or the existing interconnections of a transnational meeting of feminist theory and practice, and to strength- scholars it was an opportunity to re- en these connections against the visit some of the idealized notions of insistences of their separation thus dismantling oppressive categories undermines neoliberal co-optation via theoretical tools often taken up of the very fabric of everyday life. in a purely academic environment. While some were seated in the con- Whitney: The conference seemed ference rooms discussing gender to be an opportunity to discuss the Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Stark, Szczygielska and Nitis: Editorial 9 locatings of academic work in, ism, giving new meanings to what with and from activist and feminist we might term anti-oppression aca- practices and positionings. While demic research. It is important to lo- the conference connected a net- cate this dynamic relationship within work of feminist-oriented academic the context of shifting epistemologi- professionals, it seemed to have cal, ontological and ethical bound- some structural models (the cost aries that delineate hierarchies in- of the conference, the represented scribed into the capitalist mode of groups participating) which heavily knowledge production. prioritized particularized academic standards and practices with strong Maya: It seems to me that the ties to hierarchies which so many apparent, oft bemoaned split of feminists in attendance, and surely theory and practice, activism and organizing, actively work to desta- academia, is crucial for maintaining bilize. With this recognition, we felt neoliberalism as a political ideology. it was important to try and address In this context, my experience at the the sites of praxis between the of- 8th European Feminist Research ten oppressively divided ideas of Conference was multifaceted. On academia/theory and activism, to the one hand, I was excited about trouble the often co-optive, neolib- the organizers’ concern with inclu- eral practices by privileged groups sivity, reflected in solidarity grants (i.e. academia) which structurally and the sheer size of the confer- de-politicize and domesticate the ence in Budapest. On the other tools, groups, ideas and politics hand, the quality of the exchang- which feminist academics/activists es was endangered by allotting so much wish to nourish, embrace speakers less time than expected, and ally with. which often gave even seasoned scholars too little time (15 minutes) Marianna: Oftentimes scholarly to turn a thought, so to speak. So, interest in emerging social move- I would agree that not only were ments and political activism is done some typical academic hierarchies in pursuit of grounding theories of reproduced, but the very structure power relations and identity forma- of the event suggested a neoliber- tion in the models and methodolo- al smorgasbord, where all thought gies developed in social and politi- could be tasted without swallow- cal practice. This canonization later ing; contacts exchanged, yet little becomes a substrate for scientific else shared … Even if, hopefully, knowledge production. On the other there were exceptions to this rush hand, various groups, collectives that has pursued every discipline and movements also utilize radical including feminism, in its academic theoretical ideas in everyday activ- dash. 10 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Marianna: One of the structural building solidarity and alliance, rath- models perpetuated in the institu- er than co-option and consumption. tionalized academic setting of a re- In this kind of discussion, we hope search conference was the lack of to open up differing understandings transparency of the location of the of connection (praxis), disrupting meeting itself, where the socio-eco- the binary divides that keep groups, nomic and political context in which strategies, tools and structures as it was held was rendered almost if separate, thus disallowing them invisible. Paraphrasing Adrienne from understanding and working to- Rich, maybe what is needed is a gether. closer understanding of the embodied politics of location applied also Marianna: We have invited to the feminist academic setting, so scholars and activists to create this that any attempt to destabilize the special issue as a platform for ex- centre does not automatically repro- changing experiences and sharing duce another periphery: knowledges on the tensions and potentialities of border-crossing po- My body litical engagement. It might seem Nador Street 9, a lecture hall of contradictory that this space is en- the Central European University visioned and realized in what is ul- Budapest timately an academic journal, but Hungary we believe that with the variety of The continent of Europe topics covered in this issue we man- The Western Hemisphere aged to open up critical debates that The Earth are needed in scholarly endeavors. The Solar System From queer-feminist punk coun- The Universe1 tercultures, Occupy politics, student rallies and genderless utopias Whitney: The insidiousness of so to DIY cultures, the topics of the many of these assumed ways of op- essays in this special edition reflex- erating, naturalizations, the things ively bridge the junctures emerging overlooked (too often structural vio- along the lines of activist practices. lences and oppressive hierarchies) even in movements with feminist Maya: I wonder if exploring the and anti-oppression goals, is of- interconnections of theory and prac- ten disheartening, to say the least. tice in activism and academia would Checking these assumed systems only pose a contradiction through its of values and offering and taking apparent location in an ‘academic critique is a dear part of the critical journal’ to the extent that the journal reflexivity needed for any collec- remains academic. Whereas, the tive, accountable coalition based on way I understand our work here, is Stark, Szczygielska and Nitis: Editorial 11 precisely as an attempt to open up social queer politics and the radi- this ‘academic’ textual space for en- cally political models of liveable and counters that question the erection of lived queer activism. academic towers by working on the borders that are supposed to keep In Gender as a Category of activists and academics divided. Analysis: Reconciling Feminist Theory with Feminist Methodolo- Contents gy, Charlotte Wu discusses gender The article opening this edition theory-based analysis. She posits shakes up a hierarchical division this analysis as consistently politi- often made between academia, art, cally rooting, and, through a discus- and activism. In ‘Do We Scare Ya’ sion of the ‘non-human person’, as Cuz, We’re Not Afraid To Fuck?’: enabling openings to question the Queer-feminist Punk Counter- more latent assumptions of ‘human cultures, Theory, Art and Action, subjectivity’. Katharina Wiedlack explores the important role contemporary punk The holistic view reconciling the countercultures play in feminist cri- division between theory and praxis tique and queer theory by resist- is presented by Marco Briziarelli ing the appropriation of queerness in his (Re-)Occupy Critique! The into the neoliberal capitalist model Condition of Theory and Praxis of knowledge production. By ana- in Contemporary American Aca- lyzing lyrics, music, zine-writing, demia. Coming from the perspec- performances, cultural settings, tive of communication studies, the d.i.y. aesthetics, and the engage- author offers an analysis of the nar- ment of queer-feminist punks in ratives on the Occupy Wall Street various projects that practically ap- movement and argues that the prev- ply queer politics, Wiedlack argues alent focus on the discursive perfor- that countercultural actors not only mativity of this social phenomenon form a political movement, but also in theoretical commentaries reduc- actively produce queer-feminist es its agency and fails to account for theory. She coins a term artivism the material aspects of this political to highlight the artistic aspects of action. According to Briziarelli, the queer-feminist punk rock, as well as New Social Movement’s take on the the revolutionary method lying be- OWS, heavily informed by the post- hind these creative, playful and dar- structuralist insistence on the discur- ing forms of anti-oppression action sive determination of social change, and meaning-making. In her article does not engage in the class politics Wiedlack offers an in-depth analysis and the material conditions of the of the complicated entanglements critique itself. The article is guided between academic accounts of anti- by an analysis of the figure of the 12 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 intellectual and her/his positioning posing the Sexual Harassment of in the process of political change. Female Protestors in the Egyp- Following Gramscian theorization tian Uprisings of 2011, in which, of hegemony and his organic intel- by utilizing the writing piece as ex- lectual figure, Briziarelli proposes a ample, Emily Miles shows how (of- materialist intervention into the field ten academic) feminist analysis can of social critique and academic the- participate with and in political up- orization of social movements that, risings in ways that help challenge similarly to activism, needs to take the limits of both, and enact better into account the economic, political methods toward social transforma- and ideological conditions of theo- tion. Miles specifically discusses retical knowledge production. sexual violence against women in the actions at Tahrir Square and the Leon Sealey-Huggins and André lack of a gendered politic in ‘demo- Pusey analyze the ongoing chang- cratic mobilizations’ in order to place es in student organizing against the activism and feminism as politically co-optation of education in Neolib- accountable to each other and with eralism and Depoliticisation in potential for transformative alliance. the Academy: Understanding the ‘New Student Rebellions’. Reflect- The book review section of this ing on participatory-research meth- special issue presents three publi- odology affecting many activist-aca- cations that cover a wide range of demics in this edition and beyond, topics connected to activism and in Researching DIY Cultures: theoretical accounts of issues such Towards a Situated Ethical Prac- as queerness, conflict studies, racial tice for Activist-Academia Julia discrimination and equality policies Downes, Maddie Breeze and Naomi from differently situated views of Griffin probe the risks and advances Central-Eastern Europe, the Middle of engaged activist-academics who East and the United Kingdom. do not perch above their so-called subject matter. Harriet Cooper, in The post-conference anthology Defamiliarising Passivity with the IMPORT – EXPORT – TRANS- Disabled Subject: Activism, Aca- PORT. Queer Theory, Queer Cri- demia and the Lived Experience tique and Activism in Motion of Impairment, proposes to reeval- (Mesquita, Wiedlack and Lasthofer uate passivity as a potential model eds. 2012), reviewed by Evelien for academia. Geerts, offers a polyvocal, de-cen- tralizing perspective on queer theo- We close this edition with Inves- ry and praxis outside of the Anglo- tigating Genderless Utopias: Ex- American context. Stark, Szczygielska and Nitis: Editorial 13

Judith Butler’s new book Parting indeed have failed in challenging Ways: Jewishness and the Cri- the continually reinstituted borders tique of Zionism (2012) is reviewed in thinking, as much as the apparent by Maya Nitis. Butler discusses the division of language and practice living trauma of the Shoah and his- which enables the co-optation of torical tragedy, asking difficult ques- academic work for the perpetuation tions regarding collective memory. of structural injustice. We are thus forced to hope that the words do not In her latest book On Being In- remain on the pages assigned to cluded: Racism and Diversity them but spring from their academic in Institutional Life (2012), Sara and textual limits and spill into our Ahmed applies phenomenological lives where they might strengthen method to an analysis of the effects modes of resistance required to of institutional procedures and poli- challenge the neoliberal global or- cies on the materiality of its subjects. der. In Anna Kuslits’ review, the interre- lations between the bodies, spaces, Marianna: To conclude, we hope documents and institutions, brought that this edition will offer not only forward in the book in connection to an insightful and thought-provoking anti-discrimination/diversity/equality collection of essays that will inspire policies in the UK, are presented in our readers to explore further ten- a critical way that bridges the tension between academia and activ- sions between theory and practice. ism, but will also result in a practical engagement in the topics brought Whitney: We understand the here by our authors. We warmly complicated practice of utilizing welcome comments and reflections an academic journal-setting to dis- on these issues from our readers cuss these needs for accountability, in any form (written, visual, sound, shared methodology and the de- etc.). Please contact us through the stabilization of hierarchies of legiti- general editor’s email address: edi- macy, and it is important to note that [email protected]. no matter our intention as editors to destabilize traditional presentation We would like to sincerely thank and division and to welcome differ- the editors of GJSS, Alexa Athelstan ing practices, there are areas where and Rose Deller, for their guidance, this is successful, and areas where help and for allowing us to collab- this is not. orate on this special edition. We would also like to thank the rest of Maya: Yet if the exploration of the GJSS staff and all of our peer these interconnections was closed reviewers who have helped to put with academic articles, then we will this edition together. 14 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Endnotes 1 See Rich. 1985. Notes Towards a Politics of Location: 8.

References Adrienne Rich. 1985. Notes Towards A Politics of Location. In Myriam Díaz Diocaretz and Iris M. Za- vala eds. Women, Feminist Iden- tity and Society in the 1980’s: Se- lected Papers [presented at the First Session of the Utrecht Sum- mer School of Critical Semiotics, 1984], John Benjamins Publish- ing, Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science ‘Do We Scare Ya’ Cuz, We’re Not Afraid To Fuck?’1: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures, Theory, Art and Action Katharina Wiedlack

The article investigates areas of knowledge production in contemporary queer-feminist punk countercultures in/from the US and draws a connection from countercultural accounts to academic anti-social queer theory. Based on the thesis that queer-feminist punk–countercultures, bands, musicians, writers and organizers–can be understood as a political movement, their productions—lyrics, writing, sound and performances—will be seen as a form of queer-feminist activism and agency. The main argument developed in the article is that queer-feminist punk countercultural agents do not only engage with queer and feminist politics, as well as academic theory, but also produce queer-feminist political theory—a more or less coherent set of ideas to analyze, explain and counter oppressive social structures, as well as explicit and open violence and oppression. Queer-feminist punk musicians combine decolonial and antiracist accounts with their specific punk philosophy of anti-social queerness or queer negativity. Lyrical content, and writing will be analyzed to show examples of queer-feminist anti-social accounts of punk music. Relating such queer-feminist punk negativity to academic concepts and scholarly work, it will be shown how punk rock is capable of negotiating and communicating academic queer-feminist theoretical positions in a non- academic setting. Moreover, it will be proven that queer-feminist punk does not only negotiate, translate and appropriate academic accounts, but also produces similar negative and repoliticized queer-feminist theories without any direct inspiration through academic discourses. Furthermore, it will be proposed that queer-feminist punk communities accomplish what academic queer theory following the anti-social turn often does not: they transform their radically anti-social queer positions into (models for) liveable activism/artivism.

Keywords: Anti-social Queer Theory, Punk Rock, Riot Grrrl, Queercore, Queer-feminism, Artivism, Radical Theory, Music, Activism.

This article seeks to challenge today, and are mostly known as contemporary cultural discourses of queercore, homocore or dykecore, the relationship between counter- as well as riot grrrl. Although bands cultural activism, art and academia. and individuals use different labels To be more precise, it questions the and self-identifications, strong con- popular hierarchical view that aca- nections between the individual pro- demia is the place of theory produc- tagonists, scenes, as well as their tion, whereas art and activism ideal- artistic and political discourses can ly rework or appropriate (academic) easily be found. Accordingly, it can theory for their specific purposes. be argued that queer-feminist punk Against this view, I claim that coun- countercultures belong to or form tercultural spheres and protagonists a political movement and that their have not only inspired academia by productions – lyrics, writing, sound providing subjects/objects for aca- and performances – are their form of demic analysis, but have also con- queer-feminist activism and agency. tributed to the field of queer studies Following this line of thought, I want with their autonomous queer-femi- to stress my argument again that nist theories. In other words, I argue queer-feminist punk countercultur- that countercultural spaces are im- al agents do not only engage with portant places of theory production queer and feminist politics, as well and that the theories they produce as academic theory, but also pro- are often transferred to and incor- duce queer-feminist political theory porated by academia only retroac- – a more or less coherent set of tively. ideas and practices to analyze, ex- The countercultural field or sub- plain and counter oppressive social ject my article is going to question for structures, as well as explicit, open its relationship to (academic) queer violence and oppression. theory is contemporary queer-femi- The usage of the terminology of nist punk in/from the US. The theo- queer-feminist politics – rather than retical discourse – which arguably queer politics – is inspired by the can be found in queer-feminist punk queer and feminist punk musicians, rock predating or paralleling their who account for the still prevalent academic hype – is anti-social queer sexism, misogyny and oppression theory. The term queer-feminist punk against ‘women’ in mainstream cul- subsumes North-American (includ- tures, as well as punk and queer ing Canadian) countercultures, as movements, by foregrounding the well as individual bands, musicians, feminist aspects of their queer poli- writers and organizers, their politics tics. Their usage of queer feminist or and productions that promote queer, queer-feminist falls into line with the trans, inter and/or feminist politics. practice of many activist collectives They emerged between 1985 and all over the world who understand Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 17 that feminism is ‘not just about ‘high art’ and uses very ‘unartsy’ women(‘s issues), [but] it is [also] a methods (besides a very ‘unaca- gendered power sensitive perspec- demic’ language). Hence, queer- tive on all aspects of life as devel- feminist punk rarely gets labeled as oped in various ideas and practices art. I want to challenge the concept that need to be addressed again of art by stressing the artistic as- and again’ (The Feminist Salon. pects of punk rock. To appropriately Flyer. Amsterdam. April 2007, quot- account for the art as well as activist ed in Baumgartinger 2009, 48). aspects of queer-feminist punk rock More recently, similar politics have I will proceed to use the label artiv- found their way into academic ac- ism. counts, for example through the The term artivism nicely de- work of Mimi Marinucci (2010), José scribes the close entanglement be- Muñoz (1999; 2009), Judith Jack tween creativity and protest, style Halberstam (2005; 2011b), and oth- and meaning, action and experi- ers. Such activist, queer-feminist ence. Additionally, it offers a usage punk and academic accounts con- or appropriation of the word art that ceptualize their queer politics as a accounts for a form of art that is not continuation of feminist movements as serious and sophisticated but and theory rather than as a revolu- is instead playful, whilst nonethe- tionary break from it. Furthermore, less important and full of meaning. such accounts seek a dialogue be- Moreover, the term is strongly con- tween lesbian and gay movements, nected to the Dream Act movement second wave feminists and the di- in the US, as well as to Occupy verse range of queer movements to movements all over the world, to is- build alliances and forms of solidar- sues of migration, citizenship, and ity. international Latina/o and Chicana Although I want to emphasize the solidarity in general. Accordingly, it political aspects of queer-feminist is a reminder of the important issues punk rock, as well as academic the- often ignored in reference to queer- ory, the artistic aspect of the coun- feminist punk rock, and queer art and tercultural movement should not be activism in general, especially un- forgotten. Queer-feminist punk rock der the assumption that queerness is not imaginable without punk mu- as well as punk rock is exclusively sic, punk aesthetic and style. It in- a ‘white’ subcultural thing. Contrary habits the transparent and shifting to this ignorance, I want to stress borders between activism, art and that queer-feminist punk counter- theory production. However, queer- cultures are strongly involved in all feminist punk rock is also a move- these movements. So far, the term ment that foregrounds d.i.y. politics, artivism again is used to perforate distinguishes itself strongly from the imagination of countercultural 18 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 borders that do not account for lived ‘Raise ‘em high / Let it hang / collaborations. Clinch your fist / And sissy, One theoretical discourse of Dang:’2 Radically Queer queer-feminist punk countercultures Considering contemporary usag- which seems to be shared among es of the term queer within theory as many, if not most musicians, groups well as institutionalized queer poli- and circles centers queerness as tics, I claim that queer-feminist punk something destructive, anti-social offers a perspective on queerness and radically political. In the follow- as well as models for queer and ing, I analyze lyrical content, writing, feminist critique and social activism music, sound, performances and able to counter the ongoing inclu- countercultural settings to show ex- sion of queerness into neoliberal amples of anti-social queer-feminist capitalism. Such politics are able punk theory, starting with a brief to reactivate the radical potential description of an anti-social punk the term and concept queer used to understanding of queer and queer- have in earlier times. ness. Next, I will show how queer- The line ‘Raise ‘em high / Let it feminist punks theorize anti-social hang / Clinch your fist / And sissy, queerness using and reframing an- Dang’, which I used as subhead- archist philosophy. Moreover, I show ing, is from the song ‘Sissy Dang’ how queer-feminist punk musicians by the contemporary queer-feminist combine ‘decolonial’ and antiracist punk band Agatha from Seattle, accounts with their specific punk Washington. The song is a very philosophy of anti-social queerness good example of the attempt to re- or queer negativity. By relating such radicalize and re-politicize queer- queer-feminist punk negativity to ness within US-based activist and academic concepts and scholarly punk discourses and beyond. It is work, I show how punk rock nego- a call to arms against ‘Assimilation tiates, creates and communicates [which] wears out the soul,’ as the queer-feminist theoretical positions song states. Queerness is seen as in a non-academic setting. Taking the weapon itself, the ‘armor [which] queer-feminist punk countercultural is so fucking beautiful / It keeps discourses seriously, I argue further you safe from this fucked up world’ that queer-feminist punk commu- (Agatha 2012). nities accomplish what academic In their song ‘Not gay as in hap- queer theory following the anti-so- py, but queer as in fuck you’ (2009), cial turn often does not: they trans- Agatha emphasize that the term form their radically anti-social queer queer from a historical perspective positions into models for livable ac- emerged on the landscape of US- tivism/artivism. based political discourse and activ- Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 19 ism in the 1990s as intervention. It I’m inside.’ The first line’s relatively was a term of resistance against op- undirected or unspecific display of pression and a statement for radical rejection – the ‘fuck you’ – becomes social change: a very concrete criticism or rejection of mainstream lesbian and gay [Q]ueer, unlike the rather polite politics through the next line – ‘I’m categories of gay and lesbian, gonna fuck about queer liberation.’ revels in the discourse of the It addresses liberation efforts like loathsome, the outcast, the idio- the Human Rights Campaign, which matically-proscribed position of is the largest non-profit gay and les- same-sex desire. Unlike petitions bian organization in the US today. for civil rights, queer rebels consti- During the last couple of years, the tute a kind of activism that attacks Human Rights Campaign focused the dominant notion of the natural. almost exclusively on the level of The un-natural sense of the queer legislation, for example on marriage, was, of course, first constituted as healthcare benefits and adoption a negative category by dominant rights for same-sex couples. Very social practices, which homosex- recently, they concentrated their uals later embrace as a form of money and energy in lobbying for activism (Case 1997, 383). the repeal of the Don’t Ask Don’t Tell law, which barred gay and lesbian Agatha’s song is a reminder in a people from serving openly in the relatively unencrypted way of some US military until it was abandoned of the negative connotations queer- in September 2011. Many queers, ness used to have, and in some US- gays, lesbians and transgender crit- regions and cultural environments, icized the Human Rights Campaign that it still has. The first line of the for their single-sided approach, ar- song, which is ‘Not gay as in happy, guing that marriage and serving but queer as in fuck you,’ indicates openly in the military were the least the negative connotations of queer of their concerns. They argued that through the particular usage of the the Human Rights Campaign only words ‘fuck you’ as insult. This nega- represents the aims and needs of a tivity corresponds with the punk aes- small, privileged, white and male mi- thetic of the music and performance nority and ignores the rest of queers (shouting, high volume, and speed). and other sexually and gender de- Although ‘fuck’ is clearly used as an viant people – a view and critique insult, Agatha additionally hold on Agatha address with their song. to the meaning of ‘fuck’ as sexual The lines ‘we’ll take these scraps activity, which is signaled through of faith, and well make / a feast and lines like ‘Your legs are wide and stuff our face’ which follow ‘I’m gon- 20 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 na fuck about queer liberation’, es- He suggests that de Lauretis used tablish a connection between such queer theory to reject dominant gay gay rights politics and consumer and lesbian identity politics, as well culture, which Agatha repudiate. as academic approaches that fo- Moreover, through their combined cus on sexuality as a stable iden- meanings the lines question the tity category. His article indicates gay rights model of sexual free- furthermore that queer theory was dom. It seems as if Agatha is ask- once seen as a promising and radi- ing if freedom – and accordingly cal political intervention into the pro- gay liberation activism – can be duction of knowledge and meaning, limited to individual sexual freedom. into social structures and into insti- Additionally, the song seems to criti- tutions. cize gay liberation politics for their Shortly after the annexation of single issued politics and exclusive queer in academia however, a de- focus on sexuality. Agatha, contrary radicalization of the term queer to gay rights groups like the Human became visible and queer became Rights Campaign, are calling for a normalized within the academic more radical liberation movement landscape. The incorporation of that is not only intersectional in its queer theory into gender studies approaches and analysis, but also programmes and the numerous more rigorous in its rejection of the queer studies, as well as queer socio-political and economic sys- theory book series by commercial tem. publishing companies mark such Agatha theorize the term queer processes of absorption and de- as negative position, as challenge to radicalization of queer within the hetero- as well as homo-normativity. mainstream academic field. Even When theorists imported queer as more unsettling to many activists a theoretical concept into the acad- and artists was the successful in- emy in the 1990s, they aimed for a corporation of the term queer into similar effect – to challenge norms. the language of capitalism. The cor- Teresa de Lauretis was the first porate media increasingly included documented scholar to use the term representations of gays and lesbi- queer theory in an academic setting ans for the promotion of life-style in February of 1990. David Halperin products and commercial entertain- recalls de Lauretis’ intention for her ment through the late 1990s and usage of queer in his article ‘The 2000s, and created mainstream Normalization of Queer Theory’ as perceptions of queerness as non- ‘deliberately disruptive’ and inten- threatening, successful, beautiful tional ‘provocation’ meant ‘to unset- and predominantly white and, most tle the complacency of “lesbian and importantly, compliant with capitalist gay studies”’ (Halperin 2003, 340). consumer logics. Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 21

Resisting that end, songs like the less valuable than academic ap- aforementioned ‘Queer as in fuck proaches. Such accounts offer a you’ by Agatha aim to ‘find ways of version of queer that still has the po- renewing [queer’s] radical poten- litical potential to irritate and resist tial’ (Halperin 2003, 343), to bor- neoliberal incorporation, and reject row Halperin’s words again. I argue oppression. Additionally, the queer- that the appropriation and usage of feminist punk movement presents queer within queer-feminist punk countercultural concepts ‘for differ- rock in general is an approach that ent ways of being in the world and has the radical potential to resist the being in relation to one another than ongoing inclusion of gay and lesbian those already prescribed for the identities in mainstream discours- liberal and consumer subjects,’ as es and consumer culture, and the Halberstam puts it in his recent book transformation of gay and lesbian The Queer Art of Failure (2011, 2). identification into a lifestyle choice Thus, the theoretical approaches as well as legal category. Moreover, developed within the queer-feminist queer-feminist punk rock uses the punk movement have a strong con- term queer to counter the process of nection to the everyday life of its queerness becoming an identity cat- participants, in contrast to much of egory itself. A validation of counter- academic theory. Within the coun- cultural queer theory, as in my ex- tercultural sphere of queer-feminist ample of queer-feminist punk rock, punk rock, ‘the divisions between life within academic discourses could and art, practice and theory, think- halt the process of academic queer ing and doing’ are not clear-cut, but theory becoming normative. It could are fluid or “chaotic”,’ according to participate in developing ‘a renewed Halberstam (2011b, 2). Accordingly, queer theory’ (Eng et al. 2005, 1) – theory is not just a product of cog- a queer theory, which necessarily nitive and emotional processes, but needs to understand sexuality as ‘in- the processes themselves must also tersectional, not extraneous to other be understood as theory. Following modes of difference, and calibrated anarchists among queer activists to a firm understanding of queer as and scholars, such as Benjamin a political metaphor without a fixed Shepard, theory does not only in- referent’ (Eng and al. 2005, 1). fluence practices, but practices and theory are inseparable within Resist And Exist:3 Counter queer activism (2010, 515). Theory cultural Theory and Practice is a doing, a practice and ‘the un- I want to emphasize again that derstanding of human practice,’ that queer-feminist punk countercultures becomes ‘directly lived,’ as Guy produce queer-feminist theory that Debord emphasizes in The Society is neither less sophisticated nor of the Spectacle (quoted in Eanelli 22 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

2011, 428). To account for both, the came negotiated. processes and products of knowl- Before moving on to a more de- edge production and distribution, tailed discussion of anti-social queer as well as the term and concept of theory and punk countercultures, theory itself need to be reworked. I want to briefly describe another The band Agatha is one of many band that participated in the New examples for the ways in which Direction Fest, namely Wretched queer-feminist punk theory, socio- of the Earth. The band-members political analysis, music/art and of Wretched of the Earth identify practice/activism are inseparably as persons of colour or their allies. entangled. Agatha theorize queer Furthermore, they aim at: approaches within their songs and other forms of writing, and offer mod- liberating [their] identities, em- els for intersectional analysis that powering [their] communities, de- account for oppressive power struc- constructing internal oppression tures like class, ethnicity, age, color, and outward privilege and power gender and sexuality. Moreover, dynamics. [They] support strug- they are involved in a range of pro- gles for autonomy, sovereignty, jects including a free rock camp for self determination and independ- queer youth, community bike pro- ence [and] believe liberation ne- jects, a radical marching band, a cessitates the destruction of white radical farming project and a col- supremacist capitalist patriarchy. lectively run anarchist bookstore. [They] strive to contribute indi- Additionally, they are connected to vidually and collectively towards the broader queer-feminist anar- these ends.4 chist punk movement in the US and beyond, exchanging ideas with oth- The songs of Wretched of the er groups and touring the country. In Earth are good examples for in- August 2012, they also participated tersectional queer-feminist punk in the New Direction Fest: From theorizations. ‘For Gender Self- Anger to Action, in Olympia, WA. Determination’ (Wretched of the During the three-day ‘think tank’-like Earth 2012), for example, explains festival, through music concerts and the interplay of language, recogni- other art projects, as well as work- tion, social structures and knowl- shops and presentations, power edge in the process of forming a structures inside and outside the gender identity. The lines ‘right from punk movement were analyzed and wrong written by another’s hand / criticized, while models for emanci- spectrums smashed for the power patory, solidary, anti-racist, queer- of heirs’ name cultural knowledge feminist and anti-ableist action be- and the power dynamics at play for Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 23 recognition. It explains that gender which a subject becomes recogniz- identification is first of all a perform- able as human being. ative act, a labeling process that has In the following passage, I want little to do with biology or the sub- to pick up the question again of what ject itself. The lines ‘defining a child is so radically queer about radical / subjected. Assigned’ as well as ‘in queer-feminist punk theory. Radical identifying the boy / who never got queer theories – which can be found the chance / to decide’ mark the po- in both academia and counter-cul- tential of language and categoriza- tures – are theories that refuse and tion to oppress, harm and violate. reject complicity in neoliberal con- ‘We must understand beyond binary sumer, homo- and heteronormative / we must not be the men / we were cultures. Moreover, they are irritat- told,’ is a political call for action. It ing, disturbing, and unsettling and is a call to recognize the flexibility of understand action as a necessary gender identification, the recogni- part of theory and vice versa. Such tion of transgender, and also a call radical theoretical accounts and ac- for a critical analysis of gender roles, tions are dedicated to dismantling especially male roles and behav- oppressive power structures in their iour. This aspect is a crucial point full complexity, as already indicated, within the punk scenes within the and can be related to academic US, where male dominance is still queer theory. an issue. If the lyrics of ‘For Gender Queer-feminist punk rock uses Self-Determination’ are understood anti-social queer politics that parallel as theory, interesting parallels can in interesting ways recent develop- be drawn to Judith Butler’s works ments in queer theory, which have Excitable Speech: A Politics of the become known as anti-social queer Performative (1997) and Giving theory. Moreover, the embrace of an Account of Oneself (2005). In negativity connected to the word both books – especially the latter queer within punk rock anticipated – Butler analyses the formation of queer as anti-social even before the subject, as well as the limits of academia ‘jump[ed] on the negativ- self-knowledge/knowledge of the ity bandwagon’ (Eanelli 2011, 428), self. Furthermore, she theorizes the as queer anarchist Tegan Eanelli subject in relation to the social and (2011), and queer theorists, such the condition of that subject’s forma- as Halberstam (2006; 2008; 2011), tion, particularly focusing on those Nyong’o (2008), or Muñoz (1999) aspects beyond the control of the indicate. Although radical queer- subject it forms. In other words, she feminist activists such as Eanelli (like Wretched of the Earth) ques- disdain academic anti-social queer tions the terms and conditions under theory, I see potential for the radical 24 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 irritation of hegemonic discourses in logic of the social order, queerness the corpus of academic queer the- must then be understood as the ul- ory that Halberstam framed as the timate threat, because it would re- ‘Anti-Social Turn in Queer Theory’ ject the future (which is symbolized (Eanelli 2011, 140–156). through the Child, with capital ‘C’) and therefore put an end to soci- ‘I kill kids / better keep hid:’5 ety (as we know it). Queer-feminist Anti-social Punk Theory punk music alludes to the threat of As a theoretical concept, the an- queerness as a danger to society ti-social turn is informed by psycho- more often than as a threat to the analytical – mostly Lacanian – con- coherence of the self. The 1990s cepts of sexuality. Following queer band God Is My Co-Pilot were one psychoanalytical approaches, such of the first displaying a version of as those of Leo Bersani (1995), sex queerness opposed to the imagi- is understood as anti-communica- nary Child, the symbol for the fu- tive, destructive, and anti-identitar- ture as society knows it. Queerness ian. American literary scholar Lee and queers in God Is My Co-Pilot’s Edelman posits that sexuality in our songs, album titles and zines are symbolic order marks the irritation strongly connected to negativity, but of the self as in-control, whole and with an ironic undertone. Besides autonomous in his book No Future: connoting fears, for example in the Queer Theory and the Death Drive title of their 1993 7” vinyl, My Sinister (2004). In other words, sexuality Hidden Agenda, queerness is posi- and sexual acts irritate the constant tioned as precisely opposed to the construction of identity and autono- future and the imaginary Child. In mous agency. To integrate sexual- 1995, for example, they released ity successfully into the illusion of the album Sex Is for Making Babies an autonomous self, it must be at- (DSA). The title song consists only tached to the purpose of reproduc- of one line: ‘Sex is for making ba- tion. Consequently, queerness in bies 1000000 times.’ On their EP this logic can only signify the op- How I Got Over (1992), they feature posite of creation and reproduction the song ‘I Kill Kids’ – a threat they or ‘the place of the social order’s picked up again in ‘Queer Disco death drive’ (Edelman 2004, 3). Anthem’: Queerness may appear in the form of identity, but this is just an illu- We’re here we’re queer we’re go- sion produced by its attachment to ing to fuck your children Privacy a specific object or end. Moreover, is a punishment / Privacy is not queer sexuality, as Edelman sug- a reward / Publicity is a human gests, re-makes identity as illusion right Live in the light / don’t die and impossibility visible. Within the by a word / Speak up / Don’t put Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 25

