A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies (Harvard University)

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A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO

Writing in East Asian Studies A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO

Writing in East Asian Studies

MICHAEL RADICH

Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations

Harvard University Table of Contents tdn’ ud oWiigi atAinStudies Asian East in Writing to Guide Student’s A

5 The Sophomore Tutorial in East Asian Studies

What Is East Asian Studies? ...... 7 The Tutorial in East Asian Studies ...... 10 Sophomore Tutorial...... 11

13 General Writing Skills

What Is Good Writing? ...... 15 Reading to Write ...... 17

• What We Want You to Do: How Writing Is Graded in the Tutorial ...... 19

al fContents of Table Strategies to Make Successful Writing Happen ...... 22 Working Parts of a Paper ...... 25 Openings ...... 27 Posing the Puzzle ...... 28 The Thesis Statement ...... 30 The Roadmap ...... 35 Defining Key Terms ...... 37 The Body ...... 43 Evidence ...... 43 Some Typical Kinds of Evidence ...... 47 The Analysis of Evidence ...... 52 Counter-Argument ...... 55 Structural Elements ...... 57 Paragraphs and Topic Sentences ...... 58 Signposts ...... 60 Endings ...... 67

73 Specific Types of Writing Assignments

The Response Paper ...... 75 A Sample Response Paper ...... 79 The Module Paper ...... 84 The Larger Independent Research Paper...... 85 Choosing Something to Study ...... 87 Articulating Your Topic ...... 88 Developing a Working Hypothesis ...... 89 Gathering Materials and Making a Bibliography ...... 90 Making Outlines ...... 91 Writing Drafts and Using Feedback ...... 92 The Final paper ...... 93

The EAS Junior Paper ...... 95 Senior Thesis ...... 96

2|A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Table of Contents tdn’ ud oWiigi atAinStudies Asian East in Writing to Guide Student’s A

97 Writing Strategy Revisited

Writing Strategy Revisited: The Importance of Rewriting...... 99 Editing ...... 101 Splitting ...... 101 Merging ...... 102 Reordering and Sundered Companions ...... 102 Shedding, Pruning, Culling, Slashing and Burning ...... 104 Redundancy ...... 104 Double-barrels ...... 104 Superfluous Adjectives...... 104 Fudging...... 104 •

Dummy Signposts...... 105 Contents of Table Dummy Relative Clauses ...... 105 Dummy Verbs with Nominalization ...... 105 Digression ...... 105

Adding Words ...... 106 Creating Signposts and Structural Aids ...... 106 Clarifying Referents of Pronouns ...... 106 Adding Words in Splitting Sentences ...... 106 Eliminating Nominalization...... 106

Some General Advice ...... 107

109 Appendix: Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording

Preposed Participial Modification ...... 114 Split Infinitives...... 117 Ending Sentences with Prepositions ...... 119 “Who” and “Whom” ...... 120 Relative Pronouns “That” and “Which”...... 120 Authorial Self-Reference...... 122 Pronouns and Sexist Language ...... 125 Nominalization...... 127 Active and Passive Voice...... 130 Topic ...... 133 Old Information First, New Information Last ...... 135 139 Appendix: Style Conventions for East Asian Studies

141 Appendix: Writing Resources at Harvard

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies |3 tdn’ ud oWiigi atAinStudies Asian East in Writing to Guide Student’s A

4|A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies What Is East Asian Studies? Studies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The

o talk about how to write in East Asian able to practitioners of previous generations. No T Studies, we should understand that discipline, then, has such a cut-and-dried orthodoxy East Asian Studies is not a discipline; it is a as the description above might suggest. Even where field of study. Of course, the distinction we are draw- they disagree, however, practitioners of a single ing here between a “discipline” and a “field” is some- discipline tend to be united in wanting to convince what arbitrary, but entertaining that distinction for others in the discipline that their way is the right the sake of argument helps point up certain impor- way for the discipline as a whole to do things. tant features of the field of East Asian Studies. What, Loose as it is, this picture of a coherent entity then, do we mean by this distinction? called a “discipline” has some value as a foil in An academic discipline can be thought of as understanding what East Asian Studies is not. East • htI atAinStudies Asian East Is What united by a core of common assumptions, questions, Asian Studies differs in important respects from a definitions, concepts, methods, or theories, so that “discipline” so defined. As a field, it is “unified” these common features affect the way only by the object of study—East Asia. more or less anyone in that discipline Scholars in the field might study aspects To talk about studies more or less anything. For exam- of this object of study using the assump- how to write ple, economics is a discipline in which tions, questions, definitions, methods, in East Asian scholars study human economic activity and theories of any one of a number of Studies, we should and the factors that bear on that activity. the disciplines listed above (history, understand that In doing so, these scholars draw on com- philosophy, philology, etc.). It is because East Asian mon definitions of what constitutes such scholars draw on the tools and perspec- Studies is not activity; they have recourse to assump- tives of a number of various disciplines a discipline; tions about human nature and the way it that East Asian Studies is often justly it is a field conditions economic activities; and they referred to as an interdisciplinary field. of study. use common, accepted theories, con- What, then, are the implications of cepts and methods (such as certain equa- the interdisciplinary nature of East Asian tions). Sociology, anthropology, philosophy, history, Studies for students and scholars who research and philology, linguistics and literary studies are arguably write in that field? For writing in particular, it means examples of a “discipline” in this sense. that even more than in individual disciplines, there is Obviously, people in disciplines like economics no single, standard way of writing that is adhered to argue all the time over the assumptions, questions, across the field. Rather, it is usual in East Asian definitions, concepts, methods, and theories that they Studies to encounter all of the various types of writ- consider proper to their discipline, and there is prob- ing that characterize the disciplinary approaches com- ably no aspect of any discipline that is not contested prising the field. By contrast, in fields that we might by at least some of its respected professional practi- call “disciplines,” according to the description above, tioners. The defining characteristics of a discipline are it is often the case that certain styles of writing and also always in flux, and over time can shift radically other disciplinary conventions are reasonably well- enough that a discipline might become unrecogniz- established. Usually, anyone who wishes to achieve

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies |7 competence in such a field must learn and conform to Many people have strong opinions as to which of those conventions. these styles is better suited to academic writing. It is For our purposes, these conventions fall into two generally the case, however, that the impersonal style broad types. First, we have citation style, that is, the is favored in the natural sciences, and the personal, h ohmr uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The technical rules for how one cites sources in that field. openly subjective style, using first-person pronouns, These rules govern the format and punctuation of is favored in the humanities (especially, for instance, citations, including the order of such details as in literature). It gets tricky when we consider the author, book or article title, year of publication, page social sciences, which fall between these two poles. number, and so on. Below are some examples of the Social scientists who think of their work as being same information formatted according to various more scientific in orientation may express that fact by common disciplinary norms: adopting an impersonal, “scientific” writing style, among other things; other social scientists might Hecht, Anthony. Jiggery-pokery: A Compendium of Double Dactyls. New York: Atheneum, 1983. equally favor the use of a personal, first-person style. You will see from the various aspects of style cov- Hecht, Anthony, Jiggery-pokery: A Compendium of Double Dactyls (New York: Atheneum, 1983). ered in this booklet that there are many stylistic ques-

• Hecht, Anthony (1983). Jiggery-pokery: A tions, like this one, where more than one possible

htI atAinStudies Asian East Is What Compendium of Double Dactyls. New York: solution exists. Because East Asian Studies is an inter- Atheneum. disciplinary field, it is even less the case than for sin- We will come back to these citation conventions gle disciplines that there is one solution typical for later in this handbook, in the appendix entitled “Style the whole field. As one reads literature in the field, Conventions for East Asian Studies.” one usually encounters a variety of writing styles and The second, less codifiable aspect of writing con- conventions, all of which are valid and acceptable to ventions can be broadly called “the way people the field as a whole. write,” that is, the conventions of general writing It is therefore important to be aware of the inter- style. For example, should we use first person pro- disciplinary nature of the field from the outset, even nouns in writing or avoid them? (This question is when considering something as apparently down-to- examined in more detail in the section on “Authorial earth as writing. A booklet like this, and indeed the Self-Reference.”) East Asian Studies concentration as a whole, there- If I want to say what I intend to do in an essay, I fore, will not be your sole source of models and can do it in a number of ways. On the one hand, I guidelines for writing practice. Many students in East can say something like this: Asian Studies are co-concentrators, and especially if you are co-concentrating in a “discipline” as defined “In this essay, I will examine the reasons that above, you will learn a great deal about standards of China achieved reunification in the medieval period (under the Sui and Tang), whereas India acceptable writing from that field. Even if you are and the Mediterranean, the other two great not a co-concentrator, you will still have particular Eurasian civilizations, did not.” interests in one or another aspect of East Asia, and On the other hand, I can say something like this: there will be appropriate disciplinary tools that you

“In this essay, the reasons will be examined for can bring to bear upon the object of that interest. China’s achievement of ,reunification...” In an interdisciplinary field like East Asian or, without a passive: Studies, the most important thing is not that everyone “This essay will examine the reasons that China adopt any particular set of conventions to the exclu- achieved...” sion of all others—indeed, such a requirement would

8|A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies be impossible to enforce across the field. Rather, each writer must adopt some acceptable and consistent set of stylistic standards. To return to our example of the way we cite sources, it is acceptable to use one or the h ohmr uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The other of the competing standards out there, but it is not acceptable to chop and change from one standard to another in the course of a single piece of work. The same goes for less technical stylistic issues like whether to use the first-person authorial voice, or whether to avoid passives: you can do as you like, but you should think carefully about your reasons for making your choice, and you should stick to whatever choice you make. Note also that though you will be asked to try your hand at a variety of disciplinary approaches in the course of your studies for the concentration in •

East Asian Studies, it is not necessary that you change Studies Asian East Is What your style for each disciplinary approach. Thus, we do not expect that you will observe one set of citation practices and writing conventions for a week of material on literature, and that you will then learn and use an entirely new set of conventions for a module on political science. Rather, we expect that you will master and consistently apply a well thought-through set of conventions appropriate to the discipline(s) where your own long-term interests lie. It is perfectly fine, then, for a student whose strongest interests lie in history to continue to develop their voice as a historian, and to practice the citation conventions used in history, even as they study materials in religious studies, anthropology, and economics.

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies |9 The Tutorial in East Asian Studies h ohmr uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The

he tutorial in East Asian Studies as a whole In the Junior Tutorial, students are separated into T serves two broad purposes. First, it aims to groups according to country studied, and also accord- give students a general introduction to the ing to the division between humanities and social sci- field of East Asian studies, and in the junior and sen- ences. Thus, there is a “China Social Sciences” track ior years, to a more specific (though still broad) area and a “China Humanities” track, and so on for Japan, of interest within that field. Second, it aims to teach Korea, and Vietnam. students to undertake independent, original research In the Senior Tutorial students who are writing in that field. Both of these goals are pursued honors theses work in individual tutorials with a fac- throughout the program, but the emphasis falls at ulty advisor and a tutor.

• first on acquiring a broad acquaintance with the field, The overall direction of the tutorial program, h uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial The and later shifts towards greater focus on research. then, is from general to specific, and specialization This trajectory of study can be seen clearly if we increases as students continue through the program. take a brief look at each year of the tutorial program As the concentration progresses, there is also an in turn. increasing expectation that students will engage in The Sophomore Tutorial is intended as a general ever-larger pieces of original research. The program is introduction to the field of East Asian Studies, and specifically designed to gradually teach the skills nec- the various disciplines and objects of study that are essary to engage in this research. Now, writing is one found within that field. Students thus spend the year of the most important skills required in research, and sampling the field in what is intended to be a repre- this handbook itself is among the means the depart- sentative selection of typical topics and approaches. ment uses to try to impart research skills to its con- The course does include material from across the centrators. whole broad sweep of East Asian history, but it is not a survey course, and coverage is selective rather than comprehensive. We will return to the Sophomore Tutorial in greater detail below.

10 | A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies h ohmr uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The Sophomore Tutorial

s this brief outline makes clear, after the difficulty of languages) makes any Area Studies para- A sophomore year, the tutorial program in digm very demanding to work in, as we are required East Asian Studies splits into increasingly to have at least a passing acquaintance with such a specialized and individualized experiences. For this broad range of disciplinary approaches. On the other reason, the only part of the program that is part of hand, in an era of increasing specialization, such the experience of all concentrators is the Sophomore interdisciplinary fields provide an important antidote Tutorial. We will therefore now consider the to the balkanization of the departments of knowl- •

Sophomore Tutorial in a little more detail. For more edge; and for those whose curiosity or sheer Tutorial Sophomore information about the tutorial program, see the willfulness will not brook the sometimes claustropho- handbook “East Asian Studies, Harvard University: bic confines of a single traditional discipline, they The Concentration in East Asian Studies in the provide a welcome refuge, where it is still possible to Department of East Asian Languages and make a viable career as a kind of generalist. In many Civilizations: A Guide for Undergraduates,” available respects, then, the unruliness of East Asian Studies is from the East Asian Studies office at 9 Kirkland Place. a blessing in disguise, and may account for the The Sophomore Tutorial has a number of goals. intense attraction the field can exercise over us. As we have already mentioned, the Sophomore In the meantime, however, this interdisciplinary Tutorial aims to introduce students to the field of richness presents the Sophomore Tutorial with a tall East Asian Studies as a whole. Now, we saw in the order. To introduce students to the disciplinary preceding section of this handbook (“What Is East approaches characteristic of the East Asian Studies, Asian Studies?”) that East Asian Studies is an inter- faculty must introduce them, in effect, to the entire disciplinary field. If the Sophomore Tutorial is going range of the humanities and the social sciences— to introduce its students to the field of East Asian a good half of the modern university as a whole! Studies, then, one aim must be to do justice to the A second important aim of the Sophomore interdisciplinary nature of the field. The interdiscipli- Tutorial is to introduce students to the object of study nary character of our field presents certain problems, —East Asia. Again, this is a tall order. At Harvard, however, as well as certain exciting challenges. East Asia is defined primarily as comprising China, To put it simply, if we consider the disciplinary Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Obviously, each of these approaches that can be legitimately applied in the modern countries is the heritor of a long history field of East Asian Studies, we end up with a list and civilization. These histories and civilizations, that includes most of the departments of a modern moreover, have for the best part of history been university, with the possible exception of the natural relatively remote from the Western civilization with sciences: geography, philosophy, political science, which most students will be most familiar, and even literary studies, art history, linguistics, anthropology, today remain relatively poorly known among the archaeology, economics, history, and sociology, for general public in Western countries. All of these example (though this list is by no means exhaustive). characteristics of East Asian civilizations clearly make This open-endedness (among other things, like them very exciting things to study, but at the same

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies |11 time, they present the Sophomore Tutorial, whose rather, the processes involved in writing and research aim it is to introduce students to them, with a are themselves means by which we grow in our great challenge. understanding of both disciplinary perspectives and The Sophomore Tutorial also has a third central objects of study. Conversely, the better we understand h ohmr uoili atAinStudies Asian East in Tutorial Sophomore The aim: to inculcate in students the reading, writing and objects of study, and the better our mastery of disci- research skills they will need to begin independent plinary perspectives and theoretical toolkits, the more and original work in the field. Obviously, this aim is effectively we will write and research. the central focus of this handbook, and we will be In the bigger picture, then, the various arms of addressing it in a great deal more detail. For now, we study pursued in the Sophomore Tutorial are ulti- should note that no less than the other aims listed mately linked, and advance in harmonious parallel, above, this is a very demanding task. The skills even if at times it feels more like they are wrestling involved in writing and research are many, and with one another! mastering each requires a long process of apprentice- This, then, is the overall structure within which ship that is, strictly speaking, endless. Even renowned this booklet seeks to help students in the East Asian scholars can and do profitably work to improve their Studies tutorial program better their writing skills.

• writing and research skills. The handbook was originally developed for close use

hti atAinStudies Asian East is What It is clear even from this brief survey of the aims in the structured writing assignments of the of the Sophomore Tutorial that the tutorial is pulled Sophomore Tutorial syllabus. The skills it teaches and in a number of different directions by the nature of the points it addresses, however, are equally applica- the field to which it introduces its students. It is ble to writing at any stage of the undergraduate perhaps as well to note that in past years students process, and indeed beyond. And although it might have felt that the tutorial has had mixed success in seem that writing and research skills are less impor- meeting these various goals and ideals, and that a tant at the beginning of the tutorial program, it is certain level of frustration seems to be inherent in the vital that both students and teaching staff begin to nature of the course. Indeed, it is difficult to see how work hard to foster writing skills right from the any course, meeting twice a week over twenty-five beginning of the sophomore year. weeks or so, could meet all the goals listed above We have also seen that within the Sophomore perfectly; nonetheless, the department puts a great Tutorial, the development of writing is only one of deal of effort into ensuring that the tutorial comes as several goals that are pursued in parallel. This is close as possible to meeting these aims. equally true of the Tutorial program as a whole, and It is also worth noting that the various aims of these various goals can place conflicting demands on the tutorial are not simply in conflict; they are also students and the syllabus. Having recognized the mutually reinforcing in a very significant sense. The other goals and aspects of the tutorial syllabus, how- various disciplinary perspectives are so many lenses ever, we must now, for the purposes of this booklet, through which we view East Asia as the object of put them aside somewhat, and concentrate on writing our study, and to the extent that we acquire those and research. perspectives, we come to know that object better. On the other hand, East Asia as an object of study provides us with a constant testing-ground upon which to hone our mastery of the disciplinary perspectives we are in the process of acquiring. Similarly, writing and research are not “mere” tools that we use to present the results of study;

12 | A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies General Writing Skills • What Is Good Writing? 15 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | the field of East Asian studies. A way of writing the field of East Asian studies. A way While this example is admittedly extreme, the is admittedly extreme, While this example also because of its impli- This point is important than one way to write well in our is more If there English, your professor or TF is unlikely to think you English, your professor in her footsteps for your first brilliant if you follow paper. response subtle ways to the in more same principle applies available to you as models range of possible styles within of a poem will proba- that is useful for a close reading political scien- bly not be as well suited to a sustained of free- about, for instance, the effects tific argument of the on the ideological identity market reforms to keep this It is important Chinese Communist Party. absorb differ- basic point in mind as you appraise and in you read the materials ent writing techniques from the field. you, offer cations for this handbook—what it can of East Asian and how you should use it. In the field of at least as many viable ways are Studies, there writing. conceivable purposes for are writing as there then, is ideas and All that this booklet can offer, of writing, general aspects pointers for some relatively your own writ- and suggestions for ways to improve useful if find this booklet more should ing style. You points, of ideas and starting you use it as a source rather than trying to follow its suggestions to the let- Pay close attention to the context-specific feed- ter. and your TFs, too; your professor back you get from of point-by-point advice they will be a valuable source on matching writing technique to purpose, in ways that this booklet cannot hope to match. an open- field, learning to write well is also, therefore, an ongoing exploration of possibilities ended process, that any one person is (thankfully) unlikely to exhaust in a single lifetime. For some students, realiz- 1914) (Gertrude Stein, Tender Buttons, Tender What Is Good Writing? Good Is What “A Box,” from preliminary comments about writing, and preliminary t is worth our while to make a few general our while to make t is worth learning about writing. While some of these learning about writing. Throughout this handbook, we will repeatedly Throughout purposes many different are there Obviously, A custom which is necessary when a box is used A custom which is necessary when a box and taken is that a large part of the time there connections. The are three which have different one is on the table. The two are on the table. The three are on the table. The one, one is the same length as is shown by the cover being there is more cover The other is different longer. and that that shows it. The other is different makes the corners have the same shade the eight are in singular arrangement to make four necessary. I points are basic, and you will doubtless have thought basic, and you points are ourselves may be useful to remind of them yourself, it discussing specifics. we begin of them before “Good writing is following watchword: to the return writing that serves its purpose.” This is an intention- and fast no hard are ally flexible definition. There is no sin- there guidelines for how to write well, and writing that applies or perfect gle model of “correct” point is easily to all writers and all their ends. This example. illustrated by taking an extreme as many at least are for which people write, and there of good writing. This is very types obvious different some types of which could in contemporary poetry, purposes to almost be defined as writing used for that poses which writing is not usually put, or writing be: the puzzle of what its purpose might Whatever Gertrude Stein’s purpose may have been in Stein’s Whatever Gertrude unlikely to find yourself writing these lines, you are writing for a similar purpose in scholarly work! And this means in turn that while Stein is widely regarded as one of the most brilliant writers ever to work in One way to improve your own writing is to your own to improve One way the task of learning to In sum, you can expect see the Appendix to For a list of such resources, however, and choose our models carefully. carefully. our models choose and however, view of the point of from you read critique what something and reading If you are writing technique. Why? ask yourself: to understand, find it difficult you, how would If it were How could it be improved? effectively? the same point more you write to convey to a order will often lead in short Such mental habits your own writing, even critical attitude towards more self- it, and help you to write more as you produce consciously and artfully. your attention beyond your write better to engage your undergraduate throughout year, sophomore you career and well into whatever professional degree you at Harvard, choose. At least while you remain available resources many are should know that there is one such to help you in that task. This handbook teachers from any feedback you receive resource; can also make You about written work is another. of your peers; establish a habit of out such a resource and critiquing work with a class- reading reciprocally also many are and trust. There mate you respect that have been set up specifically at Harvard resources to sen- freshmen from community, to help the entire with their writing. ior faculty, at Resources this handbook entitled “Writing Harvard.” Expos is a A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Your Expos course, if it went well for you and if well for you and course, if it went Expos Your Expos Even in the best-case scenario, however, expect to continue learning should therefore You So much is writing a constant work in progress beginning, not an end! beginning, ing this fact might entail a new understanding of a new understanding entail fact might ing this completing to stand upon supposed they are where and clear: needs to be said loud Expos. It have given you some ideas you worked at it, should ends that work for certain of writing about some sorts given you some It should have —and some that don’t. fundamentals of academic argu- familiarity with the of experience with the process mentation and some may You rewriting. of writing, and also, importantly, with some useful strategies for have left the course steps in the writing process. different to write. not the be-all and end-all of how is certainly fields many things about writing in specific are There taught in a and disciplines that simply cannot be also many things about are general course. There close read- writing for various purposes—an extended work, for instance, or a technical ing of an artistic argument analysis of statistical data, or a lengthy will not be based on ethnographic fieldwork– that limited scope. of relatively touched upon in exercises so long as about and working at better writing for the least, it At you continue to develop intellectually. scholar devel- true that as a professional is certainly independent projects, term papers to larger ops from seminar graduate to a senior thesis, and then through a PhD dissertation, papers, a masters dissertation, and a first scholarly book, she first scholarly articles, about writing will face new challenges and learn more and will often seek advice at every step of the way, and mentorship specifically about how to write. In your time get it wrong. regularly that even the pros a good deal, to read you will be required at Harvard and you could safely bet that in every course you will well is writing! Writing some bad to read be required of this, because Be aware simply not an easy matter. to various fields, we naturally take as apprentices published work in those fields as guides to good must bring a critical eye to our reading, practice. We 16 |

General Writing Skills • What Is Good Writing? General Writing Skills • Reading to Write 17 In each of these cases, once you have gain is made when a A second great A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | gued assumptions in the author’s argu- gued assumptions in the author’s you assigned the text ment. Again: Were information to help you gain background about some aspect of East Asian society, what key points If so, history or culture? should you understand and retain? fulfilled your goal, move on immediately to other tasks. with purpose and only reads not reader com- with a pen or but reads direction, Right from the Sophomore Tutorial, EAS students Tutorial, the Sophomore Right from goals with it? For example: Are you required to write you required Are goals with it? For example: the paper? If so, you will need to isolate a response and evaluate and its component parts, main argument be for time, it will under pressure them. If you are you have read when that you recognize important and stop! Another example: Are enough to do this, If to generate questions for discussion? you required for things that so, you will need to be on the lookout on short you feel you are puzzle you, or places where and unar- information, or potential flaws background some- creating to hand, and starts puter keyboard She to the reading. thing of their own in response goal. immediately begins to fulfill her reading thereby can be as simple as a of this process The end-product scribbled on a scrap argument sketch of the author’s or as involved as several pages of notes. of paper, of scope, taking some kind of notes will Regardless your final towards expedite progress almost certainly aim. very efficiently to read will encounter this pressure quickly when they crack open their course packs and papers. sit down to write the weekly response with bulky heavy, courses are EAS Tutorial Frankly, the beginning, Right from and demanding readings. and adjust the way you When you are When you are goals in reading read accordingly. read reading to write, reading think about your Reading to Write to Reading We can paraphrase our own watchword can paraphrase our own We what is good reading? riting well begins with reading well. But reading riting well begins with When you are reading to write, there- reading When you are and you are rapidly, have a class approaching You takes charge if the reader greatly Things improve W about good writing, and say: Good reading is reading and say: Good reading about good writing, that serves means that its purpose. This naturally reading If you are good ways to read. many are there on a Sunday morning, you will a magazine to relax a question on reading than if you are differently read to a poem reading a mathematics exam. If you are very read write an analysis paper about it, you will a 500- reading than if you are differently page history survey text for background aspect of the information on a particular period that text covers. analyzing materi- when you are fore—as looking or when you are als for a paper, argu- for an for information required ment—think about your goals in reading accordingly. and adjust the way you read a This point is very clearly illustrated by by encountered situation regularly students. Harvard amount of material before- a large to read required hand—enough that it will not be possible for you to experience from all know We for word. word read at the that it is fruitless to simply begin reading passively and beginning of the material, and read and will be eaten up rapidly, Time without direction. will still it is likely that when it runs out the reader not have met his or her goals. Ask yourself: What am I process. of the reading What is the teacher to do with this reading? required likely to have hoped to achieve when he or she my own particular What are assigned this reading? . See also the A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Harvard offers resources to help the community to help resources offers Harvard then, direct your reading and note-taking towards towards and note-taking reading your direct then, is supposed to serve. goals the material the various strategies. habits and reading effective develop more is the Bureau in this regard well known Particularly in Reading Course “Harvard of Study Counsel’s can find out more You and Study Strategies.” or by visiting the BSC about it from http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~bsc/rc.html Appendix for a list of other such resources at Harvard. of other such resources Appendix for a list 18 |

General Writing Skills • Reading to Write General Writing Skills • How Writing Is Graded in the Tutorial 19 Does the paper offer Is the paper clearly organized? Is it A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | If appropriate or required, are Is there one main argument in the Is the style appropriate for its audience? CRITERIA FOR GRADING THESIS: the the- paper? Does it fulfill the assignment? Is paper? sis clearly stated at the beginning of the Is it interesting, complex? Is it argued throughout? STRUCTURE. easy to understand the main point of each argu- paragraph? Does the order of the overall ment make sense, and is it easy to follow? EVIDENCE and ANALYSIS: Does supporting evidence for each of its points? knowledge of the evidence suggest the writer’s the subject matter? Has the paper overlooked Is any obvious or important pieces of evidence? evi- there enough analysis of evidence? Is the dence, properly attributed, and is the bibliographical information correct? SOURCES: sources besides the main text(s) under consideration used? Are they introduced in an understandable way? Is their purpose in the argu- the ment clear? Do they do more than affirm per- viewpoint or represent a “straw writer’s son” for knocking down? Are responsible infer- ences drawn from them? Are they properly attributed, and is the bibliographical information correct? STYLE: Is the paper concise and to the point? Are sentences clear and grammatically correct? Are there spelling or proofreading errors? Note that these criteria fall into two sections. The Note that these criteria first gives a set of aspects of a paper that teachers first gives a set of aspects various aspects to those The second relates look for. letter grades. What We Want You to Do: You We Want What expectations is to know what they expect, expectations is to know key step towards satisfying your teachers’ satisfying key step towards and to work accordingly. What do we look and to work accordingly. How Writing Is Graded in the Tutorial in the Graded Is Writing How One basic way of thinking about what a grade One basic way of thinking about what then, grades In terms of this “Why?” and “How,” This is, of course, a very simplistic description of A for, then, when we grade your writing in the Tutorial then, when we grade for, what exactly do In other words, in East Asian Studies? when we assign a writing task? we hope you will do of the means, and how it is assigned, is to think “How?” paper as a combination of “What?” and a stu- When teachers read First: What does it argue? looking for an original argu- work, they are dent’s Teachers ment. Second: How does the paper argue? These also look at the mechanics of the paper. include whether the paper is clearly structured, and well, whether whether language is used correctly is accurately evidence is given, whether that evidence the points being and does indeed support interpreted it, and so on. drawn from as follows: in an “A” can be understood roughly one is strong in a “B” paper, strong; both are paper, present both are but the other is wanting (or perhaps well done); in but simply adequate rather than really somehow wanting. The finer both are a “C” paper, gradations within each letter grade (B+, B-, etc.) rep- shades of merit within these basic categories. resent detailed The following is a more what we look for. grading guide that we use. It was developed by staff very well the and expresses Center, at the Writing questions a teacher has in mind when they assess student writing. This same rubric is also included in the Syllabus for the Spring semester of the Sophomore for students’ reference. Tutorial CRITERIA FOR GRADING CRITERIA tent mostly opinion. ought to be to grapple seriously with that are wildly shorter than they These are efforts above: ideas. OR Those that are extremely problematic in many of the areas mentioned to aims, structure, use of evidence, language, etc.; OR Those that do not come close addressing the expectations of the assignment. A piece of writing that has real problems in one of these areas: conception (there’s at in one of these areas: conception (there’s A piece of writing that has real problems (confusing); use of evi- fuzzy and hard to get to); structure least one main idea but it’s among the ideas and the evidence are not dence (weak or nonexistent the connections or add up to platitudes or generalizations); made and/or are presented without context, dependent on unexplained abstractions, language (the sentences are often awkward, essay may not move forward but rather may sometimes contradict each other). The upon many (and apparently unrelated) ideas repeat its main points, or it may touch para- depth. Punctuation, spelling, grammar, without exploring any of them in sufficient or graphing, and transitions may be a problem. OR An essay that is largely plot summary essay interpretive summary of the text, but is written without major problems. OR An written, but scant intellectual con- that is chiefly a personal reaction to something. Well A piece of writing that reaches high and achieves many of its aims. The ideas are solid A piece of writing that reaches high and thin patches require more analysis and/or some and progressively explored, but some but occasional- fit in. The language is generally clear and precise stray thoughts don’t may be too little; the context for the evi- ly not. The evidence is relevant, but there I have to make some of the connec- explored, so that dence may not be sufficiently clear for me. OR A piece of writing that tions that the writer should have made thoroughly achieves its aims. This is a solid essay reaches less high than an A essay but be rather routine. (In this case the whose reasoning and argument may nonetheless limitation is conceptual.) Excellent in every way (this is not the same as perfect). This is an ambitious, perceptive This is an ambitious, not the same as perfect). every way (this is Excellent in to counterar- responds discerningly complex ideas; grapples with interesting, essay that enhances, rather The discussion well chosen evidence revealingly. guments; and explores repeat what has simply knowledge (it doesn’t and writer’s reader’s than underscores, the outside the class would be is a context for all the ideas; someone been taught). There up, rather than flatly Its beginning opens by reading the essay. enriched, not confused, The language is clean, Its end is something more than a summary. announces, its thesis. some- changed. There’s As a reader I feel surprised, delighted, precise, often elegant. writer could have written and me, something only the essay’s thing new here for obvious. stake in the material is The writer’s way. explored in this particular D and E C B A A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 20 |

General Writing Skills • How Writing Is Graded in the Tutorial General Writing Skills • How Writing Is Graded in the Tutorial 21 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | As these more detailed criteria make clear, many make clear, criteria detailed more As these how Now we get down to the nutty-gritty: section of this handbook deals The next large aspects must be considered in assessing any writing in assessing be considered aspects must consider many need to will therefore and you project, sec- piece of writing. This a good produce things to very a only offers handbook, therefore, tion of our what we look for in grading papers, outline of broad is about our grading handbook and in fact, the entire it means to write well in East criteria—about what in this handbook is some- Asian Studies. Everything will be looking for when thing that your teachers to invite you to refer thus your work. We they read detail on the topic for more of this handbook the rest to Do”! You Want of “What We to write. into two with specific aspects of writing. It falls In this first section, we will survey parts. aspects large any writing generally applicable to of writing that are a one-page you might engage in, from project In the following paper to a dissertation. response play in to specif- section, we will consider factors that paper, response ic types of writing task, including the First, we project. and the long independent research turn to writing in general. how it works Dao de jing is This is a powerful image, and Hollywood cannot image, and This is a powerful including many successful however, For many, The myth of the natural writer is unhelpful is no single, uniform The truth is that there drudgery and tedium, which make for poor cinema. drudgery and tedium, Laozi dash After all, didn’t be held solely to blame. of the the “five thousand characters” off Jiayuguan his way out through in a single sitting on when bidden to do so by the Regions, to the Western indeed, this gatekeeper? And perhaps, is said for some people: Joseph Conrad, for instance, insomni- to have done much of his writing in furious ac bursts, as if in the grip of a mad passion. of part for whom writing is a huge professionals and prosaic working life, writing is a much more much of writing Most importantly, workaday process. drafts, note-taking, (reading, is in fact “pre-writing” and editing (revision, and re-writing and false starts) that a writer acknowledge polishing). It is important vital aspects of the that all of these things are lack of “inspiration”! or signs of failure, process—not piece possible to construct a successful It is entirely by a much of writing deliberately and painstakingly than divine inspiration; the process artificial more like crafting a piece of is often rather more process jazz solo at a note-perfect than improvising furniture 220 beats a minute. writing is that real the impression because it creates discourage people from not learned, and can therefore they get started. trying to learn to write even before the prob- Even if we dispose of this myth, however, If writing is often actually achieved lem still remains: what is that process? by a deliberate process, that works for everyone. It can be useful to process know this. Some writing guides, or teachers, almost is a single infallible that there give the impression which often goes something like this: first process, Strategies to Make to Strategies Successful Writing Happen Writing Successful what kind of process we might follow to we what kind of process ne of the first things we should consider is ne of the first things produce the best writing we can, as effi- the best writing produce A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies It might help to lay to rest a myth before we start. a myth before to rest It might help to lay writer will enough, sometimes the on-screen True Even worse, when film-makers do choose to por- O ciently and painlessly as possible. ciently and painlessly generally the movies, they are If someone writes in away at a or pounding shown scribbling furiously, writing is infer, we For a “true” writer, keyboard. which you get almost an out-of-body experience, in This words. swept away on a flood of spontaneous in notions of divine image has deep and hoary roots akin as something production inspiration, and artistic as “medium.” The to spirit-possession, with the artist demand that if narrative logic of Hollywood seems to a sin- must flow out of them in art someone creates, burst of sheer life. gle, unpremeditated it up, and throw screw the typewriter, rip a page from someone sur- it away; one cloche, in fact, is to show is some conces- There by such balls of paper. rounded a difficult sion, then, to the notion of writing as several that sometimes only succeeds after process given to understand attempts. Nonetheless, we are as if a fish- preamble, mere that such frustrations are erman is sitting patiently with his hook in the water. Once the fisherman gets a bite (i.e. once “it comes”), writing is supposedly an exciting, invigorating like fighting a big-game fish, and for those to process, flow out like spring- whom the gift is given, words all unbidden. water, tray someone writing, they collapse the whole process scenes, into a quick montage of a few impressionistic that is: the writer and cut to the chase—the result, the typewriter in gleefully ripping the final page from or triumphantly waving wads of creation, a crescendo not shown hours of are of close-typed pages. We 22 |

