© JHE 2020 J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) PRINT: ISSN 0970-9274 ONLINE: ISSN 2456-6608 DOI: 10.31901/24566608.2020/70.1-3.3184

Impact of Banasura Sagar Dam on the Wayanad Kadar Tribes of Kerala

T. V. Shruthi

Department of Anthropology, Kannur University, Thalassery Campus, Kannur, Kerala, India E-mail: [email protected]

KEYWORDS Agricultural Land. Compensation. Development Projects. Livelihood. Occupation. Tribal Displacement

ABSTRACT The present paper attempts to understand the impact of Banasura Sagar Dam on the Wayanad Kadars, one of the Scheduled Tribes of Kerala, who were evicted from their original habitat when the dam was constructed in Wayanad District. Earlier, the Wayanad Kadars were entirely depending on agriculture for their livelihood and maintained a sustainable livelihood. But they were displaced from their original habitat and scattered to mostly barren lands in the forest areas with the implementation of the India’s second largest earthen dam project. Their traditional habitat submerged inside the reservoir, which has resulted in the rehabilitation of the Wayanad Kadars in different areas in Wayanad District. In the post displacement phase, the community was facing huge challenges of livelihood transition as they neither integrated nor assimilated into the new habitats and the problems related to the tribal displacement was continuing endlessly. The present study is an attempt to understand the ground realities of the impact of displacement on the livelihood and socio-economic life of the Wayanad Kadars of Kerala.