up with it I came out upside down the symbolic place of queerness, its and they had to turn me around negativity, literally (Edelman 2004, […] We’re here we’re queer we’re 5). In contrast to Edelman, God Is going to fuck your children (God My Co-Pilot do not reject politics per Is My Co-Pilot 1992). se. Academic anti-social queer the- God Is My Co-Pilot connect ory – especially Lee Edelman’s ac- the term queer to right-wing hate count, however potentially radical or speech against queers, through the dismantling his theory is – foreclos- lines ‘we’re going to fuck your chil- es any possibility of political activ- dren,’ which addresses prejudices, ism. Moreover, Edelman argues that combined with ‘don’t die by a word,’ queerness is not only the opposite addressing those with queer de- of society’s future, but also the op- sires. They refer to the subordina- posite of every form of politics. Many tion of queers in the dominant he- queer scholars criticized this aspect gemony and embrace the negative of anti-social queer theory and re- symbolic position, through enjoying worked anti-social psychoanalytical themselves in articulating it. They accounts as politics. Halberstam mark discourse on the public/private (2008), Elizabeth Povinelli (2002), dichotomy as an oppressive sys- Nyong’o (2008) and Muñoz (1999), tem; the references to coming out for example, hold on to the political narratives with phrases like ‘Speak potential in anti-social queerness. up’ and ‘live in the light’ are drawing They criticize Edelman’s account on the historic lesbian and gay civil for its ‘inability to recognize the al- rights movement. By putting such ternative sexual practices, intima- references next to the well-known cies, logics, and politics that exist and too often commercialized slo- outside the sightlines of cosmopoli- gan ‘We’re here we’re queer,’ they tan gay white male urban culture’ position themselves in a history of (Rodríguez 2011, 333), as Juana political movements. God Is My Co- Maria Rodríguez points out. Pilot take a critical stance to that self- Queer-feminist punk theory, in positioning and additionally criticize contrast to Edelman, manages to the politics of those movements by hold on to the political while theoriz- turning the phrase ‘We’re here we’re ing queerness as negativity. It does queer get used to it’ into ‘We’re here so by taking not only psychoanalyti- we’re queer we’re going to fuck your cal concepts of queer sexuality as children.’ Thus, God Is My Co-Pilot negativity into account, but by also anticipate what Edelman suggests considering a much broader reper- in No Future, which was published toire of academic and activist works in 2004. Yet, the queer-feminist to criticize and resist hegemony. punk band does not propose to take Many queer-feminist punks com- 26 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 bine and extend anti-social queer- trigued by feminist spiritualism, like ness with black feminists’ theoriza- Anzaldúa’s, because such accounts tion of anger, especially bell hooks enabled a different view on the on- (1995) and Audre Lorde (1984). tological status of being and belong- Such references allow contempo- ing (Kaelen in the linear notes to rary queer-feminist punks like Osa ‘The Rain’ 2011). On a meta-level, Atoe (musician, author and creator Kaelen’s reference to feminist spir- of Shotgun Seamstress Zine), Mimi itualism is in line with punks’ ten- Thi Nguyen (creator of Race Riot), dency to engage with minoritized Anna Vo (activist, writer, and found- positions, theories and discourses. er of An Out Records) and Miriam Queer-feminist punks draw a re- Bastani (writer, musician, activist, lation between the very unspecific and MaximumRockNRoll coordina- punk tradition of ‘celebrati[ng] the tor) to think through the anti-social degenerate (as Hitler termed Jewish and queer at the intersection of ra- art), the sick […], and the alienated cialization. Moreover, a focus on […], not to mention the socially out- anger enables them to extend the rageous […],’ as the Jewish punk analyses of the realm of symbolic researcher Steven Beeber has it meaning to the realms of the corpo- (2006, 8), with the very specific and real and the affective: action, feel- directed focus on oppressed femi- ings, experience and the body. nist, anti-racist and queer knowl- Anger and negativity are almost edge. This focus on the borderlands always part of queer-feminist punk of theory is one additional reason discourses. Additionally, however, for queer-feminist punks to engage queer-feminist punks do not shy with and rework anarchist theory away from more positive emotions and politics. A very exhaustive theo- and relationality as well as their rization of a queer-feminist anarchist theorization. An example is the anti-social punk theory can be found song ‘The Rain’ by the band Agatha in the zine Anarcho Homocore Night that quotes Gloria Anzaldúa’s Club from about 1992. Borderlands/La Fontera: The New Mestiza (1987). In the liner notes to ‘Hitler was right, – Homosexuals the song, author and singer Kaelen ARE enemies of the state:’6 explains that she wanted to account Queer-feminist Politics of for the anti-social aspects of queer- Negativity and Anarchism ness, to mark and reject oppressive In Anarcho Homocore Night Club, power structures and ideologies Toronto-based author Robynski like religion for their participation draws attention to the common be- in genocide, racism and the polic- lief in Western society that anar- ing of sex, gender and sexuality. chists are chaotic, destructive and Additionally, however, she was in- negative. Using the example of the Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 27 public outcry that the Sex Pistols’ 11). The establishment in this con- song ‘Anarchy in the UK’ (1976) pro- text can be understood as cultural voked, he argues for a strong ‘cul- norms, social structures, as well as tural connection’ (Robynski 1992, political institutions. Pointing out the 11) between punk and anarchism. connections between the symbolic This connection is the negative ste- meanings of punk and anarchism reotype mainstream society offers again, he draws a further connec- for both movements. Conservatives, tion to the symbolic meaning of mainstream newspapers, com- queerness: mentators and politicians used anarchism frequently as a derogatory Army-booted, leather jacketed, term in 1976 when the Sex Pistols black-clad, crude, rude, lewd and introduced their song, and they con- tattooed, broken-toothed, pierced, tinue to use anarchism in that way foul-mouthed, poor, unwashed, (Squibb 2011, 175). Journalist and ragged, matted, stubled and safe- theorist Stephen Squibb argues ty-pinned, antisocial, Nihilistic and that until today ‘[t]he charge of an- violent, the Punk has almost eve- archism has always been a filthy ry feature of the stereotyped An- smear on the lips of the ruling class’ archist – only the proverbial bomb (Squibb 2011, 175). is missing. Add gaudy make-up Queer-feminist punk Robynski and androgyny and there you points to this ‘cultural’, or symbolic, have the stereotyped image of negativity and anti-social meaning the Queer (as any Punk who has of anarchism. Moreover, he makes a been bashed can painfully testify) connection to the symbolic meaning (Robynski 1992, 11). of punk rock, arguing that punk was associated with similar negativity Like Edelman in his book No and anti-social meanings. Although Future, Robynski points to the sym- he stresses the fact that the nega- bolic meaning of queerness. He re- tivity of punk and anarchism is a fers to the negative place of queer- stereotype or structural rather than ness within the symbolic order that empirical, he nevertheless refers to Edelman describes so pointedly, them, because he understands that and to the violence this symbolic stereotypes are one form of sym- meaning can lead to. He sees this bolic meanings and influence verbal cultural meaning of negativity and and social discourses as well as the the anti-social displayed in queer- formation of the inner psyche. feminist punk lyrics and other forms Robynski emphasizes that the of writings, for instance in the semi- symbolic meanings of punk and an- nal MaximumRockNRoll article archism both pose a threat to what ‘Don’t be gay, or, how I learned to he calls ‘the establishment’ (1992, stop worrying and fuck punk up 28 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 the ass’ by G.B. Jones and Bruce the same potential in the term an- LaBruce (1989). Following Jones, archism (Robynski 1992, 11–12). LaBruce and numerous other queer- He analyses the terms queer, an- feminist punks, Robynski embraces archism and punk on the level of the negative or anti-social mean- symbolic meaning, as already ex- ing of queerness as signifying the plained. Moreover, he addresses cultural location of queer-identified the political concept of anarchism people. Like Halberstam (2008), and suggests that such strategies and in contrast to Edelman (2004), are useful for queer-feminist punk he sees the negativity of queerness activism. Thereby, Robynski shifts directly interlinked with the nega- his focus for queer-feminist activ- tive meaning of punk. Robynski ism from irritating ‘the Law’ in terms embraces queerness, as well as of meanings and social relations to punk’s structural negativity, as the state laws and other political instru- rejection of futurity. In other words, ments of realpolitik of regulation and such queer-feminist punk writings normalization. Again, in contrast to understand queerness and punk as Edelman, Robynski does not un- negative forces that have the poten- derstand this real-political aspect tial, if embraced, to reject, irritate of punk, anarchism and queerness and finally destroy ‘[t]he Law, […] as ‘the seeds of potential renewal’ the fundamental principles which (Edelman 2006, 822) of heteronor- underlie all social relations’ (Evans mative structures or a reaffirmation 1996, 98) in psychoanalytical terms. of the ideology of futurity. Robynski Moreover, Robynski understands does not outline a definite future he queer-feminist punk performances, wants to achieve with his anarcha- and the production of meaning, as queer punk: ‘The point is not to political activism that is able to reject achieve anarchism as a state or as the society’s ideologies and aims, a final form for the political organiza- and resist what Edelman calls futu- tion of society,’ to use Butler’s words rity. Edelman rejects punk as ‘punk (quoted in Heckert 2011, 93). ‘It is pugilism,’ a ‘pose of negativity,’ or a disorganizing effect which takes ‘abiding negativity that accounts for power, exercises power, under con- political antagonism with the sim- ditions where state violence and pler act of negating particular politi- legal violence are profoundly inter- cal positions’ (Edelman 2006, 822). connected. In this sense, it always Robynski’s article proves, however, has an object, and a provisional that queer-feminist punks draw on condition, but it is not a way of life or punk and queerness as symbolical- an “end” in itself’ (Butler in Heckert ly negative on a much broader level 2011, 93). then just political opposition. Robynski emphasizes the de- Interestingly, Robynski sees structive qualities of queerness, Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 29 punk and anarchy. The school (Robynski 1992, 13). Robynski or version of anarchy he refers thereby makes the argument that to is mostly influenced by the the homophobia within anarchist cir- Russian revolutionary and theorist cles during the 20th century as well of collectivist anarchism Mikhail as their diversion from anarchism’s Aleksandrovich Bakunin. Bakunin original nihilism were both fatal con- and his alleged lover Sergei cessions to established heteronor- Gennadyevich Nechayev under- mative systems. He emphasises stood destruction and violence as that: often unpleasant, though necessary, aspects of the revolutionary [t]he document is less a list of liberation of the oppressed. In The rules for radicals, however, than Catechism of a Revolutionary7 they a testament of rage, hatred and argued that rather than reform, only bitter alienation from the entire a radical abolition of the state and established social order. Here we the revolutionary overthrow of the have the pure Nihilism of original class system could free people from Anarchy, expressing all the de- their subordinated status. Many the- structive sentiments of Punk (in- orists understood The Catechism deed, some band should set it to of a Revolutionary as ‘a horrifying music), only strategically targeted credo of the revolutionary as nihilist, in a specific direction (Robynski a cold-blooded individual who has 1992, 12). severed all the personal ties and human feelings binding him to conven- Robynski suggests an appro- tional society the better to destroy it’ priation of the nihilistic meaning of (Shatz 2002, xxiv). anarchism as a strategy for queer- By re-reading The Catechism of feminist punk. Additionally, a ref- a Revolutionary8 (Robynski 1992, erence to Bakunin and Nechayev 16–18), Robynski develops his con- allows Robynski to understand an- cept of queer-feminist anarchism archism as a movement, rather than as equally nihilistic. Moreover, it exclusively as a theory. ‘It was left to is exactly within the nihilistic and Nechayev and Bakunin,’ he writes, destructive aspect of Bakunin’s ‘to begin the network of conspira- and Nechayev’s anarchism that torial cells, working to overthrow Robynski identifies the connection the government by violent means, to queer-feminism. ‘For Bakunin,’ he to found Anarchism as a Social- argues, ‘anarchy could only [mean Revolutionary movement based on that] the current social order and activism’ (Robynski 1992, 13). The all of its institutions – physical, cul- emphasis on anarchism as activ- tural, ethical, spiritual – [need to be] ism, in contrast to theory, is interest- completely and utterly destroyed’ ing, because it supports Robynski’s 30 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 argument of the cultural activity of plus value. Such value, I want to ar- punk rock as anarchist activity. He, gue, with scholars like Halberstam like myself, understands queer- (2011) or Povinelli (2011) could be feminist punk rock as political activ- the formation of different social re- ism/artivism. Moreover, he implies lations. In other words, the surplus that successful queer-feminist poli- effect of queer-feminist punk rock tics need to be shaped as revolu- lies in the new meanings and so- tion. Referring to Nechayev in The cial bonds created in the liminal- Catechism of the Revolutionary, ity between the rejection of futurity Robynski states that a revolu- and society as it is today, and the tion can only be made to happen realization or creation of a different through revolutionary action, not future through anarcha-queer punk through words alone. Nechayev politics. Accordingly, the negativity argued that ‘[t]he word is of signifi- of queer-feminist punk is understood cance only when the deed is sensed as politically productive, insofar as behind it and follows immediately it potentially deconstructs heter- on it’ (quoted in Confino 1973, 28). onormativity and other systems of Similarly, Robynski explains that oppression, while at the same time ‘[p]unks always gave greater weight establishing a queer social sphere, to action, thus maintaining the [rela- which differs from heteronormativity, tion between theory and action] that racism, classism and ableism in its Nechayev and Bakunin indicated, meanings and power-structures. and sharing the two men’s Nihilistic The contemporary band Rape obsession with “merciless destruc- Revenge from Calgary, Alberta, tion”’ (Robynski 1992, 23). elaborates the importance of ac- Robynski emphasizes the pro- tion in contrast to theorization in a cess of irritating or deconstruct- slightly more explicit language than ing social power relations and Robynski in their song ‘When The meanings rather than envisioning Meeting Ends’ (2012). ‘Surrounded a concrete future in his theoriza- by selfish fucks,’ they scream- to tion of queer-feminist punk an- wards their audience, ‘I’m done with archism. Nevertheless, like the giving myself to cause / that doesn’t scholars Halberstam (2008; 2011) exist outside of books. Don’t you and Muñoz (1999), he does not get it? Your inability to live equally reject futurity per se. Quoting work doesn’t exist outside of your fight on Bakunin’s anarchism, Robynski against inequality.’ points out that ‘[t]he passion for de- Queer-feminist punks’ empha- struction is a creative passion too!’ sis on action within anarchism and (Sam Dolgoff quoted in Robynski punk activism is important to un- 1992, 13). He suggests that a poli- derstand the simultaneity of anti- tics of negativity might have a sur- social discourses and the creation Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 31 and maintenance of queer social argues that queer-feminist punks bonds. Robynski emphasizes in his should look for role models among discussion of The Catechism of the all oppressed racial and sexual mi- Revolutionary that anarchism must norities, the ‘déclassé intellectuals, be leaderless, though it needs fa- the insane, prisoners, street people, cilitators who provide the movement squatters, sex-trade workers, “out- with the necessary infrastructure laws” and antisocial elements, the and organization. He suggests that so-called criminal class’ as well as punk communities reflect this ideal in ‘the underclass below the work- of leaderlessness with their rejec- ing class who were not “production of the star cult, as well as any ers”, […] the unemployed and the other form of (social) authority, and unemployable, unskilled and poor their do-it-yourself ethos. Again, workers, poor peasant proprietors, Robynski’s point is translated into landless […]’ (Robynski 1992, 24). a more drastic punk-language Moreover, queer-feminist punks through the queer-feminist antira- should try to build alliances with cist anarchist band Rape Revenge. those who are oppressed. He em- In their song ‘Lawful Of Shit’ (2012), phasizes that such new alliances they call on their fellow punks for need to be built under the condition action: ‘Waiting in endless lines for that queer-feminist punks reflect on permission to resist. Egypt, Greece their own privileges and take re- and Wall Street would fucking laugh sponsibility for their entanglement at these permit seeking half-ass at- with hegemonic power structures. tempts at social unrest.’ ‘They need to reflect on their own The references to prior punks – entanglement in oppression them- like the Sex Pistols – as well as selves,’ Robynski emphasizes, ‘to activists, feminists – like Anzalduá successfully deconstruct existing – and thinkers – like Bakunin – with- hegemonies’ (Robynski 1992, 24). in queer-feminist punk counter-cul- In their song ‘Herbivore’ (2012), tures, accordingly has to be under- Rape Revenge equally ask their stood as reference to role models, community members to face their not leaders, that is nevertheless privileges as well as their entangle- always critical. It is a validation of ment in oppression and hegemony. prior efforts and, at the same time, They ask: a reflection on hegemonies and social power relations. Moreover, Tell me how you find nourishment Robynski suggests that queer-fem- in the horrors you can’t face. […] inist punks should broaden their Your palate is built upon a lie you view by looking for role models in tell yourself. There’s no reason to spheres that are not necessarily base your survival on the torture related to punk or queerness. He of someone else. If it’s not in you 32 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

to murder, if you can’t look them cilitating projects, because they of- in the eye as you take their life. fer musicians and music fans plat- forms for their activism. The song from the vegan queer- To sustain anarchist projects, feminist Rape Revenge addresses however, queer-feminists like zine- the issue of veganism. It questions writer Robynski, argue that queer- how queer-feminist punks can argue feminist punks have to resist the against human exploitation, war and cooptation of their movement by their the death penalty on the one hand, oppressors, (1992, 24). Resistance and exploit, torture and eat animals against cooptation can only be es- on the other. Rape Revenge reject tablished if the violent aspect or prioritization of their political agen- destructiveness of anarchism and das and subjects for their solidarity. punk are preserved. ‘The down- They fight for the communities they fall of Anarchism,’ Robynski writes, belong to – females queers, people ‘was that it became intellectually re- of color, Native people etc. – with spectable; the downfall of Punk was the same enthusiasm as for other that it became aesthetically respect- people and species. able’ (Robynski 1992, 27). Rape Moreover, through their accounts Revenge similarly argue against they ask queer-feminist punks to cooptation and for confrontation and support the broader community violence in their song ‘The Messiah according to their needs and wish- Effect’ (2012). ‘Fuck this feel good es, rather than act out of compas- bullshit,’; they reject the language sion or benevolence. This position, of consumer culture parroted by again, draws queer-feminist punks punks; and continue offensively with to anarchist theory, where solidary ‘Ghandi was a puppet, peace is a support and action are defined as cop out. I hope you choke on your facilitation. Queer-feminist punk reformist fucking bullshit. As I burn projects often show such facilitat- your pacifist empire to the ground.’ ing activism. These projects include Violence as the means of self- Rock 4 Choice and the Calgary Zine defense and rejection, ‘chaos and Library, and Food Not Bombs – all disorder’ (Robynski 1992, 30) are projects Rape Revenge are cur- necessary to escape the constant rently active in – as well as the Girls perpetuation of a system that de- Rock Camps all over the US, which nies them. As a consequence, the support young girls and women in aim of queer-feminist punk activism making music, or the Home Alive cannot be social integration or even project in Seattle that teaches wom- peace with society as it is today. en and queers self-defense skills. Once queers were aiming at so- Additionally, festivals like Ladyfest, cial integration, queerness became or Queerruption can be seen as fa- structurally integrated into systems Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 33 of law, and (at least partially) socially an effective queer-feminist punk an- accepted. ‘Gone are the days when archism, should be ‘[i]ntellectually perverts were perverts – the most disrespectable, immoral, […] and hated of the hated, the lowest of the anti-bourgeois, Nihilistic and pas- low. Now Queers are fine, upstand- sionate,’ ‘anti-liberal’ and ‘lawless’ ing, moral citizens […]’ (Robynski (Robynski 1992, 30). The only way 1992, 30). Robynski argues that the to resist assimilation and the coop- assimilation of white male queers, tation into capitalism, he concludes, and to a lesser extent white lesbi- is to appropriate the: ans, into hegemonic orders, did not only deradicalize the potential of stereotype, because it is a carica- the term queer, but shifted the line ture painted by the establishment of social unacceptability to different of what threatens it most […]. It groups. ‘The cost of assimilation, has been possible to show a cul- has been borne by those who are tural continuity between Clas- still perverts, the Queer lumpenpro- sical Anarchism and Punk only letariat,’9 to quote him again: because I have been deliberately stereotyping. By equating it with sex-trade workers, drag queens, Nihilism, […] I have so severely S/Mists, leather and other fetish- marginalized Anarchy that it can ists, fist-fuckers, and Boy-lovers. only fall together with other mar- As with Anarchism, a dichotomy ginals, […] with whom it shares has been created, separating identical stereotyped attributes the ‘good’ Queers from the ‘bad’ (Robynski 1992, 30). Queers, with the ‘bad’ Queers taking all the heat because they Again, Robynski emphasizes the threaten establishment moral val- anti-social meanings of punk, queer ues and prevent assimilation. The and anarchism as crucial for queer- very fact that Punk, Anarchy and feminist resistance. Moreover, he Queers have the capacity to be points to the intersectionality of clas- assimilated is testimony to [the sism, gender binaries, racialization, fact that] that Capitalism has an ableism and cultural and economic almost limitless ability to adapt it- oppression. self to the demands of any given situation (Robynski 1992, 30). Conclusion To conclude my article, I want Like the band Rape Revenge or to emphasize again that queer- Agatha, Robynski points to the com- feminist punks produce radical an- plicity of gay culture in capitalism ti-social queer theory through their and marks the pitfalls of contem- artivism through lyrics, music, zine- porary gay politics. He argues that writing, workshops and other gath- 34 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 erings. The theory they produce, as case of punks or ex-punks, it is not I have shown, is neither less sophis- only since Zack Furness’ most re- ticated nor less complex than aca- cent publication Punkademics: The demic anti-social queer theory, and Basement Show in the Ivory Tower is often actually in dialogue with ac- that we know that ‘colleges and uni- ademic knowledge. Noticeably dif- versities function as some of the ferent to the latter – in most, but not places where people with “punk” all cases – is the language in use. values can […] potentially put their Queer-feminist punks use a decid- ethics and ideas into practice’ (2012, edly offensive and confrontational 19). Numerous queer theorists, like language from which most theo- Halberstam, Muñoz and Nguyen rists restrain themselves. Moreover, have given accounts of their punk punks avoid complicated grammati- history and it can be presumed that cal constructions and other mark- the politics and theories of their com- ers of bourgeois or institutionalized munities have influenced their work, language. Additionally, their rejec- even if they do not make this ex- tion of any borders of academic plicit. More obvious incorporations schools or fields, as well as political of queer-feminist punk knowledge tribes, is divergent from academic can be seen in the recent opening of anti-social queer theory. This flex- the Riot Grrrl Collection of the Fales ibility allows for an anti-social queer Library at New York University, theory that is not only intersectional, which contains tons of original Riot but also relational. In other words, Grrrl and queercore materials, fan- queer-feminist punk theory offers zines, records, letters, flyers etc. queer-feminist punks a tool for ana- from the 1990s to today. To name lyzing oppressive power structures more of such incorporations and an- and concepts for activism against alyze them would clearly go beyond them. Additionally, it also offers the the space constraints of this article. possibility of creating new ways for At this point, these few examples, relating to each other and forming a as problematic as a detailed analy- solidary community. sis might discover them to be, can As my brief examples have be read as proof of the relevance shown, countercultural spaces are queer-feminist punk theory has for indeed important places of theory the environment of academia. production. The theories they produce are often retroactively trans- Endnotes ferred to and incorporated by aca- 1 Agatha. 2012. Cut The String. Self-titled. demia. Those transfers are often LP. Self-release: Seattle. 2 Agatha. 2012. Sissy Dang. Self-titled. LP. facilitated by countercultural pro- Self-release: Seattle. tagonists or former members of 3 I use the name of the peace punk band countercultures themselves. In the from Los Angeles, California, Resist And Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 35

Exist, here, because it appropriately sum- in October, 1970’ (Robynski 1992, 12). marizes the – mostly unbalanced – rela- 9 The term lumpenproletariat was first de- tionship between political idealism, politi- fined by socialist Karl Marx, meaning a cal ambition and everyday life. Although vicious underclass or low working class. I do not write about Resist And Exist, I Marx saw no political or revolutionary want to emphasize that they have par- potential within this part of the popula- ticipated in much activism and organizing tion. Bakunin opposed Marx’s view. He around the anti-war movement, animal defined the lumpenproletariat as the rights, solidarity work with political prison- ‘educated unemployed youth, assorted ers and the Black Panther Party since the marginals from all classes, brigands, 1990s. They are therefore a good exam- robbers, the impoverished masses, and ple for political punk artivism. those on the margins of society who have 4 According to their band description on escaped, been excluded from, or not yet the festival homepage, available at subsumed in the discipline of emerging http://newdirectionfest.net. [Accessed 17 industrial work’ (Thoburn 2005). Within October 2012]. this group he saw the most potential for 5 God Is My Co-Pilot. 1992. I Kill Kids. How a socialist revolution (see also Thoburn I Got Over. EP. Ajax Records. 2002). 6 Dreher, Mark. 1989. Hitler was right, – Homosexuals ARE enemies of the state! References J.D.s 5 42. Agatha. 2009. Panik Attack. Audio 7 The Catechism of a Revolutionary is a guideline for the formation of secret so- Tape. Seattle: Rumbletowne Re- cieties published in the Government cords. Herald in July 1871 as the manifesto of Agatha. 2011. The Rain. Self-titled. the Narodnaya Rasprava. Historians Self-release. agree that it is co-written by Bakunin Agatha. 2012. Sissy Dang. Self-titled. and Nechayev, although the degree LP. Self-release: Seattle. to which Bakunin contributed is heat- Agatha. 2012. Cut The String. Self-ti- edly discussed among the experts. The tled. LP. Self-release: Seattle. Catechism, besides defining some anar- Anzaldúa, Gloria. 1999. Borderlands/ chist values and beliefs, most importantly La Frontera: The New Mestiza. outlines important general rules of revolutionary organizing. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books. 8 Robynski emphasizes that The Catechism Baumgartinger, Persson Perry. 2009. of a Revolutionary was a foundational Queeropedia [print]. 2nd Edition. text for the anarchist movement. He ar- Vienna: Referat für HomoBiTran- gues that ‘[i]ts continuing relevance is at- sangelegenheiten der ÖH der tested to by the fact that, a century after Universität Wien (Department for it was written, it was republished by The LGBT Affairs of the National Un- Black Panther Party […], which used it ion of Students at the University of as their model of revolutionary organiza- Vienna). tion. Panthers Eldridge Cleaver, George Beeber, Steven Lee. 2006. The Hee- L. Jackson, and Huey Newton all sang its praises (which is ironic in Cleaver’s bie – Jeebies at CBGB’s: A Secret case, considering his virulent homopho- History of Jewish Punk. Chicago: bia; […]). It was, as well, the basis for the Chicago Review Press. Italian revolutionary Renato Curcio’s or- Bersani, Leo. 1995. Homos. Cam- ganization, Brigate Rosse (Red Brigades) bridge: Harvard University Press. 36 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Butler, Judith. 1997. Excitable Speech: tions. A Politics of the Performative. God Is My Co-Pilot. 1992. I Kill Kids. London: Routledge. How I Got Over. EP. Ajax Records. Butler, Judith. 2005. Giving an Account Halberstam, Judith. 2008. The Anti-So- of Oneself. New York: Fordham cial Turn in Queer Studies. Gradu- University Press. ate Journal of Social Science 5(2): Case, Sue-Ellen. 1997. Tracking the 140–56. Vampire. In Katie Conboy, Nadia Halberstam, Judith. 2011a. The Politics Medina, and Sarah Stanbury eds. of Negativity in Recent Queer The- Writing on the Body: Female Em- ory. Forum: Conference Debates: bodiment and Feminist Theory. The Antisocial Thesis in Queer New York: Columbia University Theory. PMLA 121(3): 823–25. Press. Halberstam, Judith. 2011b. The Queer Confino, Michael ed. 1973.Daughter of Art of Failure. Durham: Duke Uni- a Revolutionary: Natalie Herzen versity Press. and the Bakunin-Nechayev Circle. Halperin, David M. 2003. The Normali- Translated by Hilary Sternberg zation of Queer Theory. Journal of and Lydia Bott. Lasalle: Library Homosexuality 45(2–4): 339–43. Press. Heckert, Jamie. 2011. On Anarchism: Eanelli, Tegan. 2011. The real Anti- An Interview with Judith Butler. In Social Turn in Queer Theory. In Jamie Heckert and Richard Clem- Queer Ultra Violence: BashBack! inson eds. Anarchism & Sexuality: Anthology. Edited by Fray Ba- Ethics, Relationships and Power. roque and Tegan Eanelli. 427– New York: Routledge. 428. San Francisco: Ardent Press. hooks, bell. 1995. Killing Rage: Ending Edelman, Lee. 2004. No Future: Queer Racism. New York: Henry Holt. Theory and the Death Drive. Dur- Jones, G.B. and Bruce LaBruce. 1989. ham: Duke University Press. Don’t be gay: or how I learned to Edelman, Lee. 2006. Antagonism, Neg- stop worrying and fuck punk up ativity, and the Subject of Queer the ass. MaximumRockNRoll 71: Theory. Forum: Conference De- n.p. bates: The Antisocial Thesis in Lorde, Audre. 1984. Sister Outsider. Queer Theory. PMLA 121(3): Berkeley: Crossing Press. 821–23. Marinucci, Mimi. 2010. Feminism is Eng, David L., Judith Halberstam, Queer: The Intimate Connection and José Esteban Muñoz. 2005. between Queer and Feminist The- What’s Queer About Queer Stud- ory. New York: Zed Books. ies Now? Social Text 23(3–4): Muñoz, José E. 1999. Disidentifica- 1–17. tions: Queers of Color and the Evans, Dylan. 1996. An Introductory Performance of Politics. Minne- Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoa- apolis: University of Minnesota nalysis. London: Routledge. Press. Furness, Zack ed. 2012. Punkademics: Muñoz, José E. 2009. Cruising Utopia: The Basement Show in the Ivory The Then and There of Queer Fu- Tower. Brooklyn: Minor Composi- turity. New York: New York Univer- Wiedlack: Queer-feminist Punk Countercultures 37

sity Press. from Occupied America. Brooklyn, Nyong’o, Tavia. 2008. Do You Want NY: Verso. Queer Theory (or Do You Want Thoburn, Nicholas. 2002. Difference in the Truth)? Intersections of Punk Marx: The Lumpenproletariat and and Queer in the 1970s. Radical the Proletarian Unnamable. Econ- History Review 100: 103–119. omy and Society 31(3): 434–60. Povinelli, Elizabeth. 2002. Notes on Thoburn, Nicholas. 2005. The Lumpen- Gridlock: Genealogy, Intimacy, proletariat and the Proletarian Un- Sexuality. Public Culture 14(1): nameable. Libcom. Available at 215–38. http://libcom.org/library/deleuze- Povinelli, Elizabeth. 2011. The Part that marx-politics-nicholas-thoburn-3 has No Part: Enjoyment, Law and [Accessed 2 May 2012]. Loss. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian Wretched of the Earth. 2012. For Gen- and Gay Studies 17(2–3): 288– der Self-Determination. Unre- 308. leased. Rape Revenge. 2012. Herbivore. Pa- per Cage. LP. Outhouse Studios. Rape Revenge. 2012. Lawful of Shit. Paper Cage. LP. Outhouse Stu- dios. Rape Revenge. 2012. The Messiah Ef- fect. Paper Cage. LP. Outhouse Studios. Rape Revenge. 2012. When the Meet- ing Ends. Paper Cage. LP. Out- house Studios. Robynski.1992. Anarcho Homocore Night Club. Toronto: Self-publishing. Rodríguez, Juana María. 2011. Queer Sociality and Other Sexual Fan- tasies. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 17(2–3): 331–48. Shatz, Marshall ed. 2002. Bakunin: Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shepard, Benjamin. 2010. Bridging the Divide between Queer Theory and Anarchism. Sexualities 13(4): 511–27. Squibb, Stephen. 2011. Scenes from Occupied Boston. In Astra Taylor, Keith Cessen, and editors from n+1, Dissent, Triple Canopy and The New Inquiry eds. Scenes Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science Gender as a Category of Analysis: Reconciling Feminist Theory with Feminist Methodology Charlotte Wu

Gender theory is not exactly feminist theory, but in many ways it builds directly upon its assumptions and innovations. This essay explores the ways in which the category of analysis ‘gender’ reconciles its heritage of political consciousness and activism with its place in a more scientific or philosophical discourse, and attempts to demonstrate how it can remain indispensable as a political and ethical tool. To do this, it discusses and challenges competing narratives of oppression and postmodernist accounts of social reality. Through a discussion of the ‘non-human person’, this article concludes by questioning the value of the ‘human’ as a productive category of analysis, and argues that the destabilising of disciplines which the study of ‘gender’ provokes may also serve to unmask inherited assumptions about the analytical concept of the individual subject.

Keywords: Gender, Feminism, Animals, Persons, Oppression.

The questions an oppressed Introduction group wants answered are rarely In this paper, I argue that while requests for so-called pure truth. gender theory builds directly upon Instead, they are queries about the innovations and methodologi- how to change its conditions how cal assumptions of feminist theory, its world is shaped by forces be- it is distinct in ways which are im- yond it; how to win over, defeat or portant to our understanding of gen- neutralise those forces arrayed der-based analyses. I suggest that against its emancipation, growth, there needs to be closer examina- or development; and so forth. tion of the shift from the practising of – Sandra Harding (1987) ‘feminist theory’ to the employment of ‘the analytical category of gender’ The need to let suffering speak is within the academy. This is essen- a condition of all truth tially because while the former was – Theodor Adorno (1973) politically motivated, ‘wrestl[ing] with Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 39 the question of how one can use the thus limited, subjectivity when pur- knowledge we create in the interest suing knowledge. of social transformation’ (Risman However, the increased intellec- 2004, 446), it is not obvious whether tual authority of ‘gender’ in the last the concept of ‘gender’ – envisioned decades of the twentieth century as locating these issues more com- (see Haig 2004) problematised this prehensively in the relations be- emphasis on perspective. Joan W. tween men and women – inherently Scott observes that ‘the use of ‘‘gen- upholds those priorities of feminist der’’ is meant to denote the scholarly research. I therefore explore how seriousness of a work, for ‘‘gender’’ practitioners using this category of has a more neutral and objective analysis must struggle to reconcile sound than does ‘‘women’” (Scott its heritage of political conscious- 1986, 1056), implying a potential ness and activism with its place in methodological regression into that a more scientific or philosophical empiricist, dispassionate and ‘im- discourse. This will lead me to dem- plicitly value-free role of social sci- onstrate how ‘gender’ can remain entists who study gender merely to indispensable as a political and satisfy intellectual curiosity’ (Risman ethical tool, in the face of competing 2004, 445). Within the discipline, I narratives of oppression and post- argue, gender as an analytical cat- modernist accounts of social reality egory, and as a potentially non-po- and the ‘human’. litical tool, is implicitly juxtaposed The ‘first wave’ of feminist aca- with feminist theory. When used to demics sought to refute the con- analyse and argue a specifically cept of universal, absolute truth as feminist agenda, there are therefore naive and inevitably biased by the latent contradictions which this arti- traditional male exclusivity of aca- cle will aim to elucidate. demia. This exclusivity affected Gender is a category which is the topics and categories consid- critically bound up with personal ered worthy of academic study identity. As a result, the researcher themselves. Resistance to the of gender will inevitably have an ‘god-trick’ (Haraway 1988) made it emotional investment which is at evident that research may be con- odds with the intellectually neutral ducted differently, depending on a (if not gender-neutral), professional researcher’s moral allegiances and ideals for analysis. More perhaps personal feelings of responsibility than in other areas of research, (or lack thereof) towards the issue tensions between one’s theoretical at hand. In challenging the univer- convictions (and disciplinary train- sal masculine view of truth, feminist ing) and one’s ethical convictions thinkers stressed the importance of (and personal knowledge) make acknowledging one’s situated, and it possible to theorise contra one’s 40 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 own intellectual standards in favour analysis, along with that tradition’s of another kind of methodology, or own methodological disputes. In belief as to ‘how research does or part, such imprecision results from should proceed’ (Harding 1987, 3). gender’s over-investment of mean- With this in mind, it seems clear that ing and ensuing openness to in- utilising gender as an analytical cat- terpretation. Each permutation of egory produces certain difficulties. its definition therefore becomes Whether these difficulties ought to invested with diverse academic be seen as primarily methodological values and allegiances. Since the or moral, however, is not so easy various academic disciplines con- to ascertain. I argue that this is in tinue to cultivate a certain degree part because gender scholarship is of self-sufficiency, identifying a sin- self-reflective in a way which culti- gular ‘category’ of gender seems vates the unmasking of disciplinary problematic. Robeyns’ description assumptions, occasioning appre- of the theorist’s ‘purposes’ as sepa- hensions about the ‘master’s tools’ rate from ‘intellectual traditions’ also (Lorde 1984) available to academ- raises the possibility that the con- ics. ceptualisation of gender employed will not necessarily be selected for What We Talk About When We its congruity with the discipline into Talk About Gender which it is being introduced. It fol- Despite its ubiquitous usage in an lows that the two may indeed be assortment of academic discourses, fundamentally incompatible, even there is no universally shared defi- leaving open the possibility of a re- nition of the term ‘gender’. Ingrid searcher creating this dissonance Robeyns suggests that: intentionally in order to devalue the argument of one (the discipline) or the concept of gender can be the- the other (the definition of gender). orised in many different ways, and The closest consensus as to what the usefulness of any such con- ‘gender’ means among scholars is ceptualisation depends to some perhaps ‘something like ‘‘the social extent on which purposes one meaning given to biological differ- wants to use the concept for, and ences between the sexes’’’ (Lawson in which intellectual traditions one 2007, 137). Poststructuralist writers wants to introduce it (Robeyns such as Judith Butler (1990) how- 2007, 56). ever eschewed this definition, which she saw as heteronormative, dualis- However, this means that which- tic and thus reifying conceptions of ever intellectual tradition one is masculinity and femininity, in favour working in, some of its assump- of a more subversive reimagination tions will be imported into one’s of gender and gendered identity as Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 41 non-coherent, unstable and mallea- method that could be adequate to ble. (Again, both interpretations are it; how we had to know in order to now widely cited, with no guarantee know this (MacKinnon 2006, 151 that the term translates precisely (original emphasis)). from work to work). Yet I contend that it is problematic to use a term In this statement, MacKinnon originally intended to describe the ranks methodology as secondary to phallogocentric, socially construct- lived experience; it is a means to- ed and hierarchical dichotomy of wards achieving a different reality, ‘male’ and ‘female’, in the purpose rather than ensuring the most accu- of indicating a more fluid and liber- rate means of uncovering the reality ating conception of gendered identi- (or ‘Truth’) that is the target of epis- ties. temological objectivity. For feminist The latter conception of ‘gen- scholars, methodology should be der’ as a construction which can concerned not only with what can be altered and reimagined is use- be known or what gets to count as ful, in that it allows for theoretical knowledge, but what can be done deconstruction and reconfiguration. with this knowledge; there is no Nevertheless, scholars who use it use establishing alternative ways of must always be limited by its theo- knowing reality if that imperfect re- retical nature. After all, once ‘gen- ality itself is unaffected. Despite the der’ ceases to have a concretely attraction of moving beyond gender observable referent in lived reality, dichotomies, some scholars caution its function as an analytical catego- that to annihilate sexual difference ry comes into question. Catherine before achieving equality between MacKinnon reminds gender schol- the sexes would be inexpedient and ars that: politically premature. This stance, sometimes referred Gender was not created in our to as ‘strategic essentialism’ (see minds after reading philosophy Spivak 1987), is an approach which books other people wrote; it was relinquishes one’s intellectually nu- not a Truth that we set out to es- anced understandings of ‘gender’ tablish to end academic debates in favour of a cruder binary defini- or to create a field or niche so we tion of ‘the sexes’, as they exist in could get jobs. It was what was law and general understanding, to found there, by women, in wom- achieve more immediate improve- en’s lives. Piece by bloody piece ments in women’s lived conditions. […] in trying to make women’s It is seen as disingenuous to argue status be different than it was, a the finer points of a theoretical gen- theory of the status of women was der-free utopia when real suffering forged, and with it a theory of the continues to exist unimpeded. In 42 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 this spirit, Barbara Risman propos- eugenics policy’ (Harding 1987, 5). es that since: Another unanticipated consequence of early feminist theory was Much time and energy can be what was not talked about in discus- wasted trying to validate which sions of gender. Its emancipatory dimension is more central to in- motives were undermined by its dis- equality or social change […] the regard for racial and class diversity feminist project is better served by among women, which meant it was finding empirical answers to par- seen as reproducing the hegemonic ticular questions and by identify- and distorting worldview which it ing how particular processes ex- professed to challenge. In respond- plain outcomes in need of change ing to the moral and cultural impera- (Risman 2004, 435). tive to expose systematic gender injustice, feminist theorists were crit- However, when initiating delib- icised for assuming it to be the pri- erately normative or essentialist mary site of oppression, neglecting definitions of gender in the spirit of the effects of intersectionality and activism, Michel Foucault’s warning failing to interrogate their own com- that the ramifications of power can plicity in perpetuating other forms never be anticipated or controlled of oppression. (For example the may provide cause for caution. middle-class demographic of early According to his account, ‘liberation feminist academics and writers may in the name of ‘‘truth’’ could only be have contributed to displacing the the substitution of another system effects of gender oppression dispro- of power for this one’ (Taylor 1986, portionately onto poorer women and 178). Knowledge is not owned by women of colour). As a result, femi- those who ‘generate’ it, but is instead nism became split into feminisms, distributed throughout complex and and the idea that any woman could dynamic social networks, and is speak for the cause of all women transformed in the process with un- was called into question. predictable and perhaps unpalat- Gender research today there- able results. Progress can therefore fore takes into account the ways in bring with it new problems for femi- which women’s subordination differs nists to grapple with, for example, within ethnic communities or is con- ‘the feminisation of poverty, sexual structed within class dynamics to a harassment at the workplace, and far greater extent (further ensuring women’s double day of paid and its interweaving with other disci- unpaid labour’ (Deutsch 2007, 118), plines). Nevertheless, the expecta- or the way that ‘Margaret Sanger’s tion that gender scholars should now birth control movement played an collectively be able – through mind- important and unfortunate role in ful self-reflectiveness and cultural Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 43 sensitivity alone – to overcome their practices which are hegemonic and own positionality and ethnocentrism exclusionary – Butler refers to this ‘remains’, in Susan Bordo’s words, as the ‘internal imperative’ (1993) – ‘animated by its own fantasies of or risk ‘invalidating’ their own protes- attaining an epistemological per- tations against oppression, as they spective free of the locatedness and would then be ‘no better’ than those limitations of embodied existence’ whom they claim to criticise, regard- (Bordo 1993, 217–8). Meanwhile, less of the intellectual or emancipa- the answer to competing narratives tory quality of their argument. of oppression cannot simply be to This represents an impossible add in more and more categories, double bind, which offers as its sole as if this were to get us closer and escape route the adoption of a dif- closer to an elusive and illusive real- ferent discourse (we might think of ity. Even if a study attends dutifully Nietzsche’s aphoristic, anti-phil- to ‘the mismatched troika of race, osophical style or Luce Irigaray’s class and gender’ (Fields 1989, 1), écriture feminine). Yet that alterna- not only is there no guarantee of se- tive risks the exclusion of one’s own riously nuanced engagement with work and voice from journals or by these positions, but many other var- publishers, and the alienation of all iables will continue to suffer neglect those outside of academic circles – sexuality, age, disability, national- due to its perceived abstruseness. ity, religion, caste, to name only a (One might even add, outside of few – and, ‘how many axes can one feminist academic circles, for the include and still preserve analytical study of gender remains a relatively focus or argument?’ (Bordo 1993, marginalised discourse in many dis- 139) ciplines). I find it pertinent to return here to Writing Feminism in the the point that the analytical category ‘Master’s House’ of gender may be brought to bear The challenge raised by Bordo’s not only upon material within a dis- question demonstrates how those cipline, but to criticise the discipline who employ the analytical catego- itself. Sally Haslanger, for example, ry of gender may expect it to fulfil writes that ‘[a]cademic feminists, intellectual ideals of method which for the most part, view metaphys- conflict with its methodological- ori ics as a dubious intellectual project, gins. That is to say, gender scholars certainly irrelevant and probably continue to write syllogistic essays worse’ (Haslanger 2000, 107), while which must by definition identify a Irigaray calls into question the gen- focus of study and ignore aspects dered (and thus restrictive) nature considered irrelevant. Yet, they must of language itself. I argue that such at the same time avoid intellectual analyses are likely to trigger what 44 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 we might call methodological exis- we care whether or not the mas- tential fears; however compelling ter notices? Is it not alright that he the argument, the intellectual tradi- trudge on in his old ways while tions which they seek to deracinate the world passes him by? I do not will be sites of high personal, profes- think so. The theoretical twists sional, emotional, ideological – and and turns – cultural and other- of course, financial – investment. wise – of the last few years are as The category of ‘gender’ therefore much about power and authority signifies not only an ‘other’ way of as about the production of theo- producing knowledge but also an ry and the constitution of knowl- antagonistic one, threatening to un- edge. And the stakes are not just dermine whole intellectual canons academic (Katz 1981, 99). through its gaze. This ‘threat’ may be implicit, or it may be stated can- Theorising with the analytical cat- didly: Cindi Katz for instance writes egory of gender therefore involves that her work ‘is part of a broader not only highlighting issues which project to change the nature and require political action, but a very meaning of our academic ‘’home’’’ personal vigilance against what (Katz 1996, 497). Audre Lorde (1984) calls ‘that piece For the practitioner of gender of the oppressor which is planted analysis, the hostility with which his/ deep within us’ (Lorde 1984, 123). her work may therefore be received The very foundations upon which is complicated by the difficulty of sus- language, epistemology, research taining such a fundamental destabi- practices and so on have been built lising of traditional discourses, while can be interpreted as insidiously remaining intelligible and influential. gendered. With these foundations Katz, elaborating on this dilemma, being inescapably internalised to illustrates how the twin methodolog- some extent by all who work with ical projects of theory and activism them, it becomes necessary to con- are ultimately symbiotic: tinuously interrogate the presuppo- sitions of one’s work, even its most Those working in new ways are apparently emancipatory qualities. caught in the middle – knowing, Bordo, for instance, questions as Audre Lorde advised, that ‘the whether the ‘endless debates about master’s tools will never disman- method, reflections about how femi- tle the master’s house’, but strug- nist scholarship should proceed gling to dismantle it anyway and and where it has gone astray’ which to rebuild an alternative with a characterised the postmodern era different set of tools. All the while, perhaps served ‘not the empower- the ‘master’ barely notices. Then ment of diverse cultural voices and again, if we are so right, why do styles, but the academic hegemony Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 45