General Writing Skills • Strategies to Make Successful Writing Happen General Writing Skills • Strategies to Make Successful Writing Happen 23 Some writers work by a kind of A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | What might some other successful strategies look like, then? they patchwork method. As they read, might think of an isolated point. They fit may not yet know how that point will into the final pattern of their argument, or indeed what that pattern will be; yet or they might sit down at their computer, and write a more-or- get a piece of paper, less fully fledged paragraph. They may It might also turn out that your mind often seems often your mind out that also turn It might actual has tried to show, As this extended example Some people, whose minds tend to multitasking, to throw up your ultimate counter-argument first (see first ultimate counter-argument up your to throw that you might find, then, you “Counter-argument”); attempt back first abortive this apparently can work to your ultimate final draft as an objection into your but dispose of for the very thesis, which you consider, your own thesis! you abandoned it as reasons and can can be very unpredictable, writing processes they a merry dance before at times lead the writer This also up a workable product. eventually throw is no single, earlier point: there brings us back to our infalli- as that can be recommended uniform process people. bly leading to successful writing for all such single “patches” almost as creating even start As they reading. and researching soon as they start quite a bas- continue working, they might accumulate look them ketful of these scraps, and periodically of patterns they can make from over to see what sorts them. When they sit down to compose the final essay, stitching they will work much like a quilt-maker, whole. together these isolated pieces into a larger can work on a kind of cycle of drafting and polishing sections of the same piece of writing in par- different the of their mind may be mulling over allel. One part as it develops, and as each next step takes argument it. paragraph to capture place, they may draft a rough might be there goes on, however, As this process in the writer’s downtime as the next section brews surface more mind, and they may occupy another, back in their docu- of their brain by scrolling part Often, writing is we think. which we process by process actually the discover what Abracadabra! have to scrap everything and go really One problem with this oversimplified model of with this One problem If you find that this happens regularly to you, it If you find that this happens regularly you make an outline; then you write a draft that joins a draft you write then an outline; you make draft (maybe twiddle then you polish the the dots; cut out extraneous in a few places, with the wording and change a few sentences), adjectives, with is nothing wrong there Now, a paper. have You is there for you, and certainly this model if it works outlined. steps in the process with the nothing wrong be very useful; one usually an outline can Creating is very useful to polish. The does write drafts; it and more than this, however, can be messier process happy result. still have a perfectly time consuming, and it seems to assume that a is that the writing process to say. writer knows ahead of time what he wants Sometimes this might luckily be the case, but often, too, writing is actually the by which we discover what we process might quite easily get halfway think. You a first attempt at a paper and through actually dif- that things are then realize what you initially thought. from ferent all At this point, you might have to start over again, though in many cases at least some of the body of what you have written will be salvageable in one form or in the worst-case scenario, though, Even another. you where back to square one, it will almost never be the case back to square first, with that gotten nowhere that you have really was abandoned attempt. At the very least, its “failure” the means by which you arrived at the ideas for your than that, you will sometimes find actual paper; more flows that the writing on the second time through the material since you have thought through better, once already. of necessity and may be possible to make a virtue embrace it—to use it in a deliberate strategy of writing. It may be that you need to follow the on paper implications of your own ideas through to evaluate whether they will work. If so, thoroughly early on, and give that process better to start you are yourself plenty of time for several “takes.” At the end of such an exercise, you should have an exercise, At the end of such also find implicit suggestions about will You random jottings; disjointed phrases; a kind of intel- a kind phrases; disjointed jottings; random or a lectual diaryentry; your TF, an email to yourself, your ideas through, may also help to talk friend. It have a especially if you write them down, rather than sounding board. is willing to be a friend who you know (or didn’t have before ideas you didn’t is like a seed culture of writing or talk had). This sort the yeast to raise your grow which you might from your especially like, and words, produces bread—like more which from often the ground are own words, spring. words of the other strategies and working methods in many sections have included sections of this handbook. We and the on “Rewriting” and “Editing,” for example, above could also be section on “Reading to Write” tech- may also find more viewed in this light. You happen niques and strategies for helping writing various writ- among the suggestions incorporated in by such as those offered ing workshops at Harvard, to the of Study Counsel. Please refer the Bureau Appendix for a list of such resources. given any even if you are certain that your certain even if you are something, A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies That said, we would like to recommend one, very That said, we would like to recommend Some writers may prefer to concentrate on a sin- prefer Some writers may working these examples of different In presenting method to every reader of this book. Other working method to every reader may not conceivable, and these certainly methods are suit everybody; may work by a combi- other writers nation of these methods, or use one or the other of times. The point is that successful them at different and writing can be quite writing methods vary widely, This means that writers need to an ad hoc process. as gradually develop their own writing procedure much as their own style and voice. In doing so, it helps to be attentive to what works for you, and to ways of working. with different experiment freely strategy as a way of getting going: just jump in broad the deep end. If you want to write, write! Sit down and write will be far still very raw and that the result ideas are can write in any form— You a finished product. from ment and flicking through earlier paragraphs to earlier paragraphs through and flicking ment idea of a concrete When they have and polish. reread turn back to the to go next, they they want where the other On the essay. edge of forward advancing paragraph, the ker- drafting a given are hand, as they subsequent paragraphs may nel of one or several they might jot down a disjointed occur to them, and them of the idea to remind phrase or two for each in the argument. that point when they reach at a time. For example, they gle phase of the process until they feel it is over their material may brood within them, and then sit down almost fully-fledged without and hammer out a draft in a single burst, then turn even so much as an outline. They might that first a day or so later and radically rewrite around and scrapping draft, cannibalizing it for the good bits even new draft. It could in favor of entirely the rest the to reach this process of take five or six repetitions spend and final draft, and they might turn around a For such a writer, time polishing that draft further. late in the written outline might have a place quite editing their writing and try- they are when process, and lucid structure. that it has a strong ing to ensure not recommending methods, we are 24 |

General Writing Skills • Strategies to Make Successful Writing Happen General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 25 This analogy, like even the best analo- This analogy, A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | a group of related “families” such as the of related a group the literary criticism sociological paper, and so on; each of these families paper, again comes in various shapes and sizes which we can think of as Linnaean “gen- in writing. era,” or genres point. down at a certain breaks gy, Nonetheless, it helps us to see that some types of aca- related remotely of the more demic essay might be, to the types of writing we do in East Asian Studies, like – cetaceans or marsupials to us primates an opening a thesis statement the definition or clarification of some terms • • • The “working parts” that we will examine in the The “working parts” there are still relatively remote relatives, such as writ- relatives, remote still relatively are there or technical philosophy, ing in the natural sciences us as students of East not likely to concern that are likely to Asian Studies, we are Asian Studies. In East a from of writing styles and genres encounter a range humanities and the disciplines—the set of related think of those social sciences—and we can perhaps some- group forms of writing as comprising a related comprises This group thing like a Linnaean “order.” in it is true, but quite different ultimately related, can also see that though We many striking respects. range of types of writing we deal with quite a broad significant in East Asian Studies, all these types share features. following sections of this handbook comprise one set Almost any of such significant common features. piece of good writing in East Asian Studies can be expected to have most if not all of the components we treat: Argument Evidence Elements of a Paper • Opening • Thesis Terms • Key • Counter- of • Analysis • Structural • Conclusion Working Parts Working Working Parts of a Paper of a Parts Working ing organism. Its body, like the body of an Its body, ing organism. piece of writing might be compared to a liv- be compared piece of writing might organism, has various organs and limbs, organs has various organism, On this analogy of text to living thing, the world On this analogy of text to living thing, It is useful to think of the academic essay as A which fulfill various functions. The following sections which fulfill various generally some of the com- of this handbook describe almost limbs—“working parts”—that and mon organs any paper can be expected to have. world of liv- of writing as a whole is as diverse as the we ing things, and as with living things, of might categorize or taxonomize types and writing at various levels of generality detail. At the highest level of generality, the world of living things is divided up kingdoms like animals and into large divid- plants; so writing is often broadly (you decide ed into verse and prose vegetable of the two!). which is the more classified The natural world is further and detailed cat- narrow into increasingly family, egories of phylum, class, order, we can genus, and species; similarly, by imagine that forms of writing could be grouped until we specific resemblances, and more more at the level of closest resem- arrived at specific genres each species of living things, we still blance. Within never identical, and display a find that individuals are to one wealth of diversity within their resemblance another as instances of the same type; the same may conformance to the rules of be said of writing, where does not automatically condemn a piece to a genre the status of a degraded stereotype. of similar organisms, group something like a large a Linnaean “class” like the of on the order perhaps of writing, this class of genres mammals. Within signposts explicitly flagging its structure. flagging its structure. signposts explicitly consideration of a counter-argument consideration analysis of evidence citation and a conclusion with topic sentences paragraphs transition sentences sections joined by A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies • might be thought of like These common features in the following these working parts As we treat compo- the various In this handbook, we present • • • • • the limbs and organs of a range of genera and species the limbs and organs of animals like the mammals. group in a broad an opening—might look A given working part—say, dif- functions in and fulfill slightly different different mammalian forelimb just as a generic genres, ferent might be adapted to serve as a wing in a bat, a hoof a human, a claw in a lion and a hand in in a giraffe, anatomic as the same and yet still be recognizable structure. being that we are keep in mind sections, therefore, as you general. Things may be somewhat different is a there work on any given piece of writing, and deal of scope for variation and adaptation. great in a that they might come in the order nents roughly some varia- typical finished piece of writing, though not think of possible, and you should tion is certainly followed. as a rigid rule to be religiously this order in which that the order should note, however, You appear in a finished composition these working parts in which they may have nothing to do with the order For example, in the next section we move created. are on to consider openings. It is often the case that the opening, though it comes first in the finished paper, is the last section a writer actually writes, since one needs a very clear idea of what the paper will say one can announce its general thesis, draw up a before the argu- the direction showing the reader roadmap some extent, then, the ment will take, and so on. To is an arbitrary one, and you of presentation order to vary your own writing process should feel free to find what works best for you. freely 26 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 27 This means, of course, that a good A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | (the reader) is not likely to take you very is not likely to take (the reader) and you might cost yourself the seriously, game. opening is just one that does its job; our that dictum that “Good writing is writing serves as its purpose” applies to the parts are well as to the whole. And since there in various things one can want to achieve the opening of various papers, so there a paragraph posing the puzzle of your topic a paragraph posing the puzzle of your the thesis statement that is, a sketch outline of the “roadmap,” will go the argument where the definition of terms. • • • • the vari- these are to our chess analogy, return To The opening of an academic paper should not be should paper an academic of The opening of Think of an opening as an assembly comprised ous “pieces” that you need to get in place to set up your game; the subsequent sections of the paper will Each of play. bring those pieces into coordinated these pieces has its own section below. mere ornament. It should be every bit as functional as be every bit ornament. It should mere in In chess, the point in a game of chess. an opening pieces so that one to arrange all of one’s opening is as possible. This aim as efficiently one’s can achieve case when writing a paper— should also be the not necessarily be to grind an though the aim may dust, as in chess! One should aim opponent into the pieces one needs to make one’s to put in place all the By convincingly. and stylishly, efficiently, argument as in chess, if you spend your contrast, in writing but pointless moves, your partner time making flashy naturally various types of functional opening. are we will pres- a number of elements. In this handbook, that might typically be ent four such working parts found in place in an opening: Terms Openings • Posing the Puzzle • Thesis Statement • Roadmap • Defining Key . Such writing might be current Openings ad nauseam y having a section in this handbook on section in this handbook y having a statement the say, as distinct from, “Openings,” One of the most painful examples of For so long as humans have walked the face of For so long as humans have walked the mark. the earth, they have sought to leave their Paleolithic hunters on the Siberian steppe their kill; notched sticks to record the number of in their brethren in France figured the hunt haunting images on cave walls; Mayan Indians knotted cords to make records of unknown pur- port. With the dawn of the age of the great many cultures invented cities in world history, various systems for recording speech... of thesis and the definition of terms, we court a of terms, we court of thesis and the definition impres- an easily reinforce could We danger. certain seem to have, that any piece sion that some students called “an opening,” something of writing requires of the functional parts all the other separate from that this “opening” be This seems to require paper. useless for practical but entirely aesthetically pleasing tiara, or a brass fan- purposes, like a bride’s an athletic contest. before fare is the “grand of frill and froth this sort sweep of world history” opening, which frequen- instructors meet with distressing The formula is simple—survey the cy. as far history of the world, preferably back as possible, with an emphasis on category you can place whatever broad this one, on your own topic within. A handbook like something writing, might thus have “opened” with like the following: and so on, in some journalistic circles, but it will not wow your in some journalistic circles, the however much it might resemble teacher, and grand scale of a special effects pyrotechnical blockbuster movie. It is usually uninformative, and the topic at hand to be relevant. from too remote is also an alarming tendency to compensate for There the lack of substance in such generalizations with bombast and purple prose. B POSING THE PUZZLE The qin, or Chinese zither, has long been one of the key symbols of the culture of the cultivated classical Chinese elite. It features, for ometimes a paper will have a paragraph in the example, in the standard list of the four essen- S opening separate from thesis statement, defini- tial aesthetic attainments of the gentleman: the zither, chess, calligraphy and painting (qin qi shu tion of terms, and the roadmap, which sets up the hua). Given these strongly elitist associations problem at the heart of the paper. This can be very with a life of wealth and leisure, we might effective, and it can sometimes be effective to open expect that upon its accession to power in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party would have pillo- straight onto such a paragraph. For example: ried the instrument as an embodiment of feudal English-language scholarship on the Zhuangzi evils. In fact, however, within ten years of

eea rtn Skills Writing General generally accepts that a key part of its philoso- Liberation we find the qin firmly ensconced as a phy is an epistemology that gives central place mainstay of the new nationalist-proletarian arts. to “skill knowledge”—so-called “knowing-how” How did this happen? How was an instrument as opposed to “knowing-that.” And yet, if we virtually identical with the exclusive and even read closely the only chapters of the text gener- effete snobbery of the ruling classes woven into ally regarded as authentic, we see that only one a program of socialist arts? And what might the of the skill stories upon which such claims are unexpected fate of the qin tell us about the based actually appears in those chapters. rationales and inner workings of Communist ide- • Moreover, the single exception—the famous ology and propaganda more generally? okn at faPaper a of Parts Working story of Cook Ding—need not be read in terms of such a philosophy of skill knowledge. This Again, by the time we have read this paragraph, our leads us to ask: Is “knowing how” in fact impor- interest has been piqued. We have been presented tant to the philosophy of the central chapters of with a genuine problem, and if the writer is promis- the Zhuangzi? If not, what theory of knowledge do those chapters propound? ing us a solution, we want to read on and find out what it is. An opening like this cuts to the chase. By the end of Paragraphs like these provide an excellent set-up the first sentence, the reader is faced squarely with for the thesis of the paper. To return to our first the central issue that will occupy the paper. More example on the Zhuangzi, the next paragraph might than this, however, this opening presents the reader present the thesis as follows: with a puzzle—probably the same puzzle that In this paper, I will argue that the core chapters engaged the writer’s interest, and drove him to write (the “Inner Chapters”) of the Zhuangzi pro- the paper in the first place. As is often the case, this pound no such theory of skill knowledge. The puzzle comes in two parts, background and fore- Cook Ding anecdote, I will argue, is better read in conjunction with certain other passages in the ground: first, for one reason or another, we would Inner Chapters, as arguing that the Dao (“the expect that such-and-such be the case (the back- Way”) cannot be captured in formulae or gener- ground); second, the writer has found reasons to al propositions, but rather must be understood on a case-by-case basis. The analogy of the cook suspect that it may not in fact be the case carving meat, however, is an analogy for under- (the foreground). standing, and it is not important to that analogy In scholarship, expectations are often conditioned that it involves a physical skill. by previous work in the field, and so the assumptions Our second example, concerning the qin, might that form the background of the puzzle, as in the pre- continue like this: vious example, are often embodied in the received I will show that the rehabilitation of the qin in opinions of the field. This need not always be the the post-Liberation arts was underwritten by a case, however. In the following example (taken in careful ideological rethinking of even the most elite products of the Chinese tradition. Such substance, but not in wording, from an actual sopho- works of art were read as embodying the spirit more paper), it is simply a matter of common sense of the Chinese people as a whole, rather than an that the key facts under examination are puzzling: individual artist or even a certain social class. I

28 | A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 29 tell the story (briefly) about such awful events? laugh A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | I decided to examine Yang’s writings more I decided to examine Yang’s and also to explore theories of the closely, shed any to see if they could function of humor, of humor in helping her light upon the efficacy of and her readers to cope with the legacy upheaval and social hemorrhage. In short, there are many ways of effectively posing many ways of effectively are there In short, Another effective tactic is to Another effective my readings in literature This paper began from after the Cultural published immediately Much of this literature was, Revolution in China. of trauma and suffering; naturally enough, full of “Scar Literature” is a the well-known genre Jiang, howev- works of Yang good example. The writes about Yang different. were strikingly er, and the Cultural Revolution in a light-hearted often humorous vein. I was puzzled. How could anyone ket regimes, or laid off their workers, would its would their workers, laid off or ket regimes, of failure, perceived as an admission actions be was the Party to its legitimacy? How and cost it of SOE reform? political fall-out manage the of the way you were led to your topic: of the way you were An opening like this draws the reader in and invites in An opening like this draws the reader of intellec- process them to identify with the writer’s tual exploration and discovery. In this, as in all driving the paper. the problem be a should aspects of writing, your own readings the way writers you enjoy open Watch classroom. do you think their papers and books. What strategies the and for what tasks or materials? Try effective, are writing tactics you think work well in other people’s your own papers. when you sit down to create This is punchy and efficient, and quickly raises a and quickly and efficient, This is punchy mind. in the readers number of key questions the paper was setting what anyone would want to argue such a thesis. The anyone would want to argue As the PRC has moved towards a market economy in the last three decades, its white-elephant state-owned enterprises (SOEs) have presented a number of problems. How could SOEs be made responsive to market imperatives? How were they to achieve the transition from the old world of guaranteed employment (the “iron rice- bowl”) to an open labor market? Should non- viable SOEs be allowed to fail, and if so, how should their bankruptcies be managed? If the Party dismantled SOEs, or ran them on free-mar- will further contend that this rethinking reveals this rethinking that contend will further the Maoist ideolog- nationalism in a deep-rooted as I shall argue, a nationalism which, ical project, perspective of from the is deeply problematic thought. classical Marxist that the opening paragraph For the moment, note Puzzle-posing paragraph like these, then, make Puzzle-posing paragraph like these, then, very are Both the examples we have given so far We will return to the thesis statement in the to the thesis statement in will return We next section. might appear dispensable. in each of our examples each paper could some minor modifications, With thesis statement given above. with the open directly be the same, however? If we did things really Would in paragraph pose the problem not have an opening we would know this way, out to argue, but we would have more trouble seeing trouble have more but we would out to argue, why why reader opening paragraphs given above tell the the reader about the topic, and why the writer cares the outcome a stake in should, too; it gives the reader presented. of the research “motive” (to invoke a term you explicit the paper’s Expos). Any good thesis from recall will probably something must be motivated, that is, it must argue of Unless you think the interest arguing. that is worth about anyone should care your topic—the reasons it address it—is blindingly obvious, you should in your paper. explicitly somewhere This is not meant to suggest that similar in structure. puz- is a single boilerplate style for an effective there many differ- are there zle-posing paragraph. Naturally, For example, in some ent ways of opening effectively. onto a cases it may work to open almost directly string of questions: does propound a skill-based theory a skill-based of reli- does propound Many students seem to remember from their from to remember Many students seem must be Sometimes the notion that the thesis to In competitive debate, the point is to entertain, ings of their subject matter be rethought: that the be rethought: matter of their subject ings Zhuangzi in Mao’s of the arts or that agendas able knowledge; theory as in fact as well in Marxist rooted China were “liable to means, then, here “Interesting” in name. one reason- This is certainly change what we think.” in an academic field, able definition of “interesting” seeking new knowledge. we are where that “The thesis should be Expos course the dictum this means much understood, Properly controversial.” say that the thesis should be the same thing as to in the is “controversial” A good thesis interesting. in the sense that it is something informed scholars and that they over, argue field could reasonably In this their time to consider. would find it worth controversy. sense, it is a possible topic of scholarly our exam- in the sense of If a thesis is “interesting” the common to change ples above, in that it promises topic, it can be expected scholarly view on a certain would because some scholars to be “controversial” view—which want to defend the received probably of view for good reasons will usually be the received its own. Some is misunderstood, however. “controversial” you should take students seem to think it means that with, and come up whatever thesis you have already garb. On this understand- it in “controversial” dress means something like “provoca- ing, “controversial” and as strenuously or “argued tively worded” as possible.” Of course, this is a basic mis- extremely in understanding of the principle at stake. Arguments those in competi- from academia should ideally differ debates in politics, for that matter. tion debates, or from persuade, and to display wit and ingenuity in sheer technique. Participants and rhetorical argumentative for their own opinions with no regard usually argue on the matter or the objective truth; indeed, to of the contest, emphasize the strictly formal nature or exag- often deliberately absurd topics mooted are Is the Root of All Evil”). In gerated (“That Television single most indis- single most . a thesis must be does not entail a the Zhuangzi THE THESIS STATEMENT THESIS THE shows that Maoist agendas of the arts were shows that Maoist agendas of the arts ne of the pieces that a writer normally puts in pieces that a writer ne of the the thesis. Indeed, open a paper is place as they A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies qin When we say that a thesis must be original, When we say that a thesis must be original, In the previous A thesis must also be interesting. That much is plain. It is trickier, however, to say however, That much is plain. It is trickier, original, interesting and arguable original, interesting we are actually saying two things. First, and most actually saying two things. First, and we are thesis it must be your own work. Your obviously, or read, something you have cannot be filched from also It must someone else say. something you heard in a con- not be something that would not be found material amount of of a reasonable scientious reading in your own on your topic—in the materials listed nobody is going for example. Obviously, bibliography, everything in the has read to expect that a sophomore on any topic of size, but extant scholarly literature be within the limits of what you can reasonably you must not be simply rehashing expected to know, common ideas. saw a couple of section (“Openings”) we already theses: that the philosophy of examples of interesting chapters of the the core skill-based theory of knowledge; and that the place of the ideology. based upon nationalist rather than Marxist because, if shown to be interesting These theses are that common understand- true, they would require everyone that a thesis is knows to our return To paper. of an academic pensable part an academ- Parts”), (see “Working biological analogy thesis would be something like a ic paper without a spine. Like the spine of an animal, mammal without a is the central axis upon which all the thesis of a paper be conceived might perhaps hang. A paper other parts mammal as an unfortunate without a thesis, just without a spine; in either case, might be conceived still- entity would likely be the resulting however, born, or a sad misshapen freak. not. As a first what counts as a thesis and what does we might say that approximation, 30 | O