INTRODUCTION The displaced tribal people are facing vari- ous stresses like social, cultural, economic and Tribal displacement and resettlement are the psychological due to the breakdown of their tra- worst experiences faced by the tribal societies ditional livelihood and lifestyle. People are forced as it interferes with their way of life and with the to leave their traditional abode and their means problems of adaptation. The centuries old cus- of subsistence due to the compulsory acquisi- toms, practices and environmental adaptations tion of land for the construction of dams, indus- mould the survival strategy of the tribes, which tries, roads, National Parks, etc. Development are suddenly subjected to change when they proves that it is beneficial to a section of popu- are rehabilitated to an entirely different environ- lation but it is at the cost of livelihood of other ment. Adoba et al. (2019) have reviewed the risks sections of the society. faced by the communities of developing coun- Most of the development projects are locat- tries like China, India, Zambia and Ghana due to ed in forest areas, which are occupied by indig- the development induced displacement, which enous communities and hence the tribes are the has pointed out that a large number of people most affected group of people. The people dis- have become homeless, landless, jobless and placed for developmental projects are deprived also lost their socio-economic conditions. Ku- of their traditional livelihood without any alter- mar and Mishra (2018) have pointed out the prob- natives. The worst sufferers of developmental lems related to the development induced dis- projects are the tribal communities because most placement from the indigenous perspective. Af- of the development projects such as dams and ter the tribal displacement and with the chang- industries are located in tribal areas. The tribes, ing habitat, the tribal communities are being ex- the original inhabitants were pushed into the posed to new socio-cultural context, which de- uninhabitable area by various invaders and also mands new skills and that is altogether different due to various development projects. from what they possessed. The immediate and The displacement destroys not only the elongated reactions to these developments re- physical environment but also socio-cultural, sulted in a new strategy of survival. Hence, the political and economic network. All the devel- displacement and resettlement have to be as- opment programmes tend to replace the existing sessed on the backdrop of new occupational set of relations. In the words of Sarma (2017), attainments. “most of the development projects in India, in 52 T.V. SHRUTHI the name of National development, have been 2,800 hectares (net) in Wayanad District. As a established in remote areas and tribal areas where part of the establishment of the dam, the Waya- plenty of land is there for acquisition. The entire nad Kadars were relocated and settled even to process is uprooting people from their sources the forest areas, which ultimately resulted in the of livelihood and proper resettlement and reha- end of cultivation in their paddy fields. The dam bilitation of these people are not happening in project has virtually taken away their livelihood most of the states. As most of them are part of as well as their cultivable land, which is filled an informal economy, it becomes difficult for with water of the dam. In this context, the study them to adjust to a formal economy or urban set intends to examine the impact of the develop- up and livelihood. This has led to impoverish- ment programmes on the Wayanad Kadars. The ment of the marginalized people in many fronts.” development through dams and its interconnec- The Scheduled Tribes in India are character- tion with displacement of the tribal communities ised by economic and social marginalisation. are attaining significance in recent decades. Economy is one of the major subsystems of any The Wayanad Kadars are one of the Sched- social system. Livelihood comprises the activi- uled Tribes of Kerala, and they are facing the ties required for acquiring means of living, the after effects of displacement from their original capacities and assets including both material and habitat at the time of the construction of the social resources. According to Long (2000), “live- Banasura Sagar Dam. At present, the displace- lihood best expresses the idea of individuals and ment has resulted in the disintegration and im- groups striving to make a living, attempting to poverishment among the Wayanad Kadars. This meet their various consumption and economic is also resulted in their resettlement at different necessities, coping with uncertainties, respond- areas and as a part of the resettlement policy ing to new opportunities, and choosing between decisions of the Government. In the post dis- different value positions.” Livelihood is more placement phase, the community has faced crit- than just a matter of finding food, shelter and ical challenges of livelihood transition as they clothing, it means that the processes by which either have to integrate or assimilate in the new the people attain the needs of life, which may habitat wherein they face a lot of problems. In vary from society to society. Hogger (2004) has this context, some important literatures related rightly stated that, “understanding the livelihood to the present research topic are reviewed to systems of the poor is crucial to effective pover- identify the trend of such studies. ty reduction. Livelihood of the poor can never Mahendrakumar (2005) has published an ar- be understand in any track logic be it economic, ticle on the Kadars of Central Kerala. This study social, technical, cultural or political. The liveli- gives an analysis on eco-cultural adaptations hood systems are made of very diverse elements and socio-economic changes among the Kadars which taken together constitute the physical, eco- of Central Kerala. It analyses the problems faced nomic, social and cultural wherein families live.” by the Kadars during the transitional stage of The Wayanad Kadars were displaced from their subsistence activity. Baviskar (1995) has their original habitat due to the construction of made an account of the Narmada valley project the Banasura Sagar Dam in 1979 in Wayanad and he says that the wealth of the earth is being District of Kerala. The dam construction result- appropriated by the elites leading to the impov- ed in the total destruction of their economy due erishment of vast human masses who largely to the submergence of their cultivable lands in- depend on natural resources. This study con- side the dam. The Banasura Sagar Dam was con- cludes that the claim of development becomes structed as a part of an irrigation project in Way- meaningless for such deprived tribes who have anad District. This is the second largest Earthen lost their identity. Behera (2011) studied about Dam in Asia and the largest Earthen Dam in In- the displacement due to the construction of a dia. This dam is built across Karamanthode, a medium irrigation project of Western Orissa. The tributary of Panamaram River in Wayanad Dis- study provides a brief account of the pre and trict. According to the Kerala State Planning post economic conditions of the displaced peo- Board, the ultimate benefit of the dam and canal ple. Dungdung (2013) studied the agony of 57 system is to irrigate 4740 hectares (gross) and families who were displaced in 1983 during the