[...] of detached, metatheoretical in the centre. Sandra Lee Bartky’s discourse’ (Bordo 1993, 225). After comment that ‘[i]n the perpetual all, if gender theory is conceptual- self-surveillance of the inmate lies ised as ‘analytical’ work, that is, as the genesis of the celebrated ‘‘in- breaking down a complex reality dividualism’’ and heightened self- into more intelligible (and thus more consciousness which are hallmarks controllable) parts, then logically the of modern times’ (Bartky 1990, 95) individual should be a useful site for offers an insight into the self-de- study. However, not only does the feating character of the postmodern parallel between this growing sig- approach taken to its logical con- nificance of individualism within the clusion, for to recognise that struc- academy, and the increasing capi- tures of power act on each of us in talist atomisation of contemporary the most personal and unique ways society suggest that this poststruc- is only to recognise what power is turalist obsession may be in thrall structured to do. That is, theorising as much to economic as to theoreti- in this way misdirects our energy by cal developments, it also leaves the reproducing the disciplining barriers model of the autonomous individual which make us inaccessible to one itself problematically uninterrogated. another. Feminist moral philosophers, among Several thinkers working on gen- other thinkers, have long questioned der have therefore suggested alter- the validity of the very existence of a native challenges to essentialism ‘space between two individuals’, as which do not ‘delegitimate a priori this presumes the possibility of de- the exploration of experiential conti- fining a self-sufficient, unified and nuity and structural common ground coherent subject, omitting interper- among women’ (Bordo 1993, 142) sonal and internal frictions in a way or among other oppressed groups. which is ‘at best, incomplete, and Mariana Szapuová (2001) for exam- at worst, fundamentally misleading’ ple proposes the articulation of a net- (Meyers 1997, 2). work of overlapping Wittgensteinian I want to draw out the conver- ‘family resemblances’, while Katz gences between identity politics’ advocates tracing a ‘counter-topog- breakdown of oppressions into raphy’ that also allows for generali- individually experienced, specif- sation without total homogenisation, ic permutations of suffering and involving: Foucault’s Panopticon. In Foucault’s reading (1979), each individual is a particular precision and speci- imprisoned in identically designed ficity that connects distant places but differently situated cells; in this and in so doing enables the infer- isolated state no sense of shared ence of connection in uncharted suffering is visible, except from the places in between. As with con- position of the oppressor, seated tour lines, the measurement of 46 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

elevation at select sites enables any form of oppression will also a line to be drawn without meas- serve to lessen that of others suf- uring every spot on earth. (Katz fering under power, for this is what 1996, 1229) Karen Warren (2008) calls the ‘logic of domination’ which is perpetrated A conception of oppressions within each system of prejudice, be which concentrates on their com- it based on categories such as gen- monalities would be able to ap- der, race, class, and so on. Surely, preciate their points of intersection therefore, striking a blow at any one without inter-category impugning, facet of the ‘mythical norm’ (Lorde instead promoting an intellectual 1984) will help diminish its overall solidarity where any work directed power, even if the attack does not at lessening genuine oppression target them all simultaneously. Just would be seen as part of a collective as the experience of oppression effort rather than a competing claim. builds up for a lesbian woman of It is easy enough to note, as does colour, for example, the privileges Bartky,1 that ‘even though a libera- of domination build up for a white tory note is sounded in Foucault’s heterosexual man, so long as each critique of power, his analysis as a of these facets retains its cultural whole reproduces the sexism which supremacy. We could continue the is endemic throughout Western metaphor to argue that should every political theory’ (Bartky 1990, 65). resistance to oppression attempt to Important as it is to maintain critical fight simultaneously on every front, alertness to such pernicious repro- their power and momentum would ductions, it would be perhaps more be much reduced. productive to place the emphasis on how every ‘liberatory note’ struck The Future of Gender as a by fellow thinkers can be utilised in Category tandem with one’s own liberatory While the conceptions explored objectives, particularly when one above offer valuable routes for can never be sure which endemic potentially disenthralling feminist and historically situated views one’s scholars from their troublesome own work is reproducing. Carol J. poststructuralist impasse, the study Adams admonishes that ‘[f]eminist of gender still needs to be reflec- theorists’ use of language should tive about its historical limits and describe and challenge oppres- perpetually experimental in spirit. If sion by recognising the extent to gender analysis seeks to uncover which these oppressions are cultur- patterns of domination in social really analogous and interdependent’ ality in order to change them, the (Adams 1990, 90). goal of the analytical work is in If this is the case, challenging some ways to make its own obser- Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 47 vations obsolete. Therefore it must and relearn the same old lessons be what MacKinnon describes as over and over that our mothers did ‘a constantly provisional analysis’ because we do not pass on what (MacKinnon 2006, 51), for discover- we have learned, or because we ing timeless or essential truths about are unable to listen (Lorde 1984, social reality is the very reverse of 117). what it hopes to achieve. While the category of gender is, currently, vi- For example, the current aver- tal for demonstrating the wider po- sion towards the perceived essen- litical implications of issues such as tialism – ‘that obscure philosophical domestic violence, rape or femicide swear word’, as MacKinnon wryly and their basis in hegemonic mas- calls it (MacKinnon 2006, 51) – of culinity, the researchers who use it the previous generation of ‘differ- would surely be glad to see it be- ence’ theorists2 may arise from a come irrelevant. In this sense, I dread of the social construction (and envisage gender scholars as need- degradation) of ‘nature’ as regres- ing to simultaneously and imagina- sive, uncivilised and culturally in- tively look ahead to a social reality significant. The attempt to distance in which other moral concerns are women from [what are felt to be] ac- pressing: concerns which today are cusations that they are in any way invisible to us, or even concerns determined by nature may therefore which our well-intentioned emanci- be itself reproducing sexist, misrep- patory work helps to silence. resentative or colonising concep- Sometimes, this looking forward tions of nature. Butler (1993) notes can be achieved by looking back. that the ‘sex/gender distinction has Lorde reminds us of a lack of con- come under criticism in more recent sideration of past generations that years for degrading the natural as might be conceived as the oppres- that which is ‘‘before’’ intelligibility, in sion called ‘ageism’. Important as need of the mark, if not the mar, of critique and revision are for identi- the social to signify, to be known, to fying the blind spots or institutional acquire value’ (Butler 1993, 4). prejudices of previous theories, this To recall an earlier point, we ‘generation gap’, she writes, also might see this as an unpredictable functions as: and unfortunate consequence of what we could call ‘strategic anti- an important social tool for any essentialism’. While necessary at a repressive society. If the younger particular historical juncture to com- members of a community view plicate a picture of gender which ex- the older members as contempt- cluded transgender identities, differ- ible or suspect or excess […] We ences of sexuality and bidirectional find ourselves having to repeat negotiations of the gender binary, 48 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 this approach may have reified an lic policies have also raised issues idea of ‘sex’ as dualistically opposed surrounding what we consider to be to the social, ultimately harming the the minimum requirements for hu- larger, long-term emancipatory pro- man life: for instance, in problematic ject. Without sufficient circumspec- forms of existence where sensation tion, sex may [have] become ‘to and consciousness have been irre- gender what feminine is to mascu- trievably lost. Such considerations line’ (Butler 1993, xiv), that is, false- prompt further questions. Is ‘human’ ly constructed against a concept or even ‘human nature’ a term func- which we assume to be supreme. tioning within a (gendered) binary My question at this point is: if of opposition and dominance, and we can understand both ‘sex’ and to what extent is it socially created ‘gender’ as social meanings giv- and controlled? Is gender a ‘human’ en to human differences, in what construction or can we understand can be seen as problematic ways, other species as socially interpret- shouldn’t we interrogate their reli- ing their reproductive roles? Does ance on the category of ‘human’? working to end gender oppression Martha Nussbaum, for example, in- on the grounds of ‘human’ rights vites us to ‘[b]egin with the human make us complicit in other oppres- being’ as the best hope for achiev- sions and practices of othering by ing gender equality and ethical making ‘humanness’ the normative treatment of the woman (Nussbaum condition? 1995, 61). However, the appeal Scholars of race and gen- of common humanity is a notion der, Margaret Spiegel and Carol which has been historically abused J. Adams, argue that the rights of precisely in order to exclude other the human cannot be upheld with- persons. One of the slogans of the out seriously reconsidering the ‘ar- suffragettes, for example, compared bitrary’ distinction between human women’s position in society to that beings and non-human beings, and of ‘paupers, lunatics and criminals’, confronting the tyranny of the for- not in solidarity with all those denied mer over the latter which this justi- the vote but to strengthen their own fies and conceals. Spiegel draws membership of a circle of deserving parallels between the treatment of citizens. As bell hooks and others animals in captivity with the slave have reminded us, not all members trade,4 while Adams exposes ‘the of the homo sapiens species have absent referent’ that prevents us always been considered persons – from making these connections by indeed, this has been one of the pri- creating a dialectic of absence and mary ways in which oppression has presence: ‘what is absent refers been institutionalised.3 Recently, back to one oppressed group while certain bio-ethical studies and pub- defining another’ (Adams 1990, 55). Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 49

She therefore sees as problematic them as our resources (Francione the co-opting of metaphors of ani- 2008). mal violation (e.g. phrases such as It is nevertheless noticeable that ‘I felt like a piece of meat’ or ‘They in these cases, the emphasis is on treated us like animals’) as a means the cognitive abilities of the animals of furthering the ethical claims of concerned, and not the philosophy women, for this constitutes a rep- of universal respect for others’ lives. lication of exploitative structures. I argue that this reproduces the ‘What we require’, she writes, ‘is a Cartesian privileging of mind over theory that traces parallel trajecto- body, of knowing over feeling. The ries: the common oppressions of commercial (thus systematic) killing women and animals’ (Adams 1990, of cetaceans is deemed unjustifi- 58). able on the basis of their similarity Both theorists stress their view to us (or what we consider makes that the moral outrage with which us most human5) rather than on our we confront the systemic subjuga- similarity to them, our animal nature. tion of persons on grounds of race We too are mammals: embodied, and gender should be applied to the mortal, sentient, capable of experi- systemic subjugation and killing of encing pain and forming kinships. animals, and argue that if we are ca- Perhaps MacKinnon would com- pable of and willing to deconstruct ment that these are not the grounds the essentialist justifications of rac- upon which we award rights to hu- ist and anti-feminist beliefs, we mans either: ‘Legally’, she writes, need to apply the same heightening ‘one is less than human when one’s of consciousness to our practices violations do not violate the human of meat-eating and animal captiv- rights that are recognised […] Being ity. This moral claim is gaining in- a woman is not yet a way of being tensity: at the 2012 annual meeting human’ (MacKinnon 2006, 3). What of the American Association for the sense can feminist or gender analy- Advancement of Science, a group of sis make of the ‘non-human person’, scientists and ethicists proposed a or of accusations that it constitutes declaration of rights for dolphins and this living being as the abject out- whales, whom they deem to be suf- sider, the non-ethical subject? ficiently intelligent and self-aware to The same tension remains that be classed as ‘non-human persons’ however intellectually or abstractly (Sample 2012). In several nations, compelling these arguments are, certain primates already have le- when we return to the sphere of gal rights on similar grounds; rights ‘real life’, where ‘real women’ are which recognise them as members suffering from gender-based injus- of the moral community and testify tices, those other moral claims may to our moral obligation not to treat seem to take precedence. It may be 50 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 that awarding the right of life to any result of an urgent need for reformu- being deemed sentient becomes lated analytical tools of other kinds, particularly problematic for feminists including a ‘philosophical and legal (among scholars of oppression), reconceptualisation of the human because of the way such argu- subject’ (Browne 2007, 9) itself. In ments have been used against the this article, I have argued that this reproductive rights of women. In the need may be partially obscured by abortion debate, the moral dilemma the inherent contradictions which is often framed in terms of two com- scholars of gender have inherited peting subject’s rights embodied in and failed to sufficiently examine. one individual, which in certain ar- As a result, energies are expended guments allows for the silencing of upon internal frustrations that might the pregnant woman. be more productively directed else- However, I want to recall my ob- where. servation at the start of the article that one’s moral investments, loyal- Conclusion ties or conscience/consciousness Having had as its ‘chief intellec- may contrast prohibitively with other tual imperative’ the need to ‘listen… ethical understandings and ways of a greater humility and greater atten- approaching knowledge. If we allow tiveness to what one did not know’ it to do its work, the analytical cat- (Bordo 1993, 220), some forty years egory of gender can help us to un- later, when gender ‘has become a mask all kinds of domination-based growth industry in the academy’ logic. Our current, Enlightenment- (Risman 2004, 429), how can it – influenced imagination of physical as a category of analysis – recon- singularity is in fact revealed to be cile what it still does not know with particularly misleading by many of what it has learned? It is certainly the concerns of gender research, too soon to eradicate gender from not least the politics of abortion our critical and political vocabular- and other practices such as trans- ies, and indeed, this may not even sexual technologies or Assisted be ultimately desirable. The inevita- Reproductive Technologies, which bility of some form of gender system threaten the stability of the catego- in culture is impossible to determine ry. In this sense, the destabilising of a priori; as Marilyn Frye points out, disciplines which the study of ‘gen- ‘No human is free of social struc- der’ provokes also challenges the tures, nor (perhaps) would happi- concept of the individual subject. I ness consist in such freedom’ (Frye find this to be a vital point, because 2000, 13). Therefore, while the use many of the ways in which feminist of ‘gender’ as a category of analysis or gender analysis can find itself un- has been – and should continue to able to fulfil its own logic may be a be – problematised to ensure that it Wu: Gender as a Category of Analysis 51 does not involuntarily perpetuate or differentiate men from other animals, one normalise difference, its instability could as well, on these principles, end up with a morality which exhorted men to as a category needs to be viewed spend as much time in making fire […] in the context of challenges to other having sexual intercourse without regard academic concepts which are con- to season; or despoiling the environment sidered, erroneously, to be more and upsetting the balance of nature, or sturdily established. The ‘identity killing things for fun’ (Williams 1976, 64). crisis’ within feminist and gender theory thus might be seen as in References need not of resolution, but wider dis- Adams, Carol J.1990. 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Political activism should not be taken for granted in academia; it is a project that requires the creation of an adequate environment for critique and action. That is because, rephrasing Gramsci’s recommen- dation (Gramsci 1971, 175), social change needs both the practical ‘optimism of the will’ and the theoretical social diagnostics provided by the ‘pessimism of the intellect.’ Based on such assumptions, the paper points out the necessity, on the one hand, to go beyond an idealist conceptualization of the intellectual and instead to look materially at the field of action of academics, and, on the other, to problematize the currently dominant theoretical understanding of critique.

Keywords: Theory, Praxis, Critique, Post-Structuralism, Occupy Wall Street, Gramsci.

Material force must be overthrown rephrasing Gramsci’s recommen- by material force; but theory also dation (Gramsci 1971, 175), social becomes a material force as soon change needs both the practical ‘op- as it has gripped the masses. timism of the will’ and the theoretical Theory is capable of gripping the social diagnostics provided by the masses as soon as it demon- ‘pessimism of the intellect’. Based strates ad hominem, and it demon such assumptions, the paper onstrates ad hominem as soon as points out the necessity, on the one it becomes radical. To be radical hand, of going beyond an idealist is to grasp the root of the matter conceptualization of the intellectual (Marx 1970, ii). and instead to materially look at the field of action of academics. On the Political activism should not be other hand, it also problematizes taken for granted in academia; it is the currently dominant theoretical a project that requires the creation understanding of critique. of an adequate environment for cri- First of all, this paper discusses tique and action. That is because, the problems implied by the divi-

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 55 sion between manual and intellec- paper proposes an understanding of tual labor which produces an un- critique that ‘thematizes and seeks derstanding of the intellectual as to surpass the limits set by prevail- an ahistorical abstraction. Rejecting ing social relations’ (Callinicos 2006, such an idealization, the paper tries 6) because the present author as- to rematerialize the intellectual by sumes a steady and simultaneously drawing on Pierre Bourdieu’s po- dialectical link between conscious- litical economic analysis. The pa- ness and social reality. per briefly examines the ‘hegem- Finally, in the third part, the paper onic’ regime of (American) National utilizes the leading narratives de- Communication Association (NCA) picting Occupy Wall Street (OWS) in order to exemplify how material as a ‘new’ social movement in or- dynamics taking place in such a set- der to exemplify both the practical ting can potentially keep the critical manifestations of such a theoreti- spirit in check, caught between the cal trend and to advance an alter- contradictory twofold mechanisms native framework which places the of the political economy of academ- thought of Gramsci at its core. It will ic production: the orthodox working be argued that the possibility of in- within the framework of established tervention for social change is bet- paradigms and the heterodox striv- ter served by a holistic and material- ing or drive to produce intellectual ist conceptualization of hegemony. novelty. Such a project requires both going Second, the paper examines the beyond the tendentiously one-sid- kind of critique proliferating in the ed discursive dimension of social contemporary theoretical environ- struggle found in the prevailing dis- ment which functions more as a course on OWS and re-engaging self-referential discourse of critique instead with what Gramsci defines rather than a tool for practical activ- as the ‘integral state’: the state + ism. Accordingly, it argues how the civil society. Accordingly, the paper adoption of specific readings – con- suggests revisiting the figure of the textualized in the post-structuralist organic intellectual who, as a first tradition – offer an understanding of step in his/her objective to be active social determination and significa- in the public and political sphere, tion that diminishes the history-mak- recognizes academia as a material ing role of the subject. The goal here sphere of production of social reality is not to dismiss post-structuralism and therefore as a first site of praxis. as a whole, but to point out how some of its influential interpreters The Idealized and the have significantly shaped the con- Materialized Intellectual temporary idea of political action. In Conceptualizations of ‘the intel- contrast to such an approach, the lectual’ abound in modern social 56 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 theory but they all seem to lack from practice, consciousness from a straightforward definition. Max being, and the private from the pub- Weber (1958) describes intellec- lic sphere. These dualisms presume tuals as functionaries, producers that people can work either intellec- of ideas intrinsically committed to tually or manually, taking care of ei- rationality. Karl Mannheim (1936) ther their spiritual or their corporeal maintained that intellectuals are needs. Based on such assumptions, ideologues that constitute the world the goal of locating intellectuals in view of society. For Talcott Parsons the social map is crippled by a ten- (1969), intellectuals serve as cultur- dency to understand such a catego- al specialists in a society organized ry in the framework of the very so- by the division of labor. Lewis Coser cial division of labor that consistently (1997) believed that they are people relegates them in the same ethereal living for rather than living off ideas. province of ideas, therefore outside Finally, Vladimir Lenin (1902) main- the sphere of material production. tains that they constitute the avant- garde within a class struggle. Materializing the Intellectual in The problem of identifying intel- the Field of the Academia lectuals is not simply of a descriptive kind; it also overlaps with a nor- The social and mental separation mative idealist thrust. For instance, is, paradoxically, never clearer on the one hand, intellectuals may than in the attempts – often pa- be regarded as seers of a better thetic and ephemeral – to rejoin society; on the other, they are of- the real world, particularly through ten blamed for having transformed political commitments (Stalinism, the university into a site of privilege. Maoism, etc.) whose irrespon- Julien Benda (1928), several dec- sible utopianism and unrealistic ades ago, illustrated the general so- radicality bear witness that they cial rapprochement against schol- are still a way of denying the reali- ars who ‘betrayed their duty, which ties of the social world. (Bourdieu is precisely to set up a corporation 2010, 41). whose sole cult is that of justice and of truth’ (Benda 1928, 57). As already mentioned, the intel- Why is the attempt to define the lectual integrated inside the univer- identity/function of intellectuals in sity system seems to be particularly contemporary Western societies exposed to social rapprochement so difficult? One possible explana- because of privileges such as aca- tion links such problems of defini- demic freedom: the right of inquiry, tion to a tradition of thought that to teach and communicate ideas has produced over time a series of protected by the academic tenure. Cartesian dualisms separating ideas However, while certainly not absent, Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 57 academic freedom must be contex- As intellectual operators, aca- tualized within the constraints of the demics create a form of cultural political economy of universities. capital that is subordinate to eco- Failing to acknowledge the economic capital, but that allows them nomic forces shaping such a field to control the ‘language’ of domi- prevents a full comprehension of nant culture in a society. The pos- at least two fundamental aspects: session of such capital places intel- it tends to provide an ahistorical lectuals in a very specific sphere in definition of intellectuals based on the social structure: they belong to theoretical abstractions rather than the dominant class insofar as they on the concrete analysis of their role enjoy the privileges derived from in historic-specific social formations; the accumulation of cultural capital, second, it prevents an equally con- while still depending on economic crete examination of their practices, capital. Such a location implies a their labor, their field and the level of continuous negotiation for a better conditioning of material constraints. exchange rate between these two A first important step towards forms of capital. Both the composi- a more material approach is pro- tion and the amount of capital po- vided by Bourdieu’s (1988) socio- tentially possessed by agents strat- logical analysis of higher education. ify the field; hence, agents occupy Bourdieu describes universities alternatively dominant and subordi- as a field in which class structure, nate positions. power, and a specific form of intel- Bourdieu claims that the monop- lectual habitus intersect each other. oly of educational credentials held Social subjects continuously strug- by academics allows them to both gle for power, for scarce resources, reproduce the value of cultural capi- and for the ‘legitimation of particu- tal and the existing social structure: lar definitions and classifications of the social world’ (Bourdieu 1988, Education is in fact one of the 23). Bourdieu’s goal is to provide a most effective means of perpetu- framework that allows the intersec- ating the existing social pattern, tion of the individual agency of in- as it both provides an apparent tellectuals with structural dynamics justification for social inequali- of the field in order to identify ‘the ties and gives recognition to the tendency of structures to reproduce cultural heritage, that is, to a so- themselves by producing agents cial gift treated as a natural one endowed with the system of pre- (Bourdieu 1974, 32). dispositions which is capable of engendering practices adapted to the Another important way in which structures and thereby contributing cultural capital is reproduced is by to the reproduction of the structures’ the naturalization of its epistemolog- (Bourdieu 1977, 487). ical and ontological foundations by 58 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 producing doxa knowledge, ‘an ad- conserving their positions and sub- herence to relations of order which, altern intellectuals who challenge because they structure inseparably the power of the former through both the real world and the thought subversive strategies. world, are accepted as self-evident’ Furthermore, such a critical re- (Bourdieu 1994, 160). lationship between orthodoxa and The production of doxa knowl- heterodoxa also provides a politico- edge is never completely attained economic explanation related to my and entails both a level of contesta- considerations on the conditional tion that Bourdieu defines as heter- position of critique. In fact, un-es- odoxa and its reactionary reaffirma- tablished intellectuals in the field tion, defined as orthodoxa: experience a fundamental tension between differentiation and legitimi- It is only when the dominated zation that reveals the contradictory have the material and symbolic nature of cultural capital; cultural means of rejecting the definition capital needs both to negate exist- of the real that is imposed on them ing knowledge to become desirable through logical structures repro- (because novelty relates to the producing the social structures (i.e. gress of knowledge, and because the state of the power relations) academia lives the enlightenment and to lift the (institutionalized or myth that the best idea will prevail internalized) censorships which it through struggle, so ‘novelty’ some- implies … that the arbitrary princi- times uncritically translates into ples of classification can appear ‘good’), but also needs validation as such and it therefore becomes vis-à-vis the established knowledge. necessary to undertake the work Critique, as scrutiny of the given of conscious systematization and conditions, tends to problematize express rationalization which the status quo, therefore establish- marks the passage from doxa to ing theories and paradigms dog- orthodoxy. Orthodoxy … opin- matized as doxa and reinforced as ion, which aims, without ever orthodoxa. Such an impasse materi- entirely succeeding, at restoring alizes at the level of reproduction of the primal state of doxa, exists academic labor and its reliance on only in the objective relationship accreditation through publications. which opposes it to heterodoxy For instance, in several American (Bourdieu 1977, 169). ‘Research-1’ universities, the possibility for a young scholar to attain The tension between orthodoxa material stability heavily depends and heterodoxa reflects the con- on his/her capability to be tenured. frontation between established in- At least in the North American me- tellectuals who pursue methods of dia and communication field, the Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 59 area in which the present author demia is to go beyond the idealized moves, most of publications listed conceptualization of the univer- in the tenure review process are sity as a retreated-from-the-worldly valued and hierarchically ordered sphere in which one can cultivate according to a rather problematic ideas based on pure vocation and criterion; the worthy publications disinterested ideals. Thus, the just are the ones provided by ‘top tiers mentioned example was meant to journals’, which are the ones af- describe an environment in which filiated to the (American) National the intellectual’s capacity to per- Communication Association (NCA) form social critique and intervention press. is highly conditioned by a politico- The special authority and credit economic system which reproduces given to NCA publications not only itself by orthodoxa. And critique, as reveal a rather overt ethnocen- critique of the given, tends to con- trism that lies in friction with the al- sistently conflict with such force. leged universalist ideology of mod- In the following section, the pa- ern universities (Magna Charta per will explore another important Universitatum 1988) but also tends aspect affecting the capability of in- to reproduce a conservative dy- tervention and activism: the theoret- namic. In fact, the popular argument ical assumptions of critique. In fact, supporting such an arrangement is behind activism and intervention lie that scholarly works ‘capitalizable’ specific assumptions about a con- towards the tenure review are conception of history and a role of the sidered significant when published subject, according to which the lat- in journals with the highest level rate ter is assumed to actively act upon of rejection. However, the higher the former. In relation to that, the pa- rejection rate does not necessarily per will shed light on how the adop- translate into higher scholarly/ intel- tion of specific epistemological and lectual authority, but it may reflect ontological positions substantially instead the systemic tendency of diminishes the role of the subject in most American institutions to adopt making history, therefore bringing the same criteria— i.e. only NCA social change. journals count as top tiers for tenure review—and therefore most people, The Negation of the ‘Historic as workers seeking more stability Subject’ through tenure or academic recog- In the specific field of communi- nition, compete to publish in those cation studies, the idealization of the journals. intellectual manifests itself with the Summing up, a first step to evalu- emergence of rhetoric of critique. ate the possibility of intervention for That is a meta-discourse (Shugart the intellectual integrated in aca- 2003) that instead of exploring the 60 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 practical implications of critique, cel- with the assumption that there is no ebrates its own discourse. Such a direct relationship between signifier discourse is inhabited by the exhor- and signified and between linguistic tations of scholars such as Ramie representational power and the re- Mckerrow (1989) advocating a cri- ality represented. It problematizes tique of the discourse of the power- ‘language’ as a representation of ful, and Kent Ono and John Sloop both thought and reality, and thus (1995) encouraging greater focus rejects meaning as a given and on the discourse of the weak. One describes meaning as the product plausible reason for such a rhetori- of the different relations between cally-centered understanding of cri- signs. As William Riordan (2008) ob- tique may be found in the specific serves, signs do not connect a word elements of an ontological and epis- to a material referent, but instead temological framework that trades connect a concept to a language. the agency of the historical sub- Therefore, as a system of pure rela- ject for discursive determinations. tions of difference, a sign signifies, Accordingly, in this section, I explore rather than represents, reality. In how the consistent embracement in this section, the paper offers a brief the last decades (Cloud 2006) of account of the consistent tenden- the thought of specific post-struc- cy to privilege the assumption that turalist authors, has importantly meaning resides in the structure or contributed to create a theoretical organization of language, as can environment that prevents interven- be found in the positions of thinkers tion because of how the relationship such as Foucault and Derrida and between the subject, meaning, and Stuart Hall. historical agency is conceived. For Foucault (1972) understood dis- this reason, I first briefly describe course as a framework through how Michel Foucault and Jacques which one can historicize powerful Derrida conceptualize the subject. I claims of truth such as the ontologi- then address articulation theory as cal foundation of the subject: a theory of signification and social determination, which I think exem- Discourse is not the majestically plifies the impact of such a mode unfolding manifestation of think- of thinking in critical cultural studies ing, knowing, speaking subject, in general, and in communication but, on the contrary, a totality, in more specifically. which the dispersion of the subject and his discontinuity with him- From Representation to self may be determined (Foucault Signification 1972, 60). From a communication studies perspective, a significant portion of Foucault tackles the status of the post-structuralist tradition works the subject by both undermining a Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 61 teleological understanding of histo- lizes it. In fact, power and the subject ry and the possibility of an objective operate in a dialectical relationship. knowledge. One rather eloquent ex- ‘[T]he exercise of power continu- ample appears in Foucault’s (1973) ally transforms a diagram’s mecha- account of the parricide case of nisms of power, yet is only possible Pierre Rivière by analysing docu- through the utilization of those same ments from Rivière’s trial as well as pre-existing mechanisms’ (Foucault Rivière’s personal reflections on his 1976, 85). However, such dialectics life. Foucault’s conclusions focussed does not move through positive syn- not so much on the historic subject theses as in the Marxist tradition but (Pierre Rivière) but on the particu- remains paralyzed in a stall. lar discursive practices that embod- If Foucault celebrates the death ied the subject Rivière. Discourse of the subject, Derrida radically de- constitutes, disciplines and enables centres it through deconstruction as Rivière, to the point that his story is well as dismantles the ground on not about the subject but a ‘battle which people can meaningfully act. among discourse, through discours- On the one hand, the subject comes es’ (Foucault 1973, iii). As a result, under scrutiny as another grand the individual becomes an empty re- narrative: gion determined by the intersection of discourses. What differs? Who differs? What Then, in his late work, Foucault is différance? if we accepted this shifts from linguistic to power de- form of the question, in its mean- terminism; the subject seems to ac- ing and its syntax (‘What is?’ ‘Who quire more agency, but only within is?’ ‘What is that?’ we would have the limits of the irreducible frame- to conclude that différance has work of power, as the concept of re- been derived, has happened, is sistance demonstrates. Foucauldian to be mastered and governed on power is so ubiquitous and all-en- the basis of the point of a present compassing that resistance can being as a Subject, a who (Der- only take place in a framework of rida 1991, 65). power: ‘Where there is power, there is resistance, and yet, or rather con- On the other hand, Derrida car- sequently, this resistance is never ries out an important attack against in a position of exteriority in rela- the epistemological and ontological tion to power’ (Foucault 1976, 95). basis of action: Thus, as Anthony Giddens claims, for Foucault, power is the real sub- Within the metaphysics of pres- ject of history (Giddens 1984, 80). ence, within philosophy as knowl- However, such an anti-humanist ap- edge of the presence of the object, proach does not necessarily annihi- as the being-before-oneself of late the subject, but rather immobi- knowledge in consciousness …. 62 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

the history of being as presence, ground of activity of the subject rath- as self-presence in absolute er than the subject itself. Whereas knowledge, as consciousness of the subject may have a place within self in the infinity of parousia – the landscape of action, it is very dif- this history is closed. The history ficult to determine what that role in of presence is closed, for history terms of agency looks like. In fact, has never meant anything but the ‘différance’ posits a moment of pres- presentation [Gegenwärtigung] of ence for the subject, in which the being, the production and recol- real appears to be accessed in the lection of beings in presence, as meaningful connection of the sub- knowledge and mastery (Derrida ject’s action and the concrete reper- 1973, 102). cussion in social reality. However, such presence is ultimately con- Derrida intends to replace onto- stantly deferred (Callinicos 2006). logical presence with ‘hauntology,’ To sum up, Foucault and Derrida an experience that is not open to have created a theoretical envi- the present, but is rather linked to ronment that deprives the subject the past or possibly the future; as he of both knowledge and historical writes, ‘No différance without alter- agency. The epistemological break ity, no alterity without singularity, initiated by such a tradition has af- no singularity without the here-and- fected, even more importantly, criti- now’ (Derrida 1994, 30). From such cal cultural studies through the the- a perspective, Derrida criticizes the ory of articulation. Articulation, one remnants of metaphysics in struc- of the most generative concepts in turalism – the unifying principle as contemporary critical cultural stud- characterized within the works of ies, refers to an epistemological the- Ferdinand de Saussure and Claude ory that works as ‘a way of thinking Levi-Strauss. A closed, unified the structures of what we know as a structure fixes meaning, according play of correspondences, or corre- to original structuralist theory, but spondences and contradictions, as for Derrida, this structuring principle fragments in the constitution of what simply vanishes. we take to be unities’ (Slack 1996, Within this system, the human 113). agent remains incapable of discern- Hall (1980) and Ernesto Laclau ing reality and acting upon given (1977) provide a contemporary the- circumstances because any system orization of articulation, but the idea of reference (such as language) possesses a lineage going back to ‘is constituted ‘’‘historically’’ as a Louis Althusser (1970), and further weave of differences’ (Derrida 1982, back to Marx’s (1973) understand- 12). In this sense, Derrida’s thought ing of mediation but a considerable seems much more concerned with distance from the original concep- the structural rules regulating the tualization of articulation to its con- Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 63 temporary understanding remains ed, maintained, and contested. In in place. Marx, while describing other words, social reality does not how ideological mediation rules the exist independently from the way subordinate class, refers to an ‘ar- it is discursively constructed: ‘the ticulated’ model of social dominance main consequence of a break with and determinism (1973, 64); in con- the discursive/extra discursive di- trast, Hall describes articulation as chotomy is the abandonment of the ‘a linkage which is not necessary, thought/reality opposition’ (110). determined, absolute and essential Hegemony, for Laclau and Mouffe for all times’ (Hall 1986, 53). (1985), seems to be examined Althusser (1970) and Laclau more for its openness, exposure to (1977) provide the theoretical me- challenge and instability, than for its diation necessary for the transition constitutive capability of reproduc- between Marx’s and Hall’s under- ing an existing social order. In fact, standings of the concept. Althusser both authors expand the Derridean conceptualized ‘articulation’ by re- deconstructive principle according placing a linear causality with a to which reality never accomplishes complex network of contradictory ‘closed and fully constituted total- correspondences. More significant- ity’ (Laclau and Mouffe 1985, 106) ly, he upgrades ideology from an because such reality is consistently epiphenomenal status to serving subverted by the inherent tendency as the crucial site of social produc- of signification to transcend any se- tion; by shaping subjects through mantic limitations. interpellation, ideology constrains Finally, Hall turns the metaphor of the subject’s autonomy and agency: articulation almost into its negation ‘Ideology interpellates individuals (Slack 1996). As Shane Gunster un- as Subjects’ (Althusser 1970, 170). derscores (Gunster 2005, 180), Hall Althusser claims that the idea of jumps from the position of Raymond oneself as a Subject, author of your Williams (1977) and Edward own destiny, is an illusion fostered Thompson (1964), which retains a by ideology because history is a strong sense of social determina- process without subject. tion between social practice and so- In this respect, Laclau (1977) cial position, to the post-structuralist builds on both Althusser’s ideologi- paradigm, that sees the real as me- cal turn and on an idealist under- diated by ideology with no required standing of Gramsci’s concept of correspondence between the parts hegemony. He formulates a theory and the social whole: of articulation in which discourse becomes both the level in which class the form of the connection that can interests and class antagonism ma- make a unity of two different ele- terialize themselves, and the ground ments, under certain conditions. upon which hegemony is construct- It is a linkage which is not neces- 64 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