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 31 . not A “straw man” is a dummy posi- A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | An obvious thesis would not be “interest- A good thesis also cannot be made by knocking A good thesis is not so basic as to be blindingly A good thesis is not so basic as to be Unfortunately, there is of course a large gray area a large is of course there Unfortunately, be origi- So far we have seen that a thesis should origi- and Because a good thesis, being interesting ing” in the sense we have discussed above—it would ing” in the sense we have discussed above—it For know. not tell us anything we did not already a paper is not much point in writing example, there theme an important that the four seasons are arguing true, but also in the poetryDu Fu. It is perfectly of that point plain for all to see. Moreover, perfectly work from distinguish Du Fu’s alone would hardly that of most other poets in China (or even the entire world). Not much of an advance is achieved, either, that Du Fu uses the four sea- to argue by proceeding of imagery and symbols through sons as a source his own moods and emotions. Again, which to figure this is a very common way for poets to work the not sub- and this observation is therefore world over, paper. stantial enough to form the basis of an entire down a straw man. obvious. your argument completely out of the water. If you are If you of the water. out completely argument your could no conceivable evidence things that asserting anything interesting. be asserting you may not refute, is suffi- if evidence to be sure it is difficult in which litera- in the professional and even cient either way, issues that we might arguing much ink is spilt ture, as lisps in prehistoric feel have as much substance then, is evidence is sufficient, China; whether your you will have to judge yourself. ultimately a matter good to the issue of what constitutes will return We below on “Evidence and evidence in the section Analysis.” What, then, might such and arguable. nal, interesting theses look like? you present nal, is always surprising, we can hardly theses. which to stamp out quality with a mould from is not surprising, Anything that can be stereotyped illus- As a first step towards original or interesting. we will rather trating what a good thesis is like, then, is give a few examples of what a good thesis is The flipside of this requirement that a thesis be The flipside of this requirement So long as such misunderstandings are avoided, are So long as such misunderstandings that a thesis should also be said above We necessary, however, that there be enough evidence to that there however, necessary, you find considering, and that make the claim worth would be no sense in that evidence and cite it. There writing about whether anybody lisped in prehistoric have no evidence either way China, for example. We era by the “prehistoric” for is no written record (there have no sound record- definition, and we certainly to imagine that we ever will. ings!), and it is difficult is that it should be falsifiable. Again, since arguable facts on quite the same not dealing with hard we are of those handled by the natural sciences, there order cannot be will be many times when an argument consid- Nonetheless, it is worth absolutely disproved. is anything anyone ering, as you write, whether there could conceivably say or adduce that would blow politics, the stakes are much more serious, of course, of serious, much more are the stakes politics, the aim is similarly politicians, it seems, but for many votes possible to win by whatever means to persuade scholar- The world of they propound. for the policies high value on scrupu- ideally places ship, by contrast, what the evidence warrants, and lously claiming just it is actually counterpro- For this reason, no more. overstake your case—to state ductive to deliberately manner, or confrontational your thesis in a belligerent an opposing point of view. scapegoat or artificially the thesis should be “con- the dictum that however, is a very boils down to useful one, and troversial” it be that much the same thing as the requirement thesis must concern a topic wor- Your “interesting.” attempting to thy of consideration, and you must be fresh of conclusions that cast convince the reader light on that topic. This means, first, that it should be demon- arguable. Now, must be evidence for the thesis. strable. There one cannot in the humanities and social sciences, or false, as anything absolutely true normally prove sci- mathematics and many natural one can in pure one proof that iron-clad ences. This means, naturally, always possi- way or another is not necessary or even Studies. It ble for papers in the field of East Asian , thesis. a shows Rg Veda bears striking . the positing of an ide- are specific. Having are specific. Book of Odes viz of early China and that of Book of Odes A good thesis is also, importantly, A good thesis is also, importantly, I will argue that the “Great In this paper, Preface” to the resemblances to theories of language put forward by the well-known German poet Rainer Maria Rilke. These resemblances can be related to similarities between the world-view or Weltanschauung German Romanticism, on the one hand, and alistic universal in Tao I will also argue Hegelian Spirit on the other. that the poetics of the tures or historical periods. For example, periods. or historical tures are universal, and the works of Plato Buddhism of Karl Marx historical materialism whereas the Sima Qian’s implicit in and the philosophy the Historian Annals of now devote the these terms, I will established to showing that the uni- remainder of this paper is an illusion: it does versal type of philosophy it cannot. not exist, and indeed, exciting resemblances to that of the the oldest extant body of Indian verse. This sug- Mair and his gests, as I will argue after Victor Unfortunately, some students—often the bright Unfortunately, up “like ideas spring ones—find that as they read, not adequately after rain,” and they are mushrooms or at the chaff, practiced at culling the wheat from detailed pursuing one or two meaty ideas through of such “dragon- analysis. Contrary to the products the sur- fly” minds (that dot their way rapidly across face of things), a good thesis is not a laundry list of points: loosely related The entire thesis hinges on a straw man: an alleged thesis hinges The entire that a “universal” type of philoso- position that holds for all historical cultures. phy exists, which obtains that this is not shown we are however, Unfortunately, The student even tells us that this a genuine position. does position is of her own devising! She certainly held by anyone not show that it is a position actually scholars in the who matters to her audience, such as self- paper field of East Asian Studies. The entire a single and upon this house of cards, avowedly rests air of critical scrutiny will bring it all of the fresh puff down in a shambles. A paper must have a clear focus, and part of that A paper must have a clear focus, and point. focus consists in having a single main . A foil, then, is something definition suggests, however, foils definition suggests, however, OED A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies I divide philosophies into two types: the universal and the conditioned. Universal philosophies are true for all times and places, while conditioned philosophies hold only for certain cul- A straw man is an illegitimate subspecies of a A straw man is an used for As this definition suggests, foils can be As the tion, usually one that is not particularly plausible, not particularly that is usually one tion, hold. A would really no serious person and which to knock it merely up such a straw man writer sets established thereby to appear to have down, and upon straw that rely of note. Arguments something in the sense we have also not “interesting” men are they only tell us something new if discussed, because subscribing to a fictitious a fictitious person we are position. a This latter term comes from device called a “foil.” “foil” is “a thin leaf where technical term in jewelry, stone to under a precious of some metal placed sub- or under some transparent its brilliancy, increase stone” stance to give it the appearance of a precious English Dictionary) (Oxford a point of focus to set off that is used as background, and make it shine. ends. Foils have their both genuine and counterfeit an honest point place in writing; they can help make to competition by contrast. When we referred clearer fair to not really debating and politics above, we were but the comparison served since our purpose, either, essay out the dimension of the academic it brought our argu- driving at. It was not essential for we were accu- of these foils be strictly ment that our portrayal the use of metal rate. Such a use of a foil resembles a genuine stone. leaf to set off as also lend themselves to abuse and counterfeiting, When a as a ruby. when a piece of glass is passed off foil gets turned into a straw man, everything con- bauble is a the illusion that a mere to create spires genuine gem of insight, and that illusion in turn hinges upon taking as truth what is in fact a thin like leaf that looks like solid veneer, background glaring example of this is a particularly gold. Here illegitimate use: 32 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 33 the literature,” “rhetori- literature,” English lyrics in that the discourse of literature in contemporary minjung A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | minjung Korea, which scholars have unproblematically unity, assumed labels an object with conceptual and is best character- is in fact radically diffuse, ized as a rhetorical catch-all that gives a spurious appearance of unity and solidarity to otherwise interests and literatures. quite diffuse I contend that In this paper, Korean pop-songs serve a paradoxical double function, whereby they at once link the audience to a trans-national, post-modern culture and marketplace, and at the same time mark a very local and specific identity in the Korean idiosyncrasies of their use of the English language. In this paper, I will argue In this paper, Uprising race that developed around the Boxer many in late nineteenth century China contains fur- components of a nascent nationalism, and that the existence of such proto-nationalis- ther, serious tic discourse in China at this time poses model of how problems for Benedict Anderson’s era. nationalism rose and spread in the modern kills (Note how the one stone of this opening the same two birds of stating thesis and general influential motive—Benedict Anderson’s back- theories of nationalism are our foil, the ground against which the thesis is interesting.) This paper argues first and foremost that category of It is useful to flag your topic statement clearly It is useful to flag your cal”; “trans-national,” “post-modern,” “local,” “identi- would expect to see these terms defined and ty”). We These examples also illustrate other features of pow- These examples also illustrate other features us First, each introduces thesis presentation. erful immediately to key terms (“nationalism,” “proto- nationalistic,” “race”; “ the culture of the cultivated classical Chinese elite” Chinese classical cultivated of the the culture stone—it with one birds opening kills two etc.). This a con- also suggests, in primary thesis, and states the the unpack in detail later, that the essay can cise form can also signal You interesting. this thesis is reasons thesis statement by beginning of your the importance as in the examples given above in a paragraph with it, thesis statements were where the “openings” section, the topic sentence of the sec- placed as prominently scene-setting. a bit of preliminary ond paragraph after I will con- like, “In this paper, with explicit phrases main that...”; or even “My argues tend...”; “This paper thesis is that...” Some examples: , that the , that Book of Sino-Platonic Papers Sino-Platonic in Maoist China reveals a deeply (qin) ...has long been one of the key symbols of has been fundamentally misconstrued by misconstrued has been fundamentally qin This paper will argue that the use of the Chinese zither nationalistic streak in Communist Party ideology, a streak which is moreover fundamentally at odds with principles of orthodox Marxism. So far, we have characterized sound theses as we have characterized sound theses So far, your thing is that you put The most important with open- would be nothing wrong Thus, there colleagues of the of the colleagues culture of Archaic Chinese is ultimately cognate Archaic Chinese is ultimately culture of I will Finally, of proto-Indo-European. with that of the the rhyme scheme argue that Odes scholars. and then move on to a second paragraph something like the one we gave as an example of an opening (“The As you read these lines, the groans of professors and of professors the groans these lines, As you read clearly audible. should have been TFs everywhere only loosely related; are These various contentions immensely detailed require any one of them would in cannot be accomplished which surely argument, (if less than a dissertation the scope of anything so much on so that promises then); and any paper to deliver on any of them. is unlikely many fronts and we have argued and arguable; original, interesting obvious, that a good thesis is not by counterexample upon a straw man, nor hopelessly nor predicated a few simple suggestions we offer In closing, diffuse. have it. about how to state a thesis once you and place, and state it loud thesis in a prominent point in hiding your light under a is no There clear. shyness. grades for bushel; teachers do not award too many potentially excellent theses Unfortunately, corners of away in obscure found squirreled are student papers. of your ing a paper with a flat-out, pithy statement thesis, and only subsequently getting on with the of your opening (“motive” or finicky parts more etc.). To “puzzle,” definition of terms, “roadmap” (earli- to our example about the Chinese zither return er in this section and in the section on “Openings”), of well begin with a paragraph one could perfectly one sentence like this: ...” , and into a realm clearly per se ” (while still thereby signaling that she recog- signaling that thereby ” (while still In our discussion of what makes a good thesis, we In our discussion of were quite broad, and in the second part of our treat- part and in the second quite broad, were of a on the presentation ment, we concentrated more As we said, thesis (its “statement”) than its content. the is something slightly mysterious about there of any topic statement—it is an spark at the heart new therefore idea, which should be your own, and arrive at such and somehow surprising. How do we Such ques- ideas? How do we distinguish good ones? tions take us beyond writing it is also vital to use language that is equal to their is equal that to use language vital it is also writer above, our example In our third strength. “I when she says, strongly, claims to the hilt backs her contend existing other from differs her argument nizes that feel you have shown some- If you interpretations). not “I suggest and show...” “I clearly say, thing clearly, If you feel strong- tentative). more ...” (which is much view of the mate- up a correct ly that your thesis sums “I con- verbs, as in “I argue,” use strong rial you study, that X is tend,” or even “I hold business of of intellectual content that is the primary ques- and individual learning. These your classroom purview of this lie beyond the proper tions therefore with further handbook, and you can pursue them we will Here your courses. your teachers and through contin- of the task to hand, and turn to the next part comprise that ue our exploration of the working parts the opening section of a paper with the “roadmap.” care- literature “is literature minjung ...” rather than “These can be read as can be read so that it only claims what your evidence war- so that it only claims what your evidence A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies We mentioned earlier that arguments in the earlier that arguments mentioned We not to overstate your claims, While it is important Second, each of these thesis statements also states Second, each of these you should as these examples also show, Third, best interpreted as...” implementing a rhetorical unity, as...” implementing a rhetorical best interpreted comple- other, but the writer implies he would admit mentary readings. in a not result humanities and social sciences often do but rather in either for or against a thesis, clear proof a novel presents a balance of likelihood. If your paper and yet you of a set of Japanese poems, close reading possible and you are that other readings aware remain do not wish to deny the validity of those other read- that ings, you should say something like “I argue these poems evidence for and against If you review poems are...” claims that the PRC has shifted to an aggressively years, and feel policy in recent expansionist foreign on both sides of the issue have that though arguments cor- in the balance these claims are their strengths, of your you can give a nuanced presentation rect, for and against stance by saying, “Though arguments that in have their merits, I will argue this proposition the balance, it does seem...” fully, the to defend. Thus, prepared rants and what you are serious discourse of race in late Qing China “poses but the writer is not theory, for Anderson’s problems” invalidates” so hyperbolic as to claim it “completely or “smashes” it; the category of unpacked for us in the body of the essay (see body of the us in the for unpacked statement is Such a thesis Key Terms”). “Defining amounts of of large encapsulation thus a concentrated expla- the water of detailed add argumentation—just argument! the full flavor of convincing nation for without over-simplifying thesis clearly, its respective This is particularly argument. what may be a complex which is proba- for your thesis statement, important sentence or sentences in any bly the most important detailed advice on clear wording piece of writing. For to impediments to it, refer and how to clear away Strategy Revisited.” section “Writing but your thesis statement not just clearly word 34 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 35 zither. qin A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | When it is mechanically applied, the hamburger When it is mechanically 1. Say”; “What I Will 2. it; actually saying 3. Said.” “What I Have to in using enough repetition lies The art look like? What might a competent roadmap Here is a possible third paragraph for that paper, to paragraph for that paper, is a possible third Here follow the opening paragraph and thesis statement have been taught a “hamburger” model of the essay, model a “hamburger” been taught have introduction that is, Introduction-Body-Conclusion: is the and the body the “bun,” are and conclusion this model, with is nothing wrong “meat.” There simplistic, however, goes; it is somewhat as far as it the time you have worked and we hope that by Tutorial, and the Sophomore this handbook through have the toolkit to compose you will feel that you freely. papers more to a very stereo- reducible model sometimes seems as: we might parody which typed structure, in and of itself is not necessarily repetition Now, difference anathema, and well-used, can make the between dense and crystal-clear presentation. then, is better than just an unadorned A hamburger, slab of meat. and a comprehensible furnish your work with rhythm stultifying. pattern, but not so much that it becomes our lies between the difference This is where model introduction. and hamburger “roadmap” might easily become a introduction The hamburger almost summary points of the paper, of all the major on the other hand, need like an abstract. A roadmap, details of the not give all of even the most important to identify in each section: it aims, rather, argument the reader the major sections in turn and forewarn Where order. that they will come up in a particular to an orchestral is like the program the roadmap which announces the pieces and their recital, they will be movements in the order respective is like the introduction played, the hamburger which is a medley of high- to an operetta, overture each number in turn—a whistle-stop tour lights from the action. through to our earlier example of the Let us return THE ROADMAP THE he next working part often found in the opening often found part he next working a sec- This is a paper is the “roadmap.” section of Note that like most of the other pieces we are cover- of the other pieces we are Note that like most serves at least two useful purposes. A roadmap that ensures Second, writing an explicit roadmap calling the “roadmap” Note that what we are tion of a few sentences that tells the reader, ahead of tells the reader, sentences that tion of a few will take them in the course of the writer time, where it is a sketch outline In effect, making the argument. did we in discursive prose; presented but of the paper, in case however, “outline” here, not want to call it an it with the outline writers that led you to confuse drafting process. of the often make as part may not openings, the roadmap ing in the section on will see in the section on We always be necessary. piece, papers, for instance, that in a very short response is little likelihood and there when space is at a premium dispense getting lost, it may be best to of the reader Nonetheless, on most entirely. with the “roadmap” is very useful or even essential. occasions a roadmap in your orient themselves First, it helps the reader If they have been given a skeleton of the argument. and have it in mind as they read, up front argument in the each major component they will recognize as it comes up, and be less likely to get lost argument mean that they at any major turning point. This will likely to be more and are better, follow the argument on its convinced (or at least to judge the argument merits). real of the essay clear in their the writer has the structure of at the front own head. Putting an explicit roadmap to yourself and the the essay acts as a kind of promise line that you will follow a consistent, orderly reader of attack, and so helps keep the writing focused. This back to the if you refer benefit will be redoubled that at each key turning point, a technique roadmap detail in the section below on we will explain in more “signposts.” as the most closely to what is spoken of corresponds model. to a paper in the “hamburger” “introduction” many students At some point in their school careers, T This roadmap tells the reader what subtopics the subtopics what the reader tells roadmap This how this paper would read Now try to imagine would be While it might seem obvious that this the map As with actual maps of physical terrain, paper will take up, and in what order; except in the except order; take up, and in what paper will anything about it does not say however, last case, of each of these content or conclusions what the Even in foreshadowing will be. smaller investigations the writer takes the opportuni- the last section, where not significant thesis, we are his most ty to reiterate how this point will be argued. told anything about to orient the reader, serves then, purely The roadmap, information to achieve that end. and gives only enough also were (especially if there with no such roadmap below). As the last section no signposts, as defined suddenly intro- opens, for example, the writer might For readers, duce the ideas of Anderson or Gellner. left field. from turn would come this unprepared these guys? Why is the writer suddenly talking about it is argument, disorienting, and make for ineffective true that many writers (and not just unfortunately of direc- student writers) often make sudden changes preparing tion or begin major new sections without all, a writer It is an easy thing to do; after the ground. all lead. It is easy to it will has in mind where already may not know what you do, and that readers forget you on your assume that they will be able to follow of jar- helps avoid this sort The roadmap merry way. can result. ring turn, and the mental whiplash that should be as simple and clear as possible. On real of maps, this end is achieved by marking each feature the terrain with a highly stylized icon, as when a mountain peak is marked with a solid black triangle, dot. Extraneous detail is excised; or a city with a red the real one does not try and show in miniature flanks, or the actual New shape of the mountain’s for a skyline. The same goes for the roadmap York aim should be to set up simple cues that Your paper. when they and recognize will remember the reader To section of the paper. actually arrive at the relevant this end it will also help if when you arrive, you of the phrase identifying a given sec- the core repeat (again, see “Signposts”). tion in the roadmap in in qin qin qin. . Given tell us about the (qin qi shu hua) qin as a whole, rather than an in its arts programs indicate a people qin firmly ensconced as a mainstay of qin , or Chinese zither, has long been one of has long zither, , or Chinese qin A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies individual artist or even a certain social class. I individual artist or even a certain social reveals will further contend that this rethinking ideo- a deep-rooted nationalism in the Maoist I shall logical project, a nationalism which, as argue, is deeply problematic from the perspective of classical Marxist thought.] Roadmap: First, I will briefly review the place of the these strongly elitist associations with a life of these strongly elitist we might expect that upon wealth and leisure, in 1949, the Chinese its accession to power have pilloried the Communist Party would of feudal evils. In instrument as an embodiment ten years of Liberation we within fact, however, find the [The the post-Liberation arts was underwritten by a the post-Liberation arts was underwritten most careful ideological rethinking of even the Such elite products of the Chinese tradition. spirit works of art were read as embodying the of the Chinese traditional literati culture, and the associations the instrument held prior to Communist rule. I will then describe the vicissitudes of the instrument and some of its foremost exponents in the period from Liberation to the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. Next, I will examine the arts com- ideological pronouncements of China’s missars in this period, and the writings and biography of Mao Zedong, in a search for explanations for the Maoist rehabilitation of the I will draw on theories of nationalism Finally, from the work of Benedict Anderson and Ernst Gellner to argue that Party justifications for including the rationales and inner workings of Communist ide- rationales and inner workings of Communist ology and propaganda more generally?] [I will show that the rehabilitation of the the new nationalist-proletarian arts. How did the new nationalist-proletarian arts. How this happen? How was an instrument virtually identical with the exclusive and even effete a pro- snobbery of the ruling classes woven into the gram of socialist arts? And what might unexpected fate of the the key symbols of the culture of the cultivated of the culture the key symbols It features, for example, in classical Chinese elite. the four essential aesthetic the standard list of chess, the zither, attainments of the gentleman: calligraphy and painting deep-seated conflict in its political theory between Marxist and nationalist imperatives. paragraphs we gave in the “Openings” section. We section. “Openings” gave in the we paragraphs so in brackets, the first two paragraphs will give you flip back: need to that you don’t 36 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 37 , it qin zither, for zither, qin . I will argue that is. Even if there did is. Even if there qin starting analysis. As you may starting M. Butterfly before A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | DEFINING KEY TERMS DEFINING ur last working part in the opening is the defini- in the opening is the part ur last working tion of terms. This is often not the case with key terms in an This is often not the case with key terms Unfortunately, definition of terms is also often definition of terms Unfortunately, androgyny functions in the film as an allegory on for the breakdown of fundamental identities a number of fronts, including gender identity, also nationality and political convictions. I will link this breakdown to a specific historical a story is located, moment at which the film’s a post- moment of transition from a modern to modern world; and I will argue that on several levels, the film is best understood as an expression of the profound historical and conceptual anxiety that attended the onset of the “post-ideological” age. In this paper, I will analyze instances of androgy- I will analyze instances In this paper, film adaptation of David Anderson’s ny in Travis Henry Hwang’s not necessary that one define it is probably Now, have noticed, the above paragraph could well func- the and if this were for the paper, tion as a roadmap case, and each sentence in the paragraph was to rep- be possible a major section, it would probably resent would suffice for them to consult a good dictionary. for them to consult a would suffice because definition The term does not require over what it disagree could hardly informed readers means. often use terms that require We however. argument, For to proceed. for the argument definition in order the open- example, let us imagine a paper for which ing reads: happen to be a reader who did not know the happen to be a reader neglected by novice and journeyman writers. As with neglected by novice that comprise the opening, most of the other pieces may not always be necessary. the definition of terms the to our example about return To unnecessary to tell an example, it is probably the what informed reader It should be clear that a number of key terms in this paragraph will need to be pinned down if the discus- “gender,” sion is to be useful: at the least, “androgyny,” “modern,” “post-modern,” and “post-ideological.” all of these terms O Finally, again as with a real map, it is also impor- map, it is a real as with again Finally, tant to ensure that the roadmap is an accurate repre- is an that the roadmap tant to ensure seem While this may of the actual terrain! sentation that it often happens of the obvious, like a statement early on, paragraph we write a roadmap as we draft, of the paper turns out to be but the actual outline there- to revise, It is important somewhat different. to check that the to remember and in revising, fore, guide. map is still a trusty Often, as with this example, terms that require Often, as with this example, terms that find, then, that the most will frequently You Sharp readers will already have noticed that this noticed have already will readers Sharp then: add a definition of “gender,” Let’s a human “Gender” here refers to the identity of consti- subject as male or female individual, as fea- tuted by factors other than their anatomical tures (especially sex organs). For the latter, anatomical distinction, we reserve the word typically “sex.” In distinction from sex, gender is speech marked by behaviors, emotive attitudes, patterns, dress and so forth that are interpreted either in a given cultural context as typical of of masculinity or femininity—in short, by systems signs that represent biological sex in cultural codes. Clearly, having such a definition will make things having such a definition will make Clearly, than they would be otherwise. It also much clearer that says: makes an implicit contract with the reader It invites to use these terms in this sense. I undertake and thereby to hold you to your definition, the reader honest. keeps your argument one or another domain drawn from definition are scholarship. In this example, we are of theoretical dealing with a definition of gender and androgyny close to the way the term is used in gender studies and literary criticism (they in turn developed it out is often a close overlap, of psychoanalysis). There then, between sections of a paper defining terms and for the argu- groundwork those that lay theoretical debts. ment and acknowledge theoretical to the work way of defining a term is to refer effective scholars. For example, we might find of one or more that the following definition early in a paper arguing deficiency of social capital was a major impediment much, however, does not settle the issue. The defini- does not settle much, however, upon an implicit have it so far depends tion as we and terms “gender” the italicized contrast between that the definitions is why we said earlier “sex.” This will be interrelated. and “gender” of “androgyny” pair or set of terms that finds a One frequently and to one another, relation definition in require in clarity and precision writing can gain immensely used in a mutually are when such key terms fashion. consistent and illuminating in a gen- , the film definition genders only Oxford English Oxford M. Butterfly , what does it mean? The writer is , and yet it does not suit the purpos- . No such biological reference is OED Oxford is as a technical term in biology: “Union of is as a technical term in biology: “Union sexes This use of the term to refer to an ambigui- A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies So, if the word is not being used in the sense we is not being used in the sense So, if the word For the purposes of this paper, “androgyny” will For the purposes of this paper, refer to a mixture of traits usually considered proper to both genders in a single individual, so that the individual is ambiguous in terms of der. ty of gender characteristics should not be con- where fused with the use of the term in biology, it refers to anatomical hermaphroditism, or the simultaneous presence of features of both biological intended at any point in this paper. Note, by the way, that this is the Note, by the way, At the very least, however, it will hardly be possi- it will hardly At the very however, least, es of the paper. This shows that it is sometimes not es of the paper. to a general English dictionary adequate to refer for use in a when defining a term (even the greatest!) scholarly paper. find in the given in the use of the metaphorical of course, to a more referring, term, often found in literary criticism, gender studies, from the word and other fields. This usage broadens to “the presence its technical biological usage to refer of traits commonly identified with both then, we have the bare single individual.” Already, bones of a working definition: Dictionary as Now, sexes in one individual; hermaphroditism.” if you have seen you will realize hermaphro- contains no instances of such anatomical would be there ditism, and if this was our definition, nothing to analyze. to define “androgyny” and “gender” (which are obvi- (which are “gender” and “androgyny” to define first section, in the set-up for the ously interrelated) and “post-ideo- “modern,” “post-modern” and leave and last. third the outset of the logical” until without defining “androg- started ble to get the paper understands the term deter- since the way one yny,” of objects (aspects of the mines the very selection is especially true since film) for analysis. This broad if left undefined, is a dangerously “androgyny,” could mean many different that and ambiguous word For example, the only readers. things to different given by the definition of the word 38 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 39 to the truth of their A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | making them other In this paper, I will argue that the discourse of I will argue In this paper, Boxer Uprising around the race that developed China contains many in late nineteenth century nationalism, and fur- components of a nascent of such proto-nationalis- that the existence ther, at this time poses serious tic discourse in China account of Anderson’s problems for Benedict and spread in the modern how nationalism rose “nationalism” here fol- era. My use of the term term definition of the lows Benedict Anderson’s and loyalty to a as an ideology of belonging is defined as “an “nation,” where a “nation” as imagined political community—and imagined both inherently limited and sovereign.” films of I will argue that the later In this paper, Yimou Fifth Generation film-makers like Zhang for for- and Chen Kaige were produced primarily in eign consumption, that is, for consumption cine- translation (with subtitles) in the art-house argue mas of the developed world. I will further an alien- this production for translation results in ated artwork. For my purposes, “alienation” has multiple, is liter- interrelated senses. First, the work of art is export- ally “alienated” (made alien) in that it as ed from its country of origin, and consumed the exotica in its target market. Second, I use says term in a loosely Marxist sense. Karl Marx “alien- that workers in a capitalist economy are and just ated” from the products of their labor; as factory workers do not own the things they make, so the overseas consumption of “Chinese” film alienates signifiers of Chineseness from their producers and rightful owners, and delivers them over to the possession and delectation of the global bourgeoisie. Third, once more taking my cue from Marx, I hold that these first two types of alienation involve “false consciousness”—a basic misapprehension of the real con- economic and social existence. ditions of one’s These films and the way they are consumed constitute a falsehood, and as such, “alienate” view- ers by existence. Second, a creative definition, almost entirely by the definition, almost entirely Second, a creative own lights: writer’s be valid. Here are some further examples of thesis examples some further are Here be valid. of a by clarification followed immediately statements authority: from First, a definition pivotal term. , you might wish to restrict , you might wish to M. Butterfly This example has grown to be quite extensive, This example has grown For the purposes of this paper, “mother” and For the purposes of this paper, “father” will be defined as follows: the “mother” is the parent that spends the most time with and the the child and acts as primary caregiver, “father” is the less involved parent, regardless of biological sex. Thus, it is possible to have a biologically male “mother” and a biologically female “father.” While these definitions of “gender” and “androgy- While these definitions of “gender” and accord- It is even possible to define a term entirely In this paper, I shall use the term “social capital” I shall use the In this paper, and other given it by R. D. Putnam in the sense inherent in to mean “those resources theorists, collective action.” which facilitate social relations This does too much violence to our basic sense of and most read- what constitutes a mother or a father, before demand very good reasons ers would probably they would go along with these definitions, even for the purposes of argument. that a paper and you should not get the impression must have such a detailed definition of some term to your analysis further by making the following by your analysis further stipulation: purposes of this for the quite broad, ny” remain only instances so paper I will consider as androgyny impression as to give the consistent and pronounced or at gender, that an individual is actually of the other of his or least that he or she is fundamentally atypical her own gender. ing to your own lights, as suits the purposes is a (see below for examples). There of your project of idiosyncratic definition, limit to this process not to violate the and you have to be careful however, example, few basic sense of the terms you use. For given people would be able to accept the definitions the purposes of in this example, even temporarily for a given project: You need not always have the firepower of academic not always have the firepower need You your definitions, however. big guns to back up beauties of the definition is that Indeed, one of the suit your own pur- to define to the freedom it offers of to the analysis return To poses (within reason). in androgyny to democratic reform in post-war Korea: Korea: in post-war reform to democratic the strict province of your topic (for example, the strict province literary studies in a when you use a term from paper on politics). example, it may be a term that you have first noticed scholars usually define on its be in published papers; or it may occurrence that an author in one of your an acronym coined themselves. sources ment in the field. In this situation, you need to the sense in which stipulate for your reader you stand on you intend the term, i.e. where sense of the term. debates about the proper of your own argument. As we said above, there may be cases where terms cases where may be above, there As we said to the slightly vexed This brings us, in closing, • outside When you use a term that comes from • When you know it to be quite technical. For • disagree- you have seen that it provokes Where • you want to tailor a term for purposes Where where the term will be coming into play. coming will be the term where can that they enough misunderstanding admit of little such cases, a paper definition. In be used without It is important, much definition. may not contain yourself of all your key terms, that you ask however, of upon which comprehension and especially those these terms clear? Could an Are your thesis hinges: misunderstand reader informed and well-intentioned specific? or more made clearer them? Can they be is necessary definition would help, a paper or Where if it is omitted. greatly can suffer terms require question of how you can know when reinventing you need to avoid definition. Obviously, understands the wheel and defining terms everyone for difficult in the sense you intend them. It can be common newcomers to a field to judge what is suggest you consider giving We knowledge, however. a definition at least: Of course, these general guidelines may still leave you in some doubt in specific cases. It is probably It qin. example. We qin music betray a conflict between tightening of some common terms common of some tightening qin ad hoc probably be necessary, however, for the author however, be necessary, probably A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Finally, we should mention an important differ- we should mention an important Finally, think back to our Once more, In this paper, I will analyze the actions and policy I will analyze In this paper, in the Spratly Republic of China of the People’s On the basis the last three decades. Islands over argue that these actions of this analysis, I will that the PRC is now and policies show clearly aggressive and expansionist engaged in a clearly fact has as yet although this military policy, in the United States received little recognition defense establishment. a military policy is this paper, For the purposes of consistently characterized by “aggressive” if it is against foreign powers a pattern of first strikes provocation. Such aggression with no substantial is further “expansionist” if the most plausible has motive for it, once rhetorical justification of a been cleared aside, is the aggrandizement annexa- sphere of influence, whether by nation’s the application of pressure tion of territory, inter- underwritten by a military threat, or other mediate means. to state clearly his understanding of “nationalism” in that the theories he argues his last section, where to justify the contin- officials arts developed by Party of ued support ence between definitions and other typical opening ence between definitions and other typical the defi- components. Although we have introduced that comprise nition of terms among the components for obvious definitions are, the opening of the paper, papers, in a way that is throughout found reasons, and the not so true of items like the thesis statement defi- we have treated for this reason, Partly roadmap. as a kind of nitions last in this section on openings, like evidence and “sign- transition into working parts a piece of writing. used throughout posts” that are have said that it is not necessary to define would nationalism and Marxist orthodoxy. In this case, it orthodoxy. nationalism and Marxist such a be best for the writer to offer would probably definition near the beginning of that last section, Third, an Third, for the particular purposes of an individual paper: purposes of an for the particular 40 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 41 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | OPENINGS: CONCLUSION OPENINGS: e began our discussion of openings by noting discussion of openings e began our for opening’s of writing an opening the danger Above all, avoid the temptation to create a purely Above all, avoid the temptation to create sake. It is worthwhile to reiterate this point. You may You this point. to reiterate worthwhile sake. It is works best with only some of find that your paper sections—for previous in the the pieces we treat paper that only write a short example, you might clarification of one a thesis statement and a requires If proper. into the argument you dive key term before the case, avoid the temptation of this turns out to be If you for no good reason! something extra creating mere- a token puzzle-posing paragraph try create and show, sake, for example, it will probably ly for form’s will be wooden and fruitless. Besides, and the result limit for your word from you will be spending words nil or negative returns! soon sake. You’ll “opening” for opening’s rhetorical until in history, find yourself blowing hot air (“Never been suffered the Cultural Revolution, had so much etc.). If this by so many for the whims of so few” will spot it, and your reader happens, chances are will suffer your paper (and possibly your grade) for it. W (“What Is East Asian Studies?”) (“What Is East Asian (“Editing”) (“Active and passive voice”) There are many places where we define terms in we define where many places are There • Distinction a “field” between a “discipline” and • and “editing” between “rewriting” Distinction • “Nominalization” (“Editing”) • modification” participial “Preposed • companions” (“Reordering”) “Sundered • arms as “patient” Puett’s Definition of Professor best to err on the side of caution; if in doubt, define. if in doubt, caution; the side of to err on best and trial and error, afraid to learn from Do not be or professor can always ask your that you remember defining. think the term requires TF if they we invite you to look at some of this handbook, and see how you think we did. See those definitions and the following, for example: A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 42 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 43 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | therefore to the presentation of research presentation to the therefore it is, strictly speak- findings in general, subject. What ing, a huge, even endless evidence? What constitutes adequate underwritetypes of evidence legitimately How can evi- what types of knowledge? misconstrued, dence be misused or whether intentionally or unintentionally, and how can we avoid being led into devel- abuses? A person’s by such error opment as a scholar and a thinker depends as much on increasing Exactly because the presentation and analysis of the presentation Exactly because pretend this handbook does not For this reason, The most basic rule of thumb for using evidence argument is still a sub-species of evidence and of evidence is still a sub-species argument than for it. thesis rather one’s analysis—against to entirely almost then, can be reduced Content, and analysis. evidence and to academic argument, evidence is so central to with regard sophistication, insight and experience as it does on accumulating these evidential problems of factual knowledge, or specific skills like a store lectures will also see in your readings, languages. You that and section discussions that the controversies too, often boil animate fields of academic inquiry, one can over whether down to honest disagreements to a given body of evidence from legitimately reason conclusions. certain valid on what constitutes to give the last word or how evidence is best evidence for an argument, will simply try and give or analyzed. We presented points so that you can think you some starting involved, critically constructively about the problems and in your readings, evaluate the evidence presented in the way you choose and handle due care exercise evidence in your own written work. is that you must do so! In in an academic argument without an argument an academic environment, bluster and evidence is little better than mere woolgathering. This may seem obvious, but it is with a presented surprising how often teachers are Kinds of Evidence Evidence Argument The Body • Evidence Typical • Some • The Analysis of • Counter- EVIDENCE The Body he previous section, on definitions, took us into on definitions, section, he previous the territory appear elements that sometimes of For this reason, in this part of our handbook, in this part For this reason, In this handbook, we present our present In this handbook, we Some people might argue that the body of an Some people might argue and about the presentation academic paper is entirely true, since analysis of evidence. This is not strictly most cogent writing also contains a number of more structural elements that exist simply to or less purely and to ori- in order, keep the content of the argument will deal with these within it. (We ent the reader structural elements in two later sections of this handbook: “Paragraphs” and “Signposts.”) If we restrict it is ourselves for the meantime to content, however, of the nutty-gritty part true that a large certainly consists in presenting work of an academic argument and analyzing evidence. we consider the content of the body of a piece where of writing, we concern ourselves primarily with evidence and its analysis. This section is followed by but counter- section on counter-argument, a shorter in the body of an essay as well as its opening. In the in the body of an essay the presentation next section, we discuss a topic that and analysis of evidence, into the body. takes us well and truly the body of a piece advice about crafting First, in the sec- of writing in two parts. on counter-argu- tions on evidence and ment, we consider content. This is the and butter of academic argument— bread it, and how you argue what you argue step by step. Next, we consider the form of this content is cast in. Our treatment elements form comprises two sections on structural and sentences of the essay—“signposts,” or words, in the they are where phrases that tell the reader at any given point; and paragraphs. overall argument T it does. We don’t it does. We , not first-hand claims Jones says what Jones says be an efficient and coherent summary of Jones’s and coherent be an efficient Jones argues that Chinese thought is fundamen- counterpart in from its Western tally different basic orientation and worldview (212). She claims can be accounted for by that these differences in physical and agricultural environ- differences by the fact that the soil ment (213), particularly, in the core Chinese cultural zone requires extensive irrigation works to give high yields of the rice) (214); available staples (sorghum, and later, she further claims that when modified by such irrigational facilities, the land supported high population densities from relatively early in the historical period (221). Irrigation projects required the mobilization of large quantities of What kind of evidence can be cited to support the support What kind of evidence can be cited to makes First, note that much of the paragraph which heightened sensitivity to the subjective to the sensitivity heightened which was essen- neighbors and fellows needs of one’s in turn These conditions stability. tial to social by sub- of thought characterized favored styles and a dominant, rigid orthodoxy, mission to than the individ- on the group rather emphasis the impression that for ual. One further gains negative, and that by Jones these traits are Chinese tradition fails to virtue of them, the yardstick. (Western) measure up on an implicit need a tabulated analysis of nutrient levels in core need a tabulated analysis of nutrient levels then; just a River valley, the Yellow samples from this claim. Jones makes to the place where reference itself is Beyond that point, the truth of the claim the evidential concerns in business. Many of Jones’s and by similar, of the paragraph are the first part text for each of the to Jones’s a reference inserting substantial points we claim she makes, the evidential be greatly basis of the paragraph can already strengthened: Now this is perfectly serviceable,Now this is perfectly and it clear writing, might of this presentation, strength On the argument. is not a single tell; there we simply cannot however, text. to Jones’s reference How can we fix this counter-example here? argument to make it into a positive model? claims about to not concerned are about Chinese history itself. We the core establish, for example, that “the soil in extensive irrigation Chinese cultural zone requires works...,” but rather that of the are interpreting are you which part , however, mean that you can , however, not A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Jones argues that Chinese thought is fundamen- counterpart in from its Western tally different She claims that basic orientation and worldview. can be accounted for by differ- these differences ences in physical and agricultural environment— particularly by the fact that the soil in the core Chinese cultural zone requires extensive irrigation works to give high yields of the available rice); she further staples (sorghum, and later, claims that when modified by such irrigational facilities, the land supported high population densities from relatively early in the historical period. Irrigation projects required the mobilization of large quantities of labor power under the direction of despotic rule; high population density entailed crowding living conditions, under An academic argument is like the argument of like the argument is argument An academic of evidence by can illustrate the necessity We Let’s begin with a counter-example illustrating the illustrating begin with a counter-example Let’s string of bald, unsupported assertions. assertions. unsupported of bald, string for a It is not enough a judge. before an attorney or, guilty,” “This person is clearly say, to prosecutor be Reasons must guilty.” this person is “I am sure that will must be reasons they given, and ideally, conclusion, judge to the desired ineluctably lead the quirks and convic- of his or her personal regardless of a scholar who wish- is required tions. Nothing less her conclusions. peers to share es to persuade her which (as we shall paper, to the response reference us with a to it) provides see in the section devoted observe in which to simple test-tube environment you sit many elements of writing at work. When you have a circum- paper, down to write a response writing only you are scribed set of readings—often, some extent, this about a single piece of work. To can of citing sources—you simplifies the problem number for often get away with simply giving a page each point. It does assume that your teacher knows piece you are basing a point upon, or that you can basing a point upon, or that piece you are assume your teacher knows how as much as a given passage. Response papers, then, the require any other type of academic argument, evidence. and analysis of supporting presentation It is not argument. weakness that besets unsupported for uncommon, especially early in the fall semester, like this: paper to read of a response part 44 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 45 it. In fact, your writing is A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | strengthens requires extensive irrigation works to give high works irrigation extensive requires (sorghum, and available staples yields of the claims that when (214); she further rice) later, facilities, the land such irrigational modified by from high population densities supported period (221). early” in the historical “relatively the mobilization Irrigation projects required labor power under the of large quantities of rule (215-6); high popula- direction of “despotic” crowding living conditions, tion density entailed sensitivity to “the under which heightened neighbors and fellows one’s subjective needs of stability” (222). These con- was essential to social styles of thought charac- ditions in turn favored to a dominant... rigid terized by “submission and emphasis on the group orthodoxy” (217-20), (224-7). rather than the individual quotation— This example also shows that a direct The tagging of these quotations as such makes the The tagging of these quotations as such to our court- return persuasive. To paragraph more “exhibits” like the quotations are analogy, room I give you (“Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, evidence that Exhibit A”)—pieces of solid material embody a key point in tangible form. as a single a piece of evidence—can be as slender the impres- Some students seem to labor under word. a stand-alone sion that if one takes anything less than it does not count as a source, phrase or sentence from that if one is to quote, one a quote, and, conversely, Neither must quote at least a phrase or sentence. responsible As you can see above, a notion is correct. from borrowed writer will acknowledge any words than this, such however few; more another writer, your own acknowledgement does not compromise writing, but from if you only quote as many words efficient more a writer as you need to make a point. You should cite the You This is a mistake! direct quotations increases the accuracy and quotations increases direct as Jones argues that Chinese thought is fundamen- counterpart in from its Western tally different “basic orientation and worldview” (212). She can be accounted claims that these differences in physical and agricultural for by differences by the fact that environment (213), particularly, the soil in the core Chinese cultural zone Note also, by the way, that so far, none of these that so far, Note also, by the way, evidential doubts might still linger, Some further labor power under the direction of despotic rule despotic of the direction power under labor entailed crowd- population density (215-6); high heightened conditions, under which ing living neigh- of one’s to the subjective needs sensitivity to social stability was essential bors and fellows favored styles of conditions in turn (222). These by submission to a domi- thought characterized (217-20), and emphasis on nant, rigid orthodoxy the individual (224-7). the group rather than Note that nothing about the substantive content of Note that nothing this para- changed. The impression the paragraph has howev- is very different, a reader graph will make on documented by rele- Each key point is now solidly er. and readers itself), article Jones’s vant evidence (here, to check for themselves given the opportunity are the words, any points they find dubious. In other more meticulous and paragraph has become more responsible. text is necessarily motivated by Jones’s to references Some quoting Jones directly. the fact that we are seemed in the tutorial in past years have sophomores only give a that one need to be under the impression when cit- page number in the text under discussion ing directly. something, text each time you say that the text says you mean in knows where so that your reader the text. fairly might wonder how the reader Perhaps however. own argument. this paragraph characterizes Jones’s Now let us suppose that some of the key phrases in Jones. from in fact, taken directly this paragraph are, Of course, conventions of intellectual honesty and quo- avoidance of plagiarism also demand that direct we should also tations be acknowledged, but here, of phrases found in Jones’s note how the presentation paper rigor of the paragraph: Our full paragraph is now well documented, and well documented, is now full paragraph Our Jones argues that Chinese thought is fundamen- that Chinese thought Jones argues in counterpart from its Western tally different worldview” (212). She “basic orientation and can be accounted claims that these differences and agricultural in physical for by differences by the fact that particularly, environment (213), cultural zone requires the soil in the core Chinese works to give high yields of extensive irrigation rice) (sorghum, and later, the available staples modified by such irriga- (214), and that, when land supported high popula- tional facilities, the the his- tion densities from “relatively early” in torical period (221). Irrigation projects required labor the mobilization of large quantities of rule power under the direction of “despotic” crowd- (215-6); high population density entailed ing living conditions, under which heightened sensitivity to “the subjective needs of one’s social sta- neighbors and fellows was essential to bility” (222). These conditions in turn favored to styles of thought characterized by “submission and a dominant... rigid orthodoxy” (217-20), individual emphasis on the group rather than the that for (224-7). One further gains the impression by Jones these traits are negative, and that to virtue of them, the Chinese tradition fails yardstick. measure up on an implicit (Western) deference Chinese thought is “incorrigible” in its develop to classical authority (218); it “failed” to a “cogent jurisprudence of individual responsibil- Greek ity” (225); it is not “fully rational in the sense of the term” (226). hopefully, if you compare the final result with our first with the final result if you compare hopefully, is as it former—bereft the defects of the draft above, be clear: of all evidence—will Evidence, then, is essential to a good argument. In Evidence, then, is essential to a good argument. many types of written work, including response papers, much of the evidence will be of this secondary does in type—evidence that another scholarly source many other are fact say what you say it says. here and so we types of evidence you might cite, however, types now turn to a discussion of some representative of evidence. A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies One further gains the impression that for Jones these traits are negative, and that by virtue of them, the Chinese tradition fails to measure up yardstick. Chinese on an implicit (Western) thought is “incorrigible” in its deference to classical authority (218); it “failed” to develop a “cogent jurisprudence of individual responsibili- ty” (225); it is not “fully rational in the Greek sense of the term” (226). In previous parts of the paragraph, where it was of the paragraph, where parts In previous One further gains the impression that for Jones One further gains the and that by virtue of these traits are negative, fails to measure up them, the Chinese tradition yardstick. on an implicit (Western) The paragraph now has an abundance of evidence an abundance now has The paragraph Note that these may be only three of a dozen or more Note that these may be only three places that could be pointed out to establish Jones’s it is a few well-chosen examples suffice, bias. Where not always necessary to be exhaustive, especially limit. when battling a word Thus unsupported, this is a very flimsy statement. It this is a very Thus unsupported, of the writer, impression the subjective flatly presents will have that the reader in the hope presumably if even Now, and agree. same impression the received valid; this statement may well be it looks flimsy, of for the remainder indeed, it may be very important does indeed paper to establish that Jones the response most readers’ possible to gain betray bias, and entirely a do so will require To on the matter. agreement kind of evidence, however. slightly different explicit argu- simply a matter of paraphrasing Jones’s at each point, was sufficient ment, a page reference would be able to since we could trust that a reader however, of the page we meant. Here, see which part we need to be very about exactly what Jones specific she identi- the traits says that gives us the impression can be negative. This fies in Chinese though are however: accomplished quite economically, for its claims about Jones’s argument. This leaves us argument. about Jones’s for its claims original paragraph, sentence of our with the last a Jones to discussing paraphrasing from which moves In draft, that argument. bias in her possible implicit sentence read: 46 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 47 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | the reason, and offer an explanation for the explanation an offer and the reason, of it, or to women to be aware failure of why they are childless. it when asked offer is enough to can be shown true claims above in population constitute a major factor decline. 6. whom the of such women for The number Let us first take (1): “Recent birthrates in Japan “Recent birthrates Let us first take (1): itself, and The use of statistics is a discipline unto to simply In this example, it will not be sufficient Let us consider evidence that might help establish Let us consider evidence some of these conclusions. This is going to levels.” below replacement are statistics. Students obviously do well-sourced require and gather these statistics them- not have to go out publications of selves, but can find them in official and properly the Japanese government, or in a sound scholarly publication. sourced of statis- use students who anticipate making regular of the spe- more tics in their work should take one or This handbook at Harvard. cialist courses on offer is required will not even attempt to teach you what It is often use of statistics. for the sound and rigorous that students whose primary inter- the case, however, in statistics need to cite expertise ests will not require secondary to make a point. scholarship statistics from about exactly When this is the case, a little thought you quote do and do not tell us can what the figures help avoid some common mistakes. rate in Japan over a graph or table of the birth present always Figures to the study. the period relevant to make sense. contextualization if they are require we will also need to know what is considered Here, rate. It would also help our birth the “replacement” proj- to have statistics showing that experts argument low or continue to fall, i.e. rates will remain ect birth that below replacement, that if the rate is currently this is not a temporary hiccup for some extraneous also makes mention of the Our argument reason. in the “graying” of Japan—the ongoing increase of elderly persons in the population as a proportion whole—and it might help contextualize our claims, of their full implications, aware and make our readers e will first consider some types of evidence consider some types e will first sciences. found in the social often more replacement levels. pursue serious competitive careers. such careers and are in fact doing so. hours over many years without any long break, and the career prospects of those who do not conform to this model are seriously compromised. These expectations for women. are no different choice themselves attribute their decision to do so primarily to a conflict between the demands of child-rearing and career if they do not do prospects. Alternatively, so, we can otherwise show that this is indeed 1. Recent birthrates in Japan are below 2. Japanese women are keen to Younger 3. Japanese women are free to pursue Younger 4. Japanese workplace culture demands long 5. Japanese women who remain childless by The recent low birth rates in Japan—lower than The recent low birth the concomitant aging of replacement rate—and may be attributed, in the Japanese population new generations of part, to the desire of have sustained, meaningful Japanese women to the failure of workplace careers, coupled with to adapt to that change. A structures and culture only pursue a serious, com- Japanese woman can work petitive career if she matches the long hours and long years of complete commitment to work still expected of her male colleagues. This means that it is not possible to combine devel- active, intensive child-rearing with career opment. Confronted with the choice between they losing their toehold in the job market if work take extended maternity leave or even and part-time, or returning to full-time work placing children in full-time childcare almost choos- immediately after birth, many women are chil- ing neither—they are choosing not to have dren at all. SOME TYPICAL KINDS OF EVIDENCE KINDS TYPICAL SOME Let us consider a paper whose thesis statement para- thesis statement a paper whose Let us consider as follows: graph reads This is a relatively complex argument. What sorts of What sorts complex argument. This is a relatively its we accepted evidence might we demand before at least would probably main thesis as true? We each of the following demand evidence to support assertions: W How might we show (2) that women are working (2) that women are How might we show years have tried to argue Students in previous one common type of evidence for a Obviously, result of greater commitment to work. Statistics to work. commitment of greater result working, then, actually women are showing that (3), that Japanese establish point would better and are pursue such careers to now free women are so. indeed doing our thesis statement at least by choice—that, as of for them as the source implied, work is valuable type of personal worth a different and new freedoms a is a question of attitudes across and identity? This and society, segment of an entire demographic large by asking best answered are such questions obviously, But how many people? the people concerned. unrepre- similar points on the basis of astoundingly student tried to sentative evidence. For example, one is a significant level of anti-American show that there informal by conducting a single sentiment in Taiwan friend. Another email interview with a Taiwanese paper that “Chinese people seem in a response argued the point to think” such-and-such, and supported with a with an anecdote about a single conversation trip. Chinese person met on a backpacking to is sufficient neither of these sources Obviously, claimed. anything like the level of generality prove anti- have been a freak friend could The Taiwanese American in a population otherwise sycophantically student’s in love with the US; the backpacking a stray lunatic, Chinese interlocutor could have been attacks of chatting with to uncontrollable prone tourists in parks. keen to pur- claim like (2), that “Japanese women are qualitative survey. is a more sue competitive careers,” and like statistics, is complex territory, The survey, again, this handbook cannot go into the details of what makes a survey sound. Methods exist in disci- that a survey is suffi- plines like sociology to ensure not lead- that the questions are ciently representative, ing, and so on; students who anticipate that they will atti- be considering questions of knowledge, regularly social broad tudes, beliefs or experiences across should find a way to incorporate study of sur- groups A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Let us now turn to another type of evidence by Let us now turn to another type of evidence this claim, too, could be support- some degree, To in fact Even if we did show that women were Statistics, then, are one major type of evidence one major type then, are Statistics, considering (2): “Younger Japanese women are keen Japanese women are considering (2): “Younger to pursue serious competitive careers.” that figures ed by statistics, as for example if we gave in fact are showed that younger Japanese women Japanese than earlier generations of working more (note women, and in “serious competitive careers” need a definition of this latter that we would probably term—see “Defining Key Terms”). we would not neces- working in such jobs, however, doing so by person- sarily have shown that they were could imagine, for example, that al choice. We numbers of women, or their husbands, increasing due to pollutants in biologically sterile, perhaps were and that industrialized environment, an increasingly working because they simply could not they were would be the reverse Cause and effect have children. commitment to work is a result of our thesis: greater of childlessness, rather than childlessness being a if we present figures that show the existence and the existence show that figures present if we this problem. extent of using or considering find yourself you will probably above, our argument In addition to (1) in frequently. statistics want to adduce relevant we would probably now (3), that “Japanese women are to establish points in fact and are careers to pursue competitive free that “the number of such women doing so”; and (6), above can be shown true is for whom the claims a major factor in population enough to constitute for (4), that also do so, in part, might decline.” We demands long hours culture “Japanese workplace and the over many years without any long break, to this of those who do not conform prospects career sta- might use We seriously compromised.” model are for example, that men and women tistics to show, career-path from who took significant long breaks signifi- their work hours work, or those who reduced lower pro- cantly to meet family commitments, had motion rates than peers who did not. 48 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 49 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Of course, there is no hard-and-fast distinction hard-and-fast is no Of course, there of the strictly quantifiable realm This range from Anecdotal evidence and other types of singular to our example can illustrate this by returning We delimited set of questions, as with a multi-choice a multi-choice as with questions, set of delimited way of eliciting we could imagine another survey, open- more asked in which subjects are evidence of or parts and their responses ended questions, lesser length in their or at greater reported them are own words. nor of “interview”between this sort and a “survey,” “statistics.” Another way of mak- between these and is to talk about a continuum ing the distinction and “qualitative” stud- “quantitative” between more elicit information in a format the former ies, where and the latter to statistical study, that is susceptible ver- elicits information in the form of individualized, subjective inter- more that require balized responses As this way of of researchers. on the part pretation evidence making the distinction also shows, statistical includ- various types of “survey,” and evidence from qualitative surveys, often ing to some extent more overlap. types qualitative statistics, on the one hand, to more can in fact be extended fur- of evidence, on the other, to be played by anecdotal ther by considering the role an individual evidence and single cases. Obviously, types by other case means little if it is not supported significantly of evidence that can suggest that it is with the exam- This was the problem representative. to argue a student had tried where ple we gave earlier, that “Chinese people think” this or that by recount- ing a single conversation had with a Chinese person by all is shared on a backpacking trip. This problem single cases, including in-depth interviews and even, often enough, historical example. are When they evidence have their place, however. generalized evidence placed in a context of more phenomena hold over a range of showing that certain they can or for a sizeable social group, circumstances that add invaluable depth and detail to a picture brush-strokes. broad mere would otherwise remain aspirations of between the career of the relationship Again as with statistics, however, it often happens statistics, however, Again as with another major type of then, are Survey results, (2), (4) and (5) of this argument Note that parts vey techniques into their degree program through program degree into their vey techniques at Harvard. in other departments offer courses on of use of the results of us make passing that many of our argu- as part surveys literature in the scholarly such surveysments, without conducting ourselves, or without the survey primary necessarily being the cite. When this is the case, it is form of evidence we bring an intelligent critical gaze to again necessary to that the must be sure to use. We the material we wish survey conclu- does in fact establish its purported in is room that there being sure sions. This includes to of the survey for results the question structure that disappoint the expectations of emerge not are conducting the survey; that there researchers other plausible explanations for the survey results survey;than those given by the authors of the that and the survey large subjects constitute a sufficiently whose atti- sample of the social group representative under study; and so on. tudes are argument, evidence, and in the context of our current these lines we can anticipate that something along (5): “Japanese also to establish would be required childless by choice themselves women who remain to a conflict attribute their decision to do so primarily career and between the demands of child-rearing find can also imagine that we could We prospects.” culture such evidence for (4): “Japanese workplace demands long hours over many years without any of those who do prospects and the career long break, seriously compro- not conform to this model are might have conducted surveys of mised.” Researchers make promotion managerial executives who regularly decisions, for example, and been able to show that time to of total commitment of one’s anything short chances of promotion. work prejudices in-depth interviews by more might also be supported or members of the social group with representative instead of dealing, for Here, under study. groups example, with a set of constrained and statistically and targeted to a relatively analyzable responses primary texts and documents. The example of the relationship between women’s relationship The example of the statistics Note that as with all types of evidence, straight statistics and As we moved away from “Primary” here means that the text or document in “Primary” here by authors or actors that form question was produced and is opposed to “sec- of the object under study, part which means that a text or document is pro- ondary,” and of a scholarly endeavor to analyze duced as part the other hand, this example is given in the context in the is given this example hand, the other evidence, survey statistical where of an argument that these trends have established and so forth results, adds invaluable detail exist, this example do indeed of power This is the real to the argument. and depth even if it is anecdotal, when it is the individual case, evidence. by other types of relevant supported has enabled us in Japan paths and the birthrate career overlapping range of partially to draw out a broad quantitative statistics, through types of evidence, from and qualitative interviews, cases and to individual aware that we are It is important anecdotal evidence. – of of these various types of evidence of the nature At the but also their limitations. their strengths, find a high we tend to strictly quantitative extreme, little but relatively of objective reliability, degree end of qualitative nuance and depth. At the strongly deal of a great the spectrum, as we have seen, we find of gener- little power detail and nuance, but relatively combines often artfully argument alization. Strong hard, relatively these various types of evidence, using of a phe- bones statistical fact to characterize the bare bones with the nomenon, and then fleshing out those subjective, selective and nuanced, but also more more by quantitative testimony. evidence provided and the other types of evidence we survey results, only be pre- in this section must not have considered will We sented, but also analyzed and interpreted. to this point below when we consider the return analysis of evidence. the qualitative end of the spectrum in our towards consideration of the last example, we also moved of another key type of evi- gradually in the direction dence–-citation from A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies When her second child was born, the lawyer put When her second child was born, the archi- The younger of the two sisters, a promising to note that on its own, this exam- It is important Japanese women and birth rates. Imagine that we that rates. Imagine and birth women Japanese fol- press popular Japanese in the an article had found quali- The elder sister lives of two sisters. lowing the in a career promising and began a fied as a lawyer and when she law firm. She married, major Tokyo significant amounts of time off had a child she took to work, to find herself work. She then returned in favor of less impressive passed up for promotion or no leave and worked long peers who took little the firm that she was committed hours. She had told in her position, and her superi- to the law and happy of promotion her prospects her that ors had assured maternity leave. She also heard by not affected were to that in a meeting the grapevine, however, through questioned a senior partner discuss promotions, at the upon to remain whether she could be relied not ultimately firm long-term, or whether she might become a full-time housewife. to and returned into full-time care, the baby directly This left her feeling guilty. long hours at the office. irascible and less con- Her second child seemed more that this was tented than her first, and she worried her Despite its parents. due to long hours away from excellent demonstrated commitment to work and In the was still passed up for promotion. she results, feeling that her end, dispirited, she left the law firm, blighted, and that irreversibly were there prospects while children she might as well devote herself to her still young. Since quitting she has fre- they were quently been depressed. that having watched her go tect, tells the reporter turned down she has recently these troubles, through a man she liked very of marriage from a proposal much. The man was adamant that he wanted chil- and she felt that it would not be possible for her dren, with her career. to balance childrearing points that we establishes none of the larger ple really as a whole. It is a sin- want to make in our argument anything about trends gle example, and cannot prove a whole generation of Japanese women. If, on across 50 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 51 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Conversely, the sort of evidence we considered in of evidence we considered sort the Conversely, types very many are there As we have just noted, when, having once however, Things get tricky, characteristic of the humanities that one might con- one might that of the humanities characteristic as a the humanities define controversially) ceivably (if one engagement with terms of their pivotal whole in for might say, form of primary text. We or another the study of undertake that the humanities example, external to rather than of a reality such cultural objects, this definition problems the them (note, however, in particular). of history, for the placement would create example—statistics, surveys, extended the previous unknown in the humanities, is and so on—while not of the social sciences. characteristic much more men- have already of primary We text or document. writings, tioned things like philosophical and literary objects, interviews, doc- art official historical records, add might further rituals. We uments, and religious such types of evidence as personal correspondence, goods, archi- diaries, account and ledger books, grave the layout of cities, or social codes governing tecture, the list is, in behaviors like eating or intermarriage; makes it impos- fact, potentially endless. This variety guidelines sible and unnecessary to give any general in fact, the such evidence, and about how to present a fairly of the evidence is usually plain presentation quote the text, repro- process—you straightforward or object, duce a photograph or sketch of an image and so on. the evidence, you have to tie it into the rest presented This is a question of how you ana- of your argument. your evidence, and it is to this lyze and interpret that we now turn. problem Thus, for example, items of diplomatic correspon- example, items of Thus, for of the relationship Historiographic analyses If we understand the notion of “primary text” many such instances of are Even though there understand the object. the understand courts Chinese Tang and the Tibetan dence between primary These doc- documents. considered would be phenome- of the part a direct as created uments were bear witness, and which a histori- non to which they might be concerned to relations an of Sino-Tibetan analyze. in that correspon- as recorded between the two courts be they “secondary,” hand, are dence, on the other of scholars, the studies of contemporary Western exter- China, or of any other party Qing historians in The study. nal to the place and period actually under evidence in example we gave above of how to present was a paper (“Jones” on Chinese thought) a response as of secondary, good instance of the presentation evidence. opposed to primary, found in both of evidence is then this sort broadly, In the social the social sciences and the humanities. sciences, in-depth interviews used to establish that as in in a given social group, prevail attitudes certain a type of example, could be considered our previous “primary document.” So, too, might passages, for offi- documents, white papers, treaty example, from in the context of etc., releases, cial government press also make political analysis. The social sciences of primary extensive use of many of the same types that we will discuss below as typical of the sources perspective a different humanities, though often from to that which humanists bring to bear. primary documents to be found in the citation from is a sense in which the analysis social sciences, there characteristic of of such primary documents is more work in the humani- frequently, the humanities. Very ties boils down to the analysis of one type or another in history;of “primary a treatise an image in art text”: in many types of philosophy; documentary records historical work; a poem, play or story in literary or doctrinal tract in reli- analysis; a ritual structure of work gious studies. In fact, so much is this sort . is relevant, . This will is instru- li li , that is, that it li justified Analects 9.3 : in other words, : in other words, jen passages where change in passages where exists to serve a purpose ulterior to itself, jen. li Analects itself. He then uses the example of the cap to to the majority, I follow the practice of bowing the practice I follow majority, to the before ascending. ...Confucius the not just advocating is here a rule of li, of or departure from retention doing so. He cites giving reasons for but is also in favor of replacing the economic consideration used in rituals with one linen ceremonial cap consideration made of black silk. Economic relevant consideration, since cannot be the only have justified the elimination otherwise it would it Presumably, altogether. of the ceremonial cap from a li rule only when can justify departure its purpose of the li rule in serving the efficacy why Confucius This explains remains unaffected. the traditional li rule of rejects departure from before ascending the steps bowing to the prince means to the upper hall. This li rule serves as a depart of paying homage to the prince, and to disre- from the rule without good reason shows the pur- spect for the prince, thereby defeating pose of the rule. Shun then cites his evidence— First, he points out that the passage gives reasons li Note that Shun’s analysis of his evidence here falls his evidence here analysis of Note that Shun’s prim- First, he sets up his quotation, into two parts. to look for the aspect of it that will be ing the reader He does this by discussing his argument. for relevant other show that economic justification does not account for all that is going on in the passage—an excellent illus- mental to He immediately sets about analyzing the passage, drawing out exactly those aspects of it that the reader He does to hold water. must notice for his argument steps. this by a nice series of precise or modification of for the retention does indeed justify practices in terms of ends external to that purpose being and then uses these other passages as a foil against and then uses these other passages as passage for which to bring out the key aspect of this change is here his argument—that he inter- because argument ultimately serve his larger assump- this justification to be based upon the prets tion that 43.3 (July 1993), 457-479. (“rites”) in the Philosphy East & West Philosphy East & West li , for statistical is instrumental to li is an inner state, and jen serve to cultivate that Shun is in the process of out- Shun is in the process li 1 mutatis mutandi ; “benevolence”) and ren of Confucius. THE ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE OF ANALYSIS THE A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies ometimes, evidence speaks for itself. This happy evidence speaks for ometimes, that it requires however; is rare, state of affairs [T]here are passages in which Confucius speaks as if there is a justification for the revision of or departure from an existing rule of li... In 2.23 and 3.9, Confucius describes changes in li from the Hsia to the Shang and then to the Chou and in 3.14 he advocates the li practices dynasty, of Chou over those of Hsia and Shang. These passages do not yet imply a justification for the changes or for Confucius’ preference for Chou li. However... a justification is implied in 9.3, where Confucius says: black silk is used Using a linen cap is li. Today, instead. This is more economical, and I follow Bowing before ascending the steps the majority. people bow after ascending them. is li. Today, This is presumptuous and, although it is contrary As we have seen in the previous pages, there are pages, there the previous As we have seen in Kwong- a paper by Our first example comes from (Pinyin: —that is, roughly, that —that is, roughly, Kwong-loi Shun, “Jen and Li in the Analects,” lining a position that holds that 1 there be only one conceivable way of reading, and way of reading, only one conceivable be there being what it is, this is seldom human understanding to time, then, it is not sufficient the case. Most of the it; you will also and present evidence find the relevant piece of evidence as you present need to analyze each what significance to the reader it, and make it clear for your overall argument. you see in that evidence All that you might present. many types of evidence analysis, however, types of evidence equally require time. For it nearly all the which is to say they require our we will illustrate however, the sake of simplicity, texts. The points mostly with the analysis of written same lessons apply, tables, graphs, images, maps and so on. concepts of between the loi Shun on the relationship jen Analects jen that the ritual forms of state where it is lacking, and to express it where it where it is lacking, and to express state where it is present: 52 | S