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) IMPACT OF BANASURA SAGAR DAM ON THE WAYANAD 53 construction of Malay Dam, situated at Satbar- ing forest dweller, which is derived from the word wa Block of Palamau District in Jharkhand, which “Kadu”, meaning forest. The Wayanad Kadars discloses the struggling of the families for the are known as Kadar among themselves. The survival after being betrayed in the name of com- prefix Wayanad is used to differentiate this group pensation, rehabilitation and development. Rao from the Kadars of Thrissur District of Kerala. (2017) has made a study on tribal land question The number of Kadar families in Wayanad dis- in Andhra Pradesh and it focussed on the sched- trict is 174, with a total population of 673 and it uled areas in the East Godavari District. This consists of 348 males and 325 females. The dis- study highlights the nexus between the non- tribution of population is given in Table 1. The tribal entrants into tribal areas, political parties Wayanad Kadars are distributed in 11 Grama and the state, which has been party to land alien- Panchayats, however, they are mainly located in ation among the tribes. Bandyopadhyay (2018) Thariyode, Vellamunda, Thondarnad, Edavaka, conducted a study among the four Birhor settle- Pozhuthana and Padinjarethara Grama Pan- ments, namely, Bhupatipally, Bareria, Bersa and chayats. They are settled in different villages Madhultanr in the District of Purulia. It looked and interacting with other people, which has into the changing livelihood pattern of the Birhor brought significant changes in their life and cul- and salient features of the impact of develop- ture. The Wayanad Kadars are one of the early ment measures initiated by the Government. inhabitants of Wayanad District of Kerala. Majumder (2019) conducted a study among a group of peasant families who had lost their cul- Table 1: Distribution of population of the Wayanad tivable land for the establishment of a heavy Kadars industry, in the village Gokulpur under Kharag- Male Percent Female Percent Total Percent pur-1 Block in Paschim Medinipur District in West Bengal. It discussed about the changing 348 51.70 325 48.30 673 100 social structure of the land loser families due to Source: Report - Scheduled tribes of Kerala 2008 the acquisition of land by the Government for the establishment of this industry. For the present study, various anthropolog- The above review of literature shows the ical research methods have been used such as trend of studies on the impact of development intensive fieldwork, household survey, inter- programmes on the tribes and tribal displace- views and non-participant observation. House- ment. In this context, the following objectives hold survey was the main source of data collec- are formulated to study the tribal displacement tion for the present study. The 100 households and the impact of the Banasura Sagar Dam on of the Wayanad Kadars were selected for the the Wayanad Kadars of Kerala. present study. The household survey helped to collect data about the size and type of the fami- Objectives lies, age group, education, sex ratio, occupation- al status, etc. Both qualitative and quantitative Š To study the impact of Banasura Sagar Dam methods have been used. All the Wayanad Ka- among the Wayanad Kadars of Kerala; and dar families displaced due to the Banasura Sa- Š To understand the tribal displacement and gar Project were contacted during fieldwork. In- the changes in livelihood among the Waya- terviews and group discussions were conduct- nad Kadars. ed to collect data.

MATERIAL AND METHODS OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

In Kerala, the Wayanad Kadars are distrib- The traditional occupations of the Wayanad uted in Wayanad District alone and therefore Kadars consisted of agriculture and hunting and the area of study is confined to Wayanad dis- gathering. Their farming was a collective work. trict alone. The Wayanad Kadar, a Scheduled They practised shifting cultivation on the hill Tribe, is a marginal community. The Malayalam slopes and that places are submerged inside the word “Kadar” is the plural form of Kadan mean- dam at present. They classified their territory