sary, determined, absolute and Instead, the authors just reviewed, essential for all time. You have with their discursive understanding to ask under what circumstances of reality and its semantic indetermi- can a connection be forged or nacy, dissolve individual and social made? The so-called ‘unity’ of a determination into open semiosis. discourse is really the articula- In order to exemplify the concrete tion of different, distinct elements implications of such a theoretical which can be rearticulated in dif- environment, I would like to discuss ferent ways because they have no how, via the New Social Movements necessary ‘belongingness.’ The perspective, such a mode of doing ‘unity’ which matters is a linkage critique understands Occupy Wall between the articulated discourse Street and its agency. and the social forces with which it can, under certain historical con- Post-structuralist Elements of ditions, but need not necessarily, ‘Occupy’ Social Mobilization be connected (Hall 1996, 141). The current dominant discourse on social mobilization represents Articulation as conceptualized a concrete ground where the limi- by Hall’s approach resonates with tations of the aforementioned per- Derrida’s signification. No required spectives on envisioning transform- correspondence between the rep- ative praxis become evident. Via the resentation and the meaning of the theoretical perspective popularly fragment exists, because the latter defined as New Social Movements, can attach to any structure of signifi- such a tradition has affected the cation, thus creating the articulation way social movements and their of a myriad of factors that interact in agenda are conceptualized. After a complicated and contradictory ways. brief contextualization of the New Concluding this section, the as- Social Movement approach, I pro- sessment of the relationship be- vide the specific example of the tween theory and praxis for the sake existing narratives on Occupy Wall of critique must include the problem Street (OWS), and will show how of what a theory can and cannot do. the agency of the movement is re- Assuming that practical intervention duced to strategies of discursive requires the critical work of the intel- construction and interruption. lect that determines ‘what is to be The discourse of newness of the done,’ then what is required is an so-called New Social Movements epistemology and ontology that can perspective derives from the as- identify the real, a stable ground ca- sumption that in the last decades, pable of guaranteeing a meaningful capitalist societies have gone correspondence between our pur- through drastic changes extensively poseful actions and their outcomes. affecting states, markets, civil so- Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 65 ciety and the way labor and value (Cohen 1985) . are conceptualized. For instance, As a whole, the idea of New post-structuralist thinkers such as Social Movements relies on the Maurizio Lazzarato (1986), Michael assumption of an epistemological Hardt and Antonio Negri (2000) and break often enabled by the post- Paolo Virno (2004) have shifted the structuralist emphasis on discursive analysis of contemporary capital- practices which implies a turn from ism from empirically grounded cat- material concerns—such as labor egories such as capital, labor and and wellbeing—to symbolic ones commodity-object, to cognitive capi- (Swords 2007), and the adoption of tal,’ ‘immaterial labor,’ and the ‘com- language-based forms of contesta- modity-sign.’ tion of codes in highly mediated so- Such a narrative of profound cieties (Gitlin 1980).This body of re- historic changes has stimulated a search is thus prevalently informed reconceptualization of the meaning by social constructionist principles of of social movements, which start- the post-structuralist tradition which ed to be referred to as New Social emphasizes the role that discursive Movements, a new paradigm for processes play in producing our un- social action. The old paradigm is derstandings of people, issues, and associated with movements iden- events (Edelman 1988). tifiable as socio-economic groups, Such a new perspective on so- demanding economic growth and cial mobilization abandoned the distribution of material resources; emphasis on class structure analy- emphasizing freedom and equality; sis and the emphasis on categories and assessing a political agenda such as labor or capital (Larana, through political party (Offe 1987). Johnston and Gusfield 1994). It The new paradigm focuses on tends to assume a substantial and movements formed by diverse so- epochal difference between the cio-economic strata (Klandermans historical context of ‘old’ and ‘new’ and Oegema 1987); mobilized by social movements. These scholars symbolic and cultural factors ap- also place themselves in overt op- pealing to what has been defined position to what they consider they as ‘identity politics’ (Melucci 1989); alter: namely, orthodox Marxism. tending to frame actions in terms of Thus, as David Plotke (1995) ob- further democratization of society serves, this perspective develops (Larana 1993); privileging informal- by presenting an obliged choice be- ity and spontaneity; and emphasiz- tween two poles: to embrace ortho- ing unsettled protest politics based dox Marxism, or to reverse its terms on demands formulated predomi- completely. nantly in negative terms, without a More or less explicitly informed clear ideological characterization by such assumptions, several in- 66 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 tellectuals and commentators have (Rabinow 1991, 75). recently intervened to endorse For instance, Judith Butler, on 2 Occupy Wall Street (hereafter October 2011, stated in front of OWS OWS). The movement started its participants that ‘we are assembling ‘occupation’ on 17 September 2011, in public, we are coming together as when a diffuse group of activists bodies in alliance in the street and organized a protest called ‘Occupy in the square, we’re standing here Wall Street’ and camped in Zuccotti together making democracy in act- Park, a privately owned park in New ing the phrase, ‘‘We The People”’ York’s financial district. Influenced (quoted in Taylor and Gessen 2012, by similar initiatives in Northern 193). What is exactly the level of Africa and Western Europe (Kerton realization of people’s sovereignty 2012; Castañeda 2012), ‘Occupiers’ represented by the expression, ‘We were protesting against the corrup- the People’ that Butler describes? In tion of the democratic process due her book Excitable Speech (1997), to social inequality, corporate greed, Butler considers resistance to be and the erosion of life opportunities the equivalent to the margins cre- for the great majority of the popula- ated by the instability of discours- tion—as one of the most repeated es; such margin can be capitalized group’s slogans, ‘we are the 99 per- through performative action. cent,’ clearly asserted. Accordingly, Butler invites OWS A brief survey of examples of to express the sovereignty of the commentaries about OWS provides people by the material and symbolic a sense of the possibilities for agen- presence of their own bodies. But cy in post-structuralist thought. Most the materiality serves only the ob- of the recommendations, as Cloud jective to reproduce a discourse of (2006) suggests, can be defined power. In line with such a position, in as ‘micro-strategies of discursive The Psychic Life of Power: Theories interruption’ (Cloud 2006, 236) or in Subjection (1997), drawing on of discursive construction. In other Foucault, Butler claims that: words, it is assumed that power is omnipresent, diffused and embod- power imposes itself on us, and ied in discourse, knowledge and weakened by its force, we come regimes of truth, consistently under to internalise or accept its terms. negotiation (Foucault 1991). Power Power, that first appears as exis discursively constructed and can ternal, pressed upon the subject, be discursively disrupted by the ac- pressing the subject into subordi- tion ‘of detaching the power of truth nation, assumes a psychic form from the forms of hegemony, social, that constitutes the subject’s self- economic, and cultural, within which identity. It is the internalisation of it operates at the present time’ the ‘‘discourse’’ of power that cre- Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 67

ates the Subject. Subjection con- in the same publication they also sists precisely in this fundamental reveal a convergence into a ground dependency on a discourse (But- in which social movements such ler 1997, 2). as OWS would be placed as dis- empowered historic subjects. On Slavoj Žižek, several days be- the one hand, Butler understands fore Butler’s statement, compared OWS’s agency as Foucauldian re- Occupy to the ‘Red Ink,’ a metaphor sistance which is constituted and to express the movement’s capabil- determined by power, therefore it ity to give voice to discontent: cannot escape the reproductive logic of the latter. On the other hand, ‘This is how we live. We have all Žižek believes that action of social the freedoms we want. But what movement should act beyond exist- we are missing is red ink: the ing power logic; however, as Laclau language to articulate our non- commented in the same publication, freedom. The way we are taught he never really specifies how radi- to speak about freedom— war on cal action would materialize, leaving terror and so on—falsifies free- the promise of praxis unfulfilled. dom’ (quoted in Taylor and Ges- Similar approaches can be sen 2012, 67). found by looking at the blogs of the ‘Occupy’ section on the American Therefore, according to Žižek, news website Huffington Post. It is the role of Occupy is understood remarkable to observe how most as giving voice to discontent rath- commentators (including several er than acting upon the causes for scholars and activists) consistently such dissatisfaction. Both Butler’s frame OWS’s agency and its vic- and Žižek’s interventions exemplify tories in discursive terms. I report an understanding of agency that is here some of the most significant supposed to translate into social examples. Greg Ruggiero, acknowl- change in virtue of its discursive per- edging the success of OWS (30 formativity. However, emancipation- April 2012), claims that ‘Occupy has from-domination and ‘resistance’ to changed the national conversation, it should not be conflated( Couzens- and it is important to acknowledge Hoy 2005); they are certainly linked all the people who camped out, but the former does not necessary marched or went to jail to help make follow the latter. it happen’. Max Berger (4 May 2012) Certainly, Butler and Žižek do not argues that ‘Occupy transformed share the same notion of discursive the public debate by naming the performativity as they clearly ex- problem – inequality of wealth and pressed in their publication coau- power – and the cause – the power thored with Laclau (2000). However, of Wall Street.’ Nicholas Mirzoeff (9 68 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

September 2012), communications conscious action and the outcome scholar, defines OWS’s agency as of self-reflection’ rather than due ‘to walk asking questions. And it’s to structural factors such as class ok to get lost.’ (Melucci 1992, 10). Rebecca Solnit (17 September The prevailing narrative of OWS 2012), scholar and activist, relativ- reflects the limited conceptual izes the idea of the goals of social breadth of post-structuralist agency transformation of the society by re- which abandons, for instance, class ducing them to subjective positions: politics for micro identity politics. ‘What does success mean? Who The commentaries I reviewed so far decides? By what standards? Who express a reticence in engaging with decides success? Success has to the concrete implication of its own be decided by those people in strug- discourse of change. There is then gle, those who are fighting or - or a mismatch between the goals that ganizing for something.’ Lisa Boyle those commentaries imply for OWS (26 September 2012) believes that and the means employed to reach ‘Commentators who declare the them which can be related to what I Occupy movement a failure under- previously defined as post-structur- estimate the value of protest in a alism’s weak sense of social deter- democracy and fail to acknowledge mination. In other words, it is highly how the Occupy movement has al- unclear how exactly discourse con- ready influenced public and political cretely engages with coercive and discourse.’ violent state apparatus or a political The New Social Movements’ em- economic system funded on end- phasis on discourse as an independ- less capital accumulation. ent agent of social change is facili- Trying to give a response to those tated by authors such as Foucault questions, in the next and final sec- (1972) according to whom ideas tion, I provide the ‘pars construens’ of can bring historical transformation, the paper by proposing to embrace and discourse is the set of linguistic Gramsci’s materialist understand- patterns through which these ideas ing of the political development of a are articulated. Given the assumed group in a framework of hegemony, discursive nature of a given socio- and to revisit the Gramscian figure cultural system, this framework of the organic intellectual. opens up the possibility of conceiv- ing of a social movement as a way Hegemony and the Organic to discursively challenge a given Intellectual regime of truth as semantic and se- Parallel to the idealization of in- miotic struggle. The assumption, for tellectuals that implies their abstrac- such New Social Movements, is that tion from the material production ‘collective identity is a product of a of life of academics, New Social Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 69

Movement perspectives tend to ground in which events are linked overlook the pivotal part that rela- through stable relations of significa- tions of production, class structure tion and causality. The determinabil- and labor theory of value still play in ity of signifying and acting has been explaining the emergence of dissent demonized in much of current social and consent, coercion and emanci- critique as a modernist fairy tale, as pation. In the case of OWS, many a grand narrative, as a principle of intellectuals informed by post-struc- oppressive and disciplining power. turalist principles tend to conceptu- However, I believe it is a necessary alize experience of the movement, condition in a framework of activ- emphasizing the contingency and ism, in which praxis is assumed to the reversibility of cultural practices be causally linked to given political through strategies of discursive con- objectives and that powerful shared struction, discursive interruption, meaning can produce a collective and cultural re-signification; how- (revolutionary) consciousness. ever, these never completely chal- The importance of maintaining lenge the structural determinations a framework characterized by so- and productive forces of capital. cial determinism and causation is Such an approach to transforma- expressed by Alex Callinicos when tive praxis should be evaluated at the he argues in favour of ‘a theory that level effectiveness of social action to was simultaneously explanatory and enhance social change. Purposeful critical’ (Callinicos 2005, 247) and and practical activism requires an Sheila Benhabib when advancing a understanding of reality in which the critique that entails both an ‘explana- existing correspondence of proposi- tory-diagnostic and an anticipatory- tions to their objects and the internal Utopian moment’ (Benhabib 1986, coherence of propositions paral- 143). Callinicos and Benhabib point lels a representational (rather than to the importance of a knowledge re-signifying) correspondence both produced by critical thinking which between language and reality and must address both ‘understand- a given element of such reality and ing’— the interpretation of the mean- the whole (Carrol 1996). In other ing of a given social phenomenon— words, the intellectual who purpose- and ‘explanation’— the speculation fully orients his/her actions towards about the causes of such event. In an objective such as social change other words, assuming a ‘dialectical should still assume a degree of so- interaction between shared experi- cial determinism. ence and interpretation of that expe- Accordingly, informed by a re- rience’ (Cloud 2006, 342). alist framework, he/she assumes Conversely, when, as per the that beyond ideology, discourse, principles previously mentioned, the and Derridean ‘differance’ exists a subject is deprived of his/her histo- 70 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 ry-making role, the idea of activism dominant ideology (Zompetti 1997, loses significance. Such a collaps- 2003). As Cox argues (in Chase- ing of reality into discourse may Dunn et al. 1994), ideology, in the attain/approach Derrida’s goal of general Marxist interpretation, ac- eliminating the metaphysics of pres- counts for a functional relationship ence (1976) but, in the process, it between base and superstructure also dissolves the humanist presup- or as a relationship between the position that people make history as ‘real’ and the ‘imaginary’ (Althusser well as change it. I believe that the 1970). Instead, hegemony should be Gramscian concept of hegemony considered as a quality of the social has the potential to rescue critique whole, reconciling social existence from such a dead end. and consciousness as can be seen in Gramsci’s essay of ‘Americanism The Materialized Intervention and Fordism’ (1971). Despite the consistent usage of Most existing scholarship has the concept, scholars have rarely prioritized one particular aspect of taken advantage of the full range such a description. For instance , of possibilities of hegemony. In his many works have emphasized ‘con- seminal article, Perry Anderson sent’ and ‘resistance’ (e.g., Burnham (1976) pointed out the ambiguities 1991; Cox 1983; Laclau and of Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks in Mouffe 1985; Martin-Barbero 1983; defining hegemony, which cause Zompetti 1997, 2008). Many others its interpretation to move unevenly have emphasized the coercive as- along the axes of ‘force’ and ‘con- pects and structural limitations (e.g., sent’, and ‘civil society’ and ‘state.’ Anderson 1977; Arrighi 1994; Aune In my view, the reason for such lack 2004; Taylor 1996). Conversely, I of definition in relation to those ele- understand hegemony as: ments may be explained by the fact that hegemony is treated as a spe- ‘the spontaneous consent giv- cific characteristic of one of those en by the great masses of the elements, instead of being consid- population to the general direc- ered as a quality of the social whole. tion imposed on social life by the In this sense, my goal is to revive a dominant fundamental group; this holistic understanding that does not consent is ‘‘historically’’ caused lend itself to binaries such as mate- by the prestige (and consequent rial/symbolic, force/consent, state/ confidence) which the dominant civil society (Martinez and Briziarelli group enjoys because of its posi- 2012, 296). tion and function in the world of Such a holistic understanding production (Gramsci, 1971, 12). should be first of all distinguished from hegemony understood as Such a definition powerfully syn- Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 71 thetizes both force and consent, that aims at the formation of a his- ideas and material existence. toric bloc. In the first stage, which In relation to the socially trans- he names ‘economic-corporate,’ formative aspirations of OWS and people associate as a function of the privileging of the discursive per- self-interest, recognizing that they spective expressed by an allegedly need the support of others in or- post-structuralist sensibility, the ob- der to retain their own security—as jective in this paper is not to dimin- in the case of a trade union. In the ish the fundamental role played by second stage, ‘Economic and social discourse in producing/reproduc- consciousness,’ the group mem- ing dominant narratives, regime of bers become aware that there is a truths, and to ultimately close down wider field of interests and that there the language of change and revolu- are others who share certain inter- tions. It is rather to advance a view ests with them and will continue to in which radical transformation is in- share those interests into the fore- trinsically tied to a wider and more seeable future. It is at this stage holistic strategy consisting of the that a sense of solidarity develops, establishment of an alternative he- but this ‘solidarity’ is still only on the gemonic order as Gramsci (1971) basis of shared economic interests, understood it. and not on a common worldview. As Such a holistic understanding of Gramsci puts it, ‘… consciousness hegemony may be beneficial to the is reached of the solidarity of inter- way we approach a social move- ests among all the members of a so- ment such as OWS and the way in- cial class – but still in the purely eco- tellectuals can contribute to envision nomic field’ (Gramsci 1971, 181). and bring social change. Gramsci However, consciousness of how is convinced that a movement can they might benefit through the cre- radically transform a given society ation of a new system is still lack- only by establishing an alternative ing. In the third, ‘hegemonic’ stage, hegemonic order which means act- the social group members become ing both on its consensual and its aware that their interests need to be coercive elements. Accordingly, he extended beyond what they can do conceptualizes the political path of within the context of their own partic- a group that seeks hegemony by ular class. What is required to reach the definition of a specific objective, this more productive stage, argues the construction of a historic bloc, Gramsci, is that other groups take a ‘synthesis of economic, political, the interests of this group as their intellectual, and moral leadership’ own. (Gramsci 1971, 181). In relation to such vision of social Gramsci identifies three stages mobilization, the commentaries I of political development for a group have examined tend to limit OWS to 72 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 the Gramscian intermediate stage in The confrontation I am suggest- which the awareness of belonging to ing with the state can be thought a similar situation (we are the 99%), at two different levels: at the rep- i.e. an economic consciousness, is resentative level of a political or- not followed by political conscious- ganization, and the level of agency ness: what Gramsci would define of organic intellectuals. Due to the as ‘a moment of superstructure built space constraints of the paper, I will out of the base’ (Gramsci 1971, concentrate more on the latter as it 181). In other words, according to more directly concerns the subject the commentaries, OWS should be of this paper: the praxis of intellectu- feeling satisfied within the limits of als. As far as political organization an expression of discontent and re- is concerned, OWS would benefit sistance, without considering that from the creation of what Gramsci resistance to a force does not nec- defines as ‘Modern Prince’ (Gramsci essarily translate into emancipation 1971, 253). The modern Prince rep- from it. According to Gramsci, such resents a democratically-oriented a political movement requires a dou- central organization that could me- ble engagement at the level of civil diate different ideologies re-united society and the state. under the ‘historic bloc’ represented For Gramsci, emancipation can- by ‘we are the 99%.’ not only take place in the civil so- Since, as Anderson claims, ‘he- ciety, but requires emancipation gemony, although ethical-political, from the state as well. Despite the must be ultimately based on the popular belief among post-struc- economic function performed by the turalist thinkers such as Hardt and fundamental social group in produc- Negri (2000) about the passing of tion’ (Anderson 1977, 19), the me- the Westphalian system, states still diation of the ‘Modern Prince’ can represent the most powerful inertial intervene by bridging the sphere system against social change. The of production with the rest of social modern state, for Gramsci, repre- life. Similarly to the function of the sents the coercive aspect of civil proletarian public sphere (Negt and society, the powerful crystallization Kluge 1972), the ‘Modern Prince’ of class hegemony. For this reason, could mediate and articulate the dif- if the Gramscian idea of the ‘war of ferent positions inside the vast ide- position’ (Gramsci 1971, 278) has ological spectrum of the so-called the merit to discover the battle- ‘99%.’ More concretely, in the case ground of civil society, that does not of OWS such structure could medi- imply at all the dismissal of the state ate between the structureless and as a terrain of confrontation. That is leaderless associational forms of the state secures an inequality of OWS (Gitlin 2012) and the highly production under the law of abstract hierarchized trade unions, allegedly equality (Bonefeld 2002, 129). their most proximate and relevant Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 73 ally. It could facilitate the ‘chain of In many ways, the idealized aspi- equivalence’ (Laclau and Mouffe rations of intervention earlier men- 1985) between different groups and tioned reproduce the position of a conceptually different concerns. traditional intellectual who, assum- As already mentioned, the sec- ing to stand above society due to ond level in which the state should his/her moral virtue, comes down be engaged involves more directly to intervene in human affairs as an the possible intervention of academ- Olympic god/dess. Conversely, the ics who, once they are demystified organic intellectual becomes the of the role of the intellectual above historic expression of a particular the parts, and have acknowledged social group or strata because he/ their condition as workers, could she embraces the awareness that start operating as organic intellectu- theory is not for theory’s sake but ‘is als. always for someone and for some Hall (1992), recalling the politi- purpose’ (Cox 1981, 128). cal commitment of British Cultural In this sense, within the context Studies, sheds light on the problem of the economic crisis, the contradic- of re-contextualizing the Gramscian tion that Bourdieu identified in being figure of the organic intellectual in a ‘dominated faction of the dominant different historical times: ‘We were class’ may better underscore intel- organic intellectuals without any lectuals’ material condition as labor- organic point of reference; organic ers more than idealized intellectuals intellectuals with a nostalgia or will and, in turn, help develop a more or hope […] that at some point we socially grounded critique because would be prepared in intellectual ‘the starting point of critical elabo- work for that kind of relationship, if ration is the consciousness of what such a conjuncture ever appeared’ one really is’ (Gramsci 1971, 323). (Hall 1992, 282). The fact that academics are entering So, what does it mean for an in- the reserve army of labor (Chronicle tellectual to be ‘organic’ in the cur- of Higher Education 2010) and the rent settings? Can we still conceptu- precariousness of their working po- alize in the current division of labor sitions could foment the feeling of and relations of production an intel- the historically situated unjust rather lectual defined by its class origin than the universal a-historic ideal of (Eyeman 1994; Karabel 1976; Said the traditional intellectual. Thus, re- 1994; Sassoon 2000)? According to placing the paternalistic idea of in- Gramsci (1971), the main difference tervention from a distance and from between traditional and organic in- above, with intervention from within. tellectuals is that the former aims Such a realization could poten- at a universal and trans-historical tially lead to a revisiting of our own knowledge and the latter at a so- identity; instead of understanding cially grounded kind of knowledge. ourselves in the liminal position 74 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 within the dominant class, academ- The public of academicians are ics could identify themselves as ex- certainly students, but also col- ploited knowledge workers (Fuchs leagues and neighbors. Therefore, 2010) belonging to the post-indus- the organic intellectual can operate trial working class: the multitude more directly outside its most imme- (Hardt and Negri 2004). Such a feel- diate sphere of action, namely aca- ing and understanding of the subal- demia, to mediate transformative tern may originate by what Henry praxis of political organization and Giroux (2002) describes as the task social movements. Such a function, of taking a critical stance toward our first of all, implies socializing his/ own practice and the practice of oth- her own cultural capital in order to ers to engage in debate and inquiry. provide people outside academia Accordingly, as suggested earlier, with the theoretical and conceptual the practice of the intellectual in- framework to better understand re- side academia must be materialized ality beyond its surface. In fact, our rather than idealized. liminal position, far away from the The organic intellectual operat- world of production (as traditionally ing in present times has several understood) but still retaining the tasks. First of all, as a laborer, he/ logic of accumulation of (cultural) she needs to work harder than the capital does not simply cripple us, traditional and orthodox intellectu- but also allows us to examine such al in order to be at the forefront of a reality from an inappropriate dis- theoretical work, because as I tried tance, therefore allowing the mo- to show, theory matters as much ment of estrangement that Bertholt as practice. Second, the intellectual Brecht considered necessary for should mediate consciousness and any ideological critique. action. As Cloud (2006) suggests, the intellectual must function as the Conclusions bridge between the inside and the As James Aune points out: outside of the university walls, a living mediation between the theoreti- One disturbing feature of aca- cal consciousness and the empirical demic discussions of ideology or grounded reality. Third, the organic hegemony is a lack of reflexivity. intellectual could function similarly In other words, there is an implicit to what Gramsci defined as ‘integral but unjustified assumption that journalism’ not only ‘intended to sat- the academic has somehow es- isfy the immediate needs of its pub- caped the hegemonic processes lic, but intended to create and de- that influence every-one else. For velop those needs in order to extend this reason, critical self-reflection gradually the area of interests of its is what I think is first of all needed public’ (quoted in Buttigieg 1992, 24). to understand our won environ- Briziarelli: (Re-)Occupy Critique! 75

ment, what Bourdieu calls the es produce an anti-human ecology, ‘skhole’ (the school) (Aune 2011, a theoretical environment in which 429). subjects are not guaranteed a collective sharing of the same mean- In relation to that, the goal of the ings nor an affectivity of their ac- paper was to show how praxis in- tion. As a consequence, the efforts side academia is, on the one hand, directed towards purposeful actions conditioned by a political economy get lost in an ever-changing for- of academic production and publi- est of symbols. Such a perspective cation. On the other hand, critique seems to explain why, when trying is also conditional upon the em- to make sense of OWS, many think- bracement of a kind of critique that ers tend to frame the agency of the fuses ideas and action together in movement in ways that hardly touch the agency of the subject in mak- the material and coercive reproducing history. Rejecting both an ideal- tive system of the society which are ist understanding of the intellectual dissolved into a discursive cosmol- and anti-humanist conceptualiza- ogy of signs. tion of critique, the paper advanced Consequently, I argue that a a realist ontology and epistemol- radically holistic understanding of ogy of praxis founded on Gramsci’s hegemony, dialectically reconcil- thought. ing dualisms, such as symbolic First of all, by concretely engaging and material, consent and coercion with the academic field and with the and state and civil society, could forces at play in such field, one can potentially provide an adequate reconcile the intellectual and man- vision for radical social change. ual labor of academics. Bourdieu’s Such a change can be promoted analysis helped to uncover universi- both outside academia, as belong- ty intellectuals as subjects in need, ing to a political group organized in operating in a regime of scarcity and the civil society to form an historic asymmetrical power relations. In bloc against the state, and as or- such an environment, the possibility ganic intellectuals who do not fight for critique and intervention are ma- to preserve their cultural capital, terially constrained by conservative but actually try to socialize it in the forces of reproduction of the field. classroom by bridging abstract con- At the same time, critique and sciousness with an empirical one. activism are also limited by what Unfortunately, I am aware that this can and cannot be envisioned in is not necessarily a recipe for a suc- intellectuals’ field of thought. In this cessful practice, but at least it offers sense, I have shown how the literary a critical one: so let’s try, let’s fail, fortune of specific critical approach- let’s fail again and let’s fail better! 76 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

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Since 2009 there has been an upsurge in political activity in and around the UK, as well as in some European and American universities. These ‘new student rebellions’ have displayed levels of radicalism and political activism seemingly unprecedented among recent generations of students. Broadly speaking, the intensification of this activity can be understood as being directly related to ongoing neoliberal reforms of education, a process intensified by the global financial crisis. In this article we seek to consider some of the detail of the emergence of these rebellions, and argue that they can be interpreted as part of resistance to the neoliberal tendencies in contemporary social life. As such, we argue that a depoliticised tendency accompanies the introduction of, and resistance to, neoliberal mechanisms in Higher Education (HE). As activists in groups who have adopted more creative and explicitly politically antagonistic forms of activism, we suggest that such forms might be more productive arenas for our energies if we want to challenge the neoliberal and depoliticised root causes of these conflicts.

Keywords: Post-politics, Neoliberalism, Higher Education, NUS, Student Protest, Creative Resistance.

The image of the future is chang- duced precarity (Compagna 2013; ing for the current generation of Southwood 2011; Standing 2011). young people, haunted by the spec- Young people are not the only ones tre of the ‘graduate with no future’ facing increasingly precarious fu- (Mason 2011, 2012; Gillespie and tures; current government austerity Habermehl 2012). Gone are the as- measures appear to have everyone pirational promises of post-univer- but the very wealthy in their sights. sity job security and social mobility. Recent outbreaks of rioting up and Instead, all that can be secured is down England appear to indicate a position of permanently repro- a growing disquiet (Bauman 2011; Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 81

Harvey 2012; Milburn 2012). In this of political economic practices that article, however, we focus mainly on proposes that human well-being the situation in and around Higher can best be advanced by liberating Education, as this is the sector in individual entrepreneurial freedoms which we work and where we have and skills within an institutional had the most experience of recent framework characterized by strong struggles. private property rights, free mar- There has been much cover- kets, and free trade’ (Harvey 2005, age of the ‘new student rebel- 3). Thus, it usually entails ‘[d]eregu- lions’ (Solomon and Palmeri 2011; lation, privatization, and a withdraw- Hancox 2011), with commentators al of the state from many areas of focussing on, variously, ‘the vio- social provision’ (Harvey 2005, 3). lence’ of some of the demonstra- We begin, therefore, by outlining tions, or the new communication some of the mechanisms through technologies being deployed by which the neoliberalisation of UK the activists coalescing around this Higher Education (HE) is occurring, struggle. In this article, we seek to a phenomenon we see as mirror- consider some of the detail of the ing a wider neoliberalisation and emergence of these rebellions, and depoliticisation of contemporary argue that they can be interpreted social life. We then discuss some as part of resistance to the neolib- of the prominent moments in the eral tendencies in contemporary aforementioned wave of struggle social life. As such, we argue that and look at the role of England’s a depoliticised tendency accompa- National Union of Students (NUS) nies the introduction of, and resist- and ‘student leaders’ in furthering ance to, neoliberal mechanisms in depoliticisation. We conclude by higher education. exploring some alternative forms of The processes of neoliberalisa- resistance than those which tend tion have been widely discussed to dominate mainstream coverage: elsewhere in relation to different those which are based on experi- spheres of social life (for instance: ments in trying to bring other forms climate change in Lohmann 2012; of education, and society, into being. development in Motta and Nilsen As participants in groups who have 2011; and in terms of ‘actually exist- adopted more creative and explic- ing neoliberalism’ rather than sim- itly politically antagonistic forms of ply neoliberal ideology in Brenner activism, we argue that these might and Theodore 2002a, 2002b). For be more productive arenas for our the purposes of this article we align energies if we want to challenge ourselves with David Harvey’s defi- the neoliberal and depoliticised root nition of neoliberalism as ‘a theory causes of these conflicts. 82 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Depoliticisation and ence’ in order to enable students, as Neoliberalism within the consumers, to choose the best uni- Academy versity (and to discipline academ- The past three years have seen ics’ teaching work). The neoliberal an upsurge in political activity in and justification for these mechanisms around UK universities, and edu- of measurement is that they will cational institutions more generally. ‘drive up standards’ and ‘improve This activity has displayed levels excellence’ (Gillespie et al. 2011). of radicalism and political activism Moreover, there are claims that seemingly unprecedented among market competition needs to be bet- recent generations of students. ter unleashed on the HE sector in Broadly speaking, the intensification order to coerce floundering institu- of this activity can be understood tions, their ‘dead weight’ faculty, and as being directly related to ongoing unpopular, or rather unprofitable, neoliberal reforms of education, a subjects. Criticisms are also being process intensified by the global -fi voiced over the commodification of nancial crisis. knowledge, especially though the Universities are currently facing various metrics systems such as the economic instability, debt and an REF, and the enclosure of research uncertain future. The once popular within exclusive and expensive in- ‘universal’ education model is institutional libraries and publications, creasingly being undermined by ne- or behind electronic gateways such oliberal reforms aimed at ensuring as Ingenta or Cambridge Scientific that market values are better wed- Abstracts. ded to the working conditions and The trend towards the implemen- learning practices of the university tation of neoliberal principles in HE (Molesworth et al. 2010), what some is exacerbated by proposals out- have termed ‘academic capitalism’ lined in the UK government’s 2011 (Slaughter and Leslie 1999). Here White Paper on Higher Education in the UK, one of the ways this is oc- (Department for Business Innovation curring is through the intensification and Skills 2011). It aims to force com- of metric systems aimed at measur- petition in universities, with students ing ‘value’, including research-audit- remodelled as consumers, and un- ing exercises such as the Research popular or ‘uncompetitive’ courses Excellence Framework (REF) (De and universities potentially forced Angelis and Harvie 2009; Harvie into bankruptcy. Despite being filled 2000, 2004 and 2005; Gillespie et with contradictions and inconsist- al. 2011). The REF is accompanied encies, the White Paper intends to by teaching-auditing mechanisms better entrench the neoliberal model such as the National Student Survey of the academy, and in so doing ‘is (NSS), which attempts to use met- bound to reinforce existing social in- rics to measure ‘the student experi- equalities’ (Colleni 2011). Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 83