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 53 anime . The plot Journal of the History of Ideas Journal of the History Ghost in the Shell 2 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | (Honolulu: Kuroda Institute through University of Institute through (Honolulu: Kuroda . His analysis is more a matter of paraphras- . His analysis is more instinctive feelings of rightness experienced of rightness feelings instinctive under people “everywhere by the Chinese it was they were those which, Heaven”; of with the “will” believed, accorded of the with the structure Heaven, indeed aroused in the basic disquiet universe. Hence crimes or any disputes the Chinese mind by felt to be distur- was because they were of Nature. bances in the Order Thus the king’s ritual conduct was more than a ritual Thus the king’s social and ethical norms for public enactment of to the formula- others to emulate. According the king occupies a tions of the Chou classics, hierarchical structure of pivotal position in the between heaven and the cosmos, mediating consisting of a complex earth. His ritual life, mirrored the cycle of sacrifices and offerings, passage of the constellations and planets through the heavens... Sharf does not analyze Needham’s writing at any- does not analyze Needham’s Sharf past an actual Our next example is taken from The implications of such a crisis of identity are thing like the microscopic level of Shun reading the reading level of Shun thing like the microscopic Analects and Needham, ing the main point he is taking from background fleshing it out with a little supporting a vital func- comments perform information. Sharf’s that his tion, nonetheless. It is as if he is checking “on the same page” as he is; that the still are readers on some unanticipated send them off quotation didn’t the trajectory tangent that will lead them astray from he is plotting with his own argument. paper by Jia Jia Liu, analyzing the sophomore (Japanese animated film) and androgyny features of the film prominently means that both are and Jia Jia is arguing cyborgism, join her We of figuring a crisis of subjective identity. in full flight, and we miss a little when she is already scene in the she cites a particular context, but here subjectivity in evidence that it figures film as further this crisis-ridden manner: that the subject leads to the realization profound—it of post-structuralist a view reflective is empty, criticism and also of the illusion of the self at the to being li li , the five or “rite,” but li has little to do li yang, ch’i and . yin jen is best understood in this pas- is best understood li if economic imperatives were the imperatives were if economic if one failed to recognize that Coming to Terms with Chinese Coming to Terms li , and Shun has made a neat case for , and Shun has made jen jen , we stay with the concept of the customs, usages and ceremonials which it summed up were not simply those which had empirically been found to agree with the One would not appreciate the full force of the word Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise Store of the Treasure with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading Coming to Terms with Western conceptions of morality that entail with Western a congruence between inner intention and outer Li is behavior that resonates with the activity. flow of cosmic forces ( phases, and so on). As Needham explains: The classical understanding of Shun then analyzes the second example of the Shun then analyzes Shun thus gives us an excellent example of the Shun thus gives us an excellent example need not always be evidence The analysis of one’s Sharf, Sharf, 2 Hawai’i Press, 2002), 89; citing Joseph Needham, “Human Laws and Laws of Nature in China and the West,” in China and the West,” 2002), 89; citing Joseph Needham, “Human Laws and Laws of Nature Hawai’i Press, 12:1 (1951), 14. tration of the consideration of counter-argument in of counter-argument of the consideration tration on “Counter-Argument” (see our section miniature for be no room would there below), since sole deciding factor in Confucius’s reasoning. reasoning. factor in Confucius’s sole deciding fundamental more the further, bow to suggest that both instances is whether a prac- criterion at work in the integrity of sentiment or violates tice respects argu- In the context of his larger behind the ritual act. that the sentiment so respected ment, it will be clear or violated is instrumental to instrumental his main point, that his main point, that sage as instrumental to here our author is citing from a secondary a source. our author is citing from here as Joseph Needham, is quoting another scholar, Sharf that seeks to compare of an argument part way close reading can tease out of a piece of evidence can tease way close reading than might otherwise be immediately obvious. more going back and imagining what you would have Try cited 9.3, the evidence if Shun had simply got from analysis in the following para- without the supporting might not have arrived unassisted at the graph. You accept for his larger us to conclusions Shun requires to follow. argument our next example, from so detailed, of course. With H. Sharf’s Robert Buddhism “morality”: Western You can turn your reading to good effect into a into good effect to reading can turn your You of what com- said in opening that the study We school of writing—a laboratory for seeing what writing—a laboratory school of way a critical eye to the Read with how. works, and their argument, analyze and paraphrase your authors own the skein of their their evidence into and weave How? What can you effectively? ideas. Do they do so and use in your own their methods take from fail? If so, why? What cautionary writing? Or do they their failings? from lessons can you draw what constitutes an abuse of it, prises valid evidence, analyze it is endless, and a and how to profitably is There of our development as a scholars. part large then, to mastery of evidence and its no short-cut, compan- hope that this section and its analysis. We pointers some ions in this handbook at least provide your refine to orient you, so that you can profitably your writing your readings, understanding through by digesting assignments and section discussion, and work. the feedback your teachers give to your A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Like Shun, Jia Jia sets up her evidence, framing it Like Shun, Jia Jia sets up her evidence, heart of Buddhism. Emptiness is conveyed by the by is conveyed Emptiness Buddhism. of heart After the scenes. styles of certain striking visual onto a pitch-black the film opens credits, beginning in the window right rectangular with a single room this a still to illustrate inserted Jia here center [Jia fill up the window as if scene]. Bright skyscrapers of framed by it... the actual focus a picture they were the skyscrapers but with the scene lies not with as her only see intermittently, Kusanagi, whom we Kusanagi’s the bright window. black silhouette crosses a visu- through positively, is not represented presence her physical features—heral depiction of her body, In shadow. her through clothes, etc.—but negatively, shape at all only her individual fact, we perceive silhouette because of the contrast between her dark When she moves away from and the light window. we lose the window into the darkness of the frame, of the This has overtones sight of her completely. sign the “emptiness of the sign,” where Barthesian against itself is meaningless unless it is differentiated actual sub- is not the other signs. What is of interest stance of anything... but rather how one thing sits in own par- others—it is not that Kusanagi’s to relation the her from ticular physical appearance distinguishes between her difference buildings, but rather the pure shadow and their light... The human subject is thus shifts no longer fixed in its essence; its essence depending upon the circumstances... which she concept through in terms of a particular the emptiness of the sub- it—here, will ask us to read the evidence, in this ject as a sign. She then presents as both a still and a ver- case a visual image presented a bal description. The verbal description is already aspects form of analysis, in that she draws out certain to her point and disregards of the image as relevant with the straight description, others. Intertwined we have an analysis that draws insightful however, and persuasive connections between particular aspects of the film text (the evidence) and the larger which the paper as a concepts around theoretical whole builds its arguments. 54 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 55 9.3, where Confucius explains 9.3, where A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Analects [Confucius] cites economic consideration in favor [Confucius] cites economic consideration in rit- of replacing the linen ceremonial cap used con- uals with one made of black silk. Economic considera- sideration cannot be the only relevant the tion, since otherwise it would have justified elimination of the ceremonial cap altogether. it can justify departure from a li rule Presumably, of the li rule in serving its only when the efficacy purpose remains unaffected. extend- will end this brief section with a more We Counter-arguments can vary in scale from a single a can vary in scale from Counter-arguments in of counter-argument saw a small example We Shun disposes of the economic argument in a single Shun disposes of the economic argument no more often requires sentence. Counter-argument can be greatly attention than this, but an argument in its direction. by a gesture strengthened a former student paper in ed example, taken from actions in the that China’s which Shea Haynes argues decades indicate that its mili- Spratly Islands in recent a passive, defen- tary establishment has moved from to a policy of expansionist aggression sive posture Shea includes an extend- (see “Defining Key Terms”). advanced by some ed section analyzing the theory, actions in the Spratlys have analysts, that China’s been primarily motivated by a need for increased the islands being oil- reserves, access to petroleum persuasive; a great way to convince your reader is to is reader your way to convince a great persuasive; you whereby the very process through lead them your thesis. convinced of yourself became count- Sometimes a to an extended section. sentence foil (see “Thesis constitutes an elaborate er-argument paper is written which an entire Statement”) against paper can incorporate con- A single and structured. of of counter-arguments sideration of any number various scales. Shun in the previous Kwong-loi the quotation from of Evidence”). Shun is section (“The Analysis considering cap ceremonial a certain of replacing that he approves countenance the dictated by ritual codes, but will not Shun briefly considers, bow. omission of a prescribed that these ritual and neatly disposes of, the possibility explained by economic foibles can be entirely motives: COUNTER-ARGUMENT ounter-argument, as we said above, is merely a said above, is merely as we ounter-argument, in general. Its mecha- of argument sub-species As with many of the other working parts we have other working parts As with many of the are there writing a paper and That said, if you are likely to want to considera- particularly are You nism conceals no mysteries not shared by the not shared nism conceals no mysteries evidence. analysis of ordinary consideration and considers when primarily This section, therefore, and what an counter-evidence, we should consider if we do so. gains argument far in this handbook, it is some- been considering so a good paper without too times possible to write is no There much consideration of counter-evidence. law graven in stone to state that to every good argu- is an opposite and equal counterargument. ment there development of If it is not natural and intrinsic to the you should not forcibly therefore, your argument, just to spruce counter-argument an artificial introduce consideration your paper up. If it is to be useful, then, must be motivated, that is, it of counter-argument must have a purpose. to try to refute no points at which you feel compelled you might ask yourself whether counter-arguments, noted not simply stating the obvious. We you are require- above (“Thesis Statement”) that one basic should tell ment of a thesis is that it be interesting—it or would something they did not know the reader not have thought of otherwise. If you can probably find or think of no objections to your thesis, you teach- One reason could well be saying nothing new. their students to incorporate consideration of ers urge counter-argument is that a worthy counter-arguments thesis. is often a litmus test of a worthy a when it is likely to occur to tion a counter-argument a counter-argu- might also need to refute You reader. exists—it might be a view- ment because it already published, which in work already point articulated Another common setting out to overturn. you are is in the hypotheses you of counter-argument source consider yourself at some point in developing your in favor of something more ideas, and then discard C It is clear that the Spratly Islands’ petroleum resources are not as central to the Spratly Islands dispute as one might at first believe. With untapped domestic petroleum resources, an energy market dominated by coal, and undeni- able interests in keeping peace within its sphere more sig- of influence, China must have further, nificant interests that would lead it to assert itself so aggressively in the South China Seas. [T]he conflicts arising over the Spratly Islands arising over the [T]he conflicts than raise interna- far done little more have thus regime, and have toward the Chinese tional ire tangible energy resources. yet to produce any of procuring addi- Indeed, from the perspective the conflicts that have tional energy resources, between China and erupted over the Spratlys seem quite Southeast Asian neighbors unnecessary. plethora of untapped For one, China has a crude oil. The northwestern domestic sources of alone is estimated to con- province of Xinjiang tons (150 billion barrels) tain over twenty billion the of oil, amounting to over twenty times amount that China could potentially procure is also sus- form occupying the Spratlys. Tibet pected to harbor rich petroleum resources... fur- these resources could be harnessed without cherished international ther damage to China’s Asian image and without threat to its Southeast be more neighbors. This strategy would not only concert practical and peaceful, but also more in in long-term goal to be a leader with China’s East Asia. energy needs are also met much more China’s and flexibly than those of the United States nations. Without the environmen- other Western tal and human-health interest groups exerting are leaders influence over their system, China’s energy needs better able to meet their nation’s of ener- more “economical” sources with dirtier, As a result, coal currently accounts for 76% gy. of Chinese energy consumption, a figure unheard of in other nations. With oil accounting energy consumption, its for only 22% of China’s need for the resource is somewhat modulated, and any sudden deficit in the resource could the- oretically be compensated for with coal. Shea now turns to convincing his reader that reader his to convincing now turns Shea Having argued the details, he now moves in for Having argued the kill. there are cogent reasons for dismissing this argument. for dismissing reasons cogent are there 3 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Given the Chinese government’s obvious concern Given the Chinese government’s about its need to import foreign oil (and thereby sacrifice a piece of its sovereignty), one might imagine that the Spratly Islands and their additional oil resources would help alleviate this problem and perpetuate Chinese domestic stability. Shea then fills the reader in on some background Shea then fills the reader A number of scholars have asserted that China’s A number of scholars to further its economic actions reflect a desire the petroleum to procure interests—namely, be harbored in the Spratly resources thought to some argue, are essen- Islands. These resources, nation like China, tial to an inward-looking with its self-sufficiency. which is ever concerned example, that China Military considerations—for islands to further its might be pursuing the Southeast Asia—are clearly strategic presence in But a careful analy- not the primary motivation. sis reveals that it is the Spratlys’ geo-strategic that resources, not their petroleum resources, actions in are the main impetus for China’s the region. We have removed references from this excerpt for ease of reading. from references have removed We 3 Note that this counter-argument is stated as forcefully Note that this counter-argument as possible, without pulling any punches. It has also detail that one can appreci- been laid out in sufficient ate its persuasive force. This is an excellent set-up for the consideration of the This is an excellent set-up for the consideration own thesis The stakes for Shea’s counter-argument. gives the clearly identified, and the last sentence are he is headed. a clear sense of the direction reader to experts thought by information. The Spratlys are dependent be oil-rich; since 1993, China has been a signif- the Spratly oil would make upon oil imports; Chinese self-sufficiency. to China’s icant difference con- expressed scholars and government leaders have to external influence, vulnerability cern about China’s oil. This leads due to its dependence upon imported up to the crunch: rich. This is an important counter-argument to Shea’s counter-argument important This is an rich. China’s explain all of if a need for oil could thesis, for Chinese military hypothesis that actions, the is policy seriously weakened: would be now expansionist 56 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 57 Topic Sentences Topic Structural Elements • Paragraphs and • Signposts . In A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | The Blob Structural Elements Structural Alternatively, we can imagine a piece of writing as Alternatively, To return to the analogy we drew between written analogy we drew to the return To n the previous sections on evidence and counter- sections on evidence n the previous content thinking about the we have been argument, good writing, similarly, structural components are usually not obtrusive or and only comprise a flashy, small fraction of the total count. Nevertheless, word vital. they are thus like the foun- a building. Structural elements are dation and framework, out of sight and mind, but quietly working all the while to stop the whole thing crashing down in a heap of rubble. Rubble is from live in it as you weighty and substantial, but you can’t a paper can be full of can in a building; similarly, solid evidence and substantial writing, but without a it will be a very inhos- framework to give it structure, pitable place. On the other hand, an elegant and care- almost work miracles. It is can structure fully realized as if someone takes the rubble and fits it together, piece by piece, into a cathedral with vaulted arches. built edifice is still solid (cathedrals are The resulting of an academic paper. In this section, we will be In of an academic paper. as we look at the structural considering its form, content a clearly defined shape elements that give These the argument. within and orient the reader can be deceptively self-effac- structural components writing. strong pivotal to ing, but are in the section on organisms compositions and living to a piece of structural elements are Parts,” “Working A mam- writing what the skeleton is to a mammal. of 15 percent say, only, skeleton might comprise mal’s even less of its body its body weight, and perhaps a mammal would simply it, however, mass. Without without papers be a heap of formless jelly; similarly, structuring elements can be as horrifying (and as “B- grade”!) as I This example illustrates well the power that an power that well the illustrates example This argument can gain from considering and competently considering can gain from argument thesis Shea’s counter-argument. a strong dismissing possible of is cleared when the ground gains force more we are readers, explanations. As competing number of possible explanations likely to feel that a when we see counter-argu- have been considered and that the author is not ments raised and refuted, hobby-horse along a simply riding a blinkered path. predetermined SENTENCES PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC AND PARAGRAPHS et us expand a little on the analogy of the paper a little on the analogy et us expand the are will say that paragraphs We as a building. The core of each paragraph, the core about which paragraph, the core of each The core Center at Elizabeth Abrams, of the Writing East Asian Studies differs in important respects East Asian Studies differs from such a “discipline.” As a field, it is unified only by the object of study—East Asia. Scholars in the field can and do study some aspect of this These are sentences that combine a transition These are paragraph (see our next section the previous from on “Signposts”) with a statement of the main is an example point of the new paragraph. Here an earlier draft of (underlined), cannibalized from the first section of this handbook, “What Is East Asian Studies?”: bricks, and signposts the mortar. Just like the bricks Just the mortar. bricks, and signposts of the paragraphs in a piece of in a building, each sound for the whole to writing must be individually hold together. is the topic sentence. A topic sen- the brick is made, a paragraph much as a thesis state- tence functions in as a whole, but on a ment does for the argument point of level: it announces the overall microscopic idea. As you the paragraph, and sums up its main and edit, you as you rewrite write, and particularly an identi- that each paragraph contains should ensure its beginning. fiable topic sentence, usually close to to find themselves do not want your readers You where in a thicket of detail and wondering ensnared taking them. you are on earth no set formula for points out that “there’s Harvard, “you she suggests, writing a topic sentence.” Rather, sentences should work to vary the form your topic weari- grows take. Repeated too often, any method Sentences and some” (Section 11, “Topic Center handbook enti- Signposting,” in the Writing Abrams goes on tled “Strategies for Essay Writing”). types to give a useful list of commonly encountered of topic sentence: 1. Complex sentences. L A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Sad to say, such structural components are some- are structural components such Sad to say, in stone), but to move through it is to experience a to experience it is to move through but in stone), ample space. in an orderly, play of light or journeyman writ- by novice neglected times sorely some otherwiseers (and even professional competent in the next few sections is to academics!). Our aim among them. In the never counted you are make sure elements, then, of this section on structural first part paragraph; what makes a strong we will think about look at components that hold the in the next, we will components of the paper paragraphs and other structurally sound whole—com- together in a single, call “signposts.” First, we turn ponents that we will to the paragraph. 58 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 59 gy egime, and e than raise d the Chinese r e towar oduce any tangible ener A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Indeed, from the perspective of ces. national ir esour Islands have thus far done little mor inter have yet to pr r These are topic sentences that, unusually, come in unusually, sentences that, topic These are that the of a paragraph, indicating the middle Such topic sen- will change direction. paragraph paragraphs” found in “signpost often tences are that themselves serve pivot in the overall as a as a whole. the argument of structure larger often used to that they are Abrams points out and of counter-evidence, the refutation introduce the comes this time from indeed, our example in our section on student essay we offered point where the at precisely “Counter-Argument,” out his objections to the the author begins laying counter-argument: concern obvious Given the Chinese government’s there- about its need to import foreign oil (and might by sacrifice a piece of its sovereignty), one addi- imagine that the Spratly Islands and their this tional oil resources would help alleviate sta- problem and perpetuate Chinese domestic But the conflicts arising over the Spratly bility. procuring additional energy resources, the con- procuring additional energy resources, flicts that have erupted over the Spratlys neigh- between China and its Southeast Asian bors seem quite unnecessary. Since they are frequently the topic sentence of a the topic sentence frequently Since they are that paragraph “signpost paragraph,” that is, an entire further than functions primarily to clarify structure elaborate content, topic sentences of the pivot type blur the line between topic sentence and signpost than the hybrid examples given in (1) even further serve as an excellent transition above. They therefore to the consideration of signposts. 4.sentences. Pivot - dis - e of that ch and write in The object of East Asian esear utorial has a number of goals. e T e the implications of the inter e of East Asian Studies for stu For writing in particular, it means For writing in particular, y natur Studies is a geographic unit...Studies is a geographic that even more than in individual disciplines, that there is no single, standard way of writing it is usual is adhered to across the field. Rather, the vari- in East Asian Studies to encounter all of disci- ous types of writing that characterize the plinary approaches... The Sophomor As we have already mentioned, the Sophomore aims to introduce students to the field Tutorial of East Asian Studies as a whole . . . Abrams writes, “Like questions, bridge sen- Abrams writes, “Like questions, bridge tences... make an excellent substitute for more indicate formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences and what comes next (the both what came before “bridge” paragraphs) without the formal trappings example is “But of multiple clauses.” Abrams’s is another is a clue to this puzzle.” Here there the this handbook, this time from example from Tutorial”: section on “The Sophomore What, then, ar ciplinar dents and scholars who r that field? Asking a question can be a very effective way of can be a very effective Asking a question as long setting up the thrust of a paragraph–-just is another you answer it! Here as you make sure our first section: example from unites East Asian Studies, the natur unites East Asian Studies, object is also significant. object of study using the assumptions, questions, assumptions, using the of study object of any one of methods and theories definitions, above (history, of the disciplines listed a number scholars etc.). It is because philology philosophy, of a number tools and perspectives draw on the Asian Studies is disciplines that East of various to as an interdisciplinary often justly referred field. is the only thing that If the object of study (a term Abrams borrows from John Trimble). John Trimble). from (a term Abrams borrows 3. Bridge sentences 2. Questions. is what This It is also important and so on. An and so on. finally, indeed, likewise, indeed, finally, etc., (“Relate” is so vague— us!) As examples of phrases that, though not Here again, it may be best to sound a note of cau- may be best to sound again, it Here Keep in mind that although transitional words Keep in mind that although transitional they and phrases can be useful, even gracious, para- never should be applied to force a vagrant it does graph [or sentence] into a place where belong. No reader will be not, structurally, fooled by such shoddy craft, which is designed flaws, to help the writer finesse the essay’s the con- rather than to illuminate for the reader evi- ideas and textual nections among the essay’s on a cracked wall will dence. A strip of Velcro some- not fool us into thinking we are standing transition per- where safe; neither will a Velcro the readers that they are in suade an essay’s serious hands of a serious writer with something in Beware of Velcro” (“Transitions: to say. “Strategies for Essay Writing”) exhaustive list is probably not possible; even a repre- not possible; even list is probably exhaustive be long. one would certainly sentative and adhesives may be useful, tion. These fasteners of writing, they must servebut like any element a Some students, better. is not always purpose. More and power of such words the having discovered that is the verbal equivalent writing phrases, produce zip- superfluous sprout of punk fashion. Paragraphs all over the place; sentences pers, chains and buckles glue in them they congeal in a end up with so much Mohawk spike cut. solid lump, like a super-glued Center at Writing also of the Maxine Rodburg, decorative conjunctions purely calls there Harvard, transitions”: “Velcro on the one hand, on the other hand, hand, on the other on the one “Velcro” like this features prominently on every pro- prominently like this features “Velcro” pet peeves. Indeed, at least one list of fessor or TF’s TF has been known to fantasize, in the dim blood- shot light of a late-night grading session, that he was the ruler of the world and his first act was to legislate out of existence— and “relate” “important” the words of verbiage, especially as found in that freak importantly to...relates tell us that it is important, And don’t the relation? show to such without their uses, seem especially prone lists the following: abuse, Rodburg other words, first, second first, words, other therefore, however, therefore, SIGNPOSTS A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies If the topic sentence is the core of the brick, intra- If the topic sentence is the core These components of the essay can also be termed These components at every present In good writing, signposts are f paragraphs are the bricks of the edifice of writing, the bricks of the are f paragraphs mean We mortar. the signposts are we have said, paragraph signposts are the moisture that binds the the moisture paragraph signposts are them, the paragraph will Without clay together. crumble into shapeless dust. Most of these signposts than no more binding single paragraphs together are or a tiny phrase. They make it clear what kind a word obtains between clauses and sentences of relationship that would otherwise simply follow one another in invaluable. Common bald sequence. As such, they are items in this toolbox include this in the sense that these structural components sense that these structural this in the the essay together in a of parts “glue” all the separate solid whole. sense that they usually perform “signposts,” in the to vari- by pointing the reader this adhesive function sen- point back, to a previous ous things. They can but also to any earlier moment in tence, for example, to the very opening where an essay—even back has moment to what tie the present appropriate—to showing where They can point forward, come before. is orient- moment is aiming, so the reader the present They can also ed in the movement of the argument. the reader where “point to,” or simply label, the place that names, or ones like signs giving street is now, of the to Smallville”—the equivalent “Welcome say, mark on a map. Here” Are “You single para- even found within level of scale. They are will We they can be just a single word. graphs, where beginning look at signposts on each scale in turn, with the section, in the previous we left off where to the macroscopic paragraph, and working outward as a whole. of the argument arc nonetheless, still, at the same time, thus, then, now, by contrast, despite, for example, in this accordingly, even, while, although, in furthermore, sense, moreover, I 60 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 61 has to ”; “for ... and”); , what what even the he has seen” instead both , meaning is naming”; even ecisely to the poet”) or haps, e pr that the “slender eader is what even simply s r u Fu’ , the poem (and sometimes the precise purposes must the precise ... ”). Some devices, including , it tells you about both eader beyond the mediating scenes for mediating scenes beyond the s r he has seen, or mor A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | indeed th’ that the fusion of significance and of significance that the fusion present in the world at the moment and present in the world dswor tainty or even the world itself) is a created set of even the world itself) T hermeneutic signs. For subtly infused in the particular forms of the subtly infused in the particular forms of world perceived and uncertain, per of special interest to the poet’s mind. For the poet’s of special interest to the poet; the poem raises up portentous forms, the poet; the poem raises up portentous and in doing so cer instead other poet, we assume simply what the enumeration in the has drawn his attention: meaningful pattern which poem indicates some is both W world and the inner concerns of the poet. (15-16) word-scene occurs on the level of art. But for the word-scene occurs on ends and artistic motives which we must intuit artistic motives which ends and Though or guess.... the items of the scene are listed for some pur- listed for scene are of the the items pose; we look grasses, breeze faint on the shore” is indeed grasses, breeze faint remain forever uncertain, we accept with uncertain, we remain forever (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985). Press, (Madison: University of Wisconsin even naïve (“we assume instead that the ‘slender grasses... ’ is a particu- foreground order, of common word reversal lar aspect of an observation to make clear the contrast being drawn (“slender grasses... rather than “He has seen slender grasses”; “ the most obviously drawn his attention”). Finally, These structural components do several different These structural components do several sentence that jobs. Each paragraph opens with a topic Several items direct announces what it will consider. between the led back and forth our focus as we are these two”; two terms of the comparison (“between “for one “the first statement,” “the second statement”; poet,” “for the other poet”; “we assume Others reader”). “for Wordsworth’s reader,” Fu’s Tu (“more further show that a point is being elaborated is not “Wordsworth precisely”; “The distinction extends beyond obvious metaphors”); that a point is being conceded, if only telling one for a more the ground by way of preparing (“may be literally true”); that a thought is the first of together (“ two that must be considered or that a thought is surprising (“ 4 is not Another is the ; it also e “The poet is u ...; ...; Also, this shows Also, this ...; ...; the state of mind of naming what he saw; e assume that poet [Wordsworth] perceives poet [Wordsworth] by Harvard’s own Stephen Owen. own Stephen by Harvard’s it asks for the sake of what the hus, it can be said that can be said hus, it One Traditional Chinese Poetry and Poetics: Omen of the World and Poetics: Chinese Poetry Traditional poet [Du Fu], “slender grasses, breeze , the direction of his attention, his ...; T ...; “ships, towers, domes, theaters, and temples”; the other faint on the shore.” W the poet desire to know himself, to find one like himself, to share his condition with another. The distinction extends beyond obvious comparison reveals about Wordsworth is not simply Wordsworth metaphors. second statement may be literally tr asks you to consider the relation between poet and gull, but Consider two versions of metaphor: Taking these cautions as read, such little words these cautions as read, Taking two paragraphs from Consider the following true: it is a metaphorical fiction and asks you to consider how the poet might be like a gull. The a gull between Heaven and Earth”; “It seemed a gull between Heaven and Earth”; “It and to me I was like a gull between Heaven Earth.” Between these two statements center of the difference between two traditions center of the difference of poetry and reading. The first statement Stephen Owen, Professor Owen is comparing poems by Tu Fu and poems by Tu Owen is comparing Professor different that fundamentally to argue Wordsworth, the characterize attitudes and practices of reading will under- We Chinese and English poetic traditions. work of and phrases that do the structural line words understanding shaping and binding the paragraphs, and con- all the while that the line between structure adopt a therefore We tent is in some cases blurred. that indicate definition that includes all phrases broad attitudes towards between propositions, relationships to is invited in which the reader them, and directions content. go—everything but propositional to note that to note important aspect to realize is that is aspect to realize important that... single- can appropriately, when inserted and phrases, handedly turn an otherwise and stodgy amorphous of sleek beauty and flowing paragraph into a wonder the this point by performing will illustrate line. We beautiful, flowing will reduce operation. We reverse writing to stodge. Omen of the World, 4 nudges the reader’s is frequently used in this is frequently If , signposts are the mortar.” , signposts are the mortar.” of the essay can also be we have said (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 424. Vintage (New York: paragraphs are the bricks of the edifice of paragraphs are the bricks of the edifice writing, we have said At an intermediate scale, we find signposts that At an intermediate explicit Just as signposts within a paragraph make termed “signposts,” in the sense that they usually perform this adhesive function by pointing the reader to various things. Carries over the topic of the first paragraph, where over the topic of the first paragraph, Carries it will be explained by the new analogy of the signpost. This sentence recalls an analogy raised earlier, and an analogy raised earlier, This sentence recalls the second part of the analogy (“mor- introduces tar”) as the new topic. sense; recollective further. memory These components “If thanks to our unwitting “volunteer” from the facul- the from “volunteer” unwitting to our thanks the by removing this trick simply performed ty!) We to for opportunities keep your eyes peeled signposts; when you especially transformation, the reverse effect rewriting. editing and are paragraph. These signposts usually bind paragraph to or sentence, and sometimes clause comprise an entire can be found either at the than one. They even more of the paragraph, though sel- beginning or the end saw above, such signposts are As we dom elsewhere. clauses in complex topic sen- included as frequently tences. obtaining between consecutive the type of relation mainly sentences, paragraph-to-paragraph signposts between that obtains exist to flag the relationship these inter-para- consecutive paragraphs. The logic of as that of graph signposts is thus much the same at some exam- intra-paragraph signposts. Let us look signposts the first few inter-paragraph are ples. Here of section on signposts, in order this current from with brief explanations (it will probably occurrence, to the paragraphs in ques- back be necessary to refer in their origi- tion to understand these explanations nal context): Collected Poems (1950); in ecise discrete, 5 .... pr The Auroras of Autumn Auroras A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies So, ladies and gentlemen: we have reduced fine So, ladies and gentlemen: we have reduced Wordsworth perceives “ships, towers, domes, perceives Wordsworth Fu perceives “slender theaters, and temples.” Tu grasses, breeze faint on the shore.” Wordsworth The items of the is not naming what he saw. the scene are listed for some purpose, beyond motives mediating scenes, for ends and artistic which we must intuit or guess purposes must remain forever uncertain. The purposes must remain forever uncertain. on fusion of significance and word-scene occurs Fu has seen “slender grasses, the level of art. Tu his breeze faint on the shore.” This has drawn indi- attention. The enumeration in the poem present cates some meaningful pattern which is inter- in the world at the moment and of special poem (and mind. Wordsworth’s est to the poet’s set sometimes even the world itself) is a created meaning is subtly Fu’s of hermeneutic signs. Tu infused in the particular forms of the world poem perceived and uncertain to the poet. The about the raises up portentous forms. It tells you world and the inner concerns of the poet. Let us imagine, for a moment, what the second for a moment, Let us imagine, “This Solitude of Cataracts,” from “This Solitude of Cataracts,” from brute lumps strewn singly about. This is no longer a brute lumps strewn mess of sentences. paragraph, in fact—it is a mere TFs tear scholar to the stuff writing by a prominent and that in one easy move. (Our their hair out over, The propositional content of the paragraph remains The propositional the same, but we roughly (at lonely a slight stretch) submit that in this second form, it is well nigh impos- that sible to discern the underlying logical relations together in one place. The bring these propositions Stevens might to what Wallace reduced sentences are have called “thought-like Monadnocks,” rhetorical devices invite us as readers to enter into to as readers invite us devices rhetorical to empathize to agree, reading, Owen’s Professor “we assume that...(“consider”; “we look... ”; ” etc.; i.e. “us”). reader,” Wordsworth’s even “for like stripped of these structural paragraph would look of punctuation), and (including some types supports It is impossi- of propositions. string to a bare reduced writing completely of such to denude ble, obviously, extent that it is possible, let us apparatus, but to the Owen for the result- to Professor try (with apologies ing butchery of his work!): 5 62 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 63 ” A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Omen of the World...Omen of the Signals the introduction of an example, and thereof an introduction Signals the at once, back to several paragraphs points fore made that signposts point has been large the where be illustrated), and thing (the point to a good are it will take to the several paragraphs also forward example. to discuss this extended in writing this job properly If we have done our scale, we come to signposts that At the largest veryIt is not uncommon, and can make for clear have tried to use such paragraphs in many We “Consider the following two paragraphs from two paragraphs following the “Consider section, these phrases should ensure that the passage should ensure section, these phrases the next is smooth. Readers one paragraph to from they are enough about where should always know get lost, and should going not to they are and where suc- that obtains between never mistake the relation think we are cessive paragraphs—they should not expanding actually changing the subject when we are for instance, nor vice versa. the same point further, and sections of a paper to one another, bind entire as a argument in the macroscopic orient the reader whole. entire writing, for signposts at this level to comprise beast, the that noble paragraphs. Indeed, this is where paragraph, comes into its own. Signposts very short level mark major points of articu- at this macroscopic and set- argument, of the large lation in the structure on the page in separate para- ting these markers apart ones, is a simple and effective graphs, even very short that something significant the reader way of alerting is afoot. the places in this handbook, and as they represent accessible examples of these most most readily signposts, we will begin by listing some macroscopic of our own examples. Go back to the contexts from taken, and see if you think they are which they are effective. Here , e of the brick , such little words to sound a note of are present at every at are present ead features prominently on every flags “Velcro” as a topic carried over from as a topic carried flags “Velcro” points way back, to link the paragraph to e again, it may be best aking these cautions as r professor and TF’s list of pet writing peeves.” list of pet writing peeves.” professor and TF’s level of scale.” caution.” intra-paragraph signposts are the moisture that intra-paragraph signposts binds the clay together.” and phrases, when inserted appropriately, can and phrases, when inserted appropriately, single-handedly make . . .” This phrase bundles up the previous two para- This phrase bundles up the previous graphs into a single unit—the “caution” promised in the topic sentence two paragraphs earlier—and finished with it, and can there- signals that we are we left expect to move back to the point where fore of signposts. the recommendation i.e. off, Like this back to the the reader the quotation, and also refers about way the quotation was set up as a passage transition.” something called “the Velcro Again of the sections earlier instances (many in previous given. similar cautions were handbook) where Here again, we hark back to our guiding analogy, again, we hark Here eight or nine paragraphs which was last considered signaled by the Reminder is once more earlier. opening “if.” asks the reader to consider the significance of giv- to consider the significance asks the reader and ing this caution at this place in the argument up to it casts the paragraphs leading not elsewhere; light, as potentially this point in a slightly different about the power and implying over-enthusiasm indispensability of signposts. Here the only thing that might be considered a be considered only thing that might the Here which is the grammatical subject, “signpost” paragraph and of the previous the topic resumes topic of discussion it will be the main indicates that too. This illustrates the in the new paragraph fix it.” don’t broke, it ain’t important axiom: “If prose weigh your don’t suffice, so little will Where for its own sake. down with a signpost “T “Her “If the topic sentence is the cor the topic sentence is the “If “In good writing, signposts good writing, “In “’Velcro’ like this “’Velcro’ ...”) , we oadmap on evidence and count- evious sections er-argument, we have been thinking about the er-argument, section In this content of an academic paper. Perhaps the most elaborate signpost of all is the Perhaps mentioned In our section on “The Roadmap” we By this point (some 3000 words into the section), into words 3000 point (some By this In the pr will be considering its form, as we look at cer- will be considering its form, as we look a tain structural elements that give that content clearly defined shape and orient the reader within the argument... r Using signposts in conjunction with the “roadmap,” which is like a signboard in a mall or a which is like a signboard “roadmap,” layout of your city district that shows you the overall and your location within it. surroundings, one way to signposts several times. This is because paper is to use the construct a tightly structured Major one another. and signposts to support roadmap signposts, such as sentences concluding one large or doing both jobs by another, section, introducing when very effective bridging between the two, are overall con- back to a sketch of the paper’s they refer As we suggested tours given early on–-the roadmap. in the “Roadmaps” section, this strategy works partic- identifying a given sec- ularly well if the key words or less verba- more repeated are tion in the roadmap tim, or nearly so, in the signpost that signals to the that the section has arrived. reader we have come a fair distance. The first sentence sim- The first sentence a fair distance. we have come to so far, of the terrain covered the reader ply reminds bearings as they their general recover help them just section that has the details of the from emerge sentence, by contrast, allows concluded. The last (“In closing end of the road them to glimpse the while at the same time functioning as a topic while at the same time section. Like many signposts, sentence for the last looking is a Janus-like entity, then, this paragraph to and also forward before, back, to what has gone The first paragraph cited from what is yet to come. “That much is plain...”)Section 10, above (beginning first para- operates the same way; so does the very graph of this section on “Structural Elements”: A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies So far, we have characterized sound theses as So far, original, interesting and arguable; and we have argued by counterexample that a good thesis is not obvious, nor predicated upon a straw man, a few In closing, we offer nor hopelessly diffuse. simple suggestions about how to state a thesis once you have it. Notice that many of these signposts function as Notice that many of these signposts function Of course, not all signpost paragraphs can get That much is plain. It is trickier, however, to say however, That much is plain. It is trickier, not. As a what counts as a thesis and what does a thesis first approximation, we might say that must be original, interesting and arguable. be orig- So far we have seen that a thesis should inal, interesting and arguable. What, then, might such theses look like? Section 10, “Thesis Statements,” is a longer piece Section 10, “Thesis Statements,” is a longer From Section 6, “General Writing Skills”: “General Writing Section 6, From is One of the first things we should consider order what kind of process we might follow in efficiently to produce the best writing we can, as and painlessly as possible. Next, the first paragraph of this entire section on of this entire Next, the first paragraph bricks of the edifice of If paragraphs are the signposts are the mortar. writing, we have said, structural mean this in the sense that these We all the separate parts of the components “glue” solid whole. essay together in a First, the paragraph before last: before the paragraph First, to signposts that scale, we come At the largest to one another, sections of a paper bind entire argu- the reader in the macroscopic and orient whole. ment as a an analogue to the topic statement within a para- an analogue to the topic statement within chunk of that function for a large graph, but perform Notice also that the same pointing and the argument. tying that we noticed at work between paragraphs, in The logic is the section, also go on here. the previous same; it just works at a higher level. may be more as these. There away with being as short work to do than can be done by a single sentence or two. For example, the last major signpost paragraph as follows: in Section 10, “Thesis Statements,” reads of writing, and therefore requires more signposting to more requires of writing, and therefore In it, we find these examples: hold it together. “Signposts”: 64 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 65 from the , despite its qin intriguing qin qin’s in Maoist programs of the qin . In this section I will also exam- . In this section I will qin A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | As these examples hopefully show, it is not quite As these examples hopefully show, Later still: Later the we have seen that Thus far, And finally: I have shown that in salvaging the progress from elite shibboleth to the voice of progress from elite the oppressed masses. stigma of elitism for the purposes of proletarian to art, Mao and his cultural commissars appealed In notions of national character and sentiment. national- this final section, I draw on theories of and ism from the work of Benedict Anderson justifications Ernst Gellner to argue that official for including the very elitist associations in the classical period, associations in the very elitist expression of reincarnated as a kosher was oddly I now turn to art after Liberation. proletarian pronouncements of examining the ideological con- arts commissars in the period under China’s to explain this rehabili- sideration, in an attempt tation of the ine aspects of the writings and biography of ine aspects of the writings too, and show that they, Mao Zedong himself, the can help us understand arts betray a deep-seated conflict in its political arts betray a deep-seated conflict in its impera- theory between Marxist and nationalist tives. necessary that the signposts are word-for-word reruns word-for-word necessary are that the signposts it is suffi- of the roadmap; parts of the corresponding to the roadmap to recall cient that enough is repeated upon your own stylistic mind. Depending the reader’s aesthetically pleas- you may find it more preferences, a little variation. This can easily be ing to introduce done as you edit a final draft. in in qin . Finally, I . Finally, qin zither (see qin qin and some of its qin held pride of place as qin instrument for elite musical expression in the instrument for elite musical expression in its arts programs indicate a deep-seated I begin by looking at the place of the A few pages later: have seen that the We We have here a virtually ready-made set of sign- ready-made a virtually have here We traditional literati culture, and the associations rule. the instrument held prior to Communist the then, did it fare in post- classical period. How, culture? Liberation days of overturning “feudal” In this section, I will briefly present pertinent facts from the history of the For example, here again is the roadmap paragraph roadmap is the again here For example, place of the briefly review the First, I will foremost exponents in the period from Liberation to the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. traditional literati culture, and the associations literati culture, and traditional prior to Communist rule. I the instrument held vicissitudes of the instru- will then describe the foremost exponents in the ment and some of its to the beginning of the period from Liberation Next, I will examine the ide- Cultural Revolution. arts commis- of China’s ological pronouncements the writings and biogra- sars in this period, and in a search for explanations phy of Mao Zedong, of the for the Maoist rehabilitation of nationalism from the will draw on theories to work of Benedict Anderson and Ernst Gellner the argue that Party justifications for including qin conflict in its political theory between Marxist and nationalist imperatives. posts to signal the introduction of each of the major posts to signal the introduction progresses: sections of the paper as the argument “The Roadmap”): from our example paper about the example paper about our from . This gives us another way to outline When set out in diagrammatic form like this, this like this, form in diagrammatic set out When you will open as you read, If you keep your eyes what Of course, when you look at this diagram, nesting tactic admittedly looks very mechanical and very mechanical admittedly looks nesting tactic can be a virtue of dullness degree a certain dull. Still, especially if dull- essay, work of an in the structural these workaday it allows predictability; ness means the woodwork, so the reader’s elements to fade into devoted to content—the right- attention can be fully ful star of the show. technique is actually the working see that this nesting authors, and that for a reader, method of many good by far to the and preferable it is usually not obtrusive, This framework whatsoever. absence of any guiding in very long strong is particularly structure recursive Many pieces of writing, like a full-length book. give a in which they authors write an introduction, chapter by the argument previews that roadmap sec- prefatory chapter; they then give each chapter a of direction sketching the tion containing a roadmap divide indi- the chapter as a whole; and they further which has its vidual chapters into sections, each of than a single sen- no more (perhaps own roadmap tence) in turn. you see is an to a that is given think of the structural support in con- and signposts work paper when a roadmap if the author has taken an outline dia- It is as cert. full sen- gram, fleshed it out with grammatically tences, and embedded it at helpful points throughout made, such an embedded When artfully the paper. that enables outline is like a trail of breadcrumbs the and writer to find their way through both reader of each paragraph— the individual “tree” forest—past and back out to a vantage point on the high ground, they can take in the whole “woods” at a where such a trail, the unlucky pair might glance. Without well end up in the clutches of that infamous witch, then they’d be well and truly Poor Structure—and cooked! Part B Part C Part B Part C Part D Part B Part C Part B Section 4 roadmap Part A Section 2 roadmap A Part Section 3 roadmap Part A WHOLE PAPER SECTIONS WHOLE PAPER A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies One tactic that you will often see to deal with this One tactic that you WHOLE PAPER SECTIONS Roadmap Section 1 roadmap Part A Signposts as an embedded outline an embedded as Signposts the length—for example, in a paper of any Of course, pages that of 15-20 project research final independent than be more will year—there sophomore caps your be and it will therefore or four turning points, three powerful and make for more kinder to your reader, signposts. If you try to more if you include argument, in your turn of the argument each twist and forecast will be bloat- result the paragraph, however, roadmap harm than do more and perhaps ed and cumbersome, good. What to do? that is, in longer pieces of writing is nesting, problem of the basic structure each smaller section repeating the repeats the whole on a smaller scale. One simply then and giving a lean mini-roadmap basic process, each sec- back to it on a smaller scale for referring tion: 66 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 67 —or you may be Endings A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | e are nearly at the end of the part of this hand- of the end of the part nearly at e are of a parts considers the working book that There are a number of working parts that help a parts a number of working are There Of course, the scale of such a signpost depends the key function of a conclusion is to Obviously, piece of writing in turn. We first looked at a number turn. We piece of writing in found in the opening of a of components typically this before Then, in the sections immediately paper. are We of the body. one, we looked at components of the handbook this first part to wind up now ready found at the end of a parts by considering working piece of writing. conclusion of writer to wrap up. First, given that the the argument, a paper is a major structural section of pre- other sections that separate from and relatively find a major cede it, we would expect to typically telling the signpost at the opening of the conclusion, have arrived at their destination. When they reader we need we arrive at the conclusion of an argument, of detail that to step back out of the various levels gaze once and fix our have engaged us in the body, re-ori- more require This can on the big picture. more section to one entation than a simple transition from and of the argument, the next within the progression main features it is often useful to skip lightly over the so that read- as a whole in retrospect, of the argument tie them in their mind as you ers have them fresh of your thesis. together in support upon the scale of the piece of writing. In a longish will probably piece of writing, like this one, there pieces that need to be marshaled be several large might be a substantial paragraph The result together. like the first paragraph of this section. At the other as a end of the spectrum, in something as miniature can be counted the reader where paper, response the whole with almost no assis- upon to remember tance, it could be as slight as a single gesture— to sum up, thus in conclusion, finally, able to get away with nothing at all. “conclude,” not just in the sense of ending the paper, W We have seen that signposts—the mortar of the mortar signposts—the seen that have We argument’s edifice—operate on a number of levels: on edifice—operate argument’s to paragraph, paragraph paragraph, from within the sweep the broad across to section, and section from exer- A verypapers and books. of whole worthwhile a of your life reading minutes cise is to spend thirty Orwell, Sir George (Mark Twain, good piece of prose high- for these features, Francis Bacon) specifically you not have something lighter in hand. (Should hand, you could even try it with especially good to chances have not done it before, this section!) If you will give you a view of writing you this exercise are It is like seeing a photograph in the never had before. fig- where negative, or one of those optical illusions was incidental reversible—what are and ground ure into focus, and even invisible at first suddenly leaps pattern of and turns out to be structuring the whole things. Tsung-mi and the Tsung-mi The book is a study of Kuei- 6 . Tsung-mi’s attempt to elaborate a synthetic Tsung-mi’s framework in which Confucian moral teachings effort could be integrated within Buddhism, his for to clarify the underlying ontological basis thrust moral and religious action, and the ethical Ch’an all of his criticism of the Hung-chou line of One reveal his preoccupation with moral order. could ... writings demon- say that Tsung-mi’s the values that to justify strate a life-long effort in he had learned as a youth [Confucian values] terms of the discrepant claims of the [Buddhist] intellectual tradition to which he had converted as an adult. (293) subject clauses in the long grammatical The three of Everything we have discussed so far is part Conclusion restates thesis, and thesis statement and thesis thesis, restates Conclusion aspects of the con- have looked at two So far we of the first sentence each call to mind an entire chap- of the first sentence each call to mind an entire a hundred skillfully gathers up roughly Gregory ter. into a single thought, and then pages of argument con- a significant and far-reaching to moves forward clusion about the thinker he is analyzing—that a thought is a concern for basic drive in Tsung-mi’s combined with the need to reconcile moral order, Confucian and Buddhist sides of his “intellectual personality.” aspect of a what might be called the “inward-facing” conclusion—the side of the conclusion that looks anticipates conclusion. anticipates bearings, and restat- your overall clusion—recovering it is fully support- where in a context ing your thesis an art- Now, of the argument. ed by all the members with one kill both these birds ful writer will often in of the argument the members stone, reviewing between them are relationships such a way that the for thus prepared the ground out, and clearly brought of the thesis. For exam- restatement a fully-supported of a section concluding the is the opening ple, here N. Gregory’s tenth chapter of Peter Sinification of Buddhism feng Tsung-mi (780-841), one of the most celebrated feng Tsung-mi section is The Buddhist thinkers in Chinese history. Intellectual Personality”: subtitled “Tsung-mi’s y s - (Honolulu: Kuroda Institute through University of Hawai’i Press, 2002). University of Hawai’i Press, Institute through (Honolulu: Kuroda - . vation of China’ e expansionistic eser y China has a new militar tion with Chinese charac y asser s behavior suggests that its mili Tsung-mi and the Sinification of Buddhism Tsung-mi ned with the pr .” ritorial and political integrity y goals may in fact be mor A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies labeled “militar teristics doctrine at the helm, one that might well be ter is how the paper closes: Here actions were motivated by It is clear that China’s geo-strategic interests—namely the ability to be within sight of Singapore and Indonesia and to be placed astride the only international sea lane connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Such interests may not have been of importance to the inward-looking, defensive China of yester- but contemporar year, tar than concer This paper seeks to examine the validity of these This paper seeks to examine the validity defen- claims [that PRC military policy is purely sive] with regard to the Spratly Island dispute, and the strategic aims and ambitions behind these increasingly aggressive pursuit of China’s islands. China’ Note that thesis statement and conclusion are Note that thesis statement and conclusion Peter N. Gregory, Peter N. Gregory, but making up your mind (and hopefully the read- (and hopefully your mind up but making Here under consideration. about the questions er’s) The back to its thesis. will usually come the paper and the thesis of the paper’s restatement concluding should be coordi- argument of preceding mustering to the chess analo- to return nated into a tight whole; openings, a concluding in discussing gy we explored point (at least At a certain section is like an endgame. that you becomes apparent winning!), it if you are you in hand. Usually, with the pieces can finish off those pieces into the right then have to maneuver your thesis, it is like you restate conformation. When move that only works because it a final checkmating Few by other pieces in the right places. is supported achieved with a single piece. checkmates are two sides of a single coin. The thesis thus effectively of the conclu- statement should be an advance notice to the thesis sion; the conclusion should be a return its lead-in again (with statement. For example, here paper Shea’s sentence) is the thesis statement from as an exam- about the Spratly Islands, which we used ple in the section on “Counter-Argument”: 6 68 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 69 interesting, A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | When we open out an ending like this, we show When we open out an ending like this, Such closing questions also give a writer the Of course, this example is somewhat elaborate, Of course, this example of course: Is this military The question remains, so new? Both scholars who expansionism really are even now primarily actions claim that China’s defensive, and those who see them as aggres- China sive, assume that a conservative, defensive and has been the historical norm. But nations peace- powers regularly portray themselves as any loving and reactive; why should China be It is beyond the scope of this paper to different? aggres- address the question of whether China’s sive policy in the Spratlys is really a radical indica- departure, or merely an especially clear true tion of something that has always been well behind the scenes, but this problem could reward further research. happened to fall where the seabed rose close the seabed where to fall happened it up; and per- the surface to bear enough to enough, that could only see deep haps, if we extends far nationalist ground submerged all the waters, and undergirds beyond Chinese seas. the modern political stretch of that our topic is worthy of attention, because it has of attention, because that our topic is worthy This is implications beyond its own strict confines. another way of showing that it is, indeed, to the and as such, it forms the closing counterpart section of “posing the puzzle” (see opening gesture above). to acknowledge (as is likely) that even opportunity all questions have answered will not their best efforts the or settled all doubts. When a writer explores in limitations of her own thesis with the reader closing, she can defuse objections, and paradoxically persua- more of her argument the stable core render in the hands of someone feel that we are sive. We whose first concern is truth, not winning an like- so much the more at all costs, and are argument material we do ly to trust them as our guide through not know so well. and the same ends can be accomplished by far more and the same ends to the example of the us return simple means. Let have finished in the Shea might Spratly Islands paper. vein: following speculative for , so die par excellence stayed incongruously qin modern ideology to the orthodox pantheon of the Maoist may be of interest to more than afi- the paper, the restatement of the primary thesis the restatement paper, qin qin qin We have seen that the unexpected admission of We the In a signifi- arts is a sign of a deeper anomaly. cant sense, the orthodoxy of the Chinese in Communist Party can be read as a sheep clothing—common garden nationalism wolf’s clad in the revolutionary garb of “Marxist- we Leninist-Mao Zedong thought.” In closing, the might ask ourselves whether the PRC under CCP is entirely unique in this regard. Perhaps the most significant aspect of Benedict work is his contention that national- Anderson’s ism is We thus often see an author assume a more reflec- assume a more thus often see an author We much a part of the air modernity breathes that much a part of the air modernity breathes the it is less a system of political thought than ground of such systems. For Anderson, nationalism is therefore a set of implicit cultural assumptions, to be uncovered with the same tools anthropology uses to articulate the worldviews of Amazon tribes. Herein may lie the nub of his fascination with the fact that people will their country; it suggests that a nation is somehow an ultimate term, a bedrock more substantial than a mere idea. Such questions as these are naturally far too large for us to explore fully here, but they suggest that the curious political indestructibility of the cionados of Chinese music, or even Sinologues at large. Perhaps the afloat on the stormy waters of post-Revolution but because it politics not by innate buoyancy, could open out into a set of concluding paragraphs could open out into a set of concluding like this: after the domestic housekeeping of the essay, tidying of the essay, housekeeping the domestic after final into argument and putting the up loose ends conclusions, however, The most satisfying order. aspect. incorporate an “outward-looking” often also the thesis and restating stop at merely They do not but step back even it, around positioning its supports the confines of opening up our view beyond further, context and implications. the topic to its broader tone in the closing passages of a tive or speculative questions that they further piece of writing, posing up by their conclusions, but opened feel are in the context to be resolved too large that are For instance, in the case of project. of their current the 8 —but they 7 There are many other ways to end with a bang ways to end many other are There the risks. One can always lay are Of course, there silence.” has it, “is as the bard “The rest,” This often seems to mean no more than “I’ve got than “I’ve This often seems to mean no more strictly of course, These finishing flourishes are, have only stuck around so long because they work. so long stuck around have only a particu- can write You (and not with a whimper!). one that builds up a great larly complex sentence, this is a great it blows. Equally, head of steam before paragraph, often the place for a single sentence can assume a slightly unusual You the better. shorter con- can You poetic, or slangy. diction, be it archaic, a vivid image that metaphor, struct an extended your key point and will some aspect of captures can finish with a mind. You linger in the reader’s the general treasure-trove from quotation, perhaps and quotable English writers. of great on too thick, and end up with something rhetoric For example, one of the hackneyed or pretentious. most abused endings in all English combines almost perfect quotation and high diction to achieve pomposity: nothing in particular left to say, but I would like to left to say, nothing in particular must be spinning Poor old Shakespeare say it fancy.” as such in his grave when his phrase circulates debased coinage. get hung up on trying to find dispensable, so don’t also a matter of art crack. They are parting the perfect be taught less than and not rule, and can perhaps most other components of good writing. If, you think however (and why not?), you can’t them worthwhile, and as with all the do better than trial and error; in this handbook, we have considered working parts you can also learn constantly about good and bad your own critical reading. closing sentences through old, in fact, that a disproportionate number of closing number a disproportionate fact, that old, in terms of the be analyzed in could certainly sentences rhetoric Greek of classical formal figures , ii, 372 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies [The Misty Poets] and their poetry must be rec- [The Misty Poets] and their poetry must ognized on their own terms—as something unknowable, as something not understandable. And if. . . that incapacity to understand is the let us basis of our fascination, then so be it. But by the admit that we are fascinated – fascinated for us ways in which the Misty Poets elucidate experi- our own experience, suggest to us their ence, and propose to us new ways of understanding our world. contemporary China has a new military doctrine contemporary China might well be labeled at the helm, one that Chinese characteristics.” “military assertion with The icing on the cake for a piece of writing is to of writing a piece cake for on the The icing A list of some of the more common of theses terms, with definitions and examples, may be found at common of theses terms, with A list of some of the more Hamlet V In the closing sentence, Emma uses repetition (fasci- In the closing sentence, Emma uses repetition nated—fascinated...; our own experience... their experience; elucidate for us... suggest to us... pro- instead of flat appeal to the reader pose to us); direct statement (let us admit...);propositional judicious intimate conversational and therefore shift to a more of (beginning the sentence with “but”); and, register course, the mysterious appeal of things that come in ways). (Misty Poets fascinate in exactly three threes the oldest tricks in the book—so Granted, these are This is, of course, a play on Deng Xiaoping’s famous play on Deng Xiaoping’s This is, of course, a character- “socialism with Chinese slogan promoting a paper by for- is another example, from istics.” Here student Emma Nothman Tutorial mer Sophomore “Misty Poets” (slightly adapted), which discusses the and on prosody of contemporary China. Emma relies of her to bring the flow rather than humor, rhythm, to a halt: prose go out in style. In final sentences and paragraphs, style. In final sentences go out in to indulge than elsewhere freer somehow writers are out, have Break or wordplay. in rhetoric themselves like good speeches, Good academic papers, some fun! quip, for of some sort—a often close with a flourish have balanced phrase. We instance, or an especially example of this above, again from seen a good already Islands: the paper on the Spratly 7 8 http://www.net.armstrong.edu/HLHshaler.html#2100H 70 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper 71 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | This brings to a close the first part of this hand- first part a close the brings to This book, in which we have considered various working various we have considered book, in which puz- and endings, through bodies parts—openings, statements, roadmaps, paragraphs, thesis zle-posing and signposting, clos- evidence, structure definitions, the flourishes. In and final rhetorical ing summary, of the handbook, we will look at second major part into play as you tackle different the factors that come first on the of writing assignment, focusing sorts in the required and module papers response and then on the longer, Tutorial, Sophomore project. independent research A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 72 |