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) 54 T.V. SHRUTHI based on the names of the hills and on the hill Kadars has been declined due to the reduction slopes. They cultivated different types of food in the area of farmland. The livelihood patterns grains like paddy, ragi, millets, mustard, corn, have completely changed. As per the present etc. Their shifting cultivation had different stag- survey, the number of agricultural and wage la- es like selection and clearing of forest, burning bourers have increased. The degradation of nat- and removing of weeds, sowing of the seeds, ural forests has reduced the availability of wild weeding, watching of the crops, harvesting and edible and commercial produce. At the time of worshipping. They had several varieties of pad- the construction of the dam, some of them have dy including wet land paddy such as Veliyan, got jobs available in the dam site, which were Thondi and dry land paddy known as Karathan unskilled, dangerous as well as least paid. After (Karinellu). In Thariyode, the Wayanad Kadars the completion of that project, all such jobs end- were mainly settled in three villages namely, Chel- ed. This is a very rare instance of multiple ex- lad, Kodumchola and Vengakolly. Earlier, the im- ploitations wherein they lost their traditional portant items cultivated in that area were pepper, coffee, cardamom, ragi, thaila pullu, ramacham, land, traditional occupations and finally they lost thina, chama, tubers, rice and vegetables. the jobs related to the construction of the dam Traditionally, the Wayanad Kadars were ex- also. The types of land and landholding are im- perts in the use of bow and arrows, made of portant in the life and culture of the Wayanad bamboo, and they used to hunt wild boar, deer, Kadars. rabbit, etc. The economic activities of men were The loss of agricultural land has made ex- restricted to hunting and collecting and women treme impact on their economy and traditional were engaged in shifting cultivation. The items occupations. The loss of agricultural land is a collected were different types of tubers, fruits, push factor from land-based jobs, which had leaves and honey. Even today, some of them are opposite effects on the employment status of continuing fishing and both men and women are the displaced people. Hence the natural capital participating in it. They also dry fish with salt and is being appropriated by the privileged, leading preserve it for future. At present, those who own to the impoverishment of vast human masses land, cultivate paddy, tapioca, plantain, pepper, who largely depend on natural resources. coffee, ginger, jack, mango, etc. Their cultivation The families of three areas are mainly affect- was depended on the rains. They followed or- ed by the displacement, which includes Kodum- ganic cultivation. Some of them are also engaged chola, Vengakolly and Chellad. Altogether about in animal husbandry. At present, they are depend- 100 families have lost their lands and homes. ing on the markets for all their requirements. Acres of farmlands, including dry and wet lands, The traditional way of life of the Wayanad were drowned and four sacred places (thadan- Kadars have changed as has been pointed out gai), where their ancestors are worshipped also by the finding of Aboda et al. (2019) and Kumar drowned when the water stored in the dam. The and Mishra (2018). Bandyopadhyay (2018), Rao submerged areas inside the dam is provided in (2017), Dungdung (2013), Behera (2011) and the Table 2 and it shows that the 102 Wayanad Baviskar (1995) have pointed out the issues of Kadar families were evicted with the construc- tribal displacement in the context of develop- tion of the dam. ment projects, which is also compatible to the Table 2: Submerged areas inside the dam present observation. The Wayanad Kadars were scattered from their original habitat only because Villages Wet land Dry Sacred Number of the large-scale development project, the Ban- in acres land places of families evicted asura Sagar Dam. This has resulted in the tribal displacement as well as extensive changes in Chellad 60 100 2 26 their livelihood and livelihood activities. Kodumchola 20 70 2 57 Vengakolly 10 20 1 19 Tribal Displacement and Changes in Livelihood Total 90 190 5 102

At present, after the displacement from their The traditional lifestyle of the Wayanad Ka- original habitats, the income of the Wayanad dars have been subjected to change by the im-

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) IMPACT OF BANASURA SAGAR DAM ON THE WAYANAD 55 pact of outside influence. The ethnic identities percent households have 25 cents. The twelve of the Wayanad Kadars are no longer enduring. percent households have 50 cents. Only two Loss of agricultural land, different administra- percent households have 65 cents of land and tive restraints against the freedom of enjoying six percent households have 100 cents of land. the forest, etc., forced them to change their tra- Only six percent households have above one ditional rituals and practices related to hunting acre land. and cultivation. Though they are experts in the The lands were purchased by the tribal use of bow and arrows, they have stopped hunt- households from the amount of the cash com- ing because of the ban on hunting. Due to the pensation received at the time of evacuating them frequent interactions with the people on plains, from their original habitats for the construction their food pattern and dressing pattern have also of the Banasura Sagar Dam in 1979. With the changed. The Wayanad Kadars are now look- shifting of their traditional settlements, their tra- ing back and trying to recollect their traditional ditional occupational structure has also way of life. Most of them are not getting com- changed. The present status of occupations is munity certificates and only because of that they also studied. are trying to preserve tribal identities and that has become a survival problem for them today. Occupational Status Before displacement, the Wayanad Kadars had common property resources equally shared At present, 79.26 percent of the working pop- with mutual consent and cooperation. Due to ulation are wage labourers and 9.75 percent are development induced displacement, their reset- Government employees. Only 2.43 percent are tlement is leaving them with meagre resources professionals. The 8.53 percent are engaged in in an unknown ecology. The displaced Waya- occupations like carpentry (1.21%), welding nad Kadars were scattered and resettled them- (1.21%), and driving (2.43%). Besides these pri- selves in different Panchayats in Wayanad Dis- mary occupations, most of them are engaged in trict. At present, the displaced Kadar families secondary occupations like animal husbandry, have land holding ranging from 10-20 cents to 2- which is mostly confined to poultry farming, goat 3 acres. rearing, etc., and their marginal farming includes the cultivation of pepper and coffee. The present Land Holdings occupational status is provided in Table 4. The present occupational status shows that At present, the majority of households, that the Wayanad Kadars, a traditional paddy culti- is twenty percent, have 10 cents of land. The vating tribal group have become wage labour- Table 3 provides the details of the present land ers. They are not practicing agriculture as they holdings of the Wayanad Kadars. The fourteen were evacuated from their original habitat for percent households have 30 cents. The sixteen the construction of the Banasura Sagar Dam in Table 3: Land holdings after displacement 1979. Although, they have received cash com- pensation, they could not procure cultivable land S. Land Number Per- Cumu- and moreover, they have scattered to various No. in of cent lative cents house- % places of Wayanad in search of land for pur- holds chasing. They were not rehabilitated to proper places. They received compensation according 110202020 220141434to the Land Acquisition Act. According to it, a 325161650person whose land or other means of livelihood 430141464are destroyed in the process of displacement, 550121276 660101086they are entitled to get just cash compensation. 7652 288It means that the land, natural resources, means 8 100 6 6 94 of livelihood, social and cultural loss resulting 9 Above 100 6 6 100 from displacement can be quantified and com- Total 100 100 pensated in monetary terms.