The neoliberalisation of HE in the these ideas in relation to activism UK, and the rise of managerialism around UK Higher Education. in the public sector in general, can Evidence of the post-political or be directly linked to the wider emer- depoliticised condition is appar- gence of what has been termed the ent in the claims made by all the ‘post-political’, or ‘depoliticised’, major UK electoral parties that the condition of contemporary social life budget deficit must be reduced, for (Swyngedouw 2010; Zizek 2008). instance, with the only disagree- According to this thesis, the fall of ment centring on the technicalities the Berlin Wall, and the disintegra- of how and where the cuts fall. This tion of the Soviet Eastern Bloc, then filters through to the HE- sec have resulted in a consensus that tor where cuts play out in the cull- takes capitalist liberal democracy ing of unprofitable, and often criti- for granted as the legitimate form cal, subjects, a process presented of social and political organisation. as being driven by economic and All this is perhaps best summed administrative necessity rather than up by Francis Fukuyama’s (1993) politics. This logic is not restricted infamous ‘end of history’ claims. to the challenges to the public uni- Political and ethical questions versity discussed above, but is even about how people should live are evident in those organisations and displaced in this depoliticised con- institutions apparently charged with text by technocratic and manage- resisting the neoliberal attack, such rial decisions shorn of their political as the National Union of Students content. As sociologist Slavoj Žižek (NUS), as we explore further below. writes, post-politics ‘claims to leave behind ideological struggles and, in- The (Re)emergence of Student stead, focus on expert management Radicalism: Resisting Neoliberal and administration’ (Žižek 2008, Reforms 34). This serves to deny the exist- The squeeze on HE is, like the ence of antagonistic social relations crisis of capital itself, impacting and different political interests, re- upon a range of countries interna- sulting in a censure of dissensus. tionally. In Europe, for example, the Decisions are supposedly made on standardisation of HE, known as the the claimed universal basis of ef- Bologna process, is undermining ficiency and necessity, taking the the sector’s autonomy. Fortunately, market and liberal state for granted. however, the emerging resistance A number of authors have explored is similarly international. People the notion of the post-political in as far apart as Chile and Italy are relation to climate change activ- challenging the neoliberal model ism (see, for instance, Pusey and of the university (Do and Roggero Russell 2010 and Schelmbach et al. 2009; Aguilera 2012; Zibechi 2012), 2012), but here we seek to explore which is increasingly focused on a 84 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 cynical notion of ‘employability’ and Maintenance Allowance (EMA) for the production of ‘skilled’ workers to further education (FE) students. be put to use for the reproduction Such changes, combined with a of capital. The double crisis of the number of key events and actions, economy and the university made have been crucial in the emergence some campuses once again sites of of the ‘new student rebellions’, and resistance, and it has been argued it is to a summary of these that we that the ‘new student movement can shall now turn. be seen as the main organized response to the global financial crisis’ Millbank and the Rupturing of (Caffentzis 2010). There are many Student Apathy examples globally of this resistance In anticipation of the aforemen- including militant protests and oc- tioned cuts and tuition fee rises, on cupations in the United States (US), 10 November 2010 the NUS, joint- and in particular California; riots, oc- ly with the University and College cupations and blockades in Italy; and Union (UCU), held a national dem- strikes and protests in Puerto Rico, onstration, entitled ‘DEMOlition’. more recently involving widespread The ‘Millbank riot’, as it was later rioting (After the Fall 2009; Do and referred to by some, has been pin- Roggero 2009; Fritsch 2008). pointed by many commentators as a Here in the UK, the eruption of pivotal moment in the re-emergence dissent in and around campuses of radical student protest within the in late 2010 was directly linked to UK (Hansen 2010). the publication of the Browne re- The demonstration had the po- view into HE funding. The Browne tential to be just another A-B march review’s publication coincided with in London, and for many, due to a the incoming Conservative and police cordon around Parliament Liberal Democratic government’s Square, it was. In the event, howev- ‘Corporate Spending Review’ of er, neither the NUS nor UCU were public finances, which was a mani- prepared for the scale of either the festo for widespread public sec- turnout or militancy on the day. Both tor cuts. This meant that Browne’s of the latter meant that the protests conclusions – that the cap on tui- received international coverage, tion fees be raised from £3,300 to a situation unlikely to have been £9,000, and market competition achieved by a student march alone. further extended into HE – were A significant number of demonstra- accompanied by substantial, and tors diverged from the official route, arguably unsustainable, cuts to uni- ignored NUS stewards and made versities’ teaching budgets. These their way to Millbank Towers, where changes were further compounded the Conservative Party headquar- by the withdrawal of the Educational ters is located. A series of iconic Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 85 images were repeated through- this, and undeterred by the crimi- out corporate and alternative me- nalisation and demonisation of stu- dia outlets, depicting young people dent protesters, 25,000 people still dancing and smashing windows, turned out on the 24 November to sometimes simultaneously. Hence participate in simultaneous protests the 10 November 2010 became in a number of cities across the infamous for the occupation and country. Of particular significance smashing up of the Millbank build- were the walkouts staged by thou- ing. Perhaps though, this event at sands of sixth form and FE college Millbank should be considered piv- students, many of whom risked di- otal not for the broken windows, but rect financial penalty for protesting for the apparent rupturing of student through the removal of their EMA for apathy, of which the broken plate that week. The participation of this glass was just a potent symbol. new wave of young people positive- Important to note is that almost as ly shifted the dynamics of struggle, soon as protesters had entered the as had happened with the anti-war Millbank building, the then president protests a decade earlier. of the NUS, Aaron Porter, had con- A demonstration was also called demned them in no uncertain terms, for 9 December 2010. It was dubbed describing the thousands that went Day X by some, as it was the day of to Millbank as ‘rogue protesters’ the parliamentary vote on increasing (NUS 2010). Although elements of university fees. Many of the twenty- the UCU leadership also criticised seven university occupations were protesters – for example, General still ongoing, and a massive dem- Secretary Sally Hunt stated that ‘the onstration in London took place. actions of a mindless and totally Despite this, a ‘yes’ vote for increas- unrepresentative minority should ing fees was returned in parliament; not distract from today’s message’ meanwhile, outside the police were (UCU 2010) – others were sup- ‘kettling’ demonstrators and charg- portive, with academics publishing ing them on horses.3 letters in national newspapers sup- In considering the prospects and porting the students.1 potential for the development of Previous to the DEMOlition dem- these rebellions against the further onstration, left-led groups, such as entrenchment of neoliberalism, it is National Campaign Against Fees crucial to consider the institutions and Cuts (NCAFC)2, had already that surround them, and in some called for a follow up day of action instances, the attempts to contain on 24 November 2010 in order to them. Among those who might stand maintain momentum. Post-Millbank, to benefit from the image of the stu- however, the NUS refused to en- dent movement as a phenomenon dorse this demonstration. Despite limited to struggles about fees and 86 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 cuts, rather than about concerns able number of students who do not with the form of education more want to be represented by such an generally, and whose actions partly institution, or who merely see the serve to try and restrict it to such, NUS as largely irrelevant. are the NUS. Failure to realise the capacity of one’s own membership could be The NUS as a Depoliticised perceived as the NUS simply failing Institution as an organisation in its relationship As we have already discussed to the grassroots. However, there is above, Aaron Porter and the NUS a more deep rooted problem, with leadership condemned the protest- the NUS having been criticised from ers at Millbank voraciously and this some quarters as being too close was met with a barrage of person- to the Labour party, and hence real criticism of Porter, and the NUS luctant to organise any demonstra- more generally. The slogan ‘Aaron tions against the implementation of Porter you don’t represent me’ be- fees when Labour were in office. gan to circulate, and a campaign to Indeed, the ‘DEMOlition’ march was remove him as the head of the NUS the first protest the NUS had organ- was begun. Porter made things ised against fees at any point in its worse when he made the statement history. Moreover, no national dem- in a Guardian newspaper interview onstrations were organised by the that ‘while I disagree with tuition NUS after DEMOlition, showing a fees, they are not the biggest evil failure to build on the momentum of in society’ (Aitkenhead 2011), thus numbers and the energy of the day. showing a distinct lack of empathy Apparently, then, the NUS aims with the student struggle, a struggle to mobilise students to be political- that he was supposed to be head- ly active only up to a certain point, ing as president of the NUS! It is but not beyond that. Standing for hard to imagine the head of another student executive positions in elec- Trade Union making a similar state- tions and taking part in debates ment about redundancies or a de- about issues affecting students and cline in working conditions within its the world at large are to be encour- sector at any time during their lead- aged. Hot topics on campus can ership, let alone at a high point in range from whether bottled water / struggle. The Sun / Nestle products should The NUS leadership seemed to be sold in Union shops, through have miscalculated the levels of an- to more self-interested concerns ger and militancy among the con- such as access to cheap laptops stituent they supposedly represent. and cheaper drinks. However, as Perhaps this is itself suggestive of has been demonstrated by Aaron the fact that there are a consider- Porter’s condemnation of militant Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 87 students, the NUS power structure ‘Education First’, which encouraged is undermined if a self-organised, students to email their tutors to ap- mobilised and militant student body ply pressure on them not to strike. is willing, able and empowered to This was all done with the aim of de- take action outside of its limited and fending a narrowly defined ‘student limiting parameters. experience’, which appeared to In an analysis echoing the afore- limit the interests of students to the mentioned account of the depoliti- largely exaggerated effects of strike cised dimensions of neoliberal capi- action on students undergoing as- talist society, a Dublin-based group, sessments that year, rather than the the Provisional University (2010), wider effects of cuts and restructur- have described students’ unions as ing on the long-term ‘student expe- part of the university ‘depoliticisa- rience’ (for a contemporary report tion machine’: on this campaign from activists, see Eastman 2010). The Students’ Unions monopo- The Trade Union Council (TUC) lise politics within the universi- ‘March for the Alternative’ demon- ties leading to a general disgust stration in March 2011, which includ- with politics among students. The ed a large constituent of protesters election campaigns for the unions who had been involved in the ‘new are parodies of general elections; student rebellions’, was arguably the candidates present the most another example of this depolitici- depoliticised, technocratic image sation. Reacting against the steri- of politics possible. This admin- lised, anti-antagonistic imagery of istrative vision of politics reduces the demo, the ‘Deterritorial Support politics to a series of petty goals Group’, who produce propaganda (open the library for 5 min longer around anti-cuts themes, remarked etc). When they’re finished trivial- that ‘when creating their images for ising politics through these petty the march, the TUC chose to use demands, they organise (again imagery that was non-confrontation- U.S. style) discounts for students al, apolitical and middle-of-the-road. with ‘leading brands’ like Topman The result was painful – two hands, and Burger King. palms outstretched in cynical, politically neutral colours, looking like a This ‘depoliticisation machine’ mugging victim desperately trying to can go further and actively under- defend their face’ (Nesbit 2010). In mine struggles on campus. Here at response, the DSG produced their our own institution, the University own amended imagery with much of Leeds, the Leeds University more confrontational slogans in- Students’ Union ran a campaign cluding ‘strike for the alternative’, in early 2010 erroneously titled ‘occupy for the alternative’, and 88 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

‘kick off for the alternative’. These Facebook and other social network- images went viral as people began ing sites. to use them as profile pictures on

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:March_For_The_Alternative_logo.png

Source: http://deterritorialsupportgroup.wordpress.com/page/4/ Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 89

All of this is indicative of what we elsewhere. The aforementioned think is a broader, more widespread TUC ‘March for the Alternative’ con- disillusionment with the depoliticis- tained a sizeable student contin- ing effects of neoliberalism on those gent, for instance. It is also hard to organisations and institutions which imagine the actions of the popular claim to represent people. It can anti-cuts group UK Uncut as hav- be argued that this sense of disil- ing such a high resonance among lusionment goes beyond reform- wider publics had the skirmishes of ist organisations such as the NUS the ‘student movement’ not taken and extends to self-proclaimed radi- place previously. Indeed, outside cal and revolutionary organisations of the confines of depoliticised in- on the left. Commentator Laurie stitutions, many students and other Penny hints at this in her comments activists are taking part in creative, that ‘the old organisational struc- self-directed activities, both widen- tures of revolution – far-left parties, ing the parameters of the political unions and splinter groups – are debate and engaging in the co-cre- increasingly irrelevant to the move- ation of alternatives which attempt ment that is building across Europe’ to bring other forms of education, (Penny quoted in Nesbit 2010). So and society, into being. It is to these too does BBC’s Newsnight econom- experiments that we shall now turn ics editor, Paul Mason (2011), who our attention, considering whether states that ‘horizontalism has be- their more explicitly political char- come endemic because technology acter might serve as an antidote to makes it easy: it kills vertical hier- the depoliticised, depoliticising and archies spontaneously, whereas be- disconnected institutions mentioned fore – and the quintessential experi- previously. ence of the 20th century – was the killing of dissent within movements, Creative Resistance and the channelling of movements and Experiments in Alternatives their bureaucratisation’. Building on the rich history of Candidates for the student left radical pedagogical perspectives, did not fare well in union elections, experiments and practices (Freire yet students are taking part in poli- 1996; Giroux 2011; Haworth 2012; tics though demonstrations on hooks 1994; Illich 1995; Ranciere wider issues. All of this suggests 1991; Rose 2010; Suisa 2010), and that there is indeed a disconnect in contrast to the depoliticised ap- between the political sentiments proaches taken by the NUS, there of many students, and the depo- are an increasing number of pro- liticised form which student unions jects which display quite different can take. Indeed, this resurgence ambitions. These are often aimed in student activism has had impacts at challenging the underlying logics 90 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 of neoliberalism themselves (for ex- but to act within the crisis to trans- ample, Meyerhoff 2011; Motta 2011; form the existent (for a fuller analy- Shantz 2009, 2011). In Leeds, for ex- sis see Noterman and Pusey 2012; ample, we have both been involved Pusey and Sealey-Huggins, forth- in a project called the ‘Really Open coming), to experiment with alterna- University’ (or ROU). The ROU both tive educational forms to transform partly pre-empted, and emerged in the ways in which education is con- response to, the attacks on public ducted. One of the ways it did this education outlined above. Hence was through the organisation of a the ROU was established simulta- three-day event entitled ‘Reimagine neously to resist cuts, critique the the University’, which combined a neoliberal model of education and range of workshops and seminars engage in experiments in critical held across both Leeds Metropolitan and participatory education (ROU University and Leeds University on 2010). One of the central aims of topics as diverse as ‘gainful unem- the ROU when it was established ployment’, academic metrics sys- was to make the university a site of tems and student struggles in Italy. political antagonism once again. All Another example was the Space of these aims expand well beyond Project, a six-month long project to those of institutional actors such as take the pedagogical aims of the the NUS. group outside the university, sup- In addition to campaigning on ported by funding gained by some- campus, the ROU distributed critical one involved with the ROU to es- analyses in the form of a newsletter tablish an educational space close entitled the Sausage Factory, kept to the city centre. The project incor- a blog which drew together infor- porated a radical library; a collabo- mation about education struggles ration with the Leeds International alongside analysis and critique, and Film Festival running a fringe event facilitated events where participants showing radical films; and a wide were invited to critically question the range of talks and workshops, informs education takes. The ROU cluding the Marxist theorist John was an attempt to break with the in- Holloway discussing his book Crack sularity of the university and student Capitalism (2010), an Egyptian an- politics more generally. In asking archist journalist, Jano Charbell, ‘what can a university do?’, it there- talking about the Arab Spring, and fore involved a more creative poli- Dave Douglass, a National Union of tics than the mere reactive position Minors delegate and participant in of being ‘anti-cuts’. The group’s by- the 1984–5 miners’ strike reflecting line ‘strike, occupy, transform!’ rep- on his experiences of that struggle. resented the desire for direct action There were also several on-going taken not to preserve the existent, study and reading groups on eco- Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 91 nomic crises, radical pedagogy and ing within the University of Lincoln. A a number of activists groups using project called ‘Student as Producer’ the space for their own meetings, is being rolled out across the whole including Leeds Occupy. institution. The project transforms Elsewhere, there are an encour- the undergraduate curriculum to be agingly wide range of similar and modelled on research-based and related experiments with alterna- ‘research-like’ teaching, engaging tive forms of protest and educa- students in collaborative learning tion. These can be seen to coa- with other students and academ- lesce around a deeper critique over ics (Neary and Winn 2009; Neary the role and form universities and 2011b). In addition, the Occupy Wall Higher Education take. This is ap- Street protests that spread beyond parent in the radical street theatre the US included a strong pedagogi- and reclaiming of space, or ‘dé- cal element, which was perhaps tournement’, of the University of most explicit with the development Strategic Optimism (USO), who of the ‘Tent City University’ at the have held lectures decrying the St Pauls Cathedral camp in London marketisation of Higher Education (Occupy LSX). This temporary au- in places as diverse as banks and tonomous ‘university’ included talks supermarkets. It was also apparent from both activists and scholars, in the occupied spaces of the Really including Doreen Massey, John Free Skool in London, who gained Holloway and Massimo De Angelis. notoriety in the right-wing press for Indeed, some commentators have squatting some high profile empty suggested that this aspect of the pro- exclusive properties – most notably test was ‘one of the most remarkable one of film director Guy Ritchie’s aspects of Occupy London’ (Walker houses – turning them over to self- 2012). After the camp was evicted, organised pedagogical projects this project continued to take new (BBC 2011). Meanwhile, in Dublin forms through projects such as the the Provisional University have be- ‘Bank of Ideas’, involving the occu- gun a campaign to have disused pation of an empty Union Banks of property, which is under govern- Switzerland (UBS) office complex ment ownership, turned over for in the London borough of Hackney, use in a common educational pro- and its transformation into an auton- ject. Elsewhere, in Lincoln, a group omous educational space. have established a Social Science Much of the frenetic activity tak- Centre, to be run along co-oper- ing place around university strug- ative lines, describing it as ‘a new gles in 2010 and Occupy protests of model for higher and co-operative 2011 has subsided to some extent, education’ (Neary 2010; 2011a). at least within the UK. However, Interesting things are also happen- there has been a resurgence of 92 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 activity at the time of writing, with that the same neoliberal ‘logics’ an eight-week occupation at the which demand that education serve University of Sussex over privatisa- the needs of markets are fuelling tion and outsourcing. The occupa- socio-ecological degradation, pre- tion was evicted by a combination cipitating global financial crises and of over 100 police officers, private excluding the majority of the world’s security and baliffs (Jamieson and population from participation in how Malik 2012). the world is run. This kind of sub- The key point to take from this stantive analysis contrasts starkly is that there are people who recog- with the depoliticised and top-down nise that the current institutionalised approaches of the NUS and others. forms of education are severely It is worth pointing out that we are limited by their competitiveness, not suggesting that taking part in or- and the individualisation, elitism, ganising demonstrations and strikes and inequality they reproduce. With and resistance in the workplace is the recent increase of fees here in not important, but we do feel that the UK, the neoliberal model of the critical questions must be asked university, which produces at once of the role played by organisations ‘skilled’ and proletarianized workers such as students’ unions, and the to be employed in the reproduction modes of struggle advocated by of capital, needs to be challenged them. We would argue that tactics more than ever. For some of the developed in industrial contexts reasons outlined above, organisa- need to be carefully re-examined in tions such as the NUS both seem the context of post-industrial work- too limited in their capacity and places if they are going to be met scope to be able to respond to these with success (see ROU 2011). challenges. Importantly, what many of the at- Towards New Institutions? tempts at creative resistance and In sum, we have seen how deci- the creation of alternative peda- sions and statements made by the gogical spaces have in common NUS have perhaps aided the disil- is their recognition of the systemic lusionment of students with existing nature of the crises facing not just institutions that supposedly act in students, universities or the pub- their favour. We therefore contend lic sector in general, but the very that the NUS has acted to delimit ‘commons’ upon which life de- the possibilities for escalating the pends, and the failure of existing, struggle in such a way as to consti- depoliticised, institutions to combat tute genuine challenges to both the this (see Springer 2011 for more more immediate issues of the intro- on these kinds of activities). There duction of fees and the removal of is, therefore, a growing recognition the EMA, and a wider struggle over Sealey-Huggins and Pusey: The ‘New Student Rebellions’ 93 austerity measures, let alone a more searching the politics of responses anti-systemic challenge to the neo- to climate change in the Caribbean. liberal university. We also saw how André Pusey is a PhD student this delimitation of struggle by stu- in the School of Geography at the dents’ unions is part of the university University of Leeds researching the ‘depoliticisation machine’, reflecting (re)production of the common(s) a wider depoliticised context where within social movements and a part- politics is stripped of antagonism. time lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan Our exploration of some of the University. groups seeking to experiment with Both were actively involved with alternative forms of education dis- the Really Open University from its cussed some of the ways the cri- inception in January 2010 until its tiques implicit within these groups disbandment in February 2012. The are manifested though their prac- authors wish to thank those whom tice. Moreover, many of these pro- we have struggled alongside, for in- jects are engaging not just in a cri- spiring and informing our ideas and tique of the existing institutions we critique. The authors would also like have, in particular the university, but to thank the anonymous reviewers are, arguably, engaged in the be- for their helpful comments on earlier ginnings of the co-creation of new drafts of this article. forms of institution, what some have labelled an ‘institution of the com- Endnotes mon’ (Neary 2012; Roggero 2011). 1 See http://teneleventen.wordpress. This project is fragmented, but com/2010/11/11/sign-the-unity-statement/. it seems that the current crisis of 2 See http://anticuts.com/. education is producing movements 3 For more on police tactic of ‘kettling’ in against education cuts and increas- this context, see Rowan (2010). For a ing fees, and a desire to move be- fuller overview and analysis of these yond the current neoliberal model of events, see Ibrahim (2011). the university; indeed Swain (2013) has gone as far as asking ‘could the References free university movement be the After The Fall. 2009. Communiqués from Occupied California. 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The empirical study of DIY culture and feminist cultural activism is a flourishing interdisciplinary research area particularly in the USA, Canada, Australia and UK. This has enabled a growth in participant- researchers doing research on their own DIY cultures and activist communities of belonging. Tensions occur here for the participant-researcher in relation to conventional data collection methods, ethical and moral decisions and modes of research dissemination. This article develops discussions of dilemmas experienced by the authors during doctoral research projects on DIY punk, roller derby and queer feminist music cultures. We detail the possibilities and tensions met when the participant-researcher encounters existing subcultural theories, ethical codes of practice, data collection methods and the dissemination of academic research. In addition we offer insights into the under-documented emotional impacts and moments of crisis the participant-researcher needs to attend to when carrying out research with/in personal and political communities of belonging. In conclusion, we offer a series of recommendations for a situated ethical practice for research with/in DIY cultures in relation to engaged data generation methods, flexible ethical thinking and communities of practice.

Keywords: DIY Culture, Feminist Cultural Activism, Research Ethics, Participant-Researcher, Activist-Academia.

Doing Activist-Academia: Key anthropology (Mahon 2000), soci- Dilemmas of the DIY Researcher- ology (Moore 2007), media studies Participant (Duncombe 1997; 2002), graphic The academic study of ‘DIY cul- design (Triggs 2006), cultural stud- ture’, ‘cultural production’, ‘cultural ies (McKay 1998) and popular mu- activism’ and ‘cultural resistance’ sic studies (Strachan 2007). In gen- has become a burgeoning inter- eral these practices refer to ‘culture disciplinary area of interest across that is used, consciously or uncon-

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 101 sciously, effectively or not, to resist lives of girls and young women has and/or change the dominant po- run in parallel with the expansion litical, economic or social structure’ of the UK higher education system. (Duncombe 2002, 5). Important This has led to an influx of under- feminist interventions in subcultural graduate and postgraduate stu- studies identified the problematic dents and the University as a space privileging of the public activities of to document and critically interro- boys and young men (McRobbie gate radical lives, histories and cul- and Garber 1976; McRobbie 1980) tural practices. Scholars of DIY cul- and opened up attention to the cultures and radical social movements tural lives of girls and young wom- have acknowledged tensions and en. This sub-discipline, often known contradictions between academic as ‘girls studies’, seeks to affirm the (outsider) and activist (insider) po- political agency and cultural produc- sitions (Halfacree 2004; Cresswell tivity of girls and young women as and Spandler 2012) and the aca- subjects of critical inquiry (Kearney demic treatment of subcultures has 2009). Subsequent interest in femi- been critiqued by ‘punkademics’: nist cultural activism has grown in punk cultural producers who later the US, Canada, UK and Australia enter academic worlds (Furness (Leonard 1998; Rosenberg and 2012). Furthermore early career ac- Garofalo 1998; Driscoll 2002; Morris tivist-academics have found that the 2008; Kearney 2006; Driver 2007; conventions of neoliberal higher ed- Downes 2008; Marcus 2010). The ucation institutions limit imagination study of girls and young women’s for radical teaching, research and DIY cultural participations in fan- activism (SIGJ2 2012). However zines and blogs (Zobl 2009; Sabin practical guidance or discussion of and Triggs 2000), grassroots sports the ethical and moral dilemmas in such as roller derby and skateboard- making personal activist and radi- ing (Carlson 2010, 2011; Pomerantz, cal cultures visible within academic Currie & Kelly 2004; Pavlidis 2012; structures is limited. In particular, lit- Pavlidis and Fulagar 2012), and tle is currently known about the chal- an array of music cultures includ- lenges of the participant-researcher ing riot grrrl, punk, rock and hip hop of DIY feminist cultural activism: the (LeBlanc 1999; Schippers 2002; researcher who conducts research Pough 2004; Reddington 2007; in pre-existing social, personal and Downes 2012) have made impor- activist networks that they have tant theoretical contributions to the been an active participant in before social construction of gender, sexu- the opportunity of an academic reality and feminism in contemporary search project arose. We are not society. suggesting that the participant-re- This burgeoning academic legiti- searcher represents a purer ‘insider’ macy of DIY culture and the cultural position, able to access closed DIY 102 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 worlds suspicious of academic ‘out- to make our locations within DIY siders’ and thereby provide more and academic worlds clear. Julia ‘authentic’ accounts. However the Downes has been involved in DIY participant-researcher is more likely feminist cultural activism since to encounter tensions in established 2002 when she co-founded the DIY data collection methods, ethical pro- queer feminist Manifesta collective tocols and modes of research dis- in Leeds, UK. This collective, and semination that arguably constrain associated projects and collectives accounts of the multiplicity, com- (e.g. Homocrime, Local Kid, FAG plexity and contestation at the heart club, Ladyfest and Ladies Rock!), of DIY cultural life. became the topic of her doctoral re- Recently in the UK events such search from 2006–2009. Julia left as ‘A Carnival of Feminist Cultural Manifesta in May 2009 and com- Activism’ held in March 2011 at the pleted her ESRC-funded doctorate University of York, ‘Researching on DIY queer feminist cultural resist- Feminist Futures’ conference held ance at the University of Leeds in in September 2011 at the University 2010. She currently organises DIY of Edinburgh, and the ‘Gender and queer feminist events in Newcastle Subcultures’ symposium held in upon Tyne as ‘even clean hands September 2012 at Northumbria cause damage’ and works as a University, have provided spaces Research Associate at Durham within which to bring together re- University. Maddie Breeze’s ESRC- searchers, academics and post- funded doctoral research at the graduate students engaged in University of Edinburgh is an ethno- critical inquiries of feminist cultural graphic exploration of creative, criti- activism. It is through these spac- cal and collaborative practice in roller es that the authors of this article derby. Maddie’s research grew out met. In particular, this paper devel- of her involvement with Edinburgh’s ops on discussions between the roller derby league, which she co- authors at the ‘Researching DIY founded in 2008. After long periods Cultures’ workshop held as a free of recurrent injury Maddie stopped event associated with the ‘Gender skating in 2011, and left the league and Subcultures’ symposium at in spring 2012. Naomi Griffin is cur- Northumbria University. rently undertaking her doctoral re- In accordance with a critical tra- search into DIY punk in the North dition that acknowledges the op- East of England at Northumbria eration of power within knowledge University. Naomi has been involved production and an understanding in DIY punk to varying degrees for of knowledge as situated, partial almost a decade. She co-founded and located (Spivak 1988; Haraway the Equestrian Collective (a collec- 1988; Foucault 1970), we wish tive based in Durham City which Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 103 organises punk shows and other of study analysed by scholars who events), is involved in a DIY record ‘seem to have a limited knowledge label (Discount Horse records), and of punk music and DIY culture, and has been in several bands over the a level of engagement with punk years. scenes that is more akin to casual We draw on our own experiences tourism than active participation’ throughout the doctoral research (Furness 2012, 12). The effect of process to discuss marginalised this has meant that punk scholar- ethical issues, complexities and di- ship tends to be preoccupied with lemmas involved in researching rad- romantic, nostalgic and orthodox ical, underground, DIY cultures and accounts that perpetuate dominant communities of personal and politi- narratives about punk that marginal- cal belonging. We aim to respond to ise women and girls, people of col- current gaps in research guidance our and queers from historical and and doctoral supervision to criti- contemporary accounts. Everyday cally examine the ethical, moral and punk practices and DIY cultural practical dilemmas, possibilities and lives are displaced by a competition potentials of doing research with/ over definitions and dichotomous in radical DIY cultures as a partici- debates: is it a ‘subculture’ a ‘neo- pant-researcher. We conclude with tribe’, a ‘post-subculture’, a ‘youth some constructive recommenda- culture’ or a ‘scene’? Is it resistance tions for future practice in relation to or recuperation? Is it authentic or research ethics, engaged methods inauthentic? What are the identities of data generation and communities that subcultures construct? In short, of practice. we concur with Zack Furness (2012) that ‘outsider’ academics who do not 1. Confronting the Academic meaningfully engage with the DIY Study of DIY Cultures worlds they are researching can risk For some of us, the first steps producing limited theories of radical into academia can seem like a logi- DIY cultural practices. A DIY cultural cal outcome of the critical thinking participant who initially encounters skills acquired in a life embedded in this discipline in their undergradu- radical pedagogies and alternative ate or postgraduate studies will in- knowledge production. However evitably find the area overwhelming academic knowledge produced and difficult to navigate. The scar- about DIY cultures and activist lives city of in-depth research with/in DIY can feel stilted. For instance, in his cultures, its preoccupation with one- introduction ‘Attempted Education dimensional debates, and a paucity and Righteous Accusations’, Zack of dialogue among academic col- Furness criticises the way that punk leagues about DIY cultures creates has become another ‘object’ or ‘text’ a difficult milieu in which to carve 104 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 out space to explore the everyday ular, there is ambivalence in defin- practices, processes and power re- ing roller derby as a subcultural and lations of DIY cultures. Impacts of feminist practice, a meaning that this include struggling with previous has become dominant in academic research and theory that feels al- research and media accounts, as ienating and spending an inordinate roller derby participants increasingly amount of time (in presentations) legitimise roller derby as a sport. For and/or words (in writing) describing instance, in previous research, links DIY culture as an ‘object’. between roller derby and riot grrrl cultures have been made (Pavlidis Ambivalences of the Subcultural 2012; Pavlidis and Fullagar 2012), ‘Object’ and the supposed ‘punk’ or ‘rocka- All authors have experienced billy’ aesthetic of roller derby has the pressure to provide a coher- become central to media accounts ent definition of our chosen DIY or of roller derby, for instance: subcultural ‘object’: riot grrrl, roller derby and punk. However in our ex- Ordinary sportswomen these perience our ‘object’ did not behave, punks are not […] Many of the stay still or remain in the boundaries female spectators have pierc- of pre-established terms, debates ings and dyed black hair; some and dominant media representa- of their husbands have uncom- tions. The traditional focus of sub- monly long beards; and there is cultures as examples of resistance the occasional tot with a fun-sized to hegemonic power relations (Hall Mohawk […] In fact, the only peo- and Jefferson 1976; Hebdige 1979) ple not pierced or tattooed (aside failed to account for the complexity from the children) are two first- and contradictions of DIY cultures. aiders from St John Ambulance, For example, researching roller der- who look bemused but are ready by requires defining a cluster of di- to jump to action if and when nec- verse, conflict-ridden but neverthe- essary (Halgrave 2010, para. 3, less converging practices: to make 5, 6). a statement about what roller derby is. However from the perspective of However many skaters are a participant-researcher, the mean- scathing of the focus on subcul- ing of roller derby is multiple, shifting tural aesthetics and reject the no- and not necessarily coherent (see tion of roller derby as an example Law 2004; Mol 2002). Consensus as of alternative or subversive culture, to what roller derby is occurs loosely instead preferring roller derby to be and occasionally, changes over time represented simply as ‘sport’. For and is contingent upon the specific instance, in discussion with the lo- location of those involved. In partic- cal news in 2010, ‘The Beefcake’ Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 105 was at pains to distance roller derby it and then obviously you know from such media caricatures, saying you’d kind of have as a side line ‘some people [who play roller derby] that this feminism thing comes up haven’t even heard a punk band be- but not as a main focus because fore’ (Field notes, October 2010). In that’s done all the time. general a consensus develops that roller derby is more similar than dif- Representing roller derby as a ferent to other forms of sport. ‘real’ sport is a contemporary con- Similarly much has been made of cern of great importance, and many the potential for gender transgres- skaters would probably prefer an sion and re-constructions of feminin- account of roller derby as ‘just like ity in roller derby as a feminist prac- any other sport’. The conscious ef- tice (Finley 2010; Carlson 2010). fort to establish roller derby as an However representations of roller international sport (with a world cup, derby as an example of gender and/ national governing bodies and of- or feminist activism are not neces- ficial rankings), and the increasing sarily justified by skaters’ definitions irrelevance of ‘subcultural capital’ of their own practice. For instance, (Thornton 1995) among participants during discussion in a film-making co-exists with an abundance of workshop in September 2011 BM practices that mark roller derby as argued: somewhat different to ‘sport’ (being DIY, being dominated by women, I do always think that’s kind of in- being a profusion of self-satire). This teresting, whenever you’re talking challenges a simplistic dichotomy about roller derby it always goes in which resistance and recupera- straight to the feminism issues, tion are mutually exclusive entities. [mmm] whereas you know, which There is evidence that roller derby is, it can make sense, but at the skaters actively agitate for their cul- same time it immediately also ture to become a legitimate ‘main- detracts from the sport [yeah] stream’ sport in the public sphere. [mmm] you know it’s not just Therefore a commitment to ontolog- about feminism [yeah, yeah] it’s ical multiplicity is helpful here: roller also about people that just really, derby can be and is ‘just a sport’ at really like proper sport and skat- the same time as existing in many ing and working hard and training other confusing, wonderful, ridicu- and that whole camaraderie team lous and inspiring forms. thing, just so if I were to make a In summary, from a participant- roller derby movie, I would have researcher position initial encoun- something that focused on, girls ters with academic accounts of being on a sports team and you DIY cultures can seem alienating, know everything that goes with one-dimensional and simplistic. 106 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

However future research with/in DIY be sensitive topics. For instance, cultural activisms from the position one social sciences postgraduate of the participant-researcher has the handbook stipulates that ‘sensi- potential to develop academic think- tive topics can include participants’ ing on DIY cultures and promote the sexual behaviour, their illegal or po- critical exploration of everyday prac- litical behaviour, their experience of tices, processes, actions and power violence, their abuse or exploitation, relations of DIY cultures. In the next their mental health, their gender or section we focus on common field- ethnic status’. Therefore it is often work dilemmas that confront the taken for granted that researchers participant-researcher that demand should guarantee anonymity to re- a more flexible and situated ethical search participants and use pseu- practice that may require deviations donyms within reports and presen- from, and additions to, standard eth- tations to prevent the identification ical protocols. of participants. However research with/in queer communities and activ- 2. The Research Process: Ethical ists has found anonymity and pseu- and Moral Dilemmas donyms problematic. For instance, In the ‘Researching DIY Cultures’ Kath Browne (2003) characterised workshop we shared a number of the negotiation of pseudonyms with- ethical and moral dilemmas en- in her doctoral research of non-het- countered throughout the research erosexual women as an operation of process. Doing research is not a micro-level power relations between matter of simply following rules, pro- the researcher and participant. She cedures and protocols but requires gives the example of a participant researchers to become ‘ethical who wanted to be explicitly named thinkers’ capable of responding to in the research and when Browne unanticipated situations appropri- refused she insisted on the pseudo- ately throughout the research pro- nym ‘Pat Butcher’. This nickname cess (Clark and Walker 2011). In had already been given to her by the following, we explore four key her friends and would nonetheless dilemmas we encountered: ano- reveal the identities of her girlfriend, nymity and the use of pseudonyms, friends and family. Mark Cresswell research with friends, meaningful and Helen Spandler describe this as informed consent, and the emo- a ‘contradiction between seeing so- tional impact of research with/in DIY cial movement [activists] as critical cultures of belonging. agents of change and gazing upon them ‘‘academically’’ as objects of Anonymity and the Use of research’ (Cresswell and Spandler Pseudonyms 2012, 11). They give the example Some ethical guidelines consider of Kathryn Church’s work with psy- discussion of gender and politics to chiatric survivors who ‘felt ethically Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 107 bound to name her subjects of re- Karren was raised by wolves in search “explicitly”’ (Cresswell and the North of England. Her first Spandler 2012, 22). Naming was fanzine, written at age 14, was felt to be an important strategy in a called The Value of Defiance, al- society that has not acknowledged though she lacked the courage to the labour of activists in order to po- publish at the time. She then pro- sition research participants as public duced I Hate Punks (1986), Made and critical agents of social change. in Manchester (1987), Ablaze! Consequently, naming became (1987–1993) and a number of a common strategy for the authors shorter zines. From 1994–1999 in research with/in DIY cultures. she fronted the pop groups Cop- For example, within an oral history ing Saw, The Bogus Pony Club of British riot grrrl the use of pseu- (alongside Simon Cain), Wack donyms quickly became unten- Cat and Action Central. Since able. All participants wanted to be then she has spent five years liv- named. Furthermore the production ing in a Buddhist Centre in the of a history that changed all identi- East Yorkshire countryside. She fiable information would have- fur can now be located in the Hyde ther marginalised women’s labour Park district of Leeds where she in a moment of DIY feminist cultural works as a writer. activism that has arguably been distorted in previous histories (e.g. Similarly the use of pseudonyms Reynolds and Press 1995). In short, in research with roller derby became the individuals, bands and projects relatively unworkable. As research involved wanted their activities and unfolded with a tight-knit group of experiences to be made more vis- skaters who intimately knew each ible and public. Therefore the focus other, guarantees of anonymity for shifted to provide each participant participants became impossible. with a space for self-representation This meant that removing all identifi- in the thesis itself. Each participant able information and use of pseudo- was given the opportunity to write nyms became difficult as any ‘eth- their own (un-edited) biography for nographic information’ could easily inclusion in the thesis (see Downes identify skaters. Moreover, roller der- 2009). In keeping with alternative by is a context where participants practices of knowledge production regularly go by multiple names, if not (i.e. the fanzine), participants could multiple identities. Most skaters in contextualise their contribution and the league know each other by their represent their lives and riot grrrl derby name or skate name: a made involvement in a forum free from up name adopted for the purpose of censorship. For example, Karren playing roller derby. Many skaters Ablaze chose to describe herself in expressed that they were happy for the following biography: their identity to be made explicit and 108 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 for quotes to be directly attributed lematic. For instance, information to them. An atmosphere of playful that has accumulated about partici- name-taking and lack of concern for pants over years of friendship be- anonymity was made explicit when comes particularly troubling. One ‘The Beefcake’ and ‘Aladdin’ began key dilemma centred on the status using their pseudonyms to refer to of statements that could be hurtful themselves and each other in posts or inflammatory if made public in they made to the league’s online fo- research, even if these statements rum discussion space, thus outing were made anonymously. The themselves and removing the pos- meanings of flippant, angry or funny sibility of anonymity in papers previ- comments shift when recorded and ously produced and disseminated. re-stated. Words appear again in From the position of the partici- contexts that were never intended, pant-researcher, the conventional that were unimaginable when they use of pseudonyms and guarantees were spoken. Nuance is subsumed of anonymity can become unworka- in academic style. What is lost when ble. The practice of imposing pseu- rolled eyes, raised eyebrows, funny donyms and removing identifiable voices, raucous laughter, self-dep- information can undermine partici- recating tones, hugs, smiles and pant labour, power and agency. The spoken scare-quotes do not trans- intimate bonds and knowledge be- late? In this case, anonymity in itself tween participants in tight-knit cul- is an insufficient criterion for ethi- tural groups and actions taken by cal research with/in DIY cultures. participants to ‘out’ themselves chal- Participants said and did things that lenge the possibilities and desirabil- despite supposed guarantees of ity of anonymity itself. This means anonymity could be controversial that in research on DIY cultures the or harmful if and when read back. explicit naming of participants can In carrying out research on queer become a moral and ethical obliga- music culture with her friends in tion. Brisbane, Jodie Taylor (2011) described the dilemmas in her posi- Friendships and Social Networks tion as an ‘intimate insider’. She Dydia DeLyser (2001) warns that described needing to be an ‘ethical researchers who are already close friend’: to their participants or research area can become ‘overflooded with ma- Friendship (like research) has terial’ due to the amount of experi- rules of engagement and being ential and descriptive knowledge an ethical friend may mean not they hold. Being ‘doubly located’ betraying confidence imparted. as a friend and researcher was an However, being an ethical friend issue that all authors found prob- may also at times compromise Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 109

one’s research, particularly what with enough force to wind me, you allow yourself to see as a re- and how to skate into me with her searcher and what you choose to hips to upset my centre of gravity communicate with outsiders: that and knock me off my feet. is, what you say and what you do A few days ago I needed a place not say (2011, 3). to stay, and we had already made plans to eat dinner together that Therefore it takes skill to negoti- night at her flat near our university ate what participants tell you as a building and not for the first time friend and what they tell you as a re- she lets me crash in her bed. Just searcher. In the pursuit of a situated as we’re falling asleep she says ethical practice, empirical material sorry: earlier in the week we’d considered potentially harmful was been talking about whether or not excluded. In a number of situations the league – our league – was in- ‘omission is political; it is tricky, yet it clusive, she says that she feels is often necessary’ (Taylor 2011, 14). like she’s “aggressive and intoler- For example, in the following reflex- ant” talking about roller derby with ive account one author describes me. My engagement in this pre- the complexities of her double loca- vious conversation was almost tion as researcher and friend in her entirely academic, perhaps I was research with roller derby: hiding in some kind of supposed safe zone behind ‘my role of re- I share an office with six other searcher’. I had said “I don’t think post-grad students one of whom it’s my job to say whether its in- plays roller derby with the league clusive or not”, I wanted to convey I helped start and now research how what I was interested in was with. We first met in 2009, at the how and why skaters celebrated university through awkward and the league’s ‘inclusivity’, and what cringe-worthy institutional induc- work this kind of talk does while tion days and compulsory cours- exclusions are simultaneously es. I told her about roller derby enacted. and suggested she try it. I love her In bed that night we try to work it completely and without qualifica- out, she says she’s interested in tion. I can remember practicing what I think “as a person, not as a hits and blocks with her, sweat- researcher” but when it comes to ing and laughing, skating up and roller derby I feel like I’m both at down in a small sports hall out of the same time, just because I’m a town. I think it was her first time researcher doesn’t mean I’m not practicing hits and I tried to help a person, surely? She says she by talking through how to plant has two ideas of me. The first is her shoulder square in my chest of someone who used to be so 110 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