General Writing Skills • Working Parts of a Paper The Response Paper

hen you enter the Sophomore Tutorial, estimate the artfulness and sheer difficulty of such a W the first writing assignment that will be tiny compass, and this is equally true of the response required of you is the weekly response paper. Just because it is “only” a page or two does not paper, which offers you a great chance to hone your mean you should take it lightly! writing skills. It will help, then, if you write your response paper The response paper is like a test-tube in which in the awareness that it is an exercise in the skills that you can experiment with the ingredients of the aca- the tutorial aims to teach: reading critically; develop- demic paper, tweaking week by week until you find ing an informed opinion about a body of fact and

the precise formula for creating dynamite. It is espe- scholarly argument; and articulating a focused argu- Assignments Writing of Types Specific cially well suited to such experimentation because, ment in clearly structured, cogent writing. Response like any good laboratory set-up, it establishes an arti- papers in the Sophomore Tutorial are not required ficially simplified situation, in which the dynamics of merely to ensure that you read (passively); nor are the process at work can be scrutinized they viewed by the teaching staff merely clearly and easily. The readings are pre- as a way of gauging student reactions to scribed and delimited, so there is no need the reading material, or generating grist The response paper to go out and do independent research to for the mill of section discussion. is the haiku find extra sources—you can concentrate Response papers do serve these purposes, of your on reading, thinking and writing. The but only in passing—they are still prima- academic career. word limit is very tight, and this enables rily an exercise in serious reading, think- • you to get regular practice at running ing and writing. Paper Response The through the whole process of composing As we discuss the way specific struc- an argument, from start to finish, with a manageable tural elements of good writing apply to the response investment of time. You are also provided with set paper, concepts that each have their own section in questions, and though this may sometimes seem to this handbook (“Working Parts” etc.) are in bold the cramp your style, it also enables you to leap-frog first time they occur. If you have not already read most of the often vexing process of finding a problem, them you can refer to the sections in which those ele- and cut straight to formulating a thesis, constructing ments are discussed individually. an argument to support that thesis, and articulating Because the response paper is so circumscribed in your argument in writing. scale, it is something of a special case, in that you Of course, the artificial limitations and simplifica- may do without some of the working parts we have tion of the response paper also bring certain chal- discussed. It may not be necessary in opening your lenges. Like any miniature form in any art, the response paper to pose the puzzle, for instance. The response paper demands a special economy in the way topic of a response paper is assigned, and you may be you use your raw material, and a special elegance and able to assume that your teacher knows why it is sparseness of line. The response paper, if you like, is interesting (or at least why they think so!). Similarly, the haiku of your academic career. As anyone who has there may not be any need to define terms. So long ever tried to write haiku will know, it is easy to under- as you follow a clear progression of ideas, moreover,