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) 56 T.V. SHRUTHI

Table 4: Occupational status not lead to landlessness and household level food insecurity but also triggered faster frag- S. Occupation Male Female Total Percent No. mentation of joint families, which is reflected in other parts of life. 1 Agriculture 0 0 0 0 The non-quantifiable nature of numerous 2 Wage labourer 80 50 130 79.26 human and ecological costs has not even been 3 Teaching 0 2 2 1.21 acknowledged. The Government documents rec- 4 Nursing 0 2 2 1.21 ognise the problem associated with cash com- 5 Government 12 4 16 9.75 service pensation, particularly, in the case of tribal peo- 5 Welding 4 0 4 2.43 ple. The Wayanad Kadar people have been liv- 6 Contract work 2 0 2 1.21 ing in a particular region for centuries. The way 7 Driving 4 0 4 2.43 of life of the people destroyed cannot be rebuilt 8 Sales 2 0 2 1.21 in the original form in the newly settled areas. representative 9 Carpentry 2 0 2 1.21 This is a great sacrifice on the part of tribal peo- ple for national development. The main issue Total 106 58 164 100 has to be addressed is how to achieve rehabili- tation. The socio-cultural economic and ecolog- In the case of Wayanad Kadar, they are fac- ical rehabilitation can give a sense of original ing the problems of sustainability along with form of life. The displacement of the people due landlessness, homelessness and joblessness. to dam has been involved in violation of their The culture of Wayanad Kadar developed from basic human rights including the very right to traditional habitat, which reveals the traditional life. The claim of development becomes mean- livelihood patterns of hunting, gathering, fish- ingless for the Wayanad Kadars who have lost ing, etc. The displacement has resulted in the their identity. The cultural processes include economic, ecological, religious and political sta- changes of livelihood pattern from natural capi- tus, which was helping people to transform their tal to human capital. Hence, the issue of land- environment and also ensure their existence. It lessness, becomes critical to the community like also helped them to transmit their culture for Wayanad Kadar. The displacement is a life- generations. threatening issue and in this perspective, the At present, the dam project has displaced Government was evacuating an indigenous com- the indigenous tribal community, the Wayanad munity from their original habitat. The indige- Kadar, and they were forced to migrate to for- nous knowledge of the Wayanad Kadar does ests for their survival. It led to drastic changes not work in the present situation, where their in their socio-economic and cultural life. The life livelihood is completely different from the previ- supporting system of the Wayanad Kadars, the ous one. The Wayanad Kadars displaced dur- common property resources like dry lands and ing 1980s are struggling for their survival and wet lands have taken away from them by the these deviations force them to depend more on dam project. They were forced to displace and alternatives than the natural resources. The scattered all over Wayanad District. The com- Wayanad Kadars had never experienced earn- pensation given was also inappropriate and they ing their livelihood through daily wages as they need more care and support in their livelihood. Therefore, the need of relocation with all the had more than enough land to sustain their fam- livelihood facilities is yet to happen in the case ilies for generations. Now, they have only daily of the displacement of the Wayanad Kadars. wages as the major source to sustain their fami- lies. At present, animal husbandry is the sec- CONCLUSION ondary occupation for the majority. The multidimensional impact of the loss of The Wayanad Kadars, an erstwhile shifting agricultural land of these people have created cultivators and agriculturists, have been dis- problems like disintegration of kinship ties, placed from their original settlement areas and marginalisation through the fragmentation of their farm lands due to the construction of the joint families, and loss of domestic and agricul- Banasura Sager Dam. They are displaced to var- tural related rituals. The land acquisition does ious places of Wayanad District. At present, they