heavily involved in roller derby culture. The informed consent form that “the league is infused with was useful for the more prominent you, there are all these little bits or explicit moments of data genera- that are just you” but who steadily tion, such as semi-structured inter- over time has become more dis- views, oral histories, focus groups tant so that “there are people in and film workshops. However, in the league now who don’t know ethnographic and auto-ethnograph- you” and I don’t know them. The ic projects it became difficult to guar- second is “one of her best friends antee meaningful informed consent in the world”. She says she can’t in everyday situations that were not think of these two people as the public. The boundary between per- same person (Field notes, No- sonal life and the researcher role vember 2012). became blurred. For example, for one author presence at and partici- This account illustrates how con- pation in almost every event associ- ducting research with/in DIY culture ated with the roller derby league was and pre-existing friendships inevi- nothing out of the ordinary. For three tably changes one’s relationship to years roller derby was everything; it the subject and people involved. infused almost every aspect of her The risks of carrying out academic life. In this way ‘doing research’ was research within pre-existing friend- not at the front of her mind or even ships, DIY cultures and activist in her consciousness for much of networks of belonging needs more the time. It is often in retrospect that consideration in doctoral supervi- conversations and events began to sion and ethical training. become ‘data’. Similarly for another author, her presence and participa- Meaningful Informed Consent tion in band practices, meetings, Typically researchers need to hanging out, going dancing, putting submit evidence of how they will on and/or playing at gigs seemed guarantee each participant will give mundane. It often felt counter-intu- their informed consent before data itive to introduce informed consent collection will begin. This ‘contrac- forms in these everyday situations. tual model’ of the ‘informed consent’ However membership of these process usually consists of a partici- communities had been established pant information sheet and consent prior to the opportunity for a reform that needs to be signed by the search project. In these situations participant before data collection it was productive to view informed can commence. Viewing informed consent as a dynamic, adaptive and consent as a one-off contractual situated process between the par- obligation became unworkable for ticipant and participant-researcher. the participant-researcher of DIY This meant, on top of the respon- Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 111 sibilities of being an ‘ethical friend’ we had, described above. Con- (Taylor 2011), there was a respon- versations had in someone’s bed sibility to find new ways to make re- are different from conversations search activity explicit in ways that taking place in a pre-arranged made sense for a given DIY culture. recorded interview precluded by For example, one author started a the signing of an informed con- thread on the roller derby league’s sent form. I sent LG what I’d writ- online forum that detailed what she ten and described the context and hoped to do, made it clear that any- aims of the paper. She agreed that one could opt out of being included, I could use the account but that and invited questions, suggestions she hadn’t really had the chance and comments. This acted as a kind to think about the issue properly. of on-going space for discussion She also stated that after reading where monthly updates were posted back my interpretation of the con- to keep skaters informed. Another versation it did not match up with author continued to contribute to a what she was trying to convey. queer feminist collective fanzine as Initially my response was that giv- a space to write and think about the- en the inadequate amount of time ory in relation to lived experiences I’d allowed for LG to think through of doing queer feminist activism with the issues I could not defend in- contributions on DIY burnout, men cluding my account of our con- in feminism and living in an abusive versation in this paper. The feel- relationship as a feminist activist. ing that the gulf between intention This practice of fanzine field notes and interpretations (I still didn’t became a key way to exercise self- understand what she was say- reflexivity and dialogue in a space ing) was verging on unbridgeable of comfort. compounded my conviction that Another way to highlight the com- the only ethical course of action plexities of informed consent for was to not write about the conver- the DIY participant-researcher is sation, until there had been time to foreground the negotiations that and space for LG to consider it take place in the re-representation properly and for us both to work of everyday conversations within towards a more common under- academic spaces. For instance, re- standing of what the conversation flecting on her decision to include was about. And yet, not only do I the conversation with LG above, re-present that conversation here Breeze writes: but foreground the negotiations surrounding it. In preparation for this paper I My reason for doing so is simply asked LG for her consent that I that I think that honest engage- give an account of a conversation ment with these issues in a paper 112 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

such as this is one way among multiple interpretations and to be many to work towards situated reflexive of the complex power dy- ethical practice. Surely both the namics and demands of academic issue of researchers not insuring research on participants as friends adequate time for participants to and cultural participants. think through their consent and that of multiple interpretations Affect and Emotional Life of and misunderstandings of words Research uttered are common to research At the ‘Researching DIY Cultures’ practices out with my own? In- workshop we discussed the affec- formed consent forms do not so tive life of research: the unexpected much guard against these twin moments of discomfort, tension and risks as sweep them under the anxiety. In particular, we focused carpet. In attempting to lay bare on the impact of doing research on the sordid details and shortcom- topics so close to us and how this ings of my informed consent could transform our relationship to procedures here I hope to work the groups, scenes, communities towards developing a more rigor- and movements that we studied. ous ethical practice (Field notes, We all shared experiences of being November 2012). unaware, before we started our projects, of the emotional turmoil that This example illustrates how re- could result from doing research flective writing about dilemmas of in- within personal worlds. A key risk terpretative dominance and negotia- of – in some sense – turning your tions of consent in diaries, personal DIY life into work is that you risk los- journals and fanzines is essential ing your passion. During doctoral for a participant-researcher of DIY research our affective attachments culture that seeks to problematise within DIY cultural worlds changed. power in knowledge production. For example, an already ambiva- Therefore, from the participant- lent ‘love-hate’ relationship with DIY researcher position conventional punk was intensified by doctoral re- informed consent procedures i.e. search. Doctoral research requires a one-off contractual document is negotiating the critical interrogation problematic. Instead, a situated and of the benefits and limitations of DIY flexible approach towards negotiat- punk scenes with defensive feelings ing meaningful informed consent of DIY culture when criticisms are in a way that makes sense within a made by ‘outsiders’. For these rea- specific DIY culture is more produc- sons, acknowledging partiality and tive. This requires sophisticated eth- ‘doubly located’ positions requires a ical thinking to find ways to make re- reflexive tactic. One strategy is the search activity explicit, to negotiate use of a research diary to document Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 113 and navigate these anxieties. what were we going to do about it DIY cultural life and personal rela- and as their friends would I talk to tionships can break down, shift and them so they wouldn’t go on the transform throughout the research door I thankfully realised I couldn’t project. For example, in doctoral be part of it anymore. But sadly research on queer feminist music nor could I speak out about it at cultures a moment of personal crisis the time. It was weird because the and conflict led the researcher-par- homophobia was becoming more ticipant to end her participation and overt and it just felt bad to me as a paralysed the final year of writing up. queer but I had no way of talking However it was only by using theory about it, and no ‘resources’, basi- and feminist history to make sense cally, and it didn’t really occur to of this crisis that the participant-re- me to expect better from a femi- searcher was enabled to push be- nist collective. And in those days yond a one-dimensional account of although loads of people involved DIY queer feminist culture to reveal in [the feminist collective] events problematic power relations within were queer there was no collec- feminist activism across intersec- tive identity or unity or vocabulary tions of gender, sexuality, race and at all. class. To illustrate, the problem of homophobia in the early stages of This experience of homophobia the collective was raised in an email within the collective highlighted the interview: lack of a shared vocabulary and resource for the articulation of queer When I was in [the collective] the identities within a DIY feminist col- first time round I had a lot of prob- lective. The solution for this collec- lems with not being supported [...] tive member was to remove herself I was insecure because I didn’t from the feminist collective in 2004 feel like I fitted in the threesome and participate in queer events de- that directed all of [the collec- veloped by a faction of the feminist tive], because I lacked musical collective, who created queer-ori- knowledge, knowledge of riot gr- entated events. Therefore, these rrl history, and confidence. I was activities emerged as an innovative undermined and mocked increas- tactic to deal with the internal con- ingly frequently and my confi- flicts of the feminist collective. This dence went right down. When eventually led to the development we had that meeting about [the of an overtly queer agenda within feminist night club] and how peo- the feminist collective as some in- ple were coming down the stairs volved in the feminist club night and would just see a load of queers the queer club night united in the and it was putting people off and co-production of the queer feminist 114 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 club night in 2006. In this sense, in- and empowering creative spaces ternal conflict led to the creation of for women, queers and feminists a valuable queer feminist agenda to be visible, loud and heard. […] that, in the long term, benefited a Music making and queer feminist wider community in providing op- politics are both incredibly impor- portunities to challenge homopho- tant parts of me, they feed into bia and produce awareness of the the majority of my everyday life in intersections of gender and sexual terms of my research, job, writing, oppression. Nonetheless, as Carol thinking, bands, social life and Mueller warned, ‘internal conflicts teaching. […] Despite the recent are almost invariably destructive of dips in energy, in the past [the individuals’ (Mueller 1995, 275) and feminist collective] has been an there were considerable personal incredible space and community costs within this transition. As the for me to explore ideas of queer one member from this situation who feminist cultural production and was still around, the participant-re- has enabled me to figure out so searcher was subject to personal much personally and politically. I ‘trashing’ within feminist and queer will continue to produce and sup- social circles, which once revealed, port these cultural spaces on my years after the event, led to her own terms not as part of [the femi- departure from the queer feminist nist collective]. collective in May 2009. Within her parting words in an email to the col- Therefore doing research on lective email list on 3 May 2009, the DIY queer feminist music cultures participant-researcher reflected on of belonging, embedded with per- her frustrations with being ‘trashed’, sonal investment, emotional labour and inability to work with, or trust, in- and intimate friendships, can re- dividuals who have taken part in the veal harmful power relations. As ‘trashing’: Levinson (2010) warns, participant- researchers must be able to react I now find various people really appropriately to changes in the field. difficult to work with and an uncrit- Therefore it is important to prepare ical use of space, language, gos- for diverse possibilities including if sip, resources and structure has the group, activity, or phenomena really made me aware of how dif- you are studying alters or stops, ferent my ideas and perspectives or if the knowledge you encounter on queer feminist DIY culture are causes personal distress. as well as how misrepresented I In summary, the particular ethical have been. I am, as far back as and moral decisions faced by the I can remember, deeply commit- participant-researcher can demand ted to the production of positive deviations, and additions to, exist- Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 115 ing ethical protocols. The complexi- boundary between the participant ties embedded in the position of the and researcher collapses and the participant-researcher require con- practice of filtering everyday activi- ventional ethical practices of pseu- ties for research data is uncomfort- donyms, anonymity and informed able. As one author recalls, ‘a part consent to be rethought. This may, of me just did not want to be thinking if appropriate and with participants’ about or doing research when I was consent, result in the explicit nam- talking, dancing, laughing, crying, ing of research participants, the de- planning, organising and playing velopment of innovative tactics to roller derby with my friends. Part of make moments of research explicit me revolted (was revolted) at doing to participants within everyday con- research in this way.’ In particular, texts and situations, and a devel- we all found making field notes diffi- oped awareness of how to be an cult. The performance of being a re- ‘ethical friend’ and make informed searcher visibly making field notes judgements of what to include and can contribute to a feeling of dis- exclude from research. The partic- comfort among participants aware ipant-researcher may also experi- of being researched. As participant- ence affective disturbance during researchers come to the research the research process as attach- process with a wealth of knowledge ments to friends, partners, DIY cul- about the taken-for-granted prac- ture and political identity are scru- tices of DIY life, alternative forms of tinised. The research process can note taking in the form of a ‘scratch also reveal harmful behaviours, al- pad’ were more useful to capture ter friendships, undermine passion the basic details of what happened and enthusiasm, and even end DIY on particular dates, be it a gig, an cultural participation. Current ethical interview, a social event or a roller training, procedures and doctoral derby bout. supervision need to acknowledge Semi-structured interviews, au- and respond to the unique complex- dio-recorded conversations ordered ities of the participant-researcher around a series of pre-planned position. prompts, in cafes, pubs, kitchens and living rooms, were less ambigu- 3. Doing Research Differently: ous as moments of data generation. Data Generation However, the participant-researcher One of the things we found the may become acutely aware of their most challenging and confusing from role within such encounters in the the participant-researcher position construction of DIY culture. For in- was generating data through every- stance, on more than one occasion, day activities and relationships that when interviewing skaters who had were already part of our lives. The joined the league only recently, the 116 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 participant-researcher often became the workshops took on the roles of the subject of their questioning: designing and executing the production of a film, and the participant- Yeah so wait did you guys, did you researcher played the role of facilita- like get together and just be like tor. The workshops were a method ‘well let’s try roller skating?’ (FS, of data generation that was explic- individual interview, May 2011). itly a research exercise, but was not limited exclusively to this function; In both these interviews, the the production of a film was a key participant-researcher’s status as rationale. The content of the work- someone who was ‘there from the shops, in which skaters worked to- beginning’ becomes the occasion gether creatively to respond to the for ‘interviewees’ asking the ‘inter- question of how best to represent viewer’ to give an account of what it roller derby on film, was not that far used to be like and of how the league removed from skater’s daily roller started. By answering and telling derby practices, where questions of the story, the participant-researcher the design of posters, logos, bout becomes aware of the ridiculous- names, merchandise and what to ness of this research, and perhaps wear centre debates on representa- of research in general, the idea that tion. Thus, the workshops came to you can ask people to express com- be an in-between compromise, a fa- plicated things immediately in words cilitated process that was evidently (Gauntlett 2007, 3) but also a sense research and was bounded enough of just how impossible it would be to and explicit enough to overlap tight- bracket off my role in literally creat- ly with the research agenda, yet ing this thing that I research. These shared significant similarities with tensions led participant-researchers usual league business and ensured to do research differently and create skaters led the way. This enabled innovative moments of collaborative participants to invest in the activity data generation centred on a prac- but also for research to be useful to tical task that complemented the the DIY culture. everyday activities of a given DIY In summary, the participant-re- culture. searcher position can reveal the For example, in the case of roller limits of conventional data collec- derby, data was generated through tion methods of ethnographic field a collaborative film-making project. notes and interviews. The discom- A series of workshops was designed fort experienced in performing the that moved through stages of plan- researcher engaging participants ning, filming and editing a film about in moments of thesis-orientated roller derby, the league and the data collection using methods either skaters. Skaters who signed up to marked as different or removed from Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 117 the everyday life of the DIY culture consist of a structured day of con- motivates a search for collaborative, current panel sessions consisting of engaged and situated data genera- 3–4 short (15–20 minutes) papers, tion activities. The best solutions to delivered in a didactic fashion by a this dilemma involve finding new single speaker followed by a ques- ways to co-construct data in the tion and answer session. The effec- everyday activities of what DIY cul- tiveness of academic conferences tures already do or aspire to do. In has been questioned by academic- particular, facilitating the documen- activists: tation and self-representation of DIY cultures in film, fanzines, art, music, At their best, such meetings are archives, exhibitions and events of- spaces for colleagues to form fers an innovative avenue for future new friendships, exchange ide- research with/in DIY cultures. as, be inspired by new research, and wrestle with current debates 4. Research Dissemination: in their chosen field. At their Conferences and Communities worst, they are a train wreck of of Practice ill-prepared and poorly delivered A key requirement towards the PowerPoint presentations with end of the doctoral process involves speakers talking way too fast and disseminating research findings at yet still managing to not finish in a national and international level. their allotted time. Of course such The most commonly available fo- presentations produce another rums for sharing and discussing line on your vita, even if you gave research are academic confer- your paper to five people, one of ences. Academic conferences can whom left halfway through (Haen- often disappoint expectations and fler 2012, 41). collapse into a space that stifles rather than promotes critical dis- We shared a sense of frustration cussion and debate. There have at the amount of time and energy been positive attempts to rework we spent defining and describing the conference format and shift the our DIY cultural object and its politi- atmosphere to promote discussion cal, social and cultural significance of radical and DIY feminist cultural in academic conferences. Although activisms by including workshops, this is symptomatic of the marginal films, art projects (e.g. The Bad Art position that DIY feminist cultural collective) and after parties with mu- activism inhabits across a range sic. Nonetheless, conferences tend of academic disciplines, the repeti- to take place within academic insti- tive experience of starting from ba- tutions that often charge a fee for sic terms curtails discussion of the admission and/or participation and complexities, contradictions and 118 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 power dynamics of DIY cultures. zines, blogs, online forums and free Furthermore, DIY cultures already events held outside universities or consist of possibilities and spaces within DIY cultures themselves. For for alternative knowledge produc- example, one author co-organised tion including the theorisation of and participated in a ‘Long Table’ gender, sexuality, class, ability and discussion of riot grrrl histories with race in everyday experiences of Cazz Blase, Red Chidgey, Teal culture, power and activism. For ex- Triggs and Rachel White at Ladyfest ample, in DIY feminist cultural activ- London 2008. The ‘Long Table’ for- ism, fanzines have long been estab- mat was originally developed by lished as a crucial resource for the performer/professor Lois Weaver radical theorisation of personal ex- and within Ladyfest London context, perience and transnational feminist which included a fanzine and paper knowledge production (Schilt 2003; tablecloth that could be written and Kearney 2006; Zobl 2009). In ‘The drawn on with crayons, enabled a Engaged Academic’, Cresswell and fluid discussion in which Ladyfest Spandler (2012) discuss the ‘lived attendees, riot grrrl participants and contradictions’ in the academic re- those interested in riot grrrl histories search of activist movements. In could join and leave the table for an particular, they highlight the prob- open and informal discussion.2 lematic assumption that theory is Finding communities of prac- only produced within academia. tice in which we can talk candidly They argue that the ‘dynamic of but sensitively about the details of theory and experience is one which what doing research involves and historically occurs within activism what it looks like in practice have anyway’ (Cresswell and Spandler also been useful. This can be with 2012, 12-13). other researchers working on a Therefore, greater acknowledge- variety of projects and with partici- ment of, and engagement with, pants in the DIY cultures we are re- alternative forms and forums of searching. For one author, informal knowledge production is needed to weekly meetings with a small group disseminate and develop academic of postgraduate researchers with a research with/in DIY culture. For ex- shared interest in gender, queer and ample, at the very least research- feminist research became a crucial ers can recognise the legitimacy of space3. In this group postgraduate activist knowledge by engaging with researchers tried out different ways texts written by and for the cultural of talking about and understanding producers, activists and/or research research that seemed off-limits or participants. Research could also unspeakable in supervisory meet- be disseminated and discussed ings, formal seminars and tutorials. in different formats including fan- Sometimes the meetings had a con- Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 119 fessional tone with everyone detail- research ethics. But, more impor- ing their troubles and failings. The tantly, this position also offers new atmosphere of the weekly meetings possibilities for a complex under- included a tangible absence of the standing of DIY cultures. From ini- pressure to appear to ‘know it all’ tial awkward encounters with aca- and express ideas and experience demia to the completion of doctoral in academic terms. In communities research and life as an early-ca- of practice it becomes possible to reer academic, it is crucial to work negate the fear of making mistakes. through tensions, address moral In many respects, the ‘Researching and ethical dilemmas, and consider DIY Cultures’ workshop represent- personal obligations and questions ed an attempt to build a community of responsibility to DIY cultures, ac- of practice that we wanted to see tivism and academia. In this article, consisting of researchers, activists we have discussed the dilemmas and academics. The recent launch that emerged as crucial moments of the network ‘Troublemakers: in our respective doctoral research Queer//Feminist Academic-Activists projects on riot grrrl, roller derby in Cultural Theory & Activism’ repre- and punk. Building upon recent dis- sents another attempt to fuse aca- cussions that have highlighted the demic and activist spaces to create problem of limited subcultural par- a community of practice that aims to ticipation in the development of aca- involve academics, researchers, ac- demic theory and research on DIY tivists, feminists, punks and queers cultures (Furness 2012), thinking interested in the documentation and from the position of the participant- critical discussion of radical DIY researcher offers an important per- cultures, practices and histories.4 spective on the complexities, con- The future development of critical tradictions and conflicts of DIY lives. academic research of DIY cultures In response to the gaps in practical is contingent on the expansion of guidance of doing research on DIY forums and networks that promote cultures of personal belonging, we engagement and dialogue between offer recommendations for a situ- activists, academics and academic- ated ethical practice in three main activists outside academic institu- areas: ethical thinking, data generations. tion and research dissemination. It is our hope that these recommen- Conclusion: Towards a Situated dations and insights will also be Ethical Practice in Research on considered by academics and re- DIY Cultures searchers who have no prior direct In conclusion, the position of the participation with/in DIY cultures participant-researcher can illumi- in order to inform research design, nate the limitations of conventional ethics, methods and dissemination. 120 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Firstly, participant-researchers tures to disseminate and discuss who are carrying out research with/ theory and research. Communities in DIY cultures and communities of of practice are crucial ways in which personal and political belonging can participant-researchers alongside feel they have more distinct obliga- researchers, academics, activists, tions and responsibilities to their punks, feminists and queers (and chosen DIY culture. This has led us many more) can change the ways in to adapt conventional ethical prac- which we understand DIY cultures tices to suit the DIY cultures being to produce research and theory studied. For instance, this may in- that is critical, complex and contra- volve re-consideration of pseudo- dictory. Therefore we crave theory nyms, learning to become an ‘ethical and research that is closer to the friend’, finding new ways to negoti- energetic, chaotic and ramshackle ate informed consent and develop- worlds that excited us all in the first ing strategies to cope with affective place. impacts, unanticipated conflicts and the sudden breakdown of DIY pro- Endnotes jects and collectives. Secondly, the 1 Correspondence to Julia Downes, participant-researcher may also School of Applied Social Sciences, Elvet Riverside 2, Durham University, Durham, struggle to feel comfortable with DH1 3JT, Email: julia.downes@durham. using conventional data collection ac.uk. methods, such as field notes and 2 The discussion was recorded, archived semi-structured interviews, to con- and is available to stream and download struct academic knowledge about for free: http://archive.org/details/riotlady. 3 For more information on the FemJoy DIY cultures. More productive data group at the University of Edinburgh, see generation methods build upon what http://femreadinggroupjoy.wordpress. DIY cultures already do or would com. aspire to do. For instance, research 4 For more information on Troublemakers, projects that facilitate the self-rep- see http://wp.me/p1d4dR-aM. resentation of DIY cultures in film, fanzines, art, music, archives, ex- Acknowledgements hibitions and events can generate We all want to acknowledge our vast amounts of data focused on respective institutions and funding how DIY cultures struggle to make bodies for the opportunity to do our sense of their practices. Finally, DIY research. In particular, Julia Downes cultures need to be recognised with- would like to thank the troublemak- in a legacy of radical theorisation of ers who struggle to create and un- everyday experiences of power, in- derstand DIY queer feminist culture equality and resistance. Therefore, and Maddie Breeze would like to academic knowledge of DIY cul- thank all the NSOs, referees and tures needs to engage with DIY cul- skaters that make roller derby pos- Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 121 sible and especially those who par- Feminist Cultural Activisms and ticipated in her doctoral research. Disruptions of Conventional Pro- Naomi Griffin would like to thank all test. In Zowie Davy, Julia Downes, those involved in the North East DIY Lena Eckert, Natalia Gerodetti, punk scene, particularly those who Dario Llinares, Ana Cristina San- tos eds. Bound and Unbound: In- have taken the time to talk to her for terdisciplinary Approaches to Gen- her research. ders and Sexualities. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press. References Downes, Julia. 2009. DIY Queer Femi- Browne, Kath. 2003. Negotiations and nist (Sub)cultural Resistance in Fieldworkings: Friendship and the UK. PhD thesis: University of Feminist Research. ACME: An Leeds. Available online < http:// International E-Journal for Critical etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2383>. Geographies 2(2): 132–46. Downes, Julia. 2012. The Expansion of Carlson, Jennifer. 2010. The Female Punk Rock: Riot Grrrl Challenges Significance in All-women’s Ama- to Gender Power Relations in teur Roller Derby. Sociology of British Indie Music Subcultures. Sport Journal 27(4): 428–40. Women’s Studies 42 (2): 204–37. Carlson, Jennifer. 2011. Subjects of Driscoll, Catherine. 2002. Girls: Femi- Stalled Revolution: A Theoretical nine Adolescence in Popular Cul- Consideration of Contemporary ture and Cultural Theory. New American Femininity. Feminist York: Columbia University Press Theory 12(1): 75–91. Driver, Susan. 2007. Queer Girls and Clark, James J. and Robert Walker. Popular Culture: Reading, Resist- 2011. Research Ethics in Vic- ing, and Creating Media. Peter timization Studies: Widening the Lang: New York Lens. Violence Against Women Duncombe, Stephen. 1997. Notes from 17(12): 1489–1508. the Underground: Zines and the Cresswell, Mark and Helen Spandler. Politics of Underground Culture. 2012. The Engaged Academic: London: Verso Academic intellectuals and the Duncombe, Stephen ed. 2002 Cultural psychiatric survivor movement. Resistance Reader. London & Social Movement Studies: Jour- New York: Verso nal of Social, Cultural and Political Finley, Nancy J. 2010. Skating Femi- Protest 11(4). Available at: http:// ninity: Gender Maneuvering in www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1 Women’s Roller Derby. Journal 0.1080/14742837.2012.696821. of Contemporary Ethnography 39 [Accessed 1 December 2012]. (4): 359–87. DeLyser, Dydia. 2001. ‘Do You Really Foucault, Michel. 1970. The Order of Live Here?’ Thoughts on Insider Things: An Archaeology of the Hu- Research. Geographical Review man Sciences. London: Tavistock 91 (1–2): 441–53. Publications Downes, Julia. 2008. ‘Let Me Hear You Furness, Zack ed. 2012. 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Tower. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Com- Kearney, Mary Celeste. 2009. Coalesc- positions ing: The Development of Girls’ Gauntlett, David. 2007. Creative Ex- Studies. NWSA Journal 21(1): plorations: New Approaches to 1–28. Identities and Audiences. London: Law, John. 2004. After Method: Mess in Routledge. Social Science Research. Oxon: Haenfler, Ross. 2012. Punk Ethics Routledge. and the Mega-University. In Zack Leblanc, Lauraine. 1999. Pretty in Furness ed. Punkademics; The Punk: Girls’ Gender Resistance Basement Show in the Ivory Tow- in a Boys’ Subculture. New Brun- er. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Composi- swick: Rutgers University Press. tions. Leonard, Marion. 1998. Paper Planes: Halfacree, Keith 2004. ‘I Could Only Do Travelling the New Grrrl Geogra- Wrong’: Academic Research and phies. In Tracy Skelton and Gill DIY Culture. In Duncan Fuller and Valentine eds. Cool Places: Geog- Rob Kitchin eds. Radical Theory/ raphies of Youth Culture. London: Critical Praxis: Making a Differ- Routledge, pp. 101–118. ence Beyond the Academy? Ver- Levinson, M. P. 2010. Accountability non & Victoria, BC Canada: Praxis to Research Participants: Unre- (e)Press. Available at: http://www. solved Dilemmas and Unravelling praxis-epress.org/rtcp/RTCP_ Ethics. Ethnography and Educa- Whole.pdf#page=79. [Accessed 1 tion 5 (2): 193–207. October 2012]. Mahon, Maureen. 2000. The Visible Halgrave, M. 2010. This is How We Evidence of Cultural Producers. Roll. Sunday Herald (Febru- Annual Review of Anthropology ary 22 2010). Available at: http:// 29: 467–92. www.heraldscotland.com/life- Marcus, Sara. 2010. Girls to the Front: style/real-lives/this-is-how-we- The True Story of the Riot Grrrl roll-1.1008508. [Accessed 1 Revolution. New York: Harper- March 2010]. sCollins. Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson eds. McKay, George ed. 1998. DiY Culture: 1976. Resistance Through Ritu- Party and Protest in Nineties Brit- als: Youth Subcultures in Post-war ain. London: Verso. Britain. London: Hutchinson. McRobbie, Angela. 1980. Settling Ac- Haraway, Donna. 1988. Situated counts with Subcultures: A Femi- Knowledges: The Science Ques- nist Critique. Screen Education tion in Feminism and the Privilege 34(1): 37–49. of Partial Perspective. Feminist McRobbie, Angela and Jenny Garber. Studies 14(3): 575–99. 1976. Girls and Subcultures. In Hebdige, Dick. 1979. Subculture: Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson The Meaning of Style. London: eds. Resistance through Rituals: Methuen. Youth Subcultures in Post-War Kearney, Mary Celeste. 2006. Girls Britain. London: Harper Collins Make Media. New York: Rout- Academic. ledge. Mol, Anne Marie. 2002. The Body Multi- Downes, Breeze and Griffin:Researching DIY Cultures 123

ple: Ontology in Medical Practice. shot: Ashgate. Durham & London: Duke Univer- Reynolds, Simon and Joy Press. 1995. sity Press. The Sex Revolts: Gender, Rebel- Moore, Ryan. 2007. Friends Don’t Let lion and Rock n Roll. Cambridge, Friends Listen to Corporate Rock: MA: Harvard University Press. Punk as a Field of Cultural Pro- Rosenberg, Jessica and Gitana Garo- duction. Journal of Contemporary falo. 1998. Riot Grrrl: Revolutions Ethnography 36 (4): 438–74. from Within. Signs 23(3): 809–41. Morris, Anita ed. 2008. Next Wave Cul- Sabin, Roger and Teal Triggs eds. tures: Feminism, Subcultures, Ac- 2000. Below Critical Radar: Fan- tivism. London: Routledge. zines and Alternative Comics from Mueller, Carol. 1995. The Organiza- 1976 to Now. East Sussex: Codex tional Basis of Conflict in Contem- Books. porary Feminism. In Myra Marx Schilt, Kristen. 2003. ‘I’ll Resist with Ferree and Patricia Yancey Martin Every Inch and Every Breath’: eds. Feminist Organizations: Har- Girls and Zine Making as a Form vest of the New Women’s Move- of Resistance. Youth & Society 35 ment. Philadelphia: Temple Uni- (1): 71–97. versity Press. Schippers, Mimi. 2002. Rockin’ Out of Pavlidis, Adele. 2012. From Riot Grrrrls the Box: Gender Manoeuvring in to Roller Derby? Exploring the Alternative Hard Rock. New Brun- Relations between Gender, Music swick: Rutgers University. and Sport. Leisure Studies 31 (2): SIGJ2 Writing Collective. 2012. What 165–76. Can We Do? The Challenge of Pavlidis, Adele and Simone Fullagar. Being New Academics in Neolib- 2012. Becoming Roller Derby Gr- eral Universities Antipode 44 (4): rrrls: Exploring the Gendered Play 1055–58. of Affect in Mediated Sport Cul- Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. tures. International Review for the Can the Subaltern Speak? In Cary Sociology of Sport 0(0):1–16. Nelson and Larry Grossberg eds. Pomerantz, Shauna, Dawn H. Currie Marxism and the Interpretation of and Deirdre M. Kelly. 2004. Sk8er Culture. Chicago: University of Il- girls: Skateboarders, Girlhood linois Press. and Feminism in Motion. Wom- Strachan, Robert. 2007. Micro-inde- en’s Studies International Forum pendent Record Labels in the UK: 27 (5–6): 547–57. Discourse, DIY Cultural Produc- Pough, Gwendolyn D. 2004. Check It tion and the Music Industry. Euro- While I Wreck It: Black Woman- pean Journal of Cultural Studies hood, Hip-Hop Culture, and the 10 (2): 245–65. Public Sphere. Northeastern Uni- Taylor, Jodie. 2011. The Intimate In- versity Press. sider: Negotiating the Ethics of Reddington, Helen. 2007. The Lost Friendship When Doing Insider Women of Rock Music: Female Research. Qualitative Research Musicians of the Punk Era. Alder- 11 (1): 3–22. 124 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Thornton, Sarah. 1995. Club Cultures: Music, Media and Subcultural Capital. Cambridge: Polity Triggs, Teal. 2006. Scissors and Glue: Punk Fanzines and the Creation of a DIY Aesthetic. Journal of De- sign History 19 (1): 69–83. Zobl, Elke. 2009. Cultural Production, Transnational Networking, and Critical Reflection in Feminist Zines. Signs 35 (1): 1–12. Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject: Activism, Academia and the Lived Experience of Impairment Harriet Cooper

This paper explores the social construction of activism and academia in the contemporary UK context. Unlike activism, academia is not always regarded in mainstream culture as being politically engaged. The paper interrogates this state of affairs using Sara Ahmed’s de-naturalisation of the terms ‘active’ and ‘passive’ (Ahmed 2010, 208-210). It also draws on insights from disability studies to reflect on the social significance of passivity. With reference to various sources, including my own experience of growing up with a physical impairment, I argue that the day-today lived experience of impairment defamiliarises the notions of activity and passivity. For many disabled people, a great deal of activity goes into those tiny, everyday tasks that are framed as the ‘passive’ ones we need to complete in order to reach the active, productive ones. I propose the term ‘actively passive’ to denote the conscious performance of actions which are undertaken unconsciously and spontaneously by most people. Politically engaged academia might also, I suggest, be described as ‘actively passive’ in that it labours to de-naturalise those positions and ideas that are taken for granted in mainstream culture. I propose that academia in the humanities and social sciences might both learn from the embodied experiences of the disabled subject and that, in its processes and practices, it can also be understood as being aligned and allied with this subject.

Keywords: Activism, Academia, Passive, Active, Disability.