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | 75 . . are li of in do we li you li ending and ren which part topic sentences topic are mutually entail- are li and in a response paper. We paper. in a response (“benevolence”) and , but only through li ren ren ren , however, mean that you can mean , however, not is mutually entailing; we must be evidence . ren to truly practice Analects The small scale of the response paper thus means The small scale of the response interpreting a given passage. Response papers, interpreting a given passage. Response then, as much as any other type of academic analysis argument, require the presentation and of supporting evidence. ren attain Finally, a well-structured response paper is response a well-structured Finally, In sum, the relationship between the When you sit down to write a response paper, When you sit down set of readings—often, you have a circumscribed about a single piece of you are only writing simplifies the prob- some extent, this work. To can often get away lem of citing sources—you page number for each with simply giving a point. It does assume that your teacher knows or that the piece you are basing a point upon, you can assume your teacher knows how You also cannot dispense with the presentation dispense with the also cannot You ing), and enough final flourish to give us a sense of complex sentence structure, slightly more closure—a with two independent clauses joined by a semicolon, symmetry of the closing chiasmus. and the nice mirror sketched by barely are that many of its working parts comparison to the examples we discussed in the sec- already made this point when using the response this point when using made already must that all arguments the point paper to exemplify in the “Evidence” section evidence cite supporting we said: above. In that section, likely to have some sort of recognizable of recognizable likely to have some sort we have a signpost telling us we have arrived at Here of the main point the end (“in sum”), a restatement (that of the argument Your paragraphs will also require require will also paragraphs Your The ending of a response paper may be greatly scaled paper may be greatly The ending of a response to effective and it is often extremely down, however, into a combine all the elements of a good ending this might single-sentence paragraph. For example, about the paper be the final paragraph of a response between relationship (“rites”) in Confucius: and analysis of and analysis between para- when it would when it would in a response paper. in a response signpost conclusion paragraphs . Even in a response paper, where paper, . Even in a response . There may also be little need for a full- may also be little . There Another important working part you are unlikely you are working part Another important It is even more likely that you will need signposts It is even more Even where you do retain some trace of these you do retain Even where some structural components that you are There A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies the raw material and the question are strictly the raw material and the question are interesting assigned, you need an idea that is original, own answer to the question. You and arguable—your early should state this thesis clearly and prominently often paper on. The thesis statement of a response of the takes the form of a single-sentence summary to the ques- points in your response most important of the paper will often boil tion posed, and the rest that enable you to arguments down to supporting contained in that sentence. the point assert even in something as small to dispense with entirely, is the paper, as a response fledged free-standing fledged free-standing thesis statement you can probably assume that no reader is going to is going no reader assume that probably you can may or two, and this the space of a page get lost in with the preliminary you can dispense mean that roadmap graphs. Even though a typical response paper has graphs. Even though a typical response papers are only two to five paragraphs, response effective—if therefore readable—and immensely more turning as they are where the writer tells the reader each paragraph into the next. they transition from within your paragraphs, as we saw in the section on cannot dispense with certainly such signposts. You clearly structured merely recapitulate what you have said on the very what you recapitulate merely same page. papers, they may be in response structural elements in comparison to or abbreviated very much reduced in the independent sections the forms we discussed you do decide that you need If on each working part. in to orient your reader of roadmap to give some sort you might cut it down to a single your argument, be true of your sentence, for example; this might also conclusion. the among these is Foremost will want to retain. 76 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Response Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Response Paper 77 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | with the forces you have. with the forces quickly in the natural world (see “Working in the natural !—without beating about the bush, and bam Mammalia To change the analogy, if a full-fledged academic change the analogy, To If academic papers as a class are analogous to the analogous to are papers as a class If academic In paper response practical terms, this means a Parts”), a response paper is like the Thai bumblebee a response Parts”), mammal in the world). At the smallest bat (reputedly but it still has all tiny, certainly 0.06 oz., this bat is characterize mammals as a class— that the organs blood, hair on its skin and so internal skeleton, warm the side of flesh gouged from on. It is not just a lump lightweight paper, the response of a whale. Similarly, still be a complete argu- though it may be, should of something ment, and not just a random segment be much larger. that would properly paper the response paper is like conventional warfare, In con- should be conducted like a guerilla campaign. you take time to put in place sup- ventional warfare, you can on ply-lines, you concentrate all the firepower you do fire, the enemy position, and once you open into the your darnedest to pound all opposition by con- warfare, you move on. Guerilla before ground go in, You trast, is all mobility and lightning speed. never attack a position you think strike and run. You cannot be taken out Likewise, in a response paper, you should make each paper, Likewise, in a response point, tion devoted to each. We stress, however, that this that however, stress, each. We devoted to tion paper a response does not mean that small scale any the less complete. should be class then get out of there and straight to the next point of then get out of there fight- engagement. If you squander all your resources ing a you might win single engagement with heavy artillery, the battle and lose the war. detailed bones of a more like the bare often reads lightly sketched—an outline, if you like, argument clad in the lightest veil of sentences and examples possible. A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 78 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper 79 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | We have modified Jennie’s paper slightly in a few paper slightly in have modified Jennie’s We encounters. The man displays an incredible lack of displays an incredible encounters. The man trysts, and of his wife’s in or understanding interest until one day of their nature indeed seems ignorant meeting and discovers that she he blunders in on one all this time by prostitution. him has been supporting The man leaves the house the crisis. This precipitates in a state of existential and wanders the streets confusion. page numbers because also have removed places. We but note here, they would clutter the layout too much was, of that each piece of evidence in the paper to the text. course, accompanied by a reference (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1974). (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 9 A Sample Response Paper Response A Sample Flowers of Fire: Twentieth-Century Korean Stories Korean Twentieth-Century Flowers of Fire: ing a very fine response paper written by ing a very fine response e will now illustrate these points by dissect- e will now illustrate Jennie Johnson, a former tutorial student. Jennie Johnson, a former His wife sometimes entertains male guests in the His wife sometimes entertains Among our readings that week was Yi Sang’s cele- Sang’s week was Yi that Among our readings W In Peter H. Lee, ed., 9 Yi’s protagonist is an alienated, emasculated, futile protagonist Yi’s in a two rooms young man who lives with his wife in room, he has the inner run-down set of apartments; within the He lives entirely and his wife the outer. the venturing outside in crisis towards only rooms, wife brings him food, money and his end of the story, and the only human interaction he knows. to on which occasions the man retreats outer room, on her and eavesdrops his bed in the inner room The paper is from a week late in the Spring semester a week The paper is from literature. modern Korean when the class studied story. psychological short a surreal brated “Wings,” 3 9 y 10 9 6 is the prospect that 13 3 8 eadings , that is, to claim the listless protagonist as , that is, to claim the listless protagonist 10 per se 2 , seems to have bred lack of ambition , although 12 11 as an allegory for the colonial experience (again, by no as an allegory for the colonial experience n 5 12 7 , clearly, sustains a number of readings, each amplifying a different sustains a number , clearly, 13 10 4 eted The thematics of Yi Sang’s “Wings” seem to indicate a concern for the “Wings” Sang’s The thematics of Yi 1 “Wings” represents colonialism in Korea. It is perhaps not best to argue that it is colonialism in Korea. It is perhaps not “Wings” represents a direct allegory for colonialism as Japan a metaphor for Korea, and his wifely oppressor . If “Wings” is to be the two are to an extent mutually reinforcing. In the beginning of the story, the the two are to an extent mutually reinforcing. In the beginning of the story, to do something as a social creature or being scolded by narrator asserts, “Trying my wife—no, idling like a lazy animal suits me best.” content with his suspended state The narrator passes his life unwashed, ungroomed, hungry and sleepy, the a hint of earlier disillusionment: “Shut off of inaction. There is, moreover, spirit is probably a nineteenth century if you can. What is called Dostoyevsky’s waste.” interpr which thematic aspect those feasible r . Among the story), it is best seen as a metaphor means the only compelling reading for victims of an emasculation at imposed in for the fate of colonial-era intellectuals, part by the Japanese and in part by themselves . pervades the narrative A curious and persistent sense of powerlessness . The money and for his “feed,” narrator depends entirely on his wife for as he amusement her perfume bottles and calls it; he even depends on her for the hand mirror provide in her absence morphed . Their partitioned room has the inner room, he is all the more into a prison of sorts, and because he has goings by the imperatives of his wife’s subjugated, restricted in his comings and visitors As the narrator says, “Who would have . His wife is the gatekeeper. guessed that the partition of one room into two with sliding doors would symbolize my fate?” Powerlessness, in tur exploration of modernity exploration of modernity alienation, self-delusion, : individual helplessness, It is a stor purposelessness of human existence. the futility and ultimate . old that, it is... passive What themes do you find in “Wings”? Do you think that this story colonial situations situations story colonial that this you think Do in “Wings”? do you find themes What you interpret its comment If so, how do colonial intellectuals? the position of in Korea and propose? would you what alternative reading of society? If not, character on the “colonial” directly on directly in conformance clarification of old info first, new a substantive point. Complicates the question rather than playing into its hands. directly Modernity is a broader issue than colonialism. the By beginning here, deftly points out response the limitations of the question, sets it in a larger context, and gestures theoretical larger towards themes of the course. Good info first, new info last. Makes explicit the caveat hinted at by opening with modernism. the focus by dis- Narrows missing one arm of the for question, and prepares of the the introduction thesis statement. Good use of Correct use of Correct in conformance with Wastes no time, but Wastes opens voice referents of pronouns referents with info last. A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 7 5 6 3 4 1 2 80 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper 81 . by signpost final flourish . The entire . The entire evidence topic sentence paragraph sets the context for understanding this quotation, and thus works as its interpretation the fact. before efficient Very quotation. direct Excellent More More evidence by means of quotation, simultaneously summarizing the central thesis of the paper and bringing us back to a key aspect of the primary text—its title. Thesis statement, and of the paragraph. The paragraph is entire to lead up to structured the thesis and place it in a particular frame. sentence. Topic Examples illustrating powerlessness. Note that evi- these examples are dence for the paragraph’s key assertion. quotation, also Direct 8 9 11 12 13 14 10 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | both by his wife (who ; economic dislocations 7 mined 14 self-deter and in “Wings”: the narrator, clearly an intellectual clearly an in “Wings”: the narrator, 7 ed or r from above 7 ced 9 These are the “Wings” of the title. They are wings of “torn shreds of hope . Much of this is mir 9 9 (he composes poetry while lying in bed), is limited (he composes poetry while lying in bed), We must grant an allegorical reading if we consider that, although his is an if we consider that, although his is must grant an allegorical reading We to dirty but reliable inner quarters is rep- retreat narrator’s extreme example, the colonial-era intellectu- half-chosen fate of many resentative of the half-imposed, als colonial overlord to some . The very presence of a violent and repressive traditional function from the educated, arrogating their degree stripped dignity do, unem- What government censors did not officeholders. as moral critics and in finding work tremendous difficulty ployment did: even college graduates had them unwilling to engage in their education left of an intellectual kind. Yet was a resort to despondent isolation, many, The outcome, for more menial labor. in which they lived hand-to-mouth on a cynical and poverty-stricken eremiticism friends’ charity. their imprisonment was but paradoxically, Thus, intellectuals were prisoners, too, at once enfor and ambition,” torn, for Korean intellectuals under Japanese rule, by both colonial circumstance and alienated passivity . drugs him for a month) and his own dissolution. Only at the very end of the drugs him for a month) and his own dissolution. infi- of truth” apropos his wife’s story—after what could be called a “moment delity—does he seem to recognize the extent of his own degradation, saying, the wings “Ah, these are the traces of where my man-made wings once grew, I no longer possess.” limited their options, but the choice to retreat from society was ultimately theirs limited their options, but the choice to and old signposts, . Each like is excellent, and very structural elements evidence . Jennie’s paper illustrates many good prac- paper illustrates . Jennie’s The response paper aptly closes with a reading of with a reading paper aptly closes The response The use of Naturally, a response paper is held to the same a response Naturally, The entire first paragraph, for example, is a The entire information first, new information last real-life historical situation and its literary analogue— its literary and situation historical real-life them is drawn tighter. as the link between quickens, of the of its interpretation title in light the story’s story satisfying and This is aesthetically as a whole. that the allegorical and implies effective, rhetorically and fundamental to the is general argued reading story as a whole. miscellaneous points of grammar and wording miscellaneous points of grammar and economical. Examples and quotations are well-cho- and quotations are economical. Examples and coordinated interpreted, sen, subtly but concisely mileage. This response for maximum interpretative illustration of what we paper is thus an excellent Note, for called above the “guerilla tactics” model. in the second example, how each piece of evidence light touch. paragraph gets a single sentence—a very by precise, Much of this economy is accomplished and bottles and use of detail: “perfume vivid wording scene; as synecdoche for an entire hand mirror” “gatekeeper”; “half-imposed, “wifely oppressor”; half-chosen,” etc. grammar and correct of accurate wording, standards many as any other piece of writing, clear structure of this discussed in sections aspects of which are handbook about rewriting sentence in this paragraph picks out an element of one as its topic (and the first does the the previous same for the question), and then moves us to new sequence of topics that in an orderly ground, the larger the focus from narrow progressively the issues posed by the question, context, through take on those issues. own particular to the paper’s tices here too—each move in the argument is well too—each move in the argument tices here have pointed out some signposted, for example. We you to the rel- of the good moves above, and we refer should be able to evant sections for explanation. You find others. consummate illustration of the principle of , self- and structure . The caveats about multiple . The caveats about endings A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Paragraphs 2 and 3 analyze the contents of the Paragraphs 2 and 3 analyze the contents Paragraph 4 turns back to the real-world symmetrically the movement Paragraph 5 mirrors Paragraph 1 sets the paper in a larger intellectual a larger 1 sets the paper in Paragraph This paper has a clear and effective effective a clear and paper has This possible interpretations also hint at possible counter- possible interpretations acknowledge the limitations of the and argument, thesis. This is achieved with a very light paper’s for these is much stronger touch, but the response does not develop these Jennie correctly gestures. context (in such a constricted alternate directions too diffuse). they would make the argument intellectuals. story of real-world for links to the plight as Paragraph 2 isolates the theme of powerlessness and builds on the first link, and Paragraph 3 extends and inaction. this, adding lack of ambition, disillusion the situation in turn, Note that these paragraphs treat, to it. response and the protagonist’s in turn treating analogues for this allegorical content, “repressive by the powerlessness (intellectuals robbed as of their traditional respect colonial overlord” and the result- to poverty) and reduced officeholders, of themes order ant despondency and cynicism. This found the movement from the order thus mirrors for this in four prepared are Paragraph 2 to 3. We in the topic sentence: “half-imposed, terse words half-chosen.” to the allegorical at the beginning of 4, and returns The topic sentence subtly repeats world of the story. the idea of powerlessness and a and reinforces above from (“enforced despairing response determined”), and we then turn back to the story to see that it also contains an analogue of the “half- imposed, half-chosen” character of the intellectuals’ plight. In this last paragraph, the movement back and between the two terms of the comparison—the forth supported by paragraphing: by paragraphing: supported allegori- to read are context. If we and interpretative the as figuring the story best interpreted is cally, under Japanese specifically, plight of intellectuals, 1 thus achieves the “opening colonialism. Paragraph when we recommended out” of a paper that discussing 82 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • A Sample Response Paper 83 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | If, like some students, you are understandably you are If, like some students, paper is your weekly writing The response In this tiny compass, then—under six hundred then—under tiny compass, In this feeling a little daunted by the rigor we demand of feeling a little daunted take heart. responses, you even in your weekly paper is excellent, but in any given semester Jennie’s equally a dozen or more from we could have chosen illustrate our points, and a excellent papers to manage to earn a of students significant proportion during “check plus” (the equivalent of a “Bravo!”) be surprised might You the course of the year. delighted!) by the number of tight, (TFs are once they students produce sparkling responses have cut their teeth. diligence regular workout, and as with any exercise, and responses, at your hard leads to fitness. Work in your by improvements you will soon be rewarded thinking and writing as a whole. words—we are given a complete, if brief, argument, complete, if brief, given a are words—we at the end thesis heralded of the original in support bumble- is a regular paragraph. This of the opening paper. a response bee bat of At five pages, module papers are longer than papers are At five pages, module look prima- In evaluating your module papers, we the module limit, therefore, Despite its tight word made, or if such characterizations are impossible, are made, or if such characterizations might consider; and so forth. what alternatives we enough to short still papers, but they are response we discussed the concision and elegance require The differ- paper. of the response above as desiderata it unlikely to make ence in scale is enough, however, of to the structural abbreviation that you will resort at least require will probably You paper. the response guide the signposting to a little explicit macroscopic the major subsections of your argu- through reader still be kept ment, though such signposting should also need to defend each point you will light. You evidence to relevant reference make by thorough confined (which in the fall semester is by definition that and this may mean to the assigned readings), points than evidence for some you will adduce more paper. in a response argumentation. rily for original thinking and strong the question and considered must have carefully You at and have arrived to which it refers, the readings must then write a clear, your own conclusions. You showing argument, concise and tightly structured for arriving at those conclusions and your reasons likewise. attempting to persuade your reader of includes all of the major elements paper really good writing discussed in this handbook. If you have to the done so, we encourage you to refer not already of the handbook describing sections in the first part those elements for a clear idea of what we expect, and suggestions as to how to achieve it. The Module Paper Module The be required to write four module papers. to be required Three of these module papers fall at the of these module Three n the course of the fall semester, you will fall semester, n the course of the A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies I For example, the first module is on major tradi- For example, the first module is on major to a higher The final paper carries this process end of large units in the course structure (the “mod- in the course structure units end of large you to look back over material ules”), and require during your work for that mod- you have examined and therefore ule. The aim of module assignments, you to think of the questions set for papers, is to get through issues and themes that run about broader of for multiple weeks and lectures the readings the course. tions of thought that have served as intellectual refer- and given it its ence points for East Asian civilization, The first mod- conceptual framework and worldview. to think about compara- ule paper is an opportunity sys- tive issues among those various philosophical run that problematics tems; to winkle out recurring of or areas disparate philosophical positions, through to identify divergence; contention and wide fierce is possible and consider whether it common ground East Asian to make general characterizations about thought as a whole, and if so, what such a characteri- zation might look like; and so on. level of generality again, and aims to get students that run thinking about themes and problems course. Questions the material of the entire through around or implicitly revolve overtly will therefore concerns as whether “East Asia” is a such broad meaningful cultural and historical entity, coherent, which can be usefully and cogently studied as a sin- to con- gle whole; whether it makes sense, therefore, East Asia as a single strue the study of pre-modern scholarly field (“East Asian Studies”); what meaningful characterizations of East Asia as a unit might be 84 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Module Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper 85 Students who are undertaking such undertaking Students who are A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | presenting the results of research in oral of research the results presenting and written form, and so on. For these in the fol- advice presented the reasons, to lowing pages, though it is addressed for the process students going through to the first time, should also be of value of a the preparation seniors undertaking thesis. work for the first time can sometimes the amount of time it underestimate Your first such project is a watershed in your such project first Your you will Please take this friendly warning to heart: development that also looks forward, however, however, looks forward, development that also we hope will be useful to you in to foster skills that in your long- and in the Tutorial work, both future is project research first independent Your term career. skills that important intended to develop therefore to your senior year and will serve you right through biblio- beyond: formulating a topic, finding relevant evolving graphic materials, developing arguments, and teacher feedback, to peer your ideas in response This is process. takes to do justice to each step in the the case with early components like particularly choosing a topic, developing a thesis, and generating bibliography. a research have to work steadily at each component in the over- This work will also to get good results. all process evenly over the if it is spread only be truly effective is process time at your disposal. The research entire only with time and cumulative, and its fruits grow which means that you cannot neglect care, regular earlier components and then make up for lost ground early period. It is because the in a rush in the reading can be deceptively in particular, stages of the process, time-consuming and laborious that we have laid them out separately in what follows. This section of the project will project Your research research Your skills that will help you with your senior thesis. develop important mutatis some point be required to undertake your to undertake some point be required s your career in EAS progresses, you will at EAS progresses, in s your career first major piece of independent research, first major piece of , to larger work. , to larger The Larger Independent Research Paper Research Independent Larger The In the following sections of this paper builds on writing An independent research A mutandi and write up the results. Precisely when this point Precisely and write up the results. differed as a whole has program falls in the Tutorial have changed over the years, but somewhat as syllabi work by typically you can expect to be doing such semester your junior year at the latest. In the spring expected to write a junior of your junior year you are constitute the kind of which will certainly paper, discussing we are independent project even if it is not the first such here, on the For more you undertake. project section to the please refer junior paper, of this handbook entitled “The EAS Junior Paper.” some handbook, we take you through of typical components of the process such a piece of work, and producing suggestions that we hope will some offer manageable, more make the whole undertaking we will enjoyable and successful. First, however, make a few general comments about the process as a whole. skills that most students should and argumentative begun to hone if they have taken the have already tutorial in sequence and worked seriously at the various writing assignments expected of them. You the first time you have to should not feel, therefore, new; you like this, that it is entirely tackle a project have many of the necessary skills at the will already writing that and many of the basics of effective ready, we have discussed so far in this handbook as applied to smaller assignments apply just as much, A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies In the section on “Strategies for Writing,” we for Writing,” on “Strategies In the section as with other aspects of this handbook, Finally, handbook is designed to give to each piece of the each piece give to to is designed handbook its accurately reflect weighting that time and project of to a satisfying piece contribution proportionate research. path to a good most effective emphasized that the is often just to get writing. finished piece of writing –-anything!–-we said, you If you write something with which you can begin a have raw material, would We and refinement. of development process it may find You here. that advice like to reiterate to keep a a little artificial, useful, even if it seems your research small diary of your work towards ideas and notebook in which you record project–-a their implica- have a first bash at working through the a means to express is not merely tions. Writing thought; it can be the enzyme that catalyzes of results and what goes in what you read between reactions your own mind. to off is intended we emphasize that what we say here enhance helpful and stimulating ideas that might formula and not as a Procrustean your work process, While most that has to be followed to the letter. that includes most of will follow a process researchers recogniza- the components described below in some many ways of going are there ble form or another, and we could not hope to project, about a research them all exhaustively here. present 86 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper 87 interests you interests fields of strength something specific eye on the big picture • Choose what • Choose • Draw on your on • Focus your • Keep A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Once you have a general idea of what you would Once you have a general idea of what extensively just to This means you need to read Focus on something specific. on something Focus it might projects, only ever done shorter If you have to fill, pages is a lot fifteen or twenty seem as though a to adequately treat it is only possible but in fact, relatively which is still in this space, focused problem if the best you can do in describ- constrained. Thus, is to say you want to study “the one- ing your interest you still have work to do, as child policy in China,” be useful. By contrast, if you have this is too vague to of implementing the it down to “problems narrowed Shanghai in the 1990s,” you are one-child policy in much more topic is already your getting somewhere; focused and analytical. attention it can help to concentrate your like to study, which through on finding a specific example or case very effective issues. This is often a to get at the larger would other- way of handling incisively issues that careful- to get a handle on. Watch wise be too diffuse established and you will see that ly in your readings, scholars use this device all the time; it has also served students very well in past years. For example, a stu- in dent who was interested dynamics of the the broad democracy movement in in the 1980s Korea those issues approached an analysis of rep- through writings of two resentative authors in a school of liter- commonly held to ature have been central to the in broad movement. Another student, interested and national identity in the modern issues of religious period, studied specific incidents in modern Japan Christians had taken a stand against convert where reli- their state Shinto because its practices offended gious conscience. find out what you want to work on. If you can think of your topic without having done some serious read- to Study Choosing Something Something Choosing hroughout the fall semester of the Sophomore fall semester of the the hroughout in most other coursework and perhaps Tutorial, you did prior to that at Harvard, you worked from at Harvard, you did prior to that of the work. Part for required assigned questions that paper is research excitement of the independent you like, but this also to study anything free you are Do not and even risky prospect. makes it a daunting of work it takes simply to the amount underestimate begin thinking will need to You arrive at a question. of the the very start and working steadily from the and to have a successful final project, process shown that if work of EAS students in past years has dividends. it can pay great you do work steadily, If your main area of concentration has been literature, If your main area choose a topic in for example, history, or art history, historical, that can be developed in literary, religion or aesthetic terms. Develop your study in a way that draws on your fields of strength. First and foremost, do so because interest might be might do so because interest First and foremost, the patches of you through that carries the only force of often part drudgery that are and discouragement has another use, howev- and writing. Interest research can also be like the twitching of a interest Your er. that betrays a hidden a quiver dousing rod, diviner’s In aca- material and ideas. wellspring of worthwhile is your nose, and demic work, your interest who know how to follow their noses, like researchers out bloodhounds, stand the best chance of sniffing whatever game is afoot. Choose to study something your interest. that genuinely captures T at this early stage in the process. This is at this early stage in the process. thesis nce you have identified an object of study that identified an object nce you have a specific case or general issues with combines Articulating Your Topic Your Articulating Note that we are not suggesting that you should not suggesting that you Note that we are is very similar process This stage of the research to be discuss what it means for a project We way to tell if something interesting The only real cases through which those issues can be explored, which those cases through is indeed a that there ascertain your next task is to work. At this interesting of it yielding good prospect teachers will ask you for a many stage in the process, such statement. Even where or topic written proposal it can help your is not required, a written proposal a brief, clearly articulated thinking along to produce be it for your own reflection, statement of your topic, your teachers or or for use in seeking the feedback of friends. state a distinction. Nobody expects you to an important a piece of research, actually undertaking state, before If that research. from the actual thesis that will result of time, that you did know the thesis so far ahead you the process would defeat much of the purpose of pursue in the intervening weeks or months—to devel- and to op your ideas, to think unexpected thoughts, learn. handbook in the section of this to the task we address need to con- that we call “Posing the Puzzle.” You you project vince yourself or your teacher that the and viable. plan is potentially interesting in the section on “Thesis Statements.” In “interesting” to the extent interesting ideas in academia are short, new knowledge, or new ways of that they produce do not have to come up with the seeing things. You that had an answer, goods just yet—if you already than a topic, it would be a thesis—but would be more on the right track. you have to look like you are will come out of a topic is to see if it contains a gen- a clash from uine puzzle. Such a puzzle often emerges and of affairs picture between a generally received that case, which is another reason some particular O A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies A good paper naturally includes the close analysis of A good paper naturally evidence, but that analysis a specific body of focused by an intelli- is likely to founder unless it is framed issues. This contextual gent understanding of broader like the of finding a topic, means that the process often alternates, see- subsequent phases of research, opposite saw fashion, between movement in two deeper On the one hand, it delves ever directions. cases; on the into the details and nuances of specific context broader into it thrusts ever outwards other, work keeps a foot in interesting Truly and theory. between the both camps, and thrives on the tension breadth. impulse for depth and the impulse for Even as you focus, however, you should you should however, Even as you focus, big picture. keep an eye on the ing (whether prior to beginning your current project, your current to beginning prior ing (whether that it is ade- then it is unlikely or subsequently), you our earlier example, to return To quately focused. China just policy in in the one-child can be interested probably but you will the newspaper, reading from digging to find out that telling have had to do some its implementation in in encountered were problems Shanghai in the 1990s. 88 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper 89 ” In “Theses his amaze- means “under,” and a means “under,” hypo- Hypothesis A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | This point can be generalized to various can be generalized This point 10 Developing a Working Developing nce you have found a topic that combines gener- nce you have found a topic that combines through al issues with a specific case or cases thesis, then, can be a provisional thesis, a conjec- thesis, then, can be a provisional A supposition or conjecture put forth to account A supposition or conjecture put forth to for known facts; esp. in the sciences, a provisional supposition from which to draw conclusions that shall be in accordance with known facts, and which serves as a starting-point for further investigation by which it may be proved or disproved and the true theory arrived at. prefix The Greek “Hypothesis” is used in a number of senses in dif- “Hypothesis” is used in a number of senses was that it forced us to question our picture of the our picture to question us it forced was that we taken a “day and age” had of sort world–-what this for? which those issues can be explored, it will help if you which those issues can be explored, thesis. develop a provisional in no fields in English, but we mean it here ferent to the OED, technical sense. According particularly “foundation, base; is sense of the word the broadest supposition, also, sub- hence, basis of an argument, definition closest to etc.”; the narrower ject-matter, is this: our intention here kinds of cognitive dissonance—surprise, puzzlement, dissonance—surprise, kinds of cognitive a misfit between from spring Such reactions disbelief. the facts of the world. New our expectations and adjusting not the facts, but from knowledge springs of them. If we chase up things that our understanding lead us to new can therefore puzzle us, then, they of the accurate representations understandings—more state of affairs. real hypo that “under”-writes the development of your ture for you by laying some ground eventual thesis proper point. To It is a starting to get there. to work across O qin example (see , ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 257. trans. Harry Zohn (New York: , ed. Hannah Arendt, qin Illuminations zither in Maoist China” will probably strikes will probably zither in Maoist China” qin We have seen several examples of this dynamic at have seen several examples We Another student studied the sudden resurgence of Another student studied the sudden resurgence is no such “Huh?” factor in your topic, If there “The current amazement that the things we are experiencing are ‘still’ possible in the twentieth centruy is not philosphical. T ‘still’ possible in the twentieth centruy experiencing are amazement that the things we are “The current ment is not the beginning of knowledge—unless it is the knowledge that the view of history to it is untenable. which gives rise on the Philosophy of History,” 10 good work often emerges from the interaction of gen- interaction the from emerges work often good thinking, When you find yourself eral and particular. in the past, I have read to what according “Hang on, be sense,” you might seem to make any this doesn’t it! follow nose is twitching—now Your onto something. in the various examples we topics work in interesting course of discussing general have examined in the Think of the writing techniques. “Posing the Puzzle,” “Roadmaps,” “Endings” etc.). “Posing the Puzzle,” of topic of “political interpretations the Stated baldly, the But the obscurantist. as irremediably most readers the student attracted the attention of topic probably is there who pursued it in the first place because about the fate of the something counter-intuitive was the dar- under Mao. If this is an instrument that it Confucian elite, then surely ling of the effete the revolu- should have been a pilloried pariah after Why it stood for. that class and all tion overthrew on earth was it instead given pride of place? What was going on? early 1990s. the Mao cult that swept China in the made was something that, at first blush, Again, here the Deng era no sense. If, as seemed to be the case, of fundamental upon a rejection was predicated taxi drivers hanging were why legacy, aspects of Mao’s and play- mirrors, their rear-view from portrait Mao’s ing Cultural Revolution hymns to His Glory? This sense of puzzlement, it turned out, was also an accu- interaction for an interesting rate guide in the search and a set of between generally accepted stereotypes facts. concrete Benjamin Walter you might need to dig a little deeper. surprised that it of those who were once remarked, should be possible for the Nazis to persecute Jews “in this day and age,” that the only use of such surprise Internet sources. only to say that materials published on the not Internet should be among your final sources (though in some cases they might), and it is not the case that you can do almost certainly work using interesting This is as can be very useful, however, Internet searching topic on a certain a quick way of finding resources Useful leads often come up this way. Chief among Useful leads often come up this way. your the useful people you should talk to are and librarians. Research teachers and other faculty, underutilized by too often treasures librarians are undergraduates. http://hcl.harvard.edu/research/guides/classes/ 2003spring/eas97r.html to it on the Sophomore is also a link There to you will have been introduced Other resources http://hcl.harvard.edu/harvard-yenching/ is a list of some other ways, formal and Here equivalent. “Webliography” specifically for students in East Asian in East for students specifically “Webliography” cover in the that they the resources Studies, listing is The Webliography other useful tools. session and make use and you should rich resource, an extremely available at of it. It is 1. to people about your project. Talk 2. on Google or an Spend a little time searching Tutorial course website, under the “WWW Links” course website, under Tutorial button. library the Harvard-Yenching during your tour of and in EAS, and those resources early in your time website. listed on the library’s are more Library homepage is at The Harvard-Yenching on the course and is also listed under “WWW Links” resources commonly used website. Many of the more under the relevant found as “Online Resources” are Studies,” rubric (“China Studies,” “Japan regional side of Studies”) in the menu on the left-hand “Korea the page. for materials. For lack informal, that you can search these dif- principle, we present of a better organizing in which you might try in one order methods ferent them: , and now I won- this South China Morning nother useful early step in checking that your nother useful early step in checking that is viable and getting underway is to project Making a Bibliography A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies , then no matter how interesting it is, it simply , then no matter how interesting The big question, of course, is how you go about It is extremely useful to clearly formulate this useful to clearly It is extremely Gathering Materials and Gathering Materials develop a bibliography. There is no mystery here, in mystery is no here, There develop a bibliography. your topic is in of how interesting fact—regardless available not enough sources are the abstract, if there may not you to you for the pursuit of your project, interesting have enough material to develop a really of checking and in-depth analysis. This is also a way substantial. If you is sufficiently that your project by read- have chosen a question that can be resolved in the a single article ing, say, Post substantial original work on your will not represent of and is unlikely to satisfy the requirements part, working to fulfill. whatever assignment you are a number of resources are finding materials. There Many of these you can make use of in this process. learning at the electronic introduced are resources session at Lamont Library in the first week of the and you should take the oppor- Tutorial, Sophomore tunity to test-drive of those tools as many as possible. The librarians who teach that session have compiled a der if it isn’t all something entirely different again.” different all something entirely der if it isn’t have a hypothesis really means nothing more than to than more nothing means really a hypothesis have might be going “This is what I think say, be able to on here.” on to yourself, however. of what is going vague sense to bounce new information off It gives you something Of course, your hypothesis (or it. as you come across take as many as you like!) hypotheses—help yourself, go along, but that is healthy and as will change as you moments for of the most rewarding it should be. One hour and shows up at office a TF is when someone it was all about at first I thought know, says, “You then I found such-and-such, but A 90 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper 91 to the items that you end to the items cut down A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Making Outlines nce they have gathered material, read through a through material, read nce they have gathered of it, and taken notes, many stu- amount certain At this stage in your project, your first aim should your in your project, At this stage Rest assured that any outline you produce prior to prior that any outline you produce Rest assured The main purpose of making an outline, at any through steps like the above once, early above like the steps through the in process. research ide- should riches. You yourself with be to embarrass to ally be forced your paper—try to put yourself up actually using for you can pick and choose. If your in a position where minimum of numbers only the bare of sources crew it under sail, chances are hands to get your project into service, press-ganged will harbor a few misfits will end up springing leaks or and your argument of them. foundering because dents find it useful to sketch an outline of the final dents find it useful to sketch an outline Some assignment struc- thereof. or some part paper, this step, and ask courses also require in certain tures evaluation and students to submit outlines for teacher feedback. end-all of your the final whistle is not the be-all and as required When outlines are ultimate argument. of a course, for assignment structure of the part will be held to instance, some students fear that they almost as if teachers their outline in their final paper, it from of contract if they depart will sue for breach in any way! This is naturally not the case. is to help you plan your research stage of the process, and writing in terms of the paper as a whole. Making a to take an outline should give you an opportunity the detailed spadework that takes up step back from of time, and see what sort so much of a researcher’s the various items you from emerges an overall picture have dug up. This should allow you to identify things perhaps where you need to work on more—places of your argu- material, or parts you need to find more in light of reconsideration ment that might require O In HOLLIS. You should HOLLIS. You through run the keywords for your topic through such for your topic through run the keywords Academic (or its replacement, tools as ProQuest EBSCO) and JSTOR, for from Premier Search lan- example, and the equivalents in any Asian your guage you know well enough to use in research. fact, bibliographies in published work can be so fact, bibliographies in published work that they useful in this phase of your project when you should often be the first thing you read get hold of something. Look out for works exactly on your topic, or very close to it. Look out, also, in every bibliography pub- for the works that are seminal works that area–-the lished in a particular discourse. set the tone for an entire all these methods, and anything else you Try The first of these is HOLLIS, of course. If you The first of these is HOLLIS, of course. get the done a session on how to have not already soon as you most out of HOLLIS, go and do so as power lurks beneath its mild-man- can; far more log olive exterior than you see when you nered available to tools are on. Many other search students Harvard published in other media; of finding out the of finding media; in other published topics, particular scholars working on names of in print from you can then retrieve whose works idea of some of the or of getting a quick libraries; about a given thinking ways people are most basic in your own thinking. Note topic, and a leg-up the Internet is usually that in all these respects, other types of research. for just a springboard topic that can yet be may not be a single There the use of Internet through adequately studied alone. resources bibliographies of what you already have. bibliographies of what you already can think of. As you keep searching, repeat various repeat can think of. As you keep searching, too; you will think of other steps and searches, things to look for at every stage of your research, and you should not think that you have finished the bibliographic hunt just because you have gone 4. the your way to new material from Leapfrog 3. tools. Use online search your ideas, and nothing helps their under- Note that if you are going to use a draft to seek going to use a draft to Note that if you are then, for making any two good reasons, are There to make a draft as good as pos- The second reason many writers find it useful, at various stages in the stages at various it useful, writers find many show a draft to to and writing process, research The opinion of it. teachers and ask their friends or useful if you seek will be most you receive feedback This means that you most need. out the feedback if not the immediate interest, your long-term best ego, might be servedplumpness of your by asking for you feel least of your project feedback on the aspect is some major ques- if there about. Sometimes, secure is or if there broached, really tion you still haven’t you that might not be going right, something niggling it be a good way to confront writing a draft can and try to work it through. squarely the word others, you should not let feedback from writing on “draft” mislead you into inflicting sloppy it simply them. If we call a piece of writing “draft,” differ- is a there means that it is subject to revision; notes, or a between “draft” and mere ence, however, of consciousness. of your stream diary-like record polished as draft you ask others to comment on as The first is com- you can in the time available to you. If you ask someone to think about mon courtesy. time, asking for their your work with you, you are time by ensur- and you can show that you value that as little of it as ing that the other person has to spend the fog of poor expression possible peering through are You to discern your ideas in the first place. merely asking for intellectual advice, not copy-editing, and you have done the make sure you should therefore rather than inflicting that task copy-editing already, too on your hapless helper. utilitarian. When you ask someone for sible is more want them to comment on your feedback, you really comments will be useful in propor- ideas. Obviously, in which the other person has tion to the degree understood discussing your standing like clear writing. If you are ideas with someone, it is as much a waste of time for you as for them to spend your time talking about actually think, simply because something you don’t Using Feedback Feedback Using Writing Drafts and Writing Drafts here are several good reasons to incorporate reg- several good reasons are here process, ular draft writing into your research A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies An outline can also be an ideal way to seek feed- can also be an ideal An outline First, producing draft versions of manageable First, producing a very Like an outline, drafts can also provide T your midterm experience—and formulate a plan of formulate experience—and midterm your of the project. subsequent phases attack for form allows your ideas in outline back. Presenting get friend, say—to teacher or your your reader—your planning for your final what you are of a clear picture discussion that and makes any subsequent paper, for being based upon a clear fruitful much more stands. It is even your project understanding of where an outline as a device for getting possible to think of in the sense that the very yourself, feedback from ideas into such a structured of putting your process new insights into connections form will usually spark you had of the evidence and argument between parts weaknesses seen, and allow you to see not previously that you had not otherwise noticed. rather than leaving all the writing until the veryrather than leaving all the writing until last. help you as you go along can chunks of your project end up in accumulate a fund of fragments that will task and so cut down the daunting your final project, manageable of writing the final paper down to a more size. If you make yourself write some draft fairly reg- then, it can “keep your nose to the grind- ularly, stone,” though this phrase has a little too much the of what we need to A part ring of the taskmaster. learn as we accustom ourselves to independent that such work typically has. It is the rhythm research how much is common for all of us to underestimate entails, but especially com- work a piece of research and it can help students mon the first time around, avoid panic as the deadline looms if they produce as they go along. pieces of their final project good medium for seeking feedback. For this reason, 92 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper 93 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | The Final Paper rum roll please! The paper you produce at the please! The paper you produce rum roll may well be your process end of this research The assignment structure of the entire Sophomore of the entire The assignment structure If you have followed some of the advice in the should try and see that intent behind any comment any intent behind see that try and should true that it. It is also you decide to disregard before and conscientious doggedly impartial even the most all students ignore to see discouraged teachers are they see that their when and heartened their advice, and at least some- considered suggestions are careful naturally spurs them to spend times acted upon. This suggestions making further on thought and care more them. One way to get to students who appreciate is to value the feedback you do good feedback, then, cycle. get—a virtuous first full-scale written argument of this scale, based first full-scale written argument investigating a upon your own independent research, earlier, you identified yourself. As we said problem might be although the idea of writing such a paper if unprepared, not in fact entirely daunting, you are assign- you have worked consistently at the writing and followed even program ments in the Tutorial some of the steps we suggest in this section. you for the step up to is designed to prepare Tutorial papers weekly response this kind of work. Through and module papers in the fall, you should have been to eval- an argument, honing your ability to structure your analysis, and uate evidence critically and present assign- Writing to use language clearly and precisely. ments in the spring semester continue to build on these first steps. If you think of your longer research paper as comprised of several components like the worked on, you you have already smaller projects should be able to see that writing it is quite a manageable task. this sections of this handbook immediately preceding one, you should also have material that will be of use out If you wrote in constructing your final paper. some version of your topic statement, for instance, D you make use of feedback, You should take all feed- You back—even the most comments worded strongly scrawled on your papers!—as suggestions, and nothing more. Students who bend over to follow every backwards suggestion given them run the risk of ending up with- how of your Seek out feel least the aspect project you project feedback on secure about. secure Once you have written the draft and obtained Once you have written that aware On the other hand, you should also be thing, even the single most important Perhaps you didn’t take the care to express yourself with suffi- yourself express to the care take you didn’t write to any draft you reasons, For these cient clarity. as clearly should ideally be others from seek feedback would submit as anything you written and correctly for a grade. or your friend, the last your teacher feedback from is how to make best use of it. question, of course, of the process, part difficult This can be the most truly good few of us are since it involves something thing, The most important at—listening to criticism. the feedback you get carefully, is to consider however, be open to the possibility that the and in each case to you really other person has seen something that of Beware changing in your work. would benefit from out of hand because it entails aban- criticism rejecting in—the invested time doning work you have already the fruits of natural tendency we all have is to protect of regardless our children, our labors as if they were their actual merits. your TF or pro- from even the feedback you receive or on track. fessor will almost never be 100% useful that you have a suf- and it is important out direction, thinking, sense of your own direction, ficiently strong and style to know when feedback is actually interests not useful to your project. the question of before is that you do make use of it, in some way or other. Even the most annoying and tactless TF comments written with the ultimate papers are on response your work, and you intention of helping you improve , but also serve you well for the per se If you are reading this at or near the end of the reading If you are If it has served its purpose, the assignment struc- for clearer argument and more elegant prose; clear prose; elegant and more argument for clearer for enjoyable and makes prose and elegant argument your TF stops reading enjoyable reading; rewarding the who is not climbing the walls; and a TF climbing the In all seriousness, out better grades! walls gives better grades for better writing TF does not give out for her emotional state, because of its benefits merely writing is actually better writ- but because enjoyable not possible to write clearly with- ing; and since it is clear writing is actually a sign of a out clear thought, incisive thinking. and more better argument a winner! Everyone’s your first piece of independent of producing process writing, or indeed in the course of working research might reflect like a senior thesis, you on later projects you have followed. on the lessons of the process Strategies” that noted in talking about “Writing We for produc- processes people have different different The of research. ing writing. The same is equally true you might in this section on steps advice presented is designed to follow in an independent research arrive at a suggest some ways in which you might that well aware but we are finished piece of research, fits all is no one fixed way of doing so that there you progresses, your career As equally. researchers to follow your own free be increasingly will probably as when writing; and as just lights when researching, you handsomely if you with writing, it will repay and learn what works observe in the process, yourself for you and what does not. will hopefully have taught in the EAS Tutorial ture and writing skills that not only lead to a you research successful papers at each stage of the syllabus in the year sophomore rest of your university career and beyond. The of your university career rest and writing is infinitely per- of research process and we wish you every success as fectible, however, you strike out on your own. If this is indeed the writing. A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies We are not so naïve as to recommend this exercise not so naïve as to recommend are We Even to the extent that this is not the case, there Even to the extent a plug for At this point, we would like to make it will be to your own benefit if For this reason, first time you have followed this independent to the end on through and writing project research such a scale, you may well find that structuring the of a is more and polishing the prose final argument should leave ade- challenge than you anticipate. You may also You quate time for these steps, therefore. find, to your delight, that if you do knuckle under to this “labor of the file” (see “Rewriting”) it is possible than you anticipate to the difference to make more finished product. is a for the good of your soul! There to you merely simple ulterior equation, if such a thing will help and editing makes motivate you: diligent rewriting you should be able to use that material in “posing the in that material able to use be you should versions Various paper. drives your final puzzle” that on the project, as you worked of your hypothesis, something readily metamorphosed into may have If you produced into a thesis statement. modifiable you went along, they should outlines as one or more develop your thinking about the have helped you to If you have final argument. of your overall structure for yourself or your teachers and been writing a draft of it might be usable as on, some friends to reflect actual content of sections raw material for the of your paper. of gathering should be no mystery left in the process that evidence you need, presenting what remaining it into a evidence and its analysis, and collecting which you can build the last from order coherent components of your final argument. have emphasized through- and editing. We rewriting in East Asian out this handbook that the Tutorial workshop as Studies is as much an extended writing issues, factual to theoretical it is an introduction Indeed, this knowledge, or disciplinary approaches. is such a key handbook only exists because writing the tutorial aims to teach. of what part paper the last stages of writing your final you regard in as an exercise in part 94 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The Larger Independent Research Paper Specific Types of Writing Assignments • The EAS Junior Paper 95 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | skills, and to learn how to receive and give feed- skills, and to learn how back among peers. twenty-five to thirty- Junior papers are generally They are expected to focus five pages in length. to the particular field of on a question relevant develops an argument, the junior tutorial. Each and discusses evi- presents counter-arguments, as dence from secondary and primary sources, appropriate. A series of deadlines throughout topic the semester guides steady progress. The well and evidence used in junior papers goes tutorial, beyond the content of readings in the class although the theoretical issues raised in should be addressed in the junior paper. As students progress through the fall semester of tutorial, they should begin to think about be possible topics. The junior paper need not semes- written on a topic covered in the spring or topic ter of tutorial, so whenever some issue it is comes up that seems especially interesting, initial advisable to talk to your tutor for some studies guidance. In addition, the various Asian summer grants for preliminary the- centers offer for sis research in Asia. The application deadline so it is valuable to get these is late February, A started thinking about a topic well in advance. who letter of recommendation from a professor might advise a thesis growing out of that research is important to the application, as well. Thus it is a good idea at an early stage to talk to a faculty member who has particular interest or expertise in the area, to get ideas for further thought and reading. That makes it easier to later ask for a letter. As is clear even from this brief description, the As is clear even from junior paper demands most of the skills this hand- and juniors are book sets out to foster in its readers, encouraged to make extensive use of the handbook as and writing of researching in the process a reference their junior papers. The EAS Junior Paper EAS Junior The immediately preceding this one, on “The immediately preceding any of the comments made in the sections any of the comments Larger Independent Research Paper,” will Paper,” Research Independent Larger Students write the junior paper in the spring cap- semester of their junior tutorial. It is the con- stone experience of the East Asian Studies not go centration. Although some students do in the on to write senior theses, all concentrators Writing junior tutorial write the junior paper. writing the junior paper integrates research and also skills developed in the concentration. It cov- allows students to go beyond the material a topic ered in class and pursue independently of the of interest. For some students, the topic thesis junior paper may develop into a senior interest, topic. For others, it will be a project of which gives them the experience of conducting systematic research on a topic in East Asian Studies. Each junior tutorial develops its own approach but they share certain com- to the junior paper, and professors discuss mon concerns. Tutors techniques of research appropriate to each junior tutorial, and provide guidance on interim products such as annotated bibliographies, outlines, and rough drafts. Each student is encouraged to develop topics within scholarly disci- Topic plines encompassed by the Junior Tutorial. selection is guided through a conference with tutors. Students are advised of resources available in the Harvard Library for general use in each field, and given guidance on materials appropriate for their topic. In some tutorials, junior paper research is presented in class, giving students an opportunity to develop presentation M be particularly germane to the experience of writing germane be particularly is the sec- for your reference, Here, your junior paper. the handbook Paper” from tion on “The EAS Junior Studies in entitled “The Concentration in East Asian of East Asian Languages and the Department Civilizations: A Guide for Undergraduates,” for this the basic requirements which presents piece of work. your senior year in If you are reading these words these words reading If you are a continually developing skill, as this handbook rec- a continually developing deal to make your the- do a great ommends, you can you paper) excellent, long before sis (or your junior for that specific project. ever set pen to paper warning they convey applies and fear the forbidding in not too late It is certainly to you, do not despair. your deal to improve your senior year to do a great keen to do so, the advice laid out writing. If you are theses as in this handbook applies equally to senior to the papers, and the steps response to sophomore in the sec- and writing suggested of research process also be this one should tions immediately preceding gladdens useful to you. Remember also that nothing a teacher or graduate student advisor like of the heart deliberately on a student who is determined to work get a their writing, and you can certainly improving your teachers in the from lot of help in that regard of writing the senior thesis itself. process Senior Thesis Senior thesis are referred to the handbook entitled to the handbook referred thesis are onors concentrators who will write a senior onors concentrators “The Concentration in East Asian Studies “The Concentration A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Note, in particular, the section of that handbook Note, in particular, Writing well is extremely difficult; it requires well is extremely difficult; Writing skill, persistence and revision. It is an important their but many seniors have progressed through much studies at Harvard without having worked to improve their writing (13). longer will no It is in the hope that these words your senior before these words reading If you are H pp. 12-16, for guidelines. pp. 12-16, for guidelines. that states: in the Department of East Asian Languages and of East Asian in the Department for Undergraduates,” Civilizations: A Guide apply to EAS concentrators that the Department of apply to EAS concentrators that the Department and the compo- EALC has developed this handbook, it into nor- nents of its tutorial syllabi that integrate the and emphasize so heavily mal course structures development of writing skills. take heed! In a very significant sense therefore, year, senior thesis reaches a good of producing the process the the senior year itself, into back long before and junior tutori- you do in sophomore groundwork writing as als. The good news is that if you approach 96 |