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020) IMPACT OF BANASURA SAGAR DAM ON THE WAYANAD 57 are facing a lot of problems as they are scattered kumar, Associate Professor, Department of An- to various places in Wayanad District. The com- thropology, Kannur University, Thalassery Cam- munity life of the Wayanad Kadar tribes have pus, for his scholarly guidance and help for pur- been lost considerably. Their social life has crit- suing his Ph.D. in the area of tribal studies. ically crumbled down with the changes in their traditional economy, political system, system of REFERENCES values, material culture, relationship with envi- ronment, religion and even the overall tribal life. Adoba C, Mugagga F, Byakagaba P, Nabanoga G 2019. At present, the majority of the Wayanad Kadars Development induced displacement: A review of risks have become mere wage labourers. The new faced by communities in developing countries. Soci- generation does not know the methods of culti- ology and Anthropology, 7(2): 100-110. Bandyopadhyay S 2018. Development experience and vation and they also do not maintain their iden- livelihood of a traditional hunting gathering tribe. tity. Nevertheless, some of the members have The Eastern Anthropologist, 71(3, 4): 295-317. received Government jobs, which is an impact Baviskar A 1995. In the Belly of the River: Tribal Con- of the acculturation and culture contact with the flicts Over Development in the NarmadaValley. New other communities in the new surroundings of Delhi: Oxford University Press. the Wayanad Kadars. In spite of the fact that Behera N 2011. Displacement, Resettlement and Re- habilitation. Delhi: Abhijeet Publications. the old generation have more resentments and Dungdung G 2013. Whose Country Is It Anyway? Un- miseries appertains to their displacement. told Stories of Indigenous Peoples of India. Kolka- ta: Adivaani. RECOMMENDATIONS Hogger R 2004. Understanding livelihood systems as complex wholes. In: R Baumgartnet, R Hogger (Eds.): There should be measures to allot cultivable In Search of Sustainable Livelihoods: Managing Resources and Change. New Delhi: Sage Publica- land to those landless and jobless members as tions, pp. 94-125. well as families. Alternative job opportunities Kumar S, Mishra AJ 2018. Development-induced dis- may also be created to sustain self-sufficiency. placement in India: An indigenous perspective. Jour- Initiatives may be taken to construct houses for nal of Management and Public Policy, 10(1): 25- the displaced people. Those who have settled 36. in forest areas may be rehabilitated to inhabit- Long N 2000. Exploring local/global transformations: A view from anthropology. In: A Arce, N Long (Eds.): able areas, especially to the areas in which their Anthropology and Modernities. London: Routledge, relatives are settled. Special attention may be pp. 184-201. given to those who are facing psychological Mahendrakumar MS 2005. Ecocultural adaptations of problems after displacement. Opportunities may the Kadars of Kerala. Studies of Tribes and Tribals, be provided to gather all the community mem- 3(2): 99-104. bers to maintain their customs and traditions, Majumder A 2019. Effect of land acquisition on social which in turn help to preserve their ethnic iden- structure: An ethnographic study of avillage in Pas- chim Medinipur District, West Bengal. South Asian tity. Steps may be taken to make available the edu- Anthropologist, 19(1): 38-47. cational, health, and infrastructural facilities for the Rao PT 2017. Tribal Land Question. New Delhi: Rawat displaced families of the Wayanad Kadars. Publications. Sarma P 2017. Dibang mega-dam project and probable displacement of the people of Arunachal Pradesh. In- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS dian Anthropologist, 47(2): 1-15.

The researcher is extremely thankful to his Paper received for publication in October, 2019 teacher and research guide Dr. M.S. Mahendra- Paper accepted for publication in January, 2020

J Hum Ecol, 70(1-3): 51-57 (2020)