If the activist is someone who promote change in the world, then protests and campaigns for change these two figures might be regarded in the world, and the politically en- as rather similar. In some instances, gaged academic is someone who particularly in a field such as my researches and writes in order to own – disability studies – the two

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 126 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 identities are often embodied in the of [the arts and humanities] but be- same person. Nevertheless, whilst cause it demands too little’ (Belfiore both the activist and the academic and Upchurch 2012, Slide 19). By have important political contribu- viewing the labour of the academic tions to make, these contributions from a different angle, this paper will are, I will be arguing, different – and explore why the current conception need to be valued in and for their dif- of impact ‘demands too little’. ferences. In the current age of aus- In this paper, drawing on Sara terity measures, discourses ques- Ahmed’s revaluation of the terms tioning the ‘impact’ of research in ‘active’ and ‘passive’ (2010, 208– the humanities and social sciences 210), I argue that political engage- risk constructing a hierarchical bi- ment has come to be aligned with nary opposition between activism that which is ‘active’. By exploring and academia, throwing the social the political and ethical possibilities value of academia into question. of passivity – that is, by exploring Mainstream culture tends to per- what it might mean to be both politi- ceive activism as being, by its very cally engaged and passive – I seek nature, politically engaged, whereas to trouble the association between academia has to fight for this acco- political engagement and activ- lade: it has to fight to demonstrate its ism and, in this way, to reframe the value. In 2014, research undertaken terms of the debate about impact by UK academics will be assessed, in academia. This is not to devalue for the first time, in terms of its im- the important contribution of activ- pact beyond the academy, as part ism to politics, but rather to defend of the new Research Excellence the contribution of academia as one Framework.1 This policy is referred which is political, though not nec- to colloquially within the academy as essarily according to conventional the ‘impact agenda’. Yet measuring definitions of ‘the political’. the ‘impact’ of scholarship in the hu- Drawing inspiration from Ahmed’s manities and social sciences is not critical exposition of the preference a straightforward process. Since the for the active mode over the passive outputs of research in these fields (Ahmed 2010, 208–217), I want to cannot always be evidenced in so- ask: who and what gets left behind cial and economic terms (or at least when what we value is that which is not immediately), such research deemed to be ‘active’?3 What if there risks being framed as a site of doubt is important work to be done which and suspicion.2 But perhaps the de- has no obvious corollary in activism? bate needs to be reframed. Indeed, What if, as Martyn Hammersley puts Belfiore and Upchurch argue that it, ‘[t]here is a difference [between ‘the impact discourse is problematic social science contributions and not because it demands too much those from politicians and others], Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 127 but it is lost in translation, as social need to be posed. Firstly, is it pos- science findings are turned into pub- sible to speak of ‘the disabled sub- lic discourse[?]’ (Hammersley 2012, ject’? When discussing impairment, Slide 26). it is impossible to universalise: each I view the question of the value of experience of disability is particular passivity through a particular lens: to the individual concerned. I know my paper examines how the em- how it feels to have a mild physical bodied experience of being disabled impairment but to pass as nondis – and thus of being deemed passive abled; I do not know how it feels to or unproductive by society – might be blind, or to be a wheelchair user. speak to the call for political engage- The term ‘the disabled subject’ thus ment in academia. Drawing on my cannot account for that which is par- own experience of growing up with ticular about an individual’s experi- a physical impairment, as well as on ence of disability. It must be used life writing and cultural theory, I will with caution. That said, the use of argue that the day-to-day lived ex- the term can be defended as a form perience of impairment dramatises, of ‘strategic essentialism’ (Spivak often in highly literal ways, the op- 1988 [1985]):4 it mobilises disabled position between ‘the passive’ and subjectivity as a distinct identity for ‘the active’. Moreover, to view activ- the purposes of political solidarity. ity and passivity through the lens of Although Spivak has ‘given up on’ disability studies is to defamiliarise the term (though not on the ‘project’ these concepts. In the case studies itself), feeling that (mis)users of the I consider, the experience of impair- term do not pay enough attention to ment enables subjects to feel ‘won- the notion of ‘strategy’ (Danius and der and surprise’ at the reproduction Jonsson 1993, 35; see also Spivak of ‘forms’ that are usually under- 1993 [1989]), in the context of this stood as ‘familiar’ and are, hence, essay, the concept provides a strat- unseen by most (Ahmed 2006, 82). egy for exploring what a politics of Exploring this ‘wonder and surprise’, passivity might look like. The term I will propose that academia in the cannot, however, dissolve the uni- humanities and social sciences versal/particular tension: a tension might both learn from the ‘passive’ will always remain between an ethi- experiences of disabled subjects cal stance on the one hand, which and might also be aligned and allied celebrates that which is particular with these subjects. to the individual’s experience of disability, and a political stance on Disability Studies the other, which risks universalising Before beginning my discussion in its search for common ground. of passivity, some important ques- Indeed, this tension pulls me in two tions about identity and the body different directions. My essay gener- 128 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 alises for the purposes of making an essary to map the history of disabil- argument (as all argument-making ity activism and disability studies, tends to do), whilst simultaneously which is beyond the scope of this seeking to remain attentive to the paper. However, I will refer briefly to ‘particular’ – to that which is distinct, some models of embodiment which unique and irreducible about each have influenced my own thinking on individual’s experience. My desire disability. One of the founding con- to stay with, but not to attempt to cepts of disability activism in the resolve, this tension is in keeping UK context was the social model of with my sense that one of the im- disability, which separated ‘impair- portant roles of politically engaged ment’ as a term denoting embodi- academia is, in Les Back’s terms, ment and ‘disability’ as a function to tolerate ‘moral complexity’ and of social barriers to participation to refuse to be reduced to a ‘“sound (UPIAS and The Disability Alliance bite”’ (2007,15; 16). As I shall argue, 1976). The model is helpful in that it drawing on the work of Back (2007) avoids casting disability as a prob- and Hammersley (2012), these are lem of the individual, which medical some of the qualities that differen- models have tended to do (Oliver tiate academic scholarship from 1983). The social model has been party politics and from a cultural ori- subject to much critique within dis- entation towards the active, which ability studies for oversimplifying the might be termed ‘active-ism’.5 The mechanics of oppression, as well political activity we call ‘activism’ as for both reifying the concept of is expected to perform itself using impairment and for downplaying is- the active mode; this is necessary sues of embodiment (see for exam- if its demands are to be recognised ple: Reeve 2008, 28–31; Tremain and heard by those with political 2006; and Thomas 1999). Broadly power.6 Academia, on the other speaking, in this essay, I use the hand, has the opportunity to speak terms ‘disability’ and ‘impairment’ in in different terms, though this can of the senses intended by the social course mean that its voice gets ‘lost model, but I also seek to move be- in translation’ (Hammersley 2012, yond this model. Slide 26). One of the most interesting the- If I intend to refer, however cau- ories of embodiment to emerge in tiously, to an experience of disabled the field in recent years – and one subjecthood, what do I mean by dis- which moves beyond the social ability? And who defines embodi- model – has been Robert McRuer’s ment as ‘disabled’? These ques- application of Adrienne Rich’s notions have been much debated both tion of ‘compulsory heterosexuality’ inside and outside the academy. To to the experience of disabled em- answer them in full, it would be nec- bodiment (Rich 1981, 4; McRuer Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 129

2010 [2006]). Whereas heterosex- performed (Butler 1990). He propos- ual ideology would frame lesbian es that disabled embodiment can identity as an ‘“alternative life-style”’ be understood as a non-normative (Rich 1981, 4), Rich argues that (failed) performance of able-bodied- lesbianism is in fact pathologised ness, which enables and maintains in order to naturalise heterosexual- the fantasy that able-bodiedness ity (Rich 1981, 24): marginal identi- exists (2010 [2006], 386–7). As will ties are thus employed to maintain be argued below in the ‘Active and the status of ‘dominant identities’ as Passive Technologies’ section, ac- ‘the natural order of things’, to use tions that are associated with able McRuer’s terms (2010 [2006], 383). embodiment – such as taking a McRuer introduces the parallel term walk – might be read as part of a ‘compulsory able-bodiedness’, ob- performance of able-bodiedness, serving that ‘[a] system of compul- which wilfully avoids seeing its own sory able-bodiedness repeatedly reliance on technologies such as demands that people with disabili- shoes, preferring instead to see reli- ties embody for others an affirma- ance on technology in the disabled tive answer to the unspoken ques- subject – for example, in the wheel- tion, ‘Yes, but in the end, wouldn’t chair user (see the conversation you rather be more like me?’ (2010 between Judith Butler and Sunaura [2006], 386). For McRuer, the notion Taylor in Taylor 2009, discussed of ‘compulsory able-bodiedness’ below). Disabled embodiment thus is particularly cogent in a capitalist problematises those things about dominant order where ‘free to sell able-bodiedness that have been one’s labor but not free to do any- constructed as natural. In this paper, thing else’ could be translated as I seek to show how the challenge it ‘free to have an able body but not poses to compulsory able-bodied- particularly free to have anything ness might operate both as an ex- else’ (McRuer 2010 [2006], 385). In ample for academia to follow, and the current context of cuts to disabil- as an analogy for the kind of critique ity benefits, this idea will resonate that academics in the humanities for many disabled people in the UK. and social sciences already offer. Might ‘compulsory able-bodiedness’ thus contain within it the idea of Active and Passive Grammatical ‘compulsory activity’ and ‘compul- Subjects sory productivity’? These are ideas In The Promise of Happiness, which this paper will examine. Sara Ahmed proposes that we need McRuer develops the concept to ‘challenge the very separation of of compulsory able-bodiedness by active and passive’, arguing that this drawing on Judith Butler’s notion distinction ‘works to secure differ- that heterosexual gender identity is ent classes of being’ (Ahmed 2010, 130 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

210). The English language betrays the notions of activity and passivity a preference for active, rather than (Ahmed 2006, 21). As Judith Butler passive subjects, Ahmed observes: observes in her conversation with we favour the sentence, ‘the chick- Sunaura Taylor in the filmExamined en crossed the road’, over the con- Life, ‘nobody takes a walk without struction ‘the road was crossed by there being a technique of walking, the chicken’ because we want to [...] without there being something ‘preserve the fantasy that the sub- that supports that walk, [...] outside ject, even the animal-subject, is the of ourselves’ (Butler in Taylor 2009). one who acts’ (Ahmed 2010, 209).7 A wheelchair is perceived as a fa- The road is grammatically deval- cilitative technology which allows ued: it is regarded as passive, as the disabled person to ‘take a walk’ ‘doing nothing’ (Ahmed 2010, 209). whereas the facilitative properties of However, the road can be recon- ‘shoe[s]’ go unnoticed (Taylor 2009). ceived as a ‘provider’; it ‘provides Why is it that the technology used by the point at which we can cross, a disabled person can be perceived at which we can go from one side as such – as actively enabling – yet to the other’ (Ahmed 2010, 209). the technology used by those who Thus, ‘that which has been deemed regard themselves as nondisabled as passive’ may in fact provide ‘the ‘does nothing’, so that the act of conditions of possibility for doing walking emerges as natural rather something’ (Ahmed 2010, 209). than cultural? Through this natu- Could the road operate as an ralisation of the world, nondisabled analogy for academia? Ostensibly, subjects experience themselves as academia in the humanities and so- active; they do not notice the role cial sciences ‘does nothing’, at least played by those objects such as as far as certain politicians are con- shoes and pavements and roads in cerned. Yet academia provides an providing the conditions of possibil- environment in which we can think ity for activity. Meanwhile, the cul- about how ‘passivity’ is ‘distributed’, tural production of the wheelchair as rather than being natural (Ahmed a technology makes the wheelchair 2010, 209). It is not just the chicken user constantly aware that her ac- that uses the road: it is also used by tivity depends on something outside the politician, to reach the govern- of herself; she is continually brought ment buildings where political dis- into contact with her own inability to course is made. ‘do’ in the terms of society. This is not the same as her passivity, although Active and Passive Technologies a culture of ‘compulsory able-bod- I suggest that the experience iedness’ (McRuer 2010 [2006], 383) of impairment ‘“orientates” bodies tends to view it as passivity. in specific ways’ and reconfigures What would it mean to conceive Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 131 of academia as the wheelchair body as others do, was an experi- user? To do so would posit academ- ence of becoming conscious of that ic discourse as one which identifies which remains unconscious, sponta- itself as disabled, as aware of the neous, we might even say passive, prostheses upon which it depends, for most people. Learning to walk, as conscious of its contingency and for this disabled subject, was about its limitations. We might character- forcing the body to become actively ise other discourses, meanwhile, aware of itself in those most ‘pas- as nondisabled, jostling for position sive’, most unscripted of moments. ahead of academic ones, bold and Ahmed speaks of ‘paths’, of ‘scripts’ unaware of the props on which they and of ‘straightening devices’ which rely, unconscious of the privilege of lead us to reproduce certain kinds not being confronted by this aware- of subjectivities; I understand these ness. concepts not only at a literal level, but at a bodily level, since my own Being Actively Passive walking was scripted for me as a For me, the process of learning to way of making my body straight walk itself was an exercise in learn- (Ahmed 2006, 16; Ahmed 2010, 91). ing how my body ‘does not do’ ac- There is a paradox here: I am cording to the terms of other bodies. speaking of nondisabled subjects My walking was made conscious experiencing themselves as active to me, I experienced it as a cultural because they do not have an expe- production, as a failed attempt at rience of their walking as something activity. If, like me, your learning to they produce actively – rather it is walk involved placing your feet into something they do ‘naturally’, pas- a trail of insoles positioned at equi- sively. By contrast, I experienced distant intervals across the floor of myself as passive in relation to the a physiotherapist’s studio, with the ‘path’ of insoles I was expected to physiotherapist’s voice at your back ‘“tread”’: the ‘path’ seemed to be instructing you to put your heel down active in forming me as a passive, as you walk, you are only too aware compliant disabled subject (Ahmed that the insoles on the floor are the 2006, 16).8 However, the process of active ones; they are the ones with internalising the path entailed a lit- the power to determine the ‘right- eral ‘becoming active’: a learned po- ness’ of your walking. licing of my own body, such that the For most nondisabled peo- body would now actively reproduce ple, walking simply ‘happens’, it is those movements that other bodies not something which needs to be performed passively, unconsciously, thought. For me as a disabled sub- nonchalantly. I suggest that the non- ject, the experience of being taught disabled subject might be described to walk as others walk, to use my as passively active, whereas I expe- 132 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 rience myself as actively passive, or conscious of her own ‘unproductive’ perhaps as actively active. labour – the labour undertaken to The disabled subject sees ac- reach the place that others simply tivity differently because for her, inhabit – figure as a metaphor for a great deal of activity goes into politically engaged academia, which those tiny, everyday tasks that are labours to de-naturalise those posi- framed as the ‘passive’ ones we tions and ideas we take for granted? need to complete in order to reach The humanities and the social sci- the active, productive ones. In her ences have sought to be conscious memoir Waist-High in the World: A of the ‘directions’ they have ‘fol- Life Among the Nondisabled, Nancy lowed’, and not to take the ‘arrival’ in Mairs, who lives with multiple scle- a particular location for granted as a rosis (MS), recounts an experience form of ‘magic’, but rather to see it of performing her morning routine as an example of ‘social reproduc- alone, in the absence of her carers: tion’ (Ahmed 2006, 16; 17; Bourdieu ‘[t]he myriad small actions that most and Passeron 1990 [1977], 3). people would perform all but uncon- Politically engaged academia has sciously tax my ingenuity: remov- also shown how some objects and ing the plastic wrist splint I wear to acts are deemed worthy of intellec- bed, unfastening my watch, pulling tual attention, while others are rel- my nightgown over my head’ (Mairs egated to the status of ‘the passive’. 1996, 66). Several pages of prose are dedicated to describing, and de- The Passive, the Ethical, the familiarising for the reader, acts such Complex as showering and using the toilet: Mairs’ memoir is involved in a these habitual processes that soci- project of remapping the world from ety barely acknowledges as ‘acts’ a perspective which is, literally, are brought into consciousness as waist-high. As part of this process, such. In her critique of phenomenol- ‘the passive’ and ‘the active’ are re- ogy, Ahmed draws attention to the framed. Yet this task is not straight- hidden domestic labour which per- forward, for these terms have ac- mits Husserl to be seated at his writ- crued specific moral and ethical ing-table, choosing it as the object associations, as Ahmed argues of his investigations (Ahmed 2006, (Ahmed 2010, 208–9). Mairs high- 31). It is significant that some ob- lights this difficulty in her account of jects and acts are deemed appropri- the challenges of existing in a body ate for analysis, while others remain which is, in her words, ‘[g]ood for out of sight. nothing’ (Mairs 1996, 61). The use Might we understand politically of the adjective ‘good’ here is not engaged academia as actively pas- just an idiomatic coincidence, but is sive? Might the disabled subject, highly significant, in that the equa- Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 133 tion between morality and action is In a chapter entitled, ‘Taking Care’, under scrutiny. Mairs draws atten- which draws attention to the multi- tion to this issue as follows: ple significances of this idiom, Mairs laments that it is not enough to take But is a woman for whom any ac- care from others, unless one is also tion at all is nearly impossible ca- ‘tak[ing] care of others’ (Mairs 1996, pable of right action, or am I just 83 (my emphasis)). being morally cocky here? After Although ‘[p]assivities tend to be all, if I claim to be a good woman, located in the bodies of those on I leave myself open to the ques- whom we have given up’ – disabled tion: Good for what? The most bodies, for example – Ahmed re- straightforward answer is the configures passivity by pointing out most tempting: Good for nothing. that ‘[t]o give something up can be I mean really. (Mairs 1996, 60–1). not to see the quality of an action’ (Ahmed 2010, 209). In Mairs’ writ- In a society which values work, ing, the defamiliarisation of conven- activity and productivity – where we tionally passive tasks inflects those are ‘free to have an able body but tasks with ‘the quality of an action’. not particularly free to have any- By ‘improvis[ing] [...] alternatives to thing else’, in McRuer’s terms (2010 the traditional modes of tendering [2006], 385) – to be ‘good’ we feel care’, which sometimes means, par- we must be good for something. adoxically, accepting care from oth- Since ‘the qualities of activity and ers, Mairs is ‘taking all the care [she] passivity are distributed’ in particu- can’ (Mairs 1996, 83; 84). Indeed, lar ways and to particular bodies, as Mairs notes, there is a particu- that something is socially defined lar ‘etiquette’ to the passive action and cannot be just anything (Ahmed of ‘taking care from others’ (Mairs 2010, 209). For Mairs, that some- 1996, 70). Here Mairs’ ‘passivity’ re- thing involves ‘doing’ (Mairs 1996, sembles an ‘ethical capacity’ in the 61): she speaks of her desire to sense described by Ahmed, who ‘act out [her] love, in the way that states that ‘you have to be willing a dancer inscribes abstract move- to be affected by others, to receive ments on the air with hands and their influence’ (Ahmed 2010, 221). feet and torso and head in order to This kind of ethical passivity, I give her private vision public force’ suggest, is a quality that politically (Mairs 1996, 79). As this painfully engaged academia should seek to beautiful metaphor of the dancer espouse. Les Back argues that one implies, the quality of activity, and of the roles of academic sociology the moral ‘beauty’ attached to it, is to counter the ‘auction of authori- gets located in the one who is seen tarianism that is pervasive not only to be ‘do[ing] love’ (Mairs 1996, 79). in popular media but also in political 134 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 debates’ (Back 2007, 14). Sociology 16). In Hammersley’s terms, it is ex- must aspire to perform ‘attentive lis- actly the sort of contribution which tening’ which values ‘the importance gets ‘lost in translation’ when it en- of living with doubt in the service of ters public discourse (Hammersley understanding, of trying to grapple 2012, Slide 26). Yet it is a fitting sub- with moral complexity’ (Back 2007, ject for academia. 19; 14–15). Rather than being expected to emulate activism, aca- Resisting ‘Active-ism’ demia must be valued for the things In this essay I have drawn on ac- it does differently. counts of the lived experience of Academia’s commitment to nu- impairment to trouble the distinc- ance and ‘moral complexity’ allows tions drawn between ‘the passive’ for an exploration of the inequalities and ‘the active’. Following Ahmed, I between bodies that do not trans- have argued that the categorisation late easily into slogans for political of a body or a practice as ‘passive’ protest (Back 2007, 14). The idea may involve not seeing ‘the quality of the actively passive subject is of an action’ (Ahmed 2010, 209). not very catchy, but it describes an In the current political climate, aca- experience that we might need to demia in the humanities and the so- understand if we are to include the cial sciences is sometimes charac- body for whom it is true. For Tanya terised as passive and unengaged. Titchkosky, the experience of dis- The new Research Excellence ability is one of being ‘[b]etwixt and Framework will measure ‘impact’, [b]etween’, which, she argues, is with the ostensible goal of ensur- a rich and productive space from ing that the research funded by the which to offer insights into the expe- taxpayer has value. Of course, the rience of ‘human alterity’ (Titchkosky politically engaged academic strives 2003, 209; 232).9 The notion of ‘[b] to have an impact. But what if, in etween-ness’ (Titchkosky 2003, 217) demanding recognisable ‘impact’ resonates for me since my body oc- we are in fact obscuring our ability cupies a liminal space between dis- to see the ‘quality of an action’ con- ability and able embodiment; whilst tained in something deemed to be I have a physical impairment, others passive? What if we are seeing only do not usually notice it when they the chicken and not the road, the first meet me. I do not fit either cat- wheelchair and not the shoes, the egory. An account of the experience action of writing and not the action of not fitting, but of trying to fit, and of showering in the morning which of simultaneously trying not to fit made it possible to write now? does not translate well into conven- Jonathan Bate has observed that tional political discourse; it resists ‘[t]here is [...] a simple answer to being a ‘‘‘sound bite’’’ (Back 2007, the question “what is the value of Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 135 research in the humanities?”’ which agenda’, and the valuing of ‘active- is that ‘research in the humanities ism’ implicit in this ‘hailing’ (Althusser is the only activity that can estab- 1971, 163). Certain subjects (both lish the meaning of such a ques- literal bodies and bodies of thought) tion’ (Bate 2011, 3). In its efforts get left behind in this process of in- to establish the meaning(s) of this terpellation, and we leave them be- question, and other similar ones, hind at our peril. The emphasis on politically engaged academia un- impact can thus be characterised as dertakes actively passive labour, in- a ‘straightening device’ in that it de- habiting a disabled subject position. mands that as academics we follow We need this kind of actively pas- certain ‘paths’ and not others, ones sive academic labour in order to be which are demonstrably active and able to see how it is that the active productive in the terms of contem- mode comes to be valued, and why porary culture (Ahmed 2010, 145; in certain circles (not least among Ahmed 2006, 16). the politically powerful), activism, more than academia, has come to Endnotes be associated with political engage- 1 Information about the assessment of ment. The impact agenda might impact in the Research Excellence Framework is available at: http://www.ref. only seem to be ‘demand[ing] too ac.uk/panels/assessmentcriteriaandlev- much’ (Belfiore and Upchurch 2012, eldefinitions/. [Accessed 27 March 2013]. slide 19) of academia because its 2 Arguably, one might wish to draw a dis- frames of reference are unable to tinction here between impact in the so- measure the ‘much’ that takes place cial sciences and in the humanities. Arts and humanities subjects are particularly in the realm of the actively passive. vulnerable to suspicion. As Belfiore and There is ‘much’ that needs to be val- Bennett note, ‘impact studies, focusing ued that cannot be understood ac- as they do on economic and social indi- cording to the narrow terms of ‘com- cators, do not actually engage with the pulsory able-bodiedness’ (McRuer real purpose of the arts’ (Belfiore and Bennett 2010, 7). Perhaps – one might 2010 [2006], 383) and compulsory argue – such indicators are more apt for activity. engaging with social sciences research; In a rather strange irony, we might however as disciplinary boundaries be- see the new focus on impact as in- come less distinct, and research methods viting us to become the activists we become more open to debate, this is not necessarily the case. have always wanted to be – after 3 To my knowledge, Ahmed is the only the- all, we can choose to have the kind orist who has sought to defamiliarise ac- of impact that resists dominant dis- tivity and passivity in this way. However, courses, can’t we? However, I would in The Promise of Happiness, Ahmed en- suggest that the problem is precisely gages with a long philosophical tradition in which happiness is framed in terms of our ‘interpellation’ (Althusser 1971, activity and unhappiness in terms of pas- 163) as ‘active-ists’ by the ‘impact sivity (Ahmed 2010, 210–211). 136 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

4 In coining the term, Spivak describes a Acknowledgements ‘strategic use of positivist essentialism I would like to thank Nick Hocking in a scrupulously visible political interest’ (Spivak 1988 [1985], 205). This later for his comments and suggestions, comes to be described as ‘strategic es- and for the terms ‘active-ism’ and sentialism’. ‘active-ist’. I am also grateful to the 5 I would like to thank Nick Hocking for the anonymous reviewers for their feed- terms ‘active-ism’ and ‘active-ist’. back on the paper. 6 ‘Activism’ is (like ‘academia’ and ‘party politics’) an umbrella term which is used to describe a huge range of political ac- References tivities, some of which could be said to Ahmed, Sara. 2006. Queer Phenom- speak in the terms of party politics, and enology: Orientations, Objects, some of which use very different, and Others. Durham and London: deeply subversive tactics. As stated, Duke University Press. many academics regard themselves as Ahmed, Sara. 2010. The Promise of activists, so these identities are in no way Happiness. Durham and London: mutually exclusive. In this paper, I am in- Duke University Press. terested in the way in which political en- Althusser, Louis. 1971. Ideology and gagement becomes aligned with the active mode, such that activism has to be Ideological State Apparatuses ‘active-ist’ in order to make itself heard as (Notes Towards an Investiga- political discourse. tion). In Lenin and Philosophy and 7 Admittedly, this argument is specific to Other Essays. Translated by Ben the English language; perhaps activity Brewster. London: NLB. and passivity are constructed differently Back, Les. 2007. The Art of Listening. in other languages. This may be one of Oxford: Berg. the points at which my argument dem- Bate, Jonathan ed. 2011. The Public onstrates its own positionality and its at- Value of the Humanities. London: tention to the particular rather than the Bloomsbury. universal. Nevertheless, it seems important to attend to the way in which quali- Belfiore, Eleonora and Oliver Bennett. ties such as passivity are ‘distributed’, as 2010 [2008]. The Social Impact Ahmed puts it (Ahmed 2010, 209), and of the Arts: An Intellectual History. since language is one of the mechanisms Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. of distribution, thinking linguistically is a Belfiore, Eleonora and Anna Upchurch. vital part of the project of defamiliarisa- 2012. Redefining ‘Value’: The tion. Arts, Humanities and the Chal- 8 I employ Ahmed’s terms here, but I am lenges of Contemporary Life (slide speaking of a highly literal experience of presentation). Paper presented at being formed by a ‘path’. 9 Showing the Arts and Humanities Ahmed’s re-evaluation of the role of the road prompts me to question the ‘human’ Matter. 18 September 2012. UCL. part of this noun-phrase: what about non- Slides downloadable at: http:// human animals, wheelchairs and roads? www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/ Moreover, the work of Mel Chen (2012) in theatre_s/cp/research/humani- this field leads to questions about the fit- ties. [Accessed 28 June 2013]. ness for purpose of the term ‘the humani- Bourdieu, Pierre and Jean-Claude Pas- ties’. seron. 1990 [1977]. Reproduction Cooper: Defamiliarising Passivity with the Disabled Subject 137

in Education, Society and Culture. [Accessed 27 March 2013]. 2nd Edition. Translated by Rich- Rich, Adrienne. 1981. Compulsory Het- ard Nice. London: Sage. erosexuality and Lesbian Exist- Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble: ence. London: Onlywomen Press. Feminism and the Subversion of Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988 Identity. London: Routledge. [1985]. Subaltern Studies: De- Chen, Mel. 2012. Animacies: Biopoli- constructing Historiography. In In tics, Racial Mattering and Queer Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Affect. Durham and London: Duke Politics. New York and London: University Press. Routledge. Danius, Sara and Stefan Jonsson. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1993 1993. An Interview with Gayatri [1989]. In a Word: Interview. In Chakravorty Spivak. boundary 2 Outside in the Teaching Machine. 20 (2): 24–50. London: Routledge. Hammersley, Martyn. 2012. We Didn’t Taylor, Astra (director). 2009. Exam- Predict a Riot! The Public Con- ined Life. Zeitgeist Films.Thom- tribution of Social Science (slide as, Carol, 1999. Female Forms: presentation). Paper presented at Experiencing and Understand- the conference Collisions, Coali- ing Disability. Buckingham: Open tions and Riotous Subjects: The University Press. Riots One Year On. 28 September Titchkosky, Tanya. 2003. Disability, 2012. London South Bank Univer- Self and Society. Toronto, Buffalo sity. and London: University of Toronto Mairs, Nancy. 1996. Waist-High in the Press. World: A Life Among the Nondisa- Tremain, Shelley. 2006. Reproductive bled. Boston: Beacon Press. Freedom, Self-Regulation, and McRuer, Robert. 2010 [2006]. Compul- the Government of Impairment in sory Able-Bodiedness and Queer/ Utero. Hypatia 21 (1): 35–53. Disabled Existence. In Lennard UPIAS (The Union of Physically Im- J. Davis ed. The Disability Stud- paired Against Segregation) and ies Reader. 3rd edition. Abingdon, The Disability Alliance. 1976. Fun- Oxon: Routledge. damental Principles of Disability. Oliver, Michael. 1983. Social Work with London: UPIAS and The Disability Disabled People. London: Mac- Alliance. millan. Reeve, Donna. 2008. Negotiating Dis- ability in Everyday Life: The Ex- perience of Psycho-Emotional Disablism. PhD Thesis. Lancaster University. Research Excellence Framework website. Available at: http://www.ref. ac.uk/ (in particular, see: http:// www.ref.ac.uk/panels/assess- mentcriteriaandleveldefinitions/). Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science Investigating Genderless Utopias: Exposing the Sexual Harassment of Female Protestors in the Egyptian Uprisings of 2011 Emily Miles

Political uprisings and ‘democratic’ mobilisations utilise discourses of freedom and democracy in order to oppose social injustice and threats to equality. Yet within the mobilisations themselves, discourse constructs legitimate and illegitimate subjects through gendered power relations and sexualised violence. During the Tahrir Square uprisings in Egypt in 2011, activists attempted to oppose tyrannical state power by reframing the legitimacy of their protest through expressing themselves as ‘The People’. Whilst they successfully brought about the fall of Mubarak’s regime, elitism and social divisions that dominated Egyptian society failed to be significantly challenged. Feminist academic theory has previously offered insight into how nation states construct legitimate subjects through hegemonic patriarchal power. Events in Egypt demonstrate that attempts to create ‘genderless’ spaces free from social divisions can in fact mask prevailing relations of oppressive power. If political activists were to draw upon feminist academic theory, and feminist theory to transcend the academic vacuum, each may be able to address their own limitations and cross the binary in order to attain more lasting social transformation.

Keywords: Gender, Egypt, Uprising, Mubarak, Tahrir, Sexual Violence, Feminism, Activism, Utopia, Harassment, Protestors, Elitism.

Democratic mobilisations and for marginalised groups. The adop- activist movements usually erupt tion of a feminist theoretical lens in response to a perceived threat has been a useful tool in highlight- against social justice and human ing inequality in the political arena. rights. However, critique is needed Yet relations of power operate to to reveal when those mobilisations constrain and create individuals at themselves perpetuate inequality all levels of social life, including in

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 139 spaces of supposed equality and around the world – arguably remain democracy. Relations of power – unchanged. In this paper, I argue oppressive and resistant – between that the failure to shift hegemonic social movements and tyrannical practices and elitist social struc- authorities have been considerably tures was in part due to the deliber- examined by feminist academic the- ate erasure of the gender and other orists through a gendered lens (Van socio-positionings of the activists der Molen and Bal 2011; Luibhéid themselves, meaning that demands 2002; Lee 2011). However, there for ‘The Egyptian People’ were in re- has been little academic analysis of ality beneficial to Egyptians of domi- the factions and gendered inequali- nant social status – namely that of ties within social movements that older, middle-class men. Through claim to be spaces of equality and an examination of how gendered ‘genderlessness’. discourses have remained stark As part of this special edition fo- throughout the Egyptian uprisings, cusing on the relationship between and in turn how this constituted itself academia and activism, this paper in the ‘sexualised terrorisation’ of fe- will examine how adopting a feminist male protestors (Amar 2011, 300), I theoretical understanding of con- hope to highlight how the adoption temporary social movements could of a feminist theoretical perspective enable activists to be more self-re- can be incorporated into the aims flexive, and to have a greater impact and methods of other democratic in challenging global inequality and mobilisations, and eventually lead embedded social structures. In or- to a more permanent socio-political der to challenge the binary between transformation. It is worth noting the two, it will also be highlighted that throughout this paper, the term that activism informs academia by ‘democratic’ mobilisations is used embodying a tangible reality for the- not to infer a ‘Western’ belief in the ories that have been created in iso- concept of democracy, but in order lated academic spaces (Appadurai to emphasise that mobilisations 2000). In the Egyptian uprisings of that claim to be democratic spaces 2011, demands for human rights and of freedom and equality – like the social equality culminated in nation- concept of democracy itself – can in wide strikes and eighteen days of fact disguise unequal claims to rep- occupation in Tahrir Square, Cairo. resentation. Although the ‘revolution’ brought In the past decade there has been about the resignation of Hosni a rise – or renewal – of grassroots Mubarak, Egypt’s reigning dictator political activism in the form of active of nearly thirty years, the patriarchal civil society groups, social move- and elitist structures that dominate ments and uprisings against the Egyptian society – and many others perceived global injustices of cor- 140 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 ruption, tyranny and neoliberal eco- of difference and ignore the voices nomic expansion (Grey and Sawer of marginalised groups. 2008). Given that activism and occupation are once again becoming Universalism and Genderless popular alternatives to failing dem- Utopia ocratic processes, it is important Over the past decade there to address its limitations through have been signs of unrest and pro- academic analysis. Inequality and test across the Egyptian region violence against women within ac- (Shehata 2011), but none as sig- tivist groups is a controversy that is nificant as the Tahrir Square upris- rarely discussed by activists, and ings in 2011. Social inequality and has so far received very little aca- lack of economic access were at demic interest. Mobilisations like the heart of the protests, but the the Occupy Movement and the myriad of issues became reduced Arab Spring claim to represent ‘The to one clear aim – to end Mubarak’s People’ or the ‘99%’ (Van Gelder regime. All over Middle Eastern and 2011) and pursue universality as a North African (MENA) states, upris- political ideology in itself: the beings were to start and end with the lief in a world that can exist beyond phrase ‘The People Want the Fall of the social identities that divide us the Regime’ (Amar 2012): a slogan such as gender, age, race, class, that reflects how diverse factions sexuality, or religion. Contemporary and identity groups in civil society activism mostly involves the claim- united to achieve democratic and ing of public spaces, which ‘[dare] social justice. The activist revolu- to imagine a new socio-political tion that came to be known as the and economic alternative that of- ‘Arab Spring’ consisted of multiple fers greater possibility of equality’ small-scale demonstrations, mass (NYCGA 2012). However, in both protests, revolutionary processes, Occupy and the Arab Spring, sex- the ousting of dictators, and the bru- ual violence against female protes- tal crackdown and killing of protestors ensued. The academic work of tors across the MENA region (Al-Ali key theorists such as Judith Butler 2012, 26). On the 25 January 2011, (1993) and Michel Foucault (1981) tens of thousands of Egyptians took point to how sexual violence is an to the streets, the country enacted expression of unequal gendered a civil disobedience policy, and af- power relations within a given ter eighteen ‘days of rage’ the thirty space or social group. By placing year-long regime of Hosni Mubarak the violence against female pro- was brought to an end (Gardner testors within a theoretical context, 2011). we can scrutinise how demands of Egyptian society has a great di- ‘equality’ can in fact erase notions versity of religions, class and ages Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 141 but is (like many societies) extreme- US (Eschele 2001). Women made ly hierarchical and dominated by up- up 20–50% of the protestors in Tahrir per-class elites (Islah 2009). During Square, and it was women who the eighteen days of Tahrir Square started the revolution (Hafez 2012). occupation, different identities or There had been multiple strikes and groups put aside sectarian differenc- small protests over the past dec- es and united under the nationalist ade, including that of textile workers discourse of ‘The Egyptian People’. in the Mahalla al-Kubra province in The ‘Movement for Change’, or 2006, most of whom being female Kifaya, had been in existence for and working class (Beinin 2009, 79). the previous decade and consisted The labour movement transformed of a collaboration between a vast itself into a popular uprising on 25 range of different groups (El-Mahdi January 2011 after 26-year old ac- 2009, 88). A similar tactic was used tivist Asmaa Mahfouz released a to overcome sectarianism in other YouTube video describing herself as Arab Spring uprisings. For instance, an ‘Egyptian on fire’ and calling ‘The in Bahrain, female activist Munira People’ to gather at Tahrir Square. Fakhro played a crucial role as She challenged Egyptians to re- leader and spokesperson for build- claim their rights through rhetoric ing a movement that was ‘not Sunni, of nationalist pride: ‘If we still have not Shia, but Bahraini’ (Al-Ali 2012, honour, and want to live in dignity 26). Nationalist discourses were on this land, we have to go down on used to create legitimacy behind January 25’ (Mahfouz 2011). She the movement: the belief that they demanded ‘if you think yourself a acted for the benefit of the entire man, come with me on January 25. country, rather than for one sectar- Whoever says women shouldn’t go ian group. By utilising a discourse of to protests because they will get ‘The People’, protestors legitimised beaten, let him have some honour their presence in the square through and manhood and come with me the entitlements of citizenship – ‘not on January 25’ (Mahfouz 2011). Islam. Not identity politics. Not East By calling upon Egyptian men spe- versus West’ (Amar 2012). cifically, Mahfouz offered them an For the Tahririst revolutionaries, alternative understanding of mas- the highly visible presence of wom- culinity that is framed within a na- en in Tahrir Square helped enhance tionalist discourse, and a method for this legitimacy. Since women are of- marginalised and excluded men to ten framed in the West as symbols reclaim their lost dignity – and thus of Islamic oppression, the visible re- challenge the attempt of the state to sistance and anger of women em- control gendered identity scripts. phasised a rhetoric of ‘democracy’ The discourse of ‘alternative’ and freedom that is pursued by the masculinities has emerged in the 142 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 work of NGOs that work with men in space that forged a new gendered the MENA and wider African region social contract’ (El-Saadawi in Amar in order to engage them in gender 2011, 301) and an expression of equality issues (Esplen 2006; Barker global activist solidarity with other 2005). These discourses challenge uprisings. It was this legitimacy men to be ‘gender transformative’ that secured their primary aim of and to address harmful masculinity Mubarak’s removal from govern- constructs that encourage violence ment. The broad-based support be- against women, neglectful father- hind the revolution and legitimacy of hood, and risky sexual behaviour The People’s demands encouraged that is linked to the spread of HIV/ the entire country to enact civil diso- AIDS (Harrison et al. 2006). The bedience and strikes, driving the comments of Mahfouz and other military to remove their support from female protestors in Tahrir Square Mubarak (Hafez 2012, 40), thus for men to be ‘real’ men and to pro- forcing his resignation and legitimis- tect women and girls from violence ing a revitalised grassroots political is arguably gender transformative – consciousness. challenging male protestors to play a key role in combating violence Engendering Tahrir against women – whilst reinforcing a Despite the belief of the Tahrir gendered division of labour, and en- Square occupiers that they had couraging the rhetoric of male pro- created a space of social equality, tectors and female victims (Kaplan events that occurred after Mubarak’s 1994). The complexities surround- resignation revealed how fragile ing apparently alternative or new that conception truly was. On closer gender norms, and the inability for examination, gendered scripts were female protestors to separate harm- stark throughout the eighteen days ful and positive male gender norms, of occupation, and the patriarchal highlights how spaces of ‘democra- hegemony of Egyptian society was cy’ and equality remain deeply gen- not so easily overturned. dered. In Egypt, state power was situated Taher describes her interviews under the tyranny of Hosni Mubarak with activists who depicted Tahrir whilst being framed as a regime of Square as a utopia of genderless ‘benign paternalism’ (Hafez 2012). commonality: ‘No one sees you as a Mubarak depicted himself as the fa- woman here; no one sees you as a ther of Egypt, constructing a form of man. We are all united in our desire patriarchal power that allowed him for democracy and freedom’ (Taher to infantilise his citizens, rendering 2012, 369). Activists believed that them inactive and ‘docile’ (Foucault this collaboration of age, class, gen- 1981, 85). Connell’s theory of he- der and religion created a ‘utopian gemonic masculinities points to Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 143 how forms of male power are con- Nations Development Programme solidated, not ‘at the point of a gun’ (UNDP) report (2011) claimed that but through hegemonic power re- ‘exclusion and frustration can lead to lations that become internalised crime and violence’, pushing young and embedded within social prac- men towards extremist Islamism tices (Connell 1987, 184). When and terrorism. Amar argues that the emergency law that had been this discourse shifted suddenly with in place since 1981 was extended what he describes as the ‘Anderson again in 2006, Prime Minister Nazif Cooper’ effect that occurred when claimed that ‘We will never use the a CNN foreign affairs journalist was emergency law other than to pro- attacked by pro-Mubarak support- tect the citizen and the security of ers in Tahrir Square (Amar 2012). the nation and combat terrorism’ The nonviolent and secular nature (Williams 2006), reflecting how of the Tahrir Square occupation mantras of protection against terror- questions the ‘masculinity crisis’ ism were constantly used to justify theory and reverses the discourse authoritarianism. Hafez argues that of the emotional, eroticised terror- a patriarchal state was maintained ist. However, the depiction of male through ‘shaping the day-to-day op- protestors in this way suggests that erations of individuals and reconfig- gendered scripts were not in place uring individual subjectivity’ (2012, only to constrain female Egyptians. 39). Mubarak entrenched his power In the days following Mubarak’s over the Egyptian people not sim- resignation, the nature of the pro- ply through violence, open repres- tests shifted dramatically. Security sion and media control, but through forces and groups of men from the the construction of his people as Muslim Brotherhood came to Tahrir docile and with strict gender roles Square to protest directly against (Foucault 1981). Resistance to his female protestors, in order to sexu- regime thus attempted to break ally humiliate and harass them. down conventional notions of male A rhetoric of ‘good Muslim wom- and female behaviour. an’ emerged again, as ‘a group of At the start of the uprisings, men gathered around the women, Western media analysis was framed heckled them shouting abuse, ver- within what Amar has named the bally and sexually attacking them’ ‘Arab Street’ discourse whereby they were told ‘go back home and Arab men are fetishised, racialised, to the kitchen’ (Taher 2012, 370.) and portrayed as hypermasculine Many female protestors were also ‘thugs’ (Replogle 2011, 799) who arrested. Those that were detained are drawn to terrorism and violence by security forces reported psy- due to their social and economic chological torture, electric shocks, poverty (UNDP 2011). A United and the infliction of ‘virginity tests’ 144 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 by unsupervised male doctors (Al- other protests that followed later in Ali 2012, 29). When questioned, the year women protestors started a Supreme Council of the Armed to shout slogans such as ‘the daugh- Forces (SCAF) general claimed ters of Egypt do not get stripped’ that ‘the girls who were detained (Taher 2012, 373). In December were not like your daughter or mine’ 2011, reports state that 10,000 (Eltahawy 2011), reinforcing notions women were present, that there of legitimate gendered and classed was no violent backlash against the behaviour for women. Protests protestors, and that large numbers continued throughout the year, and of men were present in solidarity ‘in- on the 19 December 2011 a small itially forming human chains to ‘‘pro- number of protestors occupied out- tect’’ the women’ (Taher 2012, 373). side the Cabinet building and were Therefore, despite claims to gen- met with a violent backlash from derlessness and universal human military forces. This led to the iconic rights, normative gender scripts and image of the ‘woman with the blue a logic of ‘acceptable behaviour’ bra’ being stamped on by a security continued to dominate throughout agent (Taher 2012, 372), giving rise the Egyptian revolution. The failure to increased media attention around to recognise this ultimately under- the world for the plight of Egyptian mined the fundamental cohesion of women. Amar argues that this was the movement and its potential for part of a deliberate strategy by the change. security state to ‘delegitimise, intim- Academic theories provide in- idate and blur both the image and sight into how these conceptions the message of these movements shape discursive reality for activists by infiltrating and surrounding them in democratic mobilisations. A pri- with plain-clothes thugs, deputised mary way in which patriarchal pow- by police’ (Amar 2011, 308). The er manifests itself is through sexual- role of men – as protestors, ‘thugs’, ised violence as a tool to construct or security forces – therefore be- legitimate and docile bodies (Butler came blurred between ‘real men’ 1993). The presence of sexual vio- who protect female protestors, or lence across many different regions ‘bad men’ who sexually brutalise during periods of political unrest female protestors, and ultimately suggests a pattern in the actions reproduced gendered norms and in- of nation states to demonise and equalities within the space claimed punish resistance. Recent research by Tahrirists to be genderless. has primarily been undertaken into After the violent backlash on state-led sexual violence and con- International Women’s Day in March trol of sexualities (Luibhéid 2004; 2011 when many women were ar- Lee 2011; Puri 2006), but there has rested and sexually violated, at the been considerably less examination Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 145 of sexual violence between protes- groups exert a form of agency that tors. There is also little analysis of is ‘not as a synonym for resistance the role of women in gender-neutral to relations of domination, but as a movements – the majority of analy- capacity for action that historically sis focusing instead on women’s or specific relations of subordination overtly feminist movements. Female enable and create’ (Mahmood 2001, protestors embody a ‘double de- 203). Women’s involvement in the viance’ – in their capacity as anti- Tahrir Square uprising brought that state actors, and also as women capacity into the public space, but who challenge conventional gender in doing so highlighted the threat norms, which can pose a threat to that women posed to the regime. the interests of their male counter- Women’s groups organised and parts. mobilised against the state, posing Sexual violence is expressed in a threat to cultural norms and hier- order to further entrench authoritar- archical Egyptian society, threaten- ian power (Butler 1993). Butler ar- ing to subvert the docile subject that gues that power is exerted through had been created. After the revolu- sexual violence and the construction, male elites tried to cling on to tion of legitimate identities (Butler power whilst giving the impression 1992, 351). Power relations thus that the revolution was a success create notions of the self through in order to minimise opposition. In discourse and normative violence Amar’s examination of hypervis- that are performed according to a ibility, he talks of how women who culturally-defined script that con- were largely middle class, highly structs the ‘powerful’ (Norm) ver- educated and organised members sus the ‘powerless’ (Other) through of women’s rights groups and who injurious speech (Butler 1997, 49). had been integral in leading the rev- In the construction of acceptable or olution, were undermined through legitimate identities, the intersection a combination of their identity con- of class, nationality, gender, age struction as the ‘Other’, and force and race become additional fac- in order to instil fear and prevent tors that seek to exclude the Other other women from joining the pro- and thus render the body docile and test. Sexual violence was used as obedient. a humiliation tactic and method to Mahmood’s discussion of the delegitimise the protestors, empha- subtleties of agency in Egypt points sising that gendered identities can- to how legitimacy can be reclaimed not be dismantled or separated from (Mahmood 2001: 204). She cautions people’s identity and experience. against the logic of either subordi- Feminist academic theory therefore nation or subversion with no mid- needs to find a different route to dis- dle ground, arguing that oppressed mantling the violence of patriarchy 146 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 other than framing gender as some- ambitions and transformative influ- thing separate, social, and remov- ence. By mapping the links between able from experience and identity. sexualised terror against female protestors and the erasure of a gen- Conclusion dered viewpoint within democratic The intention of this analysis is mobilisations, I hope to have high- to point out how other social jus- lighted key potential learning points tice movements can subvert im- for future democratic mobilisations posed notions of the legitimate sub- in Egypt and beyond. The inability ject, without neglecting the needs of the Egyptian uprisings in 2011 of marginalised groups, namely to translate into a complete social women, within that movement, thus revolution suggests that grassroots contributing to the left-wing activist activism is still a flawed technique agenda. Egyptian women’s rights in need of improvement. In order to activist Mozn Hassan demands that improve life for marginalised people ‘it is time for this class of feminists in oppressive and elitist societies, to finally get out of its hotel confer- grassroots activism remains a valu- ence rooms and well-guarded foun- able expression of political power dation offices and try to take back that has great potential for achiev- the streets’ (Hassan in Amar 2011, ing change. 322). Feminist scholarship has revealed gendered power structures References within formal political processes, Al-Ali, N. 2012. Gendering the Arab and the rise of informal politics in Spring. Middle East Journal of the form of grassroots activism – in Culture and Communication 5: which both men and women partici- 26–31. pate – should not be neglected from Amar, P. 2011. Turning the Gendered Politics of the Security State In- the feminist gaze. side Out: Charging the Politics It is problematic to assume that with Sexual Harassment in Egypt. claims to equality automatically lead International Feminist Journal of to equal representation of marginal- Politics 13(3): 299–328. ised identity groups, and specific at- Amar, P. 2012. Hampshire College, tention should be paid to subgroups’ Eqbal Ahmad Lecture Series, needs and concerns. Feminist meth- Paul Amar. YouTube [online]. odology allows for a more nuanced Available at: http://www.youtube. understanding of political structures com/watch?v=dNbLc7pLUMc. of power, allowing navigation of [Accessed 4 August 2012]. hidden authorities and challenging Appadurai, A. 2000. Grassroots Glo- balisation and the Research Im- dominant beliefs (Conti and O’Neill agination. Public Culture 12(1): 2007). Butler (1993) argues that po- 1–19. litical theory must have normative Barker, G. 2005. Dying to be Men. Lon- Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 147