Specific Types of Writing Assignments • Senior Thesis Writing Strategy Revisited • The Importance of Rewriting 99 2 over a period of seven years—an A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | Aeneid who would write ten lines, they say, At dawn, and lavish all the golden day eyes.” make them wealthier in his reader’s To not all going to suddenly obviously we are Now, The first purpose of this section, then, is to fer- Unfortunately, the same myth that we tried to put the same myth that Unfortunately, (London: Macmillan, 1923), 578. turn into Virgils, no matter how many golden days we turn into Virgils, for all of lavish on our lines. It is possible, however, patient toil. us to make our drafts much better with This is one of the beauties of writing; you get as the final cut. It is thus many takes as you like before in a way that an extemporaneous product perfectible like unplanned speech is not. to readers the habit of rewriting vently recommend care- If you do not already who do not have it already. writing doing so! Your your work, start fully rewrite (and your TF will love you for it). will benefit greatly many things at play to give adequate attention to all many things at play at the same time. Strategies”—the myth that good paid to in “Writing one untrammeled flow—gets in writing comes all in many people. Many for rewriting the way of sufficient of that even geniuses unaware frustrated writers are Benjamin (cited in the like Walter the written word drafts, work- epigraphs above) often polish numerous for a finish as smooth as finest ing with lapidary care that Virgil jade. Kevin Guinagh tells us, for example, the wrote this labor of average rate of one line a day! “It was had in mind the file,” Guinagh writes, “that Tennyson of Vergil: when he wrote 1 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966), xi; citing Tennyson’s “Poets and 1966), xi; citing Tennyson’s and Winston, Holt, Rinehart (New York: trans. Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter (London and New York: Verso, 1979), Verso, (London and New York: trans. Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter – Walter Benjamin – Walter The Aeneid of Vergil, The Aeneid of Vergil, Writing Strategy Revisited: Revisited: Strategy Writing The Works of Alred Lord Tennyson, Poet Laureate Poet Laureate Tennyson, Lord of Alred The Works The Importance of Rewriting of Importance The One-Way Street and Other Writings, Other Writings, and Street One-Way an airy-fairy world of ideals. As we talked o far in this handbook we have moved in o far in this handbook we have moved about the “Working Parts” of a paper, we of a paper, Parts” about the “Working musical stage when it is composed, an musical stage when it is composed, one when it is built, and a architectonic textile one when it is woven.” as it was thought. Committed to writing as it was thought. not even a bad in such cases, it is photograph.” “Work on good prose has three steps: a has three on good prose “Work “Nothing is poorer than a truth expressed is poorer “Nothing In considering rewriting and editing, we return to and editing, we return In considering rewriting S Walter Benjamin, Walter to Kevin Guinagh, “Introduction” 1 2 Their Bibliographies.” See 85, 61. were thinking of the finished product, and we treated and we thinking of the finished product, were of appearance in in order each component roughly in which even though the order that finished product, (we noted them may be different produce we really the various this in “Strategies”). When we discussed such as response in the Tutorial, assignments required papers, we papers, module papers and longer research work, but sometimes talked about how to produce our focus was similarly on the ideal finished product most of the time. of getting your writing to its the actual, messy process final shape. Good writing with a full complement of and is a complex machine, well-crafted working parts almost nobody can just sit down and spit out writing simply too are upon. There that cannot be improved http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~wricntr/documents/Revising.html). Following such a process of repeated writing and of repeated such a process Following There is nothing to be lost by thinking on paper or a is nothing to be There not necessarily take you it will computer screen: otherwise stuck!), and longer (especially if you are people In fact, many will not suffer. the end result can see it when they find that their thinking improves to talk of them, just as it is often useful in front and writing your ideas. For these reasons, through the alike can be used not just to present rewriting tools analysis and thinking, but as powerful of results you to urge We to make analysis and thought happen. yoke its and this use of writing and rewriting, explore power to your thought. start worrying about the fiddly bits like signposts, fiddly about the worrying start open- grammar and punchy proofreading, wording, ings and endings. it is an aid an aid to writing; is not simply rewriting Center, Saltz, of the Writing to thinking itself. Laura thinking that it is only of precise writes of “the kind by writing” see possible to achieve to start with when you to start something A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies If we take the term in its broadest sense, then, sense, If we take the term in its broadest Once you have enough of these building blocks, What should we look out for when we rewrite? A we rewrite? for when look out should we What thought of much more can be Indeed, rewriting have a writing assignment. Nothing comes from noth- Nothing comes from have a writing assignment. something—anything!–-you have ing, but if you have can be put something to work with. What is missing many In fact, for in place when you go back later. do come writers most of the nuts and bolts usually least be and should at later in the writing process, the if you are checked when editing. This is true even who writes first drafts with full sen- of person sort sequence. tences and paragraphs in readable just as Now, much of writing is in fact “rewriting.” also many are many ways to write, there are there is to however, One common strategy, ways to rewrite. and then work begin by collecting pieces of evidence, you think If you have a piece of evidence outwards. a written analysis, even you will use, then try starting the foggiest idea what your overall the- if you haven’t that evidence will fit in. It doesn’t sis will be or where use everything. In fact, matter if ultimately you don’t material in most proj- discard most people probably is of material ects. When the deadline looms, a surfeit than a shortfall. much easier remedied one way or another of combining them will probably occur to you, and you might cobble together a sec- sections tion. Once you have a few such prospective in hand, you might be able to try writing an outline and you will proba- for the whole paper, or roadmap Then you can bly find that a conclusion emerges. begin your end section, draft a thesis statement, and good list of things to work on is comprised by the is comprised by of things to work on good list aspect Almost every of this handbook. contents table the possible exception it talks about, with of writing of is in fact an aspect and Its Analysis,” of “Evidence or could be. re-writing, of polishing and perfecting the than as merely broadly Strategies,” we strenu- draft. In “Writing a readymade you go however imperfectly that ously recommended about it, you write 100 |

Writing Strategy Revisited • The Importance of Rewriting Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing 101 (1) SPLITTING A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | While [Confucius] cites economic consideration cap in favor of replacing the linen ceremonial silk, eco- used in rituals with one made of black relevant nomic consideration cannot be the only have jus- consideration, since otherwise it would cap alto- tified the elimination of the ceremonial it can therefore justify and presumably, gether, efficacy departure from a li rule only when the unaf- of the li rule in serving its purpose remains fected. [Confucius] cites economic consideration in favor of replacing the linen ceremonial cap used in rituals with one made of black silk. Economic consideration cannot be the only relevant consideration, since otherwise it would have justified the elimination of the ceremonial cap altogether. it can justify departure from a li rule Presumably, of the li rule in serving its only when the efficacy purpose remains unaffected. Sentences can grow beyond their means for many beyond their means Sentences can grow By the time you get to the end of this sentence, you might feel like a snake that has ingested a goat. A lit- something much easier to read— tle editing produces paragraph: real Shun’s As we draft, we frequently write sentences that are As we draft, we frequently being split from and can profit too long and complex, This is also often true of para- parts. into two or more graphs. that lure like sirens are some key words but reasons, ruin on of sentences to than their fair share far more “While” is a prime culprit. of prolixity. the rocks had begun Imagine, for example, if Kwong-loi Shun with the paragraph cited in “Counter-Argument” a draft sen- “while.” He might have ended up with tence like this: Editing trying to stretch a narrow conception of conception a narrow trying to stretch n the previous section, we were deliberately we were section, n the previous what it means to “rewrite,” in the hope that what it means to “rewrite,” In the course of such editing, you naturally need In the course of such editing, you naturally I it might help some readers free up their approach to up their approach free readers it might help some sense narrow is also a more there writing. Of course, work—when we already “rewrite” in which we often with thesis, complete draft in place, have a relatively conclusion. At this and a body, definitions, roadmap, fine-tuning point, we often turn our attention to call and grammar—what we might wording structure, distinguish this kind will artificially “fiddly bits.” We and call it “editing.” of “rewriting” everything. It to be on the lookout for anything and be sur- writer who ever ceases to would be a rare and unpredictable prised and amused by the bizarre drafts when glitches they occasionally find in their also are back over them. That said, there they read fixes that many writers find themselves basic certain is a as they edit. What follows applying repeatedly of some of the most basic and com- checklist partial mon fixes. is rela- word of thinking things : elements of the sen- . appearance in academic writing . By the time they get to it, find ed companions Better: It is true writing can gain a certain fresh candor if candor fresh certain can gain a It is true writing sentences As you edit, then, look for places where individual sentences will also often find that You This is one reason that we often find in academic writing word order that would be relatively unnatural in speech. This is one reason that we often find in order that would be relatively unnatural speech in academic writing half-developed and then pick it up without fair notice without pick it up and then half-developed that the mind do all the things to short, later on—in ideas. feels its way into its does as it with the writer to walk ask the reader it seems to that gives this Writing of thought. a process through crafted as any and artful is as however, impression, The other good writing. strategy designed is a rhetorical out as you go, which not be confused with the should to help your reader, exposed to public of thinking with your brain gaffe the intellectual equivalent of chewing This is view. and equally to be discour- with your mouth open, aged. make the to and paragraphs can be switched around of ideas clearer. progression look them. In particular, work better if you reshuffle out for sunder Especially if you were talking, it would be normal Especially if you were because “X” is a however, Here, to say “find X in Y.” noun clause a line long, tively distant from will need to pause and think back to connect readers that we often find in the two. This is one reason that would be relatively order academic writing word unnatural in speech. The gain in clarity usually amply of the inver- compensates for the slight awkwardness sion. tence that have been forced apart from others with from apart tence that have been forced on this touch briefly which they logically belong. (We Often, you notion in discussing “Split Infinitives.”) within a sentence because you make such reshuffles rightful such elements with their need to reunite mates. For example: (3) (2) “Editing the Essay, Part Two”) “Editing the Essay, MERGING REORDERING AND (“Strategies for Essay Writing,” Section 17, (“Strategies for Essay Writing,” SUNDERED COMPANIONS A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies In judging whether your sentences need splitting In judging whether your sentences need Try to avoid repetitive sentence structure. Try to to avoid repetitive sentence structure. Try Try to avoid vary the rhythm in your sentences. Try to Try starting all your sentences the same way. lengths. (The struc- write sentences of differing ture and length of the preceding sentences readers make this choppy and dull to read, and sound, get so distracted by the monotony of the you’re that they lose focus on the sense of what saying.) As we write drafts, we naturally tend to write ideas in which they occur to us. The down in the order and there mind works in convoluted ways, however, in which it thinks is no guarantees that the order are its thoughts to in which to present order the clearest others. Quite the opposite is often true, in fact. Draft often tends to loop back on itself, to pursue order ideas at the same time, to leave an idea two or more or merging, let variety be your guide. A varied or merging, engaging goes a long way to making prose rhythm and readable. Sometimes, you will find that two sentences or para- Sometimes, you will combined. A string of simple sen- graphs work better sense of sentences that each tences (in the technical for a bumpy contain only one verb clause) can make Center memorably ride. Kim Cooper of the Writing makes this point as follows: Other words to be wary of include however (after a however of include be wary to words Other and even the clause), despite, although, long first checklist keeping a mental but. It is worth common trouble. give you the most of those that 102 |

Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing 103 . put of obscure vocabulary ersailles in 1919 often get sundered. often get (idiomatic verbs that com- verbs (idiomatic , in a way that does disserv- eaty of V r derogate; take over, do in, play do in, take over, derogate; A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | , which marked the inception of a , which marked the meaning etc.), like “give up,” etc.), like Better: Better: Better: Better: eaction to the T bine a common verb with a preposition: verb with a preposition: bine a common down up thought and arts to this day. thought and arts to this day. must not confuse We and often merely annoys the reader. As here, phrasal verbs phrasal As here, up etc.). as the May 4th What was later known Movement r In 1919, reaction to the Treaty of Versailles was of Versailles In 1919, reaction to the Treaty artistic the catalyst for a set of intellectual and 4th developments later known as the May incep- Movement. This movement marked the to come to tion of a huge wave of serious effort the West, terms with intellectual challenges from Chinese and left a legacy that greatly influences huge wave of serious effort to come to terms effort huge wave of serious and with intellectual challenges from the West Chinese left a legacy that has huge influence on began with the thought and arts to this day, ice to the clarity of our analysis and often merely ice to the clarity of our analysis and often the use annoys the reader, with a flair for precise language. the use of obscure vocabu- must not confuse We do so lary with a flair for precise language. To does disservice to the clarity of our analysis and often merely annoys the reader. obscure vocabulary with must not confuse We do so makes our analysis unclear, precision. To As here, phrasal verbs like “give up” often get As here, phrasal verbs are idiomatic verbs that sundered (phrasal verbs verb with a preposition: put combine a common do in, play take over, down meaning derogate; —going the idea dering the idea that oves your drafts eor , and the relation- oved an extra dose”) is also dering impr by derogate; take over, do in, take over, derogate; eor . eatly impr meaning etc.). . It may be possible to make the relation- eatly Better: Better: ship between your ideas made much more apparent, by an extra dose of r ships between your ideas much more apparent by going through and rearranging the order in which sentences and paragraphs occur dered companions in prose. dered This example combines a shuffle and a split. In This example combines a shuffle the first version, the logical subject (“an extra its verbal is separated from dose of reordering”) line. Note that passive voice by an entire predicate (“can be improved gr of sun- than its fair share for more responsible On reflection, however, you may find that your you may find On reflection, however, drafts can be gr play up Transitive phrasal verbs like “give up” often get Transitive that idiomatic verbs (phrasal verbs are sundered combine a common verb with a preposition: put down If you are going to make this sort of edit If you are going to you may need to give effectively, make this sort of edit If you are going to you may need to give up effectively, Most of the time, companion elements are are elements companion of the time, Most On reflection, however, you might find that you might On reflection, however, an extra dose of r through and rearranging the order in which through and rearranging the order in which sentences and paragraphs occur. that the word order of spontaneous speech is that the word order always the best order. the word order of spontaneous speech is always the word order of spontaneous the best order up sundered by some complex subordinate element— subordinate by some complex sundered modify- clause a subordinate remark, a parenthetical are etc. Here of the main clause, ing an element examples. some further We such hot , but any It is also the interesting day,” above), adjec- above), day,” Interestingly, and Some people might even golden or it has little more content than it has little more important All of these phrases do, of course, like clearing your throat, it can be like clearing your throat, adjective can be culpable. Build an adjective adjective can be culpable. of your mind, and part detector into the editing keep it on high alert. in without our even noticing it. air can creep might even say that the sound of clearing your throat. case that, ungraceful to indulge in it too much. Scalpel please! Dummy signposts. often at the head of found particularly These are this catego- sentences and paragraphs, and in fact, ry overlaps quite significantly with fudging. The instinct for signposting, it seems, sometimes gets out of hand, and makes the writer feel uncomfort- able with a good clean start. Superfluous adjectives. Superfluous can be all that sepa- adjective While a well-chosen (think wondrous the from rates the lackadaisical “all the of Tennyson’s can blight all the face of your tives left unchecked of adding an adjective to the habit writing. Beware for the sake of rhythm, every second noun merely in offenders among repeat for example. Prominent this category are Fudging. of your ideas. must have the courage You you might be hedging. for places where Be alert are apt for this ignominious office Particularly and like almost, virtually, adverbs of degree phrases that seldom also exist entire nearly; there legitimate purpose, such as more serve any other, be might that, We This could give the impression thinking, for forgiven that...argue not degen- have valid uses, but watch that they do erate into verbal tics and plain old ass-covering. • • • the reader. measure and dignity measure Examples and instances misunderstanding . . .” annoy and irritate (4) excessively and immoderately, iterate . . .” mere . These bores are close cousins of are . These bores . For example, in an earlier draft of this and again re analyze and interpret, interesting and note- interesting analyze and interpret, SLASHING AND BURNING SLASHING A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies however, they merely they merely however, Double-barrels. Double-barrels. pairs of words By this we mean near-synonymous joined by out-and-out redundancy. include complex and involved, trite quick and easy, worthy, and boring to gain a section, we had written (below), “Try of the quirks and foibles that conscious awareness of appear in your drafts...” The first title regularly item on this list was “Digression the “Digression” The second member of each and irrelevancies.” pair adds nothing to the sense, and was scrapped such phrases, in judicious upon editing. True, a certain can impart measure, when used to prose; Redundancy. Redundancy. say Never say twice what you can adequately once. There are many common types of excrescence and many common types of excrescence are There SHEDDING, PRUNING, CULLING, PRUNING, SHEDDING, “We must “We “This is not only a • • Getting something on a page can be hard work, and on a page can be hard Getting something of achievement having got it we all feel some sense warm glow translate into of letting this Beware there. word, a single to relinquish an irrational reluctance with always burdened A first draft is almost however. no favors do your better words some excess, and you of hangers-on a retinue with if you send them forth and poor cousins. speech. Mouths a hangover from bloat. Many are seems, and commonly work faster than brains, it ways of marking time to avoid require therefore but in writ- embarrassing pauses. This is fair enough, candi- Prime just dross. ing such mouth-movers are dates for the chop: 104 |

Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing 105 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | It is not within our scope to consider this here. here. It is not within our scope to consider this Digression. Digression. of was once accused of this handbook The writer writing let your big sidetrack.” Don’t being “one fate. his share sidetracks open up on As we write, fascinating every find side. At least the ghosts of some will for a paper to writing. It is rare their way into our these ornaments, how- of the retention gain from may be. ever delightful they should always give you for example, Parentheses, nec- what they contain really pause in editing. Is essary? include phrases like Other giveaways should note in passing, By the way, We Incidentally, and • my (“It is within make, do, of... fles to be eshuf ... a sentence... e is easily swept away in fle It is this that, This is It is this that, This is and the verb who eshuf Mao Zedong stood on Mao Zedong etc. ... that in 1949 Better: Better: Better: Better: contention that” is better as “I contend . . .”). In this section, we will make an analysis In this section, we will analyz undertake, engage in, Some of the America’s Most Wanted perpetrators Most Wanted Some of the America’s the words are offense of this particular Often, you need to make such r Often, you need to r You may be easily swept away... may be easily You the heat of the moment... Dummy verbs with nominalization. that is, the discuss “over-nominalization,” We as abstract of verbal processes excessive recasting entitled nouns, in the Appendix to this handbook “Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and here. that analysis will not repeat We Wording”). auto- that nominalization often Note, however, its own piece of accompanying matically creates is to empty verb, whose sole purpose dross—an monster indicate that the action engulfed by the noun is “being done.” A couple of examples should suffice: You may be a person You In 1949, Mao Zedong... most thickly encrust the These verbal barnacles particularly subjects. Beware hulls of grammatical of turns of phrase like Dummy relative clauses. Dummy relative and or clause, word take a perfectly Often, we It was declared China Communist. and Tiananmen something that a sentence. • • serves clause that no purposes. in a relative embed it it , et editing tunately Better: is an aspect of writing novice and journeyman teachers writers frequently neglect, though their may strenuously urge it upon them. Y is nowhere near as painful or time-wasting as is nowhere near as painful or time-wasting fear. those who have not tried it sometimes In eliminating nominalization. in “Nominalization” (see Appendix, As we argue things “Miscellaneous Points”), writing in which things agents do actually happen, and concrete a than verbs, usually engages us more with real is true still-life of obdurate abstract nouns. This to bring it off. words even if it costs us a few more See “Nominalization” for examples. In splitting sentences. In splitting incorporate long sentences often Single, complex which is an aspect of The process of editing, writers frequent- writing novice and journeymen fact that it is urged upon ly neglect despite the by teachers, can make all them so strenuously and sparkling between mediocre the difference time- prose, and is nowhere near as painful or some- wasting as those who have not tried it times fear. between Editing can make all the difference mediocre and sparkling prose. Unfor • • one com- than more clauses, or contain subordinate subject, or for the same grammatical plex predicate such sentences, you will usually both. When you split the subject or the resume that have to add words clause. A few added subordinate of the headword matters still further: signposts may improve this, this, too heavi- (Ithaca: W. P. Humphrey, 1918), 23. Humphrey, P. (Ithaca: W. frequently lead to (5) read... refer, even at the cost of refer, . They it. it Unfortunately, some writers mis- Unfortunately, 3 The Elements of Style and ADDING WORDS ADDING and would have been more confusing, though A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies slightly shorter, had it slightly shorter, ambiguity, and it is better to err on the side of ambiguity, repetitive clarity than to lean on them To clarify the referents of pronouns like To that, them that, them lead to ambiguity, frequently These small words clar- and it is better to err on the side of repetitive Potential ity than to lean on them too heavily. by ambiguity and confusion should be avoided or clause to which the substantive word repeating even at the cost of raising refers, the pronoun For example, this para- slightly. your word-count confusing, though graph would have been more had it read: slightly shorter, To create signposts and other structural aids signposts and other structural create To neglected in the draft. like of pronouns clarify the referents To raising your word-count slightly. For example, raising your word-count slightly. this ly. Potential ambiguity and confusion should be ly. avoided by repeating the substantive words or clauses to which they belong so long as they do a job, and if a job is belong so long as they do a job, and if William J. Strunk, William 3 • • take this sound principle to mean that of any two take this sound principle to convey the same ideas, pieces of writing attempting always true, of This is not is the better. the shorter not explains, “This requires course. Strunk himself or that all his sentences short, that the writer make in out- his subjects only he avoid all detail and treat words tell.” In other words, line, but that every word do to do words being neglected, you need to put in some need to add regularly you will it. In editing, therefore, as well as subtract. when editing: adds words One regularly William Strunk, Jr., a great teacher of writing and for teacher of writing a great Jr., Strunk, William High Priest of clean-cut, many years the Grand “Omit famously thundered, decent American prose, needless words!” 106 |

Writing Strategy Revisited • Editing Writing Strategy Revisited • Some General Advice 107 This relates impor- This relates Some people show their attach- Don’t be afraid to make major Don’t A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | your word processing software to break software processing your word you use too yourself of the habit. Perhaps many semicolons; you can set the com- and judiciously for them, puter to search varied. edit to make your style more you have unwittingly become Perhaps addicted to some piece of empty verbiage, like the dreaded tantly to... or It is this that... It happens to the best of us—these phrases can be like viruses of the mind!—but the computer can help you weed those out too. On the other hand, don’t throw out the baby throw On the other hand, don’t If you notice that you have some tic or another If you notice that you ment to the myth of inspired creation by always creation ment to the myth of inspired wholly please them, and scratching what doesn’t “rewrit- one. This is not really going back to square we mean working again over ing,” if by that word written; it is just writing some- something already is that like most mor- thing else. What if the problem with the bathwater. Be ruthless if ruthlessness is in order. If you have an Be ruthless if ruthlessness is in order. or paragraph or section that looks incoherent entire effi- can be much more it to you on review, irrelevant scratch than to sit fid- from cient to scrap it and start dling with it ad infinitum. text specifically devoted to looking for such places. text specifically devoted and editing is that you rewriting Again, the beauty of style in the earlier phase of raw need not cramp your over sentence length at the by fussing production to generate content. same time as trying one out, in your writing, or if your teacher points and Replace” utility on consider using the “Search changes. writing quirks to make major changes specific writing weaknesses to your work • Look for your • be afraid Don’t your • Address • eye Bring a fresh • Practice and use that to squash the flow Some General Advice General Some not gain a conscious awareness of quirks gain a conscious awareness you rewrite as much as possible, and tried as much as you rewrite his section has strongly recommended that recommended his section has strongly to provide useful concrete advice about how concrete useful to provide For example, you may be easily Again, you might notice that you have a strong First, as you gain experience editing your own First, as you gain experience T knowledge to direct your editing process. your editing process. knowledge to direct swept away in the heat of the moment, as they and pump out ideas on the trot harnessed, this occur to you. Properly could be a verytrait—after all, at useful plenty of raw producing least you are you however, writing. On reflection, might find that an extra dose of reorder- It may your drafts greatly. ing improves be possible to make the relationships apparent between your ideas much more the and rearranging by going through in which sentences and paragraphs order Note that the point is occur. of ideas as they originally come, and strive for an to working method that may not be natural artificial that most working to recognize you. It is, rather, and to find compen- styles have their shortcomings, sating strategies. lots of simple sentences, and tendency to produce your drafts can be a bit choppy to that as a result, example above. If this is the as in Kim Cooper’s read, for sen- case, you might need to be especially alert tences that would do better joined by a well-chosen, might even incorporate into conjunction. You precise your a special sweep through your editing routine that regularly appear in your drafts, that regularly to do so. We will offer a few more general recommen- a few more offer will to do so. We to close. dations about rewriting writing, try to This can be We can all take a leaf We A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Most of all, keep at it. Bring a fresh eye to your work. eye Bring a fresh from the book of the greatest of Chinese calligra- the book of the greatest from has it Xizhi (303-361 CE). Tradition phers, Wang so assiduously that the pond that he practiced his art of his the washing outside his house went black from the then, as much as for Virgil, brushes. For Wang work was the fruit of patient toil; finished perfect our and improve, to correct with a similar readiness least a lit- at own work might become, if not perfect, tle better. tals, you don’t get things perfectly right straight off? straight right perfectly get things you don’t tals, will fix process the same of repeating No amount identify the specific to may need, rather, things. You them and address in what you have, weaknesses find that you devel- may You in rewriting. specifically and weak- of your strengths op a better knowledge you apply such critical scrutiny nesses as a writer if you, rather than simply turn- to work that dissatisfies ing away. achieved by allowing time to elapse between drafting achieved by allowing eye of fresh the can also borrow and editing. You writing with your classmates, another person. Swap critique one and gently but honestly friends or family, writing. another’s 108 |