don: Routledge. The State, NGOs, and Interna- Beinin, J. 2009. Workers’ Struggles Un- tional Organizations in the Infor- der ‘Socialism’ and Neoliberalism. mal Economy of Cairo. Compara- In R. El-Mahdi and P. Marfleet, P. tive Studies in Society and History Egypt: The Moment of Change. 45(3): 571–605. London: Zed Books. Eschele, C. 2001. Global Democracy, Beinin, J. and F. Vairel. 2011. Social Social Movements, and Femi- Movements, Mobilisation and nism. Oxford: Westview Press. Contestation in the Middle East Esplen, E. 2006. Engaging Men in Gen- and North Africa. Stanford, CA: der Equality: Positive Strategies Stanford University Press. and Approaches: Overview and Butler, J. 1993. Bodies that Matter: Annotated Bibliography. Institute On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’. of Development Studies, Univer- London: Routledge. sity of Sussex. Butler, J. 1997. Excitable Speech: Con- Fandy, M. 2011. Notes from Tahrir temporary Scenes of Politics. New Square. Survival: Global Politics York: Routledge. and Strategy 53(2): 221–4. Cornwall, A. and M. Molyneux. 2006. Ferree, M.M. and A. M. Tripp. 2006. The Politics of Rights: Dilemmas Global Feminism: Transnational for a Feminist Praxis. Third World Women’s Activism, Organising Quarterly [e-journal] 27(7): 1175– and Human Rights. New York: 91. New York University Press. Daly, S. 2011. Young Women as Ac- Gardner, A. R. 2011. The Role of tivists in Contemporary Egypt: Masculinity in the Egyptian Up- Anxiety, Leadership, and the rising. Canonball [online]. Avail- Next Generation. Journal of Mid- able at: http://www.canonballblog. dle East Women’s Studies 6(2): com/?p=1381. [Accessed 20 July 59–85. 2012]. El-Mahdi, R. 2009. The Democracy Gomez-Garcia, L. 2002. Islamic Femi- Movement: Cycles of Protest. In nism: From Identity-based Re- R. El-Mahdi and P. Marfleet eds. sponse to an Islamic Knowledge Egypt: The Moment of Change. Frame [online]. Available at http:// London: Zed Books. www.travellingconcepts.net/covi1. El-Mahdi, R. and P. Marfleet eds. 2009. html. [Accessed 4 August 2012]. Egypt: The Moment of Change. Grey, S. and M. Sawer eds. 2008. London: Zed Books. Women’s Movements: Flourishing Eltahawy, M. 2011. These ‘Virgin- or in Abeyance? Abingdon: Rout- ity Tests’ will Spark Egypt’s Next ledge. Revolution. The Guardian [online]. Hafez, S. 2012. No Longer a Bargain; Available at: http://www.guardian. Women, Masculinity and the co.uk/commentisfree/2011/jun/02/ Egyptian Uprising. American Eth- egypt-next-revolution-virginity- nologist 39(1): 37–42. tests. [Accessed 02 September Harrison, A., L. F. O’Sullivan, S. Hoff- 2012]. man, C. Dolezal, and R. Morrell. Elyachar, J. 2003. Mappings of Power: 2006. Gender Role and Relation- 148 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

ship Norms among Young Adults Colonial Discourses. Feminist Re- in South Africa: Measuring the view 30: 61–88. Context of Masculinity and HIV Newcomb, A. 2011. Sexual Assaults Risk. Journal of Urban Health Reported in ‘Occupy’ Camps. 83(4): 709–22. ABC News [online]. Available at: Hassan, M. 2012. Hampshire College, http://abcnews.go.com/US/sex- Eqbal Ahmad Lecture Series, ual-assaults-occupy-wall-street- Mozn Hassan. YouTube [online]. camps/story?id=14873014#. Available at: http://www.youtube. UEO_etaPX9w. [Accessed 2 Sep- com/watch?v=AvNAwsApEGM& tember 2012]. feature=relmfu. [Accessed 4 Au- NYCGA .2012. About [online]. Availa- gust 2012]. ble at: http://www.nycga.net/. [Ac- Islah, J. 2009. The NGO-isation of Arab cessed 25 August 2012]. Women’s Movements. IDS Bulle- Sasson-Levy, O. and Rapoport, T. tin 35.4: 34–42. 2003. Body, Gender and Knowl- Kerton, S. 2012. Tahrir, Here? The In- edge in Protest Movements: The fluence of the Arab Uprisings on Israeli Case. Gender and Society the Emergence of Occupy. Social 17(3): 379–403. Movement Studies iFirst Article: Shaaban, D. 2011. The Role of Egyp- 1–7. tian Women in the 25th January Lee, J. C. 2011. Policing Sexuality: Revolution 2011. American Uni- Sex, Society, and the State. Lon- versity in Cairo Scholarly Com- don: Zed Books. munications [online]. Available Luibhéid, E. 2002. Entry Denied: Con- at http://dar.aucegypt.edu/han- trolling Sexuality at the Border. dle/10526/2510. [Accessed 14 Minneapolis: University of Minne- July 2012]. sota Press. Shehata, D. 2011. The Fall of the Phar- Luibhéid, E. 2004. Heteronormativ- aoh: How Hosni Mubarak’s Reign ity and Immigration Scholarship: Came to an End. Foreign Affairs A Call for Change. A Journal of 90 (3): 26–32. Lesbian and Gay Studies 10(2): Shigetomi, S. and K. Makino eds. 2009 227–235. Protest and Social Movements in Mahfouz, A. 2011. Meet Asmaa Mahfouz the Developing World. Chelten- and the Vlog that Helped Spark ham: Edward Elgar Publishing the Revolution. YouTube [online]. Limited. Available at: http://www.youtube. Taher, N. 2012. We Are Not Women, com/watch?v=SgjIgMdsEuk. [Ac- We Are Egyptians. City 16 (3): cessed 2 September 2012]. 369–76. Moghadam, V. M. 2009. Globalisation True, J. 2008. Gender specialists and and Social Movements: Islamism, global governance: new forms of Feminism, and the Global Justice women’s movement mobilisation? Movement. Plymouth: Rowman & In S. Grey and M. Sawer eds. Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Women’s Movements: Flourishing Mohanty, C. 1988. Under Western or in Abeyance? Abingdon: Rout- Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and ledge. Miles: Investigating Genderless Utopias 149

UNDP .2011. Promises and Challenges of the Arab Spring. Arab Develop- ment Challenges Report. Cairo: UNDP. Van der Molen, T. and E. Bal. 2011. Staging ‘Small, Small Incidents’: Dissent, Gender, and Militarisation among Young People in Kashmir. Focaal 60: 93–107. Van Gelder, S. 2011. This Changes Everything: Occupy Wall Street and the 99% Movement. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Williams, D. 2006. Egypt Extends 25-Year Old Emergency Law. The Washington Post [online]. Available at: http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ content/article/2006/04/30/ AR2006043001039.html. [Ac- cessed 14 August 2012]. Wölte, S. 2002. Claiming Rights and Contesting Spaces: Women’s Movements and the International Human Rights Discourse in Af- rica. In M. Braig and S. Wölte eds. Common Ground or Mutual Exclu- sion: Women’s Movements and International Relations. London: Zed Books. Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science

Evelien Geerts

Sushila Mesquita, Maria Katharina Wiedlack, and Katrin Lasthofer eds. 2012. IMPORT – EXPORT – TRANSPORT. Queer Theory, Queer Critique and Activism in Motion. Vienna: Zaglossus. 352 pp. Paperback. ISBN: 9783950292299

IMPORT – EXPORT – TRANS egories (also see e.g. Cohen 1997 PORT. Queer Theory, Queer Criti for her radical critique of identity que and Activism in Motion (2012), politics and queer identity politics; a critical, interdisciplinary and trans- and Eng et al. 2005 for a more re- national anthology in contemporary cent deconstruction of (gay) iden- queer theory, queer studies and tity politics). Whereas most of the queer activism, consists of articles, authors of this anthology have their essays and artwork that were first own, sometimes opposing views presented at the 2011 conference with regards to the matter of iden- of the same name at the University tity politics – a topic that gets intro- of Vienna in Austria. Following the duced in this volume’s first essay, conference’s conceptual structure in which Bini Adamczak and Mike and themes, this collection first of Laufenberg criticise the politics of all addresses one of the most ur- identity, and the politics of individu- gent matters in queer theory today, ality that seems to be brought about namely the issue of whether the by such a model – all of them do concept queer still has the theoreti- stress the present-day political and cal and political power to challenge activist relevance and potential of and subvert society’s current dis- queer theory. courses and norms with regards to The theme of queer theory and gender, sexuality and sexual politics practice hence immediately enters without however relapsing into the the debate in IMPORT – EXPORT kind of identity politics that works – TRANSPORT, because both the with rigid and exclusive identity cat- editors and authors effectively show

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 Review: Geerts 151 their readers how queer has been The elements of theory and praxis taken on or, on some occasions, are hence obviously completely en- has been rejected by activists and tangled in this volume. But IMPORT activist organizations outside the US – EXPORT – TRANSPORT none- (see e.g. the essay of Kulpa et al. theless also pays attention to how on the ambiguous Polish (dis)iden- queer theory – often branded as tifications with the concept of queer a hegemonic Western (Anglo-) in this volume). And the spotlighting American strand of thought (see e.g. of queer praxis and practices be- Halberstam’s acknowledgment of comes even more manifest when this issue in this volume on page 280, the reader is confronted with the or Kulpa et al. for a similar critique various queer artistic projects and and the thought-provoking statement creative essays that are included that the complexities of Polish LGBT in this collection: Hanna Hacker’s politics cannot be fully captured when self-reflexive queer autoethnogra- seen through an American-biased phy, for example, offers a startling lens on pages 120–7) – and queer insight into the life and experiences studies and research in general, of a queer Austrian ‘femme-and-pro- have been exported to non-English- fessor’ (312) in a conservative aca- speaking countries. Countries where demic context. By using an autoeth- they are not passively imported, as nographic method in her poetic, is often thought, but where they are almost écriture féminine-like essay in fact being critically and produc- (also see e.g. Cixous 1975), Hacker tively appropriated by various non- disrupts the traditional norms and US scholars and organisations on logics of academic writing, and suc- a local level. IMPORT – EXPORT cessfully brings theory and praxis – TRANSPORT addresses this fas- closer together. Praxis and theory cinating ‘traveling process of “queer”’ also stand face-to-face in Anthony (18), queer theory and studies by in- Clair Wagner’s subversive ‘monster vestigating how queer is interpreted workshop’ (347), which Wagner or- in multiple different ways, and how it ganised during the conference and is being brought into action in vari- tells us about in his written contri- ous local, non-North American con- bution to this anthology; during this texts. The main motivation behind workshop, Wagner asked the confer- this anthology therefore not only ap- ence’s participants to reappropriate pears to lie in the queering or the de- the image of the monster, a category construction of the so-called binary which has often been negatively as- of academic theory versus activist sociated with transsexuality, in order practices – a dichotomy that is often to act out their inner queerness and said to be at work in feminism as well ‘blur out the boundaries of normativ- – but also lies in ‘“de-centring queer ity’ (347). studies”’ (18). 152 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

This concept of ‘de-central- that the cultural transportation of lo- isation or de-Westernalisation/ calised queer theories, studies and Americanisation’ (Kulpa and activisms to Anglo-American coun- Mizielińkska 2011, 101) has been tries should be taken into account borrowed by the editors of this as well – which is exactly what is volume from Robert Kulpa’s and being demonstrated in IMPORT – Joanna Mizielińkska’s De-Centring EXPORT – TRANSPORT. Western Sexualities (2011), and Both the motifs of deconstructing it should be seen as this anthol- the supposed gap between theory ogy’s most crucial leitmotif. Both the and praxis, and the various cultural editors and authors of IMPORT – translations of queer, are thus at the EXPORT – TRANSPORT effective- centre of this anthology. But what ly demonstrate that the traditional really makes this diverse volume interpretation of travelling theories stand out is the fact that it upholds and frameworks as entities that are queer theory’s and queer studies’ exclusively being exported from the tradition of critical self-examination. (Anglo-)American context to non- Although IMPORT – EXPORT – English-speaking countries begs for TRANSPORT as a whole is not ex- an urgent and critical re-examina- plicitly written from a critical queer tion; this one-sided view of import- postcolonial and/or queer coloured export relations does not do justice to perspective, in contrast to such vol- the reality of how queer studies and umes as Postcolonial, Queer (2001) its main concepts are actively and or Black Queer Studies (2005), creatively being reworked and given some of the essays in this anthol- new, localised meanings in countries ogy do address the topics of queer such as China, former Yugoslavia, of colour critique and intersection- France and Germany, and Spain ality (see e.g. Halberstam for the (see e.g. the contributions of Bao; former, and Barát and Sußner for Kajinić; Möser; and Wiesnerová the latter). The fact that some of in this volume). As this anthology the authors introduce the topic of proves, queer theory, queer studies intersectionality here might sound and ‘queer activism’ are more than odd at first, since intersectional ever ‘cultural and social activit[ies] theorists (see e.g. Crenshaw 1989; within the dynamics of global/trans- Wekker 2002) tend to see subjects national academic knowledge pro- as situated in a framework of mul- duction and (trans-)local community tiple forms of oppression and privi- engagement’ (Mesquita et al., 19). lege that interact with one another The processes of cultural exporta- through socially constructed, co- tion and importation of queer thus constituting categories or identity run along the criss-crossing tracks markers, such as gender, ethnicity of multi-directionality, which means and others, whereas queer theo- Review: Geerts 153 rists are known for their eagerness temporary theoretical interventions, to disrupt and denaturalise identity that makes IMPORT – EXPORT – categories in order to make the nor- TRANSPORT such an interesting mative structures behind these cat- collection of queer gems. This an- egories visible. Yet, both Erzsébet thology is definitively a valuable re- Barát and Petra Sußner are in- source for those who are interested volved in the process of sketching in queer theory, studies and activ- out a more intersectional, queer ap- ism with an interdisciplinary, trans- proach in critical legal theory in this national and critical, self-reflexive volume – and their essays do not twist. appear to be self-contradictory at all. They both seem to make inter- References sectional and queer thought fruitful Cixous, Hélène. 1975. Le Rire de la for one another, Sußner by examin- Méduse. L’Arc 61: 39–54. ing and validating intersectionality Cohen, Cathy J. 1997. Punks, Bulldag- as a possible tool to ‘overcome the gers, and Welfare Queens. The gap between lesbian and gay equal- Radical Potential of Queer Poli- tics? GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian ity politics and queer interventions’ and Gay Studies 3(4): 437–65. (65) in queer legal theory, and Barát Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989. Demargin- by ‘argu[ing] for a non-exclusionary, alizing the Intersection of Race intersectional act of categorization and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique […]’ (82) when it comes to LGBT of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, litigation cases. This combination Feminist Theory and Antiracist of queer theory and intersectional Politics. The University of Chicago thinking is thought-provoking, and Legal Forum : 139–67. although it has been taken up by Eng, David L., Judith Halberstam, and some theorists already (see e.g. José Esteban Muñoz. 2005. In- Rahman 2010; Fotopoulou 2012), troduction: What’s Queer about Queer Studies Now? Social Text these essays will definitively inspire 23(3–4): 1–17. other queer scholars and activists to Fotopoulou, Aristea. 2012. Intersection- further explore the path of intersec- ality Queer Studies and Hybridity: tionality. Methodological Frameworks for To conclude, it is exactly the com- Social Research. Journal of Inter- bination of this volume’s attention national Women’s Studies 13(2): to deconstructing the gap between 19–32. queer theory and praxis, its critical Hawley, John C. ed. 2001. Postcolo- views on the cultural translations of nial, Queer: Theoretical Intersec- queer theory, and its manifest in- tions. Albany: State University of terest in making queer studies and New York Press. Johnson, E. Patrick, and Mae G. Hen- theory more open to intersectional derson eds. 2005. Black Queer thought and other important con- Studies: A Critical Anthology. 154 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

Durham: Duke University Press Books. Kulpa, Robert, and Joanna Mizielińkska eds. 2011. De-Centring Western Sexualities: Central and Eastern European Perspectives. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. Rahman, Momin. 2010. Queer as Inter- sectionality: Theorizing Gay Mus- lim Identities. Sociology 44(5): 944–59. Wekker, Gloria. 2002. Building Nests in a Windy Place: Thinking About Gender and Ethnicity in the Neth- erlands. Inaugural Lecture. Utre- cht University. Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science

Maya Nitis

Judith Butler. 2012. Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism. New York: Columbia University Press. 288 pp. ISBN: 9780231146104

In Judith Butler’s Parting Ways: use the pronoun ‘we’ in the hope of Jewishness and the Critique of speaking to a tentative and hopeful Zionism (2012), the historical call universal that emerges in Butler’s of the Shoah is present. Examining work and can be understood to be ways in which the Holocaust contin- consistently elaborated in this book. ues to constitute a stumbling block This is not an attempt to impose a on which Western civilization trips universal by erasing distinction and over its morals, history and violence particularity but, instead, one that in the present, Butler describes this aims to honor the basic needs we as an operation of trauma, where increasingly share. In these pages, time is held hostage by a past the possibility and necessity of such whose violence overwhelms rea- a vulnerable yet global universal- son, and thus obscures possibility. A ity has to do with learning a lesson confusion of times results, relevant from the ungraspable historical ca- not only for understanding how the tastrophe called Shoah, Holocaust traumatized are forced to repeat- or Auschwitz. edly confront suffering, which takes Parting Ways is comprised of hold of the future, but also for the eight chapters, many of which have notion of competing temporalities been published in previous versions that Butler has often turned to in the or given as lectures. Together they past decade. What would it mean to present the direction of thought of break the spell of this traumatic hold one of the most widely-cited con- on historical scale? temporary Western thinkers. From This question guides a careful critiquing conditions that enable untangling of the knots of efface- war today in Frames of War (2009), ment and obscurity that enable the Butler turns in Parting Ways to the misuse of our trauma and history. I controversial questions of the poli-

Graduate Journal of Social Science September 2013, Vol. 10, Issue 3 © 2013 by Graduate Journal of Social Science. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: 1572-3763 156 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 tics of memory. Adhering to no iden- In light of the recent UN decision to titarian tradition, the work evokes recognize Palestine’s independent the cohabitation of Jewish and non- observer status, a movement is leg- Jewish thinking on Israel/Palestine. ible toward alleviating the unsustain- Butler’s conception of cohabitation ability propped up by the Israeli wall, as the basic right that might ground in the context of which the question other rights is developed in Chapter of binationalism gains urgency. 6, ‘Quandaries of the Plural.’ This Chapter 2, ‘Unable to Kill: Levinas increasingly significant notion contra Levinas,’ exhibits the prac- emerges from a sustained engage- tice of reading that neither rejects ment with Hannah Arendt’s work, a work outright for its mistakes, nor especially Eichmann in Jerusalem, ignores problems to accept it whole- where Arendt understands geno- sale. This nuanced practice enables cide in terms of a refusal to share Butler to extend Levinas’ ethics to the world with others. those whom he was unable to face Butler argues that taking into ac- on his own terms. Thus this chap- count voices of varying traditions in a ter returns to the struggle with the critique of unjust policies is politically commandment not to kill and its and theoretically necessary to com- contemporary reverberations. This bat the hegemonic effect that aims concern forms a central thread in to silence criticism. With character- Butler’s work on ethics and politics, istic poignancy and even momen- via Levinas and Walter Benjamin. tary lightness in the face of excru- Throughout the discussion of the ciatingly heavy questions, the book prohibition of killing, nonviolence assembles a motley crew includ- emerges as the call of ethics in ing Emmanuel Levinas, Mahmoud Butler’s work, irreducible (and per- Darwish and Edward Said, who ac- haps in counter-distinction) to paci- company us on the way to making fism. Chapter 3, ‘Walter Benjamin a claim for binationalism in Israel/ and the Critique of Violence,’ is a Palestine. While in the corporate slightly expanded version of Butler’s media echoes of impossibility form 2006 discussion, which reads the background of this complex is- Benjamin’s seminal essay in terms sue, careful historical considera- of nonviolence, and thus in counter- tions belie the excuses which would distinction to Derrida’s criticism in perpetuate the conflict for the sake ‘Force of Law’ (1990). The small ad- of domination and exploitation in the ditions to the introduction and the region. The theme of binationalism last section (re)turn to Benjamin’s does not falter throughout the follow- notoriously difficult and controver- ing pages, but acquires a philosoph- sial thinking on messianic material- ical depth, the inspiration for which ism, also addressed in the following Butler attributes to Said and Arendt. Chapter 4, ‘Flashing Up.’ Review: Nitis 157

Skipping ahead, the final chap- of the Israeli state. Butler wonders ter, ‘What shall we do without ex- about Levi’s suicide, after so many ile?’ borrows its title from a poem years of vocal testimony. Were by Mahmood Darwish. Here we the attempts to silence criticism of witness a profound relation to lit- Israel’s actions and policies, along- erature and poetry, while elaborat- side the weight of living and dying ing the significance of exile. This that haunted survivors, related to relation is also important in Frames Levi’s inability to continue? Chapter of War, and could be said to lend 5, ‘Is Judaism Zionism,’ defends the Butler’s writing its at times ethe- position of Jews and others opposed real quality. From Gender Trouble to political Zionism in present form (1990) onward, we might surmise against defacing, hurtful and unfair an engagement with literature as accusations of self-hate, or Anti- ‘necessary fiction.’ In earlier work, Semitism, that are indiscriminately Butler described sex and gender as leveled against all critics of Israeli ‘necessary fictions.’ In similar terms, policies in certain places in Israel, literature is neither circumscribed to Germany and United States, among a fictional realm nor reducible to a others. In 2012 such accusations reflection of reality. There is a seri- were directed against Butler, on ous yet hopeful speaking and listen- the occasion of being awarded the ing on both sides, as there is among Adorno Prize in Frankfurt, Germany. theory and practice, which are nei- All the major German newspapers ther separate nor homogenous for seemed to open their pages to Butler. Perhaps this is one of the Butler’s defense of critique – also reasons for the great appeal of such in relation to Israeli policies. Parting praxis today. Ways reiterates how these charges The penultimate Chapter 7, not only water-down real issues of ‘Primo Levi for the Present,’ dis- Anti-Semitism, but also attempt to cusses another major theme in silence critique through misappro- Butler’s work: the appropriation of priating the Shoah, which consti- discourse, particularly that of the tutes an instrumentalization of the Shoah, as an inevitable yet inde- politics of memory. terminable consequence of time. This book can be read as pos- Exploring Primo Levi’s struggle with ing the necessity to learn from an the political heritage of being a wit- event that overwhelms understand- ness in Auschwitz, Butler returns to ing in order to make that event what the need to reappropriate this histo- it should be – history – and thus ry against misuse and injustice rath- open the possibility of breaking the er than remaining silent. Levi had traumatic hold that it exercises on repeatedly and often provocatively the present. This lesson urges us criticized the belligerent policies to draw connections between the 158 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3 wrongs that underlie fascism and Endnotes racism; injustice must be opposed 1 Democracynow news report, 15 regardless of the identity of victims November 2012. and perpetrators. This position does not contest the singularity of the References Shoah, which is at once remem- Butler, Judith. 2009. Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? Brooklyn/ bered as an existing historical event London: Verso. that exceeds full comprehension in Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble: its scale and its horror, and at the Feminism and the Subversion of same time, approached as a catas- Identity. New York: Routledge. trophe that cannot be used to justify Derrida, Jacques. 1990. Force of Law: any further suffering. The remem- The ‘Mystical Foundation of Au- brance of the tragedy, the preserva- thority.’ Cardozo Law Review 11: tion of the memory of its victims, and 920–1045. safeguarding this memory against not only those who would deny it but also those who would deploy it to justify other kinds of oppression enable it to become what it is, and must be, and yet, what, following the nature of trauma, it has not been: history. These are not humble aims, yet their necessity becomes more and more evident every day, as the reach of global politics becomes stronger and stronger in a world so prone to corruption that it charac- terizes its modus operandi. Violent conflicts break out repeatedly between Israeli forces and the civilian population, and not only Palestinian resisters. The Israeli army continues killing civilians, without even leaving safe places to evacuate the injured in the recent conflict.1 Irrevocably situated in this current urgency, the critique at issue embodies the necessity of all modes of engagement, not least academic. Graduate Journal of Social GJSS Science

Anna Kuslits

Sara Ahmed. 2012. On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life. Durham and London: Duke University Press. 243 pp. ISBN: 9780822352365

In the everyday reality of equal as the rightful occupants of certain opportunities questionnaires, cor- spaces’ (2012, 2), she reflects in her porate diversity policies, multicul- present book, while other bodies turalism and global migration, Sara are intruders, trespassers. Ahmed`s Ahmed`s 2012 book On Being latest book examines processes of Included: Racism and Diversity in inclusion/exclusion in institutional Institutional Life addresses some settings: how bodies and spaces of the most significant problems are regulated in institutional life, or that shape contemporary culture as she puts it ‘how some more than and society in the UK. Processes others will be at home’ (i.e. not out of othering or, as she calls it, ‘stran- of place) ‘in institutions that assume ger making’ are always at the centre certain bodies as their norm’ (2012, of Ahmed`s work. The figure of the 3). stranger, as she points out in her What prompted the research previous book Strange Encounters leading to the writing of the book (2000), is not completely unfamiliar. was a series of changes in the legal A stranger is someone ‘already rec- regulation of equality in institutions ognised’ as stranger, as someone (the Race Relations Amendment Act who does not belong, who is ‘out of of 2000, the Equality Act of 2010, place’ and who is always already too amongst others) which together led close (2000, 22). Stranger making, to what Ahmed calls ‘a new equal- she argues further, does not only ity regime’ in the UK (2012, 8). The produce the body of the stranger as new legislation ‘made race equality stranger, but also the space where into a positive duty under law’ re- some bodies become strangers, quiring public institutions to come while other bodies are at home. up with their own race equality poli- ‘Some bodies become understood cies (2012, 4 (my emphasis)).

Elsewhere, Ahmed describes the universities, conference talks and figure of the feminist in academia workshops. Defining her method as ‘unhappy’, killjoy, or spoilsport. as ‘an ethnography of texts’ (2012, The feminist refuses to share the 12), Ahmed is interested in how the happiness of others, and ‘disturbs language of diversity gets circulated the fantasy’ of happiness (Ahmed and embedded in the language of 2010). Ahmed`s story in the present the institution. book offers the ‘unhappy’ story of The project lends itself to critically diversity politics brought about in thinking through the perceived ten- the wake of the new legislation. In sion between theory and practice, institutions that celebrate diversity, and to thinking about social activ- racism is an ‘unhappy word’ (2012, ism in general. Drafting documents 154–155) reserved for the unhappy, of race equality, one has to con- who are in turn discredited as the stantly reflect on the ways in which killjoy. Ironically, the celebration of those documents may be applied diversity and equality as something to the lived experience of social in- already accomplished, Ahmed clev- justice in institutions. This prompts erly points out, is one of the dis- Ahmed, borrowing the terminology cursive strategies this new regime of speech act theory, to think stra- deploys to maintain/reproduce so- tegically about how to ‘do things’ cial inequalities and systemic racial with those words. Diversity workers discrimination. Talking about racism work in a ‘gap’ (2012, 126) between in an institution that is already com- documents and praxis, in between mitted to diversity and racial equal- documents, and between the future ity becomes a problem, because it promise of a commitment to diver- threatens to destroy the reputation sity and the present reality of racial of that institution and the fantasy discrimination. Ahmed is looking at that racism is ‘over’, that it is a thing the possibilities of inhabiting these of the past. Talking about racism is gaps strategically. anachronistic, unfashionable and An emphasis on experience is even unpatriotic – the British being what gives this work a political edge modern, enlightened, and as such, against what has been seen as a anti-racist (2012, 48). dead-end to bringing together theo- Following the new equality legis- ry and practice in post-structuralist lation, Ahmed has been appointed thought. Instead of examining ques- as a member of the team at her uni- tions of agency, Ahmed`s phenom- versity writing the institution`s race enological approach to institutional equality policy. While drawing on life examines ‘how we inhabit insti- her own experience, her analysis is tutions’ (2012, 12), our orientations based on interviews she conducted within an institution and towards with diversity practitioners at other that institution. Her ‘institutional Review: Kuslits 161 phenomenology’ (2012, 24) brings the form of making the commitment. back the reality of experience, the Ahmed`s reversed deconstruc- material effects of institutionalisa- tive logic runs in a similar fashion tion, the materiality of bodies and throughout the whole book in a very spaces, of texts (documents) and tight, thorough and clear analysis of of bodies assembling around ta- the discourse of diversity. bles (committees). She opens with However, what I would consider the questions ‘What does diversity the weakness of the book is that it re- do?’ and ‘What are we doing when duces questions of diversity to race we use the language of diversity?’ equality, and race equality to col- (2012, 1), assuming there are bod- our. Post-colonial theory, feminism, ies and spaces, documents and and especially feminists of colour, institutions; and that words do do as Ahmed herself points out, have things and people do do things with invented a good portion of vocabu- words, even though what they do is lary allowing for radical critical en- not always what they claim they do, gagement with multiple intersecting as she later points out. structures of domination and sub- This brings us to perhaps the ordination (2012, 13). In the mean- most exciting chapter examining time, the word ‘disability’ appears statements of commitment. As she in the index of terminology once, already signals in her introduction, while references to class and age ‘the difficulty of equality as a poli- are not listed at all. Discrimination tics’ is that often ‘policy becomes a against immigrants from Eastern substitute for action’ because there Europe, which is very much at the is ‘an investment in both law and centre of political discourse in the policy as ‘‘performatives’’’, that is, UK, somehow falls short of becom- a conviction that the words of the ing theoretically articulated. There is law will accomplish that which they some reflection on LGBT issues, but name (2012, 10–11). Chapter Four mainly in the context of gay impe- (113–140) discusses statements rialism and homonationalism (2012, of commitment in this light. When 148). Similarly, the issue of disabil- a commitment to diversity does ity comes up exclusively in connec- not entail action, that commitment tion with arguments where it is de- can be thought of, Ahmed argues, ployed to discredit, or draw attention as ‘non-performative’ because the away from, the experience of racial commitment is made precisely to discrimination targeting people of not do what it says. On the contrary, colour (2012, 211, for example). the commitment is used (by way of Disability (as well as class), thus, citation) to relieve someone of the seems to be reduced to the status of responsibility of taking action, as if discursive strategy at the expense action has already been taken in of embodied experience. 162 GJSS Vol 10, Issue 3

While I do not contest the rel- can be autistic as long as you are evance of the point Ahmed makes a team-player, or depressed as long here, nor do I try to argue for a com- as you are pro-active. Of course, pletely inclusive (happy) theory, it there is always the possibility of be- seems to me that under-empha- ing referred to psychotherapy: work sising forms of discrimination other for your happiness, the bottom line than discrimination against people goes, because your unhappiness of colour puts this particular project will not be recognised as legitimate. in danger for a number of reasons. It reinforces the view that (1) racism, References political mechanisms of inclusion/ Ahmed, Sara. 2000. Strange Encoun- exclusion and questions of equal- ters: Embodied Others in Post- ity have a proper context; (2) that Colonialty. New York: Routledge. the context is the domination of the Ahmed, Sara. 2010. Killing Joy: Femi- (white) West over the Third World; nism and the History of Happi- ness. Signs 35 (3): 571–92. (3) and that racism, thus, has a biological – and empirical – basis. Ahmed talks about how inclusion of the ‘other’ is always on condition (2012, 42–3). The person embodying diversity is welcomed by the institution – more specifically, the implicitly white bodies that make up the body of the institution – on the condition that he or she blends in with the image of the institution. You are welcome as a Bangladeshi woman as long as you do not plan to have kids. Similarly, it is okay to be gay as long as you do not sleep around and potentially spread AIDS. However, while some sinners thus gain redemption, the promise of inclusion is addressed to certain bodies and not to others. There are bodies, Ahmed emphasises, which cannot inhabit either diversity or whiteness. Perhaps looking at disability would expose the ‘on condition’ aspect of inclusion and help articulate the point Ahmed makes: you