Writing Strategy Revisited • Some General Advice Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 111 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | the formalization of rules and guidelines rationality, of perfect for the creation to many scholars turned their attention to identify and language, and labored eliminate irrational elements within it. scholars studied endeavor, of this As part the grammar and vocabulary of European vernacular languages, a study that previ- confined ously had been almost entirely to hallowed classical languages like and (to a lesser extent) Latin, Greek falteringly This study proceeded Hebrew. at first, however; it took some time Many people are aware that in Shakespeare’s day, that in Shakespeare’s aware Many people are politi- the nineteenth century, entered As Europe talk briefly about the history of “correct” English historytalk briefly about the of “correct” usage and its teaching. or “correct” as “standard” was no such thing there same thing is true, in a sense, of English spelling. The century, grammar and usage. During the eighteenth in interest at the height of Enlightenment however, termi- that the grammatical scholars realized before nology developed for the analysis of Latin and Greek was not always applicable to vernaculars. It nonetheless laid the foundations for the ultimate formaliza- usage in English. rules of correct tion of prescriptive the continent under- cal arrangements throughout went a fundamental change, and nationalism and the of this A part to play a central role. nation-state rose in national histo- sea-change was the rise of interest familiar with these changes are We ries and cultures. at Harvard.” at Harvard.” the Appendix through other through You can receive You (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996). (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, grammar at the writing style and Writing Center or Writing resources listed in resources additional help on “Writing Resources “Writing APPENDIX: Miscellaneous Points Points Miscellaneous Williams gives Williams 4 of Grammar and Wording and of Grammar . Style Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace Style: Ten we offer miscellaneous advice on grammar, miscellaneous advice we offer n the following sections of our handbook, n the following sections wording, and such matters, and try and such matters, to head wording, These principles are also taught at the Harvard These principles are this section will notice as we go through You Some of the points discussed below, I Joseph M. Williams, Joseph M. Williams, a series of exercises designed to hone designed a series of exercises your sense for each point, and does the same for many of the aspects of editing discussed later in this handbook. You book out, might like to check Williams’s sections to relevant and work through weak. foster skills in which you feel you are and if you feel you would benefit Center, Writing guidance and practice, we invite you to more from at Resources alternately pursue some of the “Writing listed in the Appendix to this handbook. Harvard” points we discuss are that many of the troublesome because the accepted rules of good prose troublesome we embark on the sometimes in flux. Before are discussion of specific points, then, it will be useful to off at the pass some common concerns and mistakes. at the pass some common off decision about what style In each case, the ultimate is intended here to adopt is your own; our discussion considerations, only to lay out some of the relevant and help you make an informed choice. like nominalization, topic, and old and discussed very new information, are clearly and informatively in an excellent writing workbook by Joseph M. entitled Williams, 4 , as his 5 to use language, ought Modern English Usage Eventually a reaction set in against the worst Eventually a reaction Similar trends swept the United States, and in Similar trends Whatever the complex mix of factors that decided the complex mix Whatever in 1928, is often identified as a turning point; in 1928, is often identified as a turning rather than how they actually do so) was taken up rather than how they in the system of universal com- and institutionalized in with the pulsory education that was ushered Act 1870. For half a centuryEnglish Education and of had the rules of school children generations more, into them (often lit- grammar drummed prescriptive who violated these “rules” with a stick!). Users erally, often it was could be stigmatized as ignorant, and the best the most unnatural rules that made precisely and to learn hardest shibboleths, since they were of the artificial- the most exclusive preserve therefore middle classes. ly “improved” publica- movement. The excesses of the prescriptive classic Fowler’s tion of H. W. title indicates, Fowler’s criteria was the way the lan- criteria title indicates, Fowler’s putative first guage was actually used, rather than any be (even if he principles of how language “ought” to in the this intention as much sometimes honored as the observance). By this stage, however, breach old, and universal education was nearly sixty years of English several generations of speakers and writers rules to unnatural prescriptive had taken certain and made their observanceheart integral to their intellectual self-esteem. in the English-speaking fact, writers everywhere world today write in a context still shaped by the legacy of these developments. Some of the rules we partly of our handbook are deal with in this part gram- the work of the prescriptive hangovers from of coordination marians—for example, the correct for phenomena whose full complexities they do not they complexities whose full for phenomena understand. necessarily tendency in gram- shape, the prescriptive its ultimate it concerned itself meaning that mar (“prescriptive” and writers with how speakers class distinc- (London: Pan, 1953), 8. reinforce Better English A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies As part of this large historical moment, thinkers historical of this large As part his gram- Cobbett, it seems, originally intended See, for instance, G.H. Vallins, See, for instance, G.H. Vallins, tions and prejudice. This was in part because the This was in part tions and prejudice. were grammatical analysis upon which prescriptions science inherited from based was the imperfect Enlightenment pioneers, which sometimes reasoned classical models. It was also by false analogy from grammarians had an because prescriptive perhaps tendency certainty—a understandable drive towards to nail down with explicit, unambiguous rules even in fact somewhat those linguistic phenomena that are or to formulate overly simplistic rules fluid or unruly, in what is known as Romanticism in the arts, for in the arts, as Romanticism is known in what of Tennyson, poems of the Arthurian instance—think This interest Wagner. cycle of operas by or the Ring itself in scholarship. heritage also showed in national collected their Grimm, for example, The brothers to gath- scholastic project of a large fairy tales as part German folk heritage. er and analyze the the fervid (i.e. classicism from began to turn away classical period) of the eighteenth admiration for the valorized national and claim that these newly century, vernaculars were standardized cultural heritages and or could and counterparts, the equal of classical by was reflected should be made so. In language, this “correct” and rules for attempts to codify standards and demotic use of vernaculars, and eliminate dialect move- educated common use. This elements from ment was heralded in England by a grammarian of the 1818 classic Cobbett, author called William Grammar of the English Language. working mar as an empowering self-help for the that classes, to allow them to speak in language them to enable and thereby would command respect over their own political destinies. influence exert grammar was fated to prescriptive however, Ironically, that sometimes ossify into gate-keeping conventions English from operated to exclude aspects of natural accepted usage, and thereby 5 112 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 113 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | breaking—some of the breaking—some and If you are going to break a rule, however—even a rule, going to break If you are intended to therefore The sections that follow are more controversial conventions in modern formal controversial more you can decide these such an awareness, With prose. depending and like questions at your own discretion, like your tone upon how formal or casual you would to be, and the conventions you see scholars respecting in writing you like with the disciplinary slant that you. This may mean that you will most interests conservative some of the more selectively break that you will on “rules”; it will also mean, conversely, a rule that you believe to occasion choose to respect of the fact that it is now in recognition be artificial, In minor in the expectations of readers. entrenched is often no there where points of academic prose, principle at stake, it can sometimes be better to great bow to convention than to stand on vain principle and be thought ignorant in consequence. participial phrases with the grammatical subject (see subject grammatical with the phrases participial of the avoidance Modification”), Participial “Preposed Sentences with (see “Ending prepositions dangling taboo against split the exaggerated Prepositions”), (see “Split Infinitives”), of all descriptions infinitives pronouns of relative segregation and the extreme “That” (see “Relative pronouns “that” and “which” will see in detail in the respec- and “Which”). As we of these points, each of each tive section treating of substance behind it, but these rules has something dogmatically exaggerated, and an each has also been has rigid version of each artificially over-generalized, become entrenched. first know an arbitrarily unnatural one—you should and you behind it, it and understand the reasoning of should always be able to give a clear explanation You it in a given instance. why you have broken that while an occasional deliber- should also be aware such prose, ate flouting of convention can enliven if they distracting and counter-productive things are tics. devolve into mere give you the necessary information to make informed decisions about keeping— of the main clause, , Widener Library d ar subject d Y var oss Har acr alking loomed up like a bibliographic behemoth before the hapless sophomore. W Professor Puett flung his arms outwards with Professor Puett flung his arms outwards great enthusiasm and beamed with irrepressible Asian He exclaimed once more, “East fervor. Studies will change your life!” Puett’s lost the sense that Professor have also We writers observe a careful to avoid ambiguity, Now, downright This means that sentences like this are Professor Puett flung his arms outwards with Professor Puett flung with great enthusiasm. Professor Puett beamed exclaimed Professor Puett irrepressible fervor. your once more, “East Asian Studies will change life!” exclamation is the focus of attention; in the rewrite, exclamation is the focus of attention; that obscures the verbs have attained an equal status the main point. participial rule stipulating that the verbs in such only of the grammatical phrases must be predicated a is thus like subject of the main clause. A participle “IOU one subject.” note to the reader: promissory a sentence that knows, when they read The reader that the subject of those verbs with a participle, starts will be given them as the if the subject of the and you only keep this promise main clause is in fact the grammatical subject of the verbs. participial wrong: Even with repetition eliminated by pronouns and eliminated by pronouns Even with repetition the participial: conjunctions, this is less elegant than the main clause; this means that participial phrases means that participial the main clause; this give by which we can allow a very useful economy, the action of those verbs than one verb (where more subject) without repeating of the same is predicated alternative is redundancy: the subject itself. The .” - or equiv- –ed essible fer eat epr r ds with gr is therefore usually an entire is therefore ms outwar is defined as a form of a verb that can is defined as a form form of any verb, used in the sense Preposed Participial Modification Participial Preposed ”); his ar participial phrase at the beginning of a phrase at the beginning participial sentence must refer to a grammatical sub- to sentence must refer –ing ject”! This is the one of the most succinct ject”! This is the one , Professor Puett exclaimed once more, “East that the action described by the verb occurs that the action described by the verb with another action (“he said, concurrently smiling alent form, when used in an adjectival sense, alent form, when used in an adjectival as in “This sentence is very poorly written participle participial phrase A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 1. the A 2. i.e. the the past passive participle, Flinging enthusiasm and beaming with ir vor con- phrases, as here, participial Such preposed A Asian Studies will change your life!” function as an adjective. The most common examples function as an adjective. The most common in English are: rules in Strunk’s delightful 1918 manual of style, and delightful 1918 manual rules in Strunk’s of the most opaque. also, in this form, one Everything before the comma is “preposed the comma is “preposed Everything before a double In fact, we have here matter. participial” phrases for the participial whammy—two preposed same sentence. tain no explicit grammatical subject. They do not tell us who does the flinging, the beaming, the describe. This is because they they whatever-ing in the subject of the verb function to describe further phrase built around such an adjectival verb form and such an adjectival verb phrase built around so on. It is its paraphernalia—object, adverb and by complex sentences common in English to create phrase to the grammati- such a participial preposing cal subject. For example: “A 114 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 115 In their zeal for rendering the lan- In their zeal for rendering 6 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | elements of the main clause, so long as no Examples like these require us to ask: If this rule us to ask: If this like these require Examples we did not have such a rule in Strictly speaking, if the prescriptive In fact, it seems that before guage rigorously consistent and obedient to rule, it guage rigorously grammarians over-generalized seems, prescriptive than a tendency for what was initially nothing more to subject first, and as relating such matter to be read to other elements in the main clause only as relating most readers would probably breeze through the sen- through breeze would probably readers most was “wrong.” that something realizing tence without can transgressions and inviolable, how is absolute and why do native speakers against it be so subtle, fall into them so often? phrases would be English, all such participial con- except from never know, ambiguous—we would doing or the sophomore Widener text, whether it was or his TF who had the heart the walking, or John con- it is possible to tell from attack. Often, however, to phrase is intended text whether the participial have surely modify the subject or object. As you will phrases are participial in cases where noticed by now, to modify some element of the main used incorrectly, interpreta- clause other than its grammatical subject, grammatical rules to the “correct” tion according presses libraries, often leads to absurdity—walking themselves that follow upon the heels of books they errors! issue, and even TFs who make grammatical the very interpretations fact that these Probably, of to the mind them remote renders would be absurd easy and alike, and makes “error” writers and readers sometimes nearly unnoticeable. preposed grammarians of the nineteenth century, with coordinated was regularly matter participial various ambiguity would arise. The “rule” restricting phrases to modification of the subject participial often not observed even by the best was apparently such as English writers in the eighteenth century, Jonathan Swift. never eposed ectly pr r , writing a perfect first , Yasuo’s TF had a heart , Yasuo’s 9. d on the heels of its Han volume, , Party commissars erased Lin Biao har one too many incor one too many for his supposed betrayal of the Better English, ticipial phrases ilified oung and inexperienced evolution Following Cambridge University Press has recently released the volume of its China history series covering the period of division from the fall of the Han to reunification under the Sui. Not all examples are as obvious as these, and in Not all examples are This example is adapted from Professor Strunk: Professor This example is adapted from Y r used par- It is also possible for simple adjectives Phrases built around a past passive participle are past passive participle a Phrases built around V par Another example: On using draft seemed easy to me. from officially approved histories and even from officially him out of propaganda photographs air-brushed and posters. attack. Vallins, Vallins, Strictly speaking, this sentence means that it was itself that followed hard Cambridge University Press on the heels of the Han volume, not the successor Almost nobody would by the press. volume produced and indeed, however, the sentence this way, ever read Strictly speaking, this has the very bizarre implication Strictly speaking, this has the very bizarre inexperienced! that the act of writing was young and to catch some subtle cases it can be very difficult on the lookout. even if you are such errors ticipially to be incorrectly preposed. preposed. ticipially to be incorrectly happen...). preposed: also often incorrectly This sentence is incorrect if it is intended to mean if This sentence is incorrect current In its grammar. used the incorrect that Yasuo the TF made the grammatical form, it means that (and that could obviously mistakes in question Thanks to the promise of the participial phrase, we phrase, participial of the promise to the Thanks Library mean that Widener this sentence to read Yard. Harvard walked across 6 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies The fact remains, however, that we now write in a that we however, The fact remains, when such a reading was illogical. was illogical. such a reading when and observed rule has been taught, this where culture years. This for over a hundred writers, by careful latitude for loose is no longer much there means that phrases, especially in formal con- use of participial best therefore are writing. You texts like academic strict, if served relatively by training yourself to be so, in observingnot artificially the rule. not only still widespread, are mistakes Unfortunately, writing, but also in the media and in undergraduate all constantly means we are published works. This usage. Observation of “incorrect” exposed to models of some retraining of this rule can thus require in the care habit, or particular unconsciously acquired or both. editing process, 116 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 117 where no man has gone before... A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | o boldly go On the other hand, we all know this split infini- T To be or to not be To (example from Kim Cooper of the Writing Center). One can easily imagine that for thinkers whose One can easily imagine that for thinkers the “rule” against the split infinitive is As a result, ). This preposition is a relatively free-floating, is a relatively ). This preposition to tive quite well, perhaps without realizing that it is without realizing tive quite well, perhaps one: and we submit that Gene Roddenberry and his independent element, and creates the very possibility independent element, and creates possibility of splitting the infinitive in English—a or and Latin, that simply does not exist in Greek languages like French. many modern European was classi- language model of a rational, standardized the or Latin, and who set out to prescribe cal Greek of English in terms of categories grammar correct a split the analysis of those languages, derived from parochial infinitive must have looked like plain such an embar- gaucherie. The temptation to legislate strong. rassment out of existence must have been its very gained currency, Once such a prescription by unnaturalness made it an excellent shibboleth distin- educated could means of which the properly grammatical the great guish themselves from unwashed, and it took on a self-perpetuating life of its own. best thought of as a useful guideline, to which, how- For example, nobody valid exceptions. are there ever, would want to split the infinitive here: from reasoning by false analogy from the nature of the nature from by false analogy reasoning from the classi- languages, particularly infinitives in other traditionally held in such cal languages that were lan- is unusual among European high esteem. English incorporates a preposition guages in that its infinitive ( . It is, rather, Split Infinitives Split per se few decades ago any self-respecting writer self-respecting few decades ago any would have scrupulously avoided split would have scrupulously infinitives. These days, however, split infini- however, infinitives. These days, This uncertainty over the status of the split over the status of the split This uncertainty is verygood observingFirst, it is worth that there That said, some sticklers do excoriate all split A tives are back in style in some quarters, coming back style in some quarters, back in tives are like bad seventies tie-died shirts; to haunt the tasteful latitude increasing with widely regarded they are of of self-appointed wardens despite the best efforts avoiding insistence upon good diction. As a result, in some contexts, and split infinitives can seem stuffy want to whether you you may sometimes be unsure the rule. keep or break The split infinitive is one of infinitive is not new. been most those corners of the grammar that has history we hotly contested over the course of the section, and to this briefly traced in our introduction of the rules as a consequence, it has also been one and corporally that had to be most energetically at school. Why drummed into generations of writers are there It seems that has it been such a problem? several reasons. to avoid the split infinitive in most circum- reason is anything stances, but that this is not because there special about the split infinitive because it is generally a good idea in written English to keep elements with a close logical connection close discuss this principle together in the sentence. (We to fix violations of it, when we discuss rewriting Companions”) under the heading of “Sundered the logical marriage between the preposi- Obviously, tion to and the verb itself in the English infinitive is grounds close, and this gives us strong particularly for avoiding putting them asunder. infinitives with a virulence that seems to go beyond rational objection. This may originally have stemmed —is sufficient to over- to sufficient —is in this particular manner particular in this These occasions where the removal of the adverb the removal where These occasions done done split infinitive. The objection to the ride the usual and of the two evils, is then the lesser split infinitive to be preferred. relatively the ear are offends outside the infinitive you can the time, however, Most of however. rare, will gain and your prose easily avoid split infinitives, so. if you do strength example: Star Trek ourselves if this is true. ourselves honestly if this is true. ourselves honestly if scriptwriters were right to split this one: split this right to were scriptwriters Good English: A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies The nations of the world should combine and The nations of the world should combine should flatly forbid hostilities. considera- from Apart What makes the difference? We need to ask We Kathleen example, adapted from is a great Here The nations of the world should combine to flatly forbid hostilities. An infinitive split by a negative is usually quite split by a negative An infinitive ask need to honestly We but this seems wordy, if not downright redundant. but this seems wordy, the it seems that most of the time, tions of prosody, down to a decision “to split or not to split” boils each of which choice between the lesser of two evils, that because it separates elements is evil precisely The two belong logically together in the sentence. “to” members of the infinitive, that is the preposition since and the verb itself, obviously belong together, the verb is only “infinitive” with both of these parts. an infinitive is modified where Sometimes, however, adverb, it seems that the adverb is by a single-word to the way that the verb is to be under- so important stood that it can almost enter into the infinitive and form a unit with it. On these unusual occasions, if we the adverb outside the infinitive, the violence remove that would be done to the intended sense—the weak- ening of the idea that the action of the verb is being As Baron points out, the “correct” alternative points out, the “correct” As Baron hostilities (“to forbid flatly hostilies,” or “to forbid rewriting She suggests flatly”) is very unsatisfactory. the sentence: Baron’s Baron’s the alternative (“to go boldly”) is rhythmically far less is rhythmically (“to go boldly”) the alternative a tin ear. require and to favor it would satisfying, above. On example as in the Shakespeare awkward, by the people will be troubled the other hand, fewer in the of an adverb, as insertion however: This is easily avoided, Star Trek Star 118 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 119 (Hamlet III:1) ... A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | . . . die: to sleep; To No more; and by a sleep to say we end shocks The heart-ache and the thousand natural That flesh is heir to times when preposi- are On the other hand, there You will also probably want to take into account will also probably You disciplinary approach you the conventions of the closely allied to. consider yourself most or: account will also probably want to take into You to the conventions of the disciplinary approach allied. which you consider yourself most closely that requires Eliminating dangling prepositions tions really do dangle, and give us a kind of verbal do dangle, and give tions really on a number of things, including: It depends vertigo. in the pronoun a relative is already whether there at the end; the sentence, even with the preposition that come between the preposition number of words and preposition and its verb; and which particular dealing with. In considering you are pronoun relative you might whether to allow a dangling preposition, consider which version of the sentence separates the distance, in by the greatest its preposition verb from with the principle that things that belong accordance logically together should be kept as close together as companions” possible in the sentence (see “sundered you in the section on “Editing”). In the end, however, don’t just have to let your ear be the judge; certainly get too hung up on this rule. Between these two extremes lies many a close call. extremes Between these two better? two sentences reads Which of the following that it is six of one and half a dozen of the submit We other. at pronoun be placed with the relative the preposition and some- the beginning of the clause (“to which”), Would clunky. times that comes out sounding a little this sentence, for example? anybody “correct” —or worse: Ending Sentences with Prepositions Sentences Ending tourist is walking through Harvard Yard, Harvard tourist is walking through and stops a well-heeled young man for and stops a well-heeled directions. “’Scuse me, can you all tell me “’Scuse directions. Better: Better: The young man looks down his nose and says, The young man looks try again. Can you all tell me where let’s “Okay, end a sen- This joke hinges on the rule “Do not What is the world coming to? This is a point people still fight over. what is the world coming? To What is it to which the world is coming? This is a point over which people still fight. There is an ethical point for all of us that we There is an ethical point for all of us that much it would refuse at any cost, no matter how or might impinge upon our general well being even imperil our lives, to go beyond. A where Widener library is at?” Widener where do not end out sentences with We “This is Haahvud. prepositions.” library is at, smart-ass?” Widener the lesser (also found in tence with a preposition” you should is something known form, “A preposition holds a lot of never end a sentence with”!). This rule this sentence is just plain awful For example, water. than one): reasons (though for more Even worse: On the other hand, almost any writer will judiciously On the other hand, almost any writer and per- this rule in the right circumstances, break is awful haps good writers always have. This sentence too, even though it is supposedly “correct”: “Who” and “Whom”

ost careful writers still observe this distinc- some readers will think you ignorant. There are peo- M tion, but it seems likely that it is in the ple who hate the word “whom,” and those to whom process of falling away in the language, and it is indispensable. that “whom” may ultimately go the same way as pro- The rule is simple: use “who” for the grammatical nouns like “whence” and “whither,” which now have subject, and “whom” for the grammatical object a decidedly musty aroma. If you choose to abandon (both direct and indirect). “whom,” however, you should also be aware that

Relative Pronouns “That” and “Which”

ome style guides recommend a hard and Were it not for the subordinate clause here, we S fast distinction between the use of “that” would not know which book was meant. and “which” as relative pronouns. If you are This distinction in meaning means that the

Appendix not familiar with this distinction, it goes like this. distinction between the usage of that and of which has Use “which” for modification of a head noun a solid basis, as is abundantly clear if we change the which is not set off parenthetically within commas, pronoun in the first example:

• and “that” for modification that is not. This formal The People’s Republic of China, that was found- iclaeu onso rma n Wording and Grammar of Points Miscellaneous distinction corresponds to a difference in meaning. ed in 1949 upon the victory Mao’s People’s Liberation Army over Kuomintang forces, is the When modification is set off parenthetically in com- most populous country in the world. mas, it functions as an aside that gives us additional information about the thing described, information This is clearly wrong. It gets worse if we remove the not strictly necessary to identify that thing: commas:

The People’s Republic of China, which was The People’s Republic of China that was founded founded in 1949 upon the victory Mao’s People’s in 1949 upon the victory Mao’s People’s Liberation Army over Kuomintang forces, is the Liberation Army over Kuomintang forces is the most populous country in the world. most populous country in the world.

Even without the information in the “which” clause, This gives the peculiar impression that there is a we know which PRC we are talking about. On the whole passel of PRCs on the loose, and we therefore other hand, consider this example; need to specify which one we are talking about.

The book that my brother brought back from the library for me yesterday turned out to be useless.

120 | A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 121 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | which rule, om can only which that ought back fr ought back turned out to be turned out day other br to the parenthetical use. to the parenthetical which with a wavy green line. with a wavy green twice in this section, and we would y for me yester which which people praise and don’t read,” and his flagrant read,” people praise and don’t for parenthetical modification. If for parenthetical If you decide not to worry about the You can decide for yourself whether you wish to can decide for yourself You So far, so good. The reverse transformation, how- transformation, The reverse so good. So far, which my br The book the librar useless. be surprised if most readers so much as blinked. be surprised if most readers disregard for this “rule” doesn’t seem to have done his for this “rule” doesn’t disregard as a fine writer any harm. reputation you will be in very good company. Mark Twain, for Mark Twain, you will be in very good company. instance, once defined a literary classic as “a book which can serve as the relative pronoun for both kinds of pronoun can serve as the relative above clause, and that the last example subordinate brought...”)(“The book which my brother has really have even deliberately with it. We nothing wrong “misused” For example, the grammar checker in Microsoft checker in Microsoft For example, the grammar can often be quite schoolmarmish) (which Word observes this rule, and will punctiliously mark every “incorrect” this breaks your writing usage which eliminate from that in actual usage, submit, however, rule. We Some rule mavens argue that this is as wrong as using that this is as wrong argue Some rule mavens that ever, is nowhere near as offensive. In fact it is rather near as offensive. is nowhere ever, innocuous: to one type of subordinate pronoun act as relative feel, then we should even the clause, they seem to and restrict score, )— subjects In this paper, it will be In this paper, it is as if contentions will just spring ... , like the natural sciences, where it is generally , like the natural sciences, where There are those, then, who oppose the elimination are There can decide to use authorial passive or not, You on objectivity in the age of science. Authorial passive on objectivity in the by eliminating the an air of objectivity thus creates as a subjective indi- to the author need for reference the illusion that no even create vidual (“I”), and can of at all in the process human agency is involved If we say, thinking and writing. contended that into existence of their own volition. of authorial voice because they take philosophical achieve objec- issue with the notion that humans can subjective irreparably They hold that we are tivity. face up to the beings, and that it is healthier for us to of phrase. turns fact than hide it behind roundabout the authorial this attitude towards Not surprisingly, fields in frequently passive tends to be found more that study human phenomena (human the humani- some social sciences, and particularly incorporate a ties—since such phenomena themselves Qualms about authorial dimension of subjectivity. natural less typical of fields that study passive are objects objective knowl- rigorously that a more recognized edge is not only possible, but has been achieved. depending upon what you think about this argument for favoring active over passive and the arguments will You voice below (“Active and Passive Voice”). want to take into account the conven- also probably you consider your- tions of the disciplinary approach self most closely allied to. , and below, we will , and below, which Authorial Self-Reference Authorial and that writers. We have seen this with relative have seen writers. We ronouns are the source of much trouble for of much trouble the source are ronouns pronouns pronouns A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies The first problem with authorial self-reference is with authorial self-reference The first problem of authori- Some authors avoid the circumvention If, as we have seen, some writers dislike passive that avoidance of authorial It is sometimes argued P examine the ways pronouns force us to grapple with us to grapple force examine the ways pronouns language. Another pronominal issues of sexism in of authorial self-ref- is the problem of trouble source in themselves overtly to Should authors refer erence. they use to should their writing? If so, what pronoun do so? must we fundamental than one of pronouns: more to ourselves at all. Many aca- decide whether to refer mention of demics use passive voice to erase all direct faint ghost of the text, leaving only a themselves from less fash- authorial voice. This strategy is becoming it has (where ionable, especially in the humanities means dead. If never been universal), but it is by no you however, you do choose to adopt this strategy, of some wordi- should know that it comes at the cost decide if you ness and abstraction. It is up to you to enough compensating important are think there this advantages to justify this price. In considering it might help you to know the arguments problem, people give one way or another. of a by means of passive voice as part al self-reference general stylistic decision to avoid passive voice more discuss the reasons possible. We in general, wherever for this in the section on “Active and Passive Voice.” of authorial voice because it is pas- circumlocution sive, others hold that it is undesirable because there authorial overt not to circumvent special reasons are whatever means we achieve it by. self-reference, is motivated by the high value placed self-reference 122 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 123 Some students feel, or have Some students A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | been cautioned by teachers, that the use of by teachers, been cautioned oneself is bad to singular to refer first person to the it imparts because practice, supposedly writing a taint of subjectivity. to confound form and sub- seems Such reasoning absolute Think also about whether you believe attention “I” does draw some Given that the word Use of the first person for these purposes can (“I,” “me,” “my”). (“I,” “me,” 3. singular use the first person can You stance. If your thinking is marred by excessive sub- by is marred stance. If your thinking by merely fix the problem jective bias, you won’t “I” with the “Find and weeding out the word If your work is sound and Word. Replace” utility in on the other hand, any reader objective in substance, the occasional see past her salt will surely worth the patronize merits. We “I” and judge it on its real suggest they judge the objectivity of an if we reader or absence of a slender on the presence argument pronoun. If interest. objectivity is attainable in your field of a writing you believe it is not, is it honest to adopt you style that deliberately disguises the subjectivity use of believe is inevitable? That said, too frequent in writing, the first person, like overuse of anything Again, we is liable to irritate and distract your reader. “Good writing is writing our watchword: can recall the can avoid overtaxing that serves its purpose.” You you have by using it only when first person pronoun good reason. for the best reason to the subjectivity of the author, that you to signal to your reader using it is probably can your own opinion or analysis. You presenting are is due, that is, credit where also use it to claim credit to signal that you believe an idea is original. use of first person for these ends is often Measured found in turns of phrase like “I contend,” “I argue,” “I hold” etc. “I will show,” have the added benefit of helping you own up to your ideas. Nothing is less conducive to fudging than verb in the first a key point with a strong prefacing person, as in “I disagree.” e will then discuss...”), : “It seems to this e the author, the present the author, are now convinced” in a are e Obviously, if you are involved in a are if you Obviously, this researcher Overuse of this sort of wording can sound can of wording Overuse of this sort or that such turns their of phrase do have rather wooden, however. place.” concluding section, skeptical readers may be driv- concluding section, skeptical readers by a suspicion that you agreement en away from wool over their trying to pull the rhetorical are eyes. for example, can usually be fairly safely case in for example, can usually be fairly safely anyone this form, since it is patently true that your paper will follow your ideas who reads them. you present in the order through plural pro- It pays to have a light touch with this trying to persuade when you are noun, however, point—and of any controversial your reader that your thesis should be controversial remember If you come on thick with “W to be interesting! have seen that” or “W writer If you do choose to refer to yourself in your writ- yourself to to refer do choose If you “us,” “our”). using such locutions as using such writer, the only these are with plural authorship, project available. Even authors who first person pronouns often use “we” in a rhetori- work alone, however, to join them in a cal sense, to invite the reader a problem of thinking through collegial process suited to tactic is particularly This together. is little there statements, where uncontroversial hustling will feel the author is risk that the reader para- them into consent or collusion. A roadmap graph and signposts (“W 2. (“we,” use first person plural pronouns can You ing, you have three basic strategies to choose from: basic strategies three ing, you have 1. by the use of pronouns, can still avoid You A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies We have looked at four strategies for handling strategies at four looked have We authorial self-reference: circumvention with passive with circumvention self-reference: authorial like “the present use of substantives voice, the plural and both and first person pronouns, author,” mutually not necessarily are These strategies singular. to get by with a judicious mix exclusive. It is possible and as we have seen above, of some or all of them, that each is suited to a thought may show careful strategy you purpose. Whichever slightly different help if you have thought it will adopt, however, consistent in if you are and your reasons, through your choices. 124 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Pronouns and Sexist Language

exist language is a serious concern in our What can we do, then? Let us examine the most S academic culture. However, a little thought common alternatives briefly in turn. and experiment will show that there is no 1. “One.” This has the advantage of being formal, perfect fix for the admittedly sexist conventions of singular and perfectly neutral. Unfortunately, it is the English language, and the search for remedies can somewhat obtrusive when used repeatedly: be quite vexing. One sometimes finds when writing that one We commonly have particular difficulty finding needs to refer repeatedly to a hypothetical pronouns for hypothetical, abstract persons, or per- subject. One might be tempted to fall back on sons of unknown gender. Traditionally English has “one” in this case, but one risks offending one’s reader if this is one’s sole means of handling the used the male third person to refer to such hypotheti- problem. cal unknowns. Take “the reader” for example. The One wants to tear one’s hair out, doesn’t one? Unless norm used to be something like this: used quite seldom, “one” tends to make you sound The reader will have to have his wits about him to find a non-sexist way of talking about hypo- like the Queen of England, hardly the biggest role thetical persons. model for most Harvard sophomores. Handle this device with caution. We recommend using it only A very common fix for this problem is to use the once or perhaps twice at a time. pronoun “they” for singular subjects. This does not work in writing. In speech, of course, we can these 2. Making hypothetical persons plural. days increasingly get away with saying something It is frequently possible (though not always) to Appendix like this: substitute plural hypothetical persons for singular.

Having once referred to “the reader” in a This allows us to use “them” and related pro-

passage of prose, it is difficult to find a neutral nouns without the logical dissonance we dis- •

pronoun with which to refer back to them on Wording and Grammar of Points Miscellaneous cussed above. It has the additional advantage of second mention. being comprehensive (it includes both males and It can be very tempting to transfer this practice to females) and concise. writing. Were it acceptable, it would solve all our Readers will have to have their wits about them problems in one fell swoop. It is not generally accept- to find a non-sexist way of talking about ed as correct grammar, however, for obvious reasons: hypothetical persons. it is simply illogical (it makes a singular person plu- You can get a lot of mileage out of this tactic, and we ral), and therefore jars. have used it frequently throughout this handbook. We do not recommend that you adopt this tactic, therefore, unless you are reconciled to being thought unlettered or illogical by many of your readers. Note that this use of “they” is now so common in speech that it can easily find its way into your writing without you noticing, and you should root it out vigilant- ly when editing.

A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | 125 needs to sole means of handling risks offending his or her risks offending Another tactic that was seen Another tactic We have relied heavily on this tactic heavily have relied We might be tempted to fall back on “one” in might be tempted to fall back on “one” ance at least within a single work. This offends work. a single at least within ance with be comfortable and you should some readers, this tactic. if you adopt that possibility the problem. more frequently ten or twenty years ago was the ten or twenty frequently more or she” at each juncture exhaustive use of “he was needed. pronoun a hypothetical where a of truly representing This has the advantage of the identity of a non-sexist understanding they can be male or hypothetical person—that it can rapidly lead to very female. Unfortunately, and clunky style: wordy this this handbook. However, throughout and informal in style relaxed handbook is more Second person is than an academic argument. and in academic argument, appropriate not really only to warn against taking its we mention it here use in this handbook as a model. the various tactics As with authorial self-reference, Like “one,” then, this tactic is probably best used Like “one,” then, this tactic is probably once only on a given occasion. to possible to avoid reference It is frequently be simply hypothetical persons by pronoun, with a repeated the pronouns replacing in substantive. In other sections on pronouns see that this handbook (see “Editing”), we will and can lead to ambiguity, of pronouns over-use reducing this tactic has the added advantage of such ambiguity. A writer sometimes finds that he or she she reader if this is his or her this case, but he or she registers of prose to use the second person of prose registers (“you”). refer repeatedly to a hypothetical subject. He or refer repeatedly to a hypothetical subject. for the avoidance of sexist pronouns are not mutually are for the avoidance of sexist pronouns often achieved by a are exclusive, and best results judicious mix of several tactics for slightly different purposes. 6. with substantives. Replacing pronouns 7. possible in some it is In the case of “the reader,” 5. “he or she.” Using might This tactic about needs to refer on second reader if this is his . Whether you use this tactic will proba- risks offending her risks offending he to find a non-sexist way of talking about to find a non-sexist A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies bly depend upon your convictions about the discrimination against extent of remaining and women, the influence of language in creating perpetuating it, and the tactics likely to be effective in countering it. has a certain Exclusive use of female pronouns an opposite imbal- disadvantage, in that it creates was seen more frequently a decade or so ago, and frequently was seen more may be on the wane. It is understandably motivat- by created the imbalance to redress ed by a desire in print that are the thousands of books already absolutely overrun with hypothetical persons called be tempted to fall back on “one” in this case, be tempted to fall back on “one” in this but he him repeatedly to a hypothetical subject. She sole means of handling the problem. Identity Even in hypothetical persons, Gender is distressing. Disorder A writer sometimes finds that he This is quite a useful tactic, especially when the This is quite a useful separated by a good distance. We examples are It has the have used it in places in this handbook. us with female added advantage of presenting sweep- hypothetical subjects, rather than simply carpet. ing the whole issue of gender under the having once chosen a it is necessary, Obviously, to stick with the same gender pronoun, gendered to do for the duration of a given example. Failure so leads straight to trouble: hypothetical persons. hypothetical persons. or a page later, a paragraph and then say, to “the reader” in a Having once referred to find a neutral is difficult passage of prose, it to her pronoun to refer back By this we mean the practice of using male pro- mean the practice By this we so in the next, and one example, female nouns in might say, For example, we on, by turns. his wits will have to have The reader mention. 4. Using exclusively female pronouns. 3. alternately. female pronouns Using male and 126 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 127 . Look, for to be obfuscation for writing, for nominalization. . Now, the verb is the part of the verb is the part . Now, and above all . Reading the resulting style is . Reading the resulting eates economization, and thus a happen –ations A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | insanity. and Nominalization is temptation due to the confusion of concision Excess in the utiliza- and maximization of clarity. tion of concision cr telegram language, the employment of which for extended abstraction and argumentation would be not verbs you want to spend time hang- These are Excessive nominalization also makes for bad writ- Two explanations exist Two however—the extreme exemplification being It gets worse. Having killed off all the verbs, It gets worse. Having killed off example, at the sad excuses for verbs that remain in example, at the sad excuses for verbs that remain above: paragraph we created the ludicrous excessive nominalization is difficult to read and make to read is difficult excessive nominalization do unnecessary makes the reader sense of because it No matter what some philoso- extra mental work. world of we do not seem to live in a phers may argue, live in a living world, a world of static ideals. We things act on things, and where event and movement things constantly of the the event and movement speech that captures verbs dead, world; and excessive nominalization kills grotesque, taxidermically fixing their corpses in writing is unnatural attitudes. Heavily nominalized and movement, real-world from thus divorced they before back-translate that the reader requires going on behind its can imagine what is really –iousnesses ing out with. They will soon bore you to death. ing out with. They will soon bore ordinary because of the distance from ing precisely like watching an event filmed on a camera that films like watching an event filmed on a camera at stop-motion intervals of five or ten seconds, and the from the excised motion having to conjecture to play a fiendish the reader It forces freeze-frames. game of intellectual join-the-dots. like them with pale frauds nominalization replaces makes, constitutes, exists of for in the Nominalization . of concision , and thus a , the employment to the adjective “nominal.” of clarity. Excess of clarity. would be insanity –ation due to the confusion of concision creates obfuscation making nouns out of other parts of speech of other parts making nouns out like verbs and adjectives. “Nominalization” like verbs and adjectives. ominalization” here refers to the process of to the process refers ominalization” here gumentation There are a couple of reasons for the abuse of a couple of reasons are There and maximization which for extended abstraction and writing, however—the extreme exemplification temptation being telegram language ar Nominalization can also be tempting because it is traits of style, Like many counter-productive Two explanations exist for nominalization. Two Nominalization is economization utilization “N itself is a nominalization—it is a noun created by is a noun created itself is a nominalization—it adding the suffix Nominalization can be a useful tool, but it is easily Nominalization can abused in writing. and frequently your can reduce nominalization. First, nominalization who by writers count, and can thus be favored word clarity. confuse absolute concision with maximum concision makes point, however, Beyond a certain to understand—the extreme difficult writing more which example being the language of the telegram, for an extend- nobody in their right mind would use maximum nomi- Look where ed abstract argument. para- of the current nalization leads if we rewrite graph, for example: —a dozen words shorter, and nearly a dozen times as and nearly shorter, —a dozen words to understand. difficult typical of writing than speech, for valid reasons more some extent, there- To that we will touch upon below. formal tone, and a more nominalization creates fore, by writers who confound dis- can thus be favored of ideas. spoken language with profundity tance from flawed or unorig- A flawed or unoriginal idea remains it in. no matter what pomp you dress inal, however, 4) when you wish to when a shorthand y useful to make a noun y useful refer repeatedly to a relatively complex notion. refer repeatedly to a relatively complex Note also that this section opened by introducing Note also that this section opened by often Of course, nominalization is useful far more Nominalization is ver out of a verb or verbal phrase is required for a relatively complex notion to is required for a relatively complex notion which you wish to repeatedly refer. De-nominalized: It is ver Nominalization is very useful when you require a is veryNominalization you require useful when This sort of thing is very of well if it happens only once This sort “nominaliza- or twice, but we have used the word Note times so far in this section. tion” twenty-three a shorthand nominalization is justified as that where serves,of this kind, the notion it labels often as here, discussion. of an extended as the topic (see “Topic”) defining it. “nominalization” as a special term, and muscle in real Often, then, nominalization flexes its (see conjunction with the definition of terms sure can usually be pretty You “Defining Key Terms”). making a nominalization if on safe ground you are making a definition, however brief, you find you are to go with it. Another example in this handbook is companions” (see “Editing”). the notion of “sundered than this. In fact, it is unusual, and can even be to write a single decent sentence without some tricky, you might go use of nominalization. As an exercise, this section and find all the nominaliza- back through them in your head with tions, and try to rewrite hope you will find that strictly verbal phrases. We active voice!) should be your “default position,” and position,” your “default should be voice!) active have it when you only swerveyou should away from good reason. you wish to notion to which for a complex shorthand afield than look no further need We repeatedly. refer tongue- Of course, it is partly the title of this section. in the title a section in-cheek to use nominalization the evils of nominalization. fulminating about “Nominalization” however. Consider the alternative, what we would otherwise in a single word captures phrase to say: have to use a whole , that is, in 7 ) , behind lasting- (hacia arriba) Upa tras perfluye luno. Hlör u fang axaxaxas mlo A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies its order, “Upward “Upward its order, flowing it was mooning.” (Xul Solar translates “Behind the onstreaming, it with brevity, mooned;” Surely, when Mother Nature is “mooning” us from is when Mother Nature Surely, to write well, we need then, if we are Obviously, [T]here are impersonal verbs, qualified by mono- [T]here are impersonal verbs, qualified (or prefixes) with adverbial syllabic suffixes cor- value. For example: there is no word which is a responds to the word “moon,” but there or “to verb that would be in English “mooning” one moon.” “The moon shone over the water” would say Of course, this is not to say that all nominaliza- Jorge Luis Borges, “Tlon, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius,” http://www.zooleika.org.uk/langue/borges/tlon.html (accessed September 21, 200 http://www.zooleika.org.uk/langue/borges/tlon.html Orbis Tertius,” “Tlon, Uqbar, Luis Borges, Jorge 7 behind the stream, we are definitively in trouble. definitively in trouble. we are behind the stream, to steer a course between a plague of nouns and a we justified in tyranny of verbs. When, then, are “Good writing is using nominalization? Once more, writing that serves its purpose.” The acid test for valid nominalization is whether you have a concrete by means of verbs (in for using it. Expression reason speech that we noted above. (Perhaps, indeed, it is indeed, it (Perhaps, noted above. that we speech because everyday speech precisely distant from happening way the active, everyday reflects speech course, writing is always works for us.) Of the world its be, because speech, and should from different possible and thought processes mechanism, and the the same. When not necessary in absorbing it, are it should speech, however, from writing does diverge just as all aspects of writing do so for a good reason, writing distance To on sound reasons. should rest sake of sounding impres- for the speech merely from no matter how we do it, and sive is bad practice, exception. nominalization is no of the spec- tion is abomination. At the other end us a brief glimpse has given Luis Borges trum, Jorge ran amok of what might happen to language if verbs brilliant and banished all the nouns. In his bizarrely imagines a Borges Orbis Tertius,” story “Tlön, Uqbar, of the world one of whose languages (the tongue of Tlön”) has no nouns at all: “austral hemisphere 128 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 129 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | of of style... for the abuse ... we (“Consider what easons e oductive traits -pr nativ e a couple of r e ar nominalization. (“We can explain the way peo- can explain nominalization. (“We in a couple of ways”?) ple abuse nominalization Like many counter (“Just as is often the case when we write in ways (“Just as is often the that do not best serve our ends”?) Consider the alter This is not to say that all nominalization is abom- to say that all nominalization This is not would have had to do otherwise”) would have had to Ther some pithy turns of phrase would thus be reduced reduced thus be would of phrase pithy turns some not have otherwiseblather (since we would to flaccid question). Some in used the nominalizations examples: ination. (the (the e flung sentence, his arms The Invisible Man transitive Professor Puett Professor “originates in” flinging his arms” with “Professor Puett’s arms wer Puett’s his arms” with “Professor First, passive voice can hide the grammatical sub- First, passive voice Second, constructions framed in passive voice Second, constructions framed in passive .” When we write this in the passive, where has where .” When we write this in the passive, out out the expression of actions in verbs, should therefore be in verbs, should therefore of actions the expression By comparison to active voice, the “default position.” disadvantages. passive voice has several agent of the it represents—the ject, and with it what extra work the verb. This requires action described by or infer the subject who has to recall of the reader, It less transparent. and agent, and thus makes prose It mental atmosphere. a slightly artificial also creates moving by happening and objects is as if things are themselves, as in those scenes from where guns and chairs are hoisted through the air by the air hoisted through guns and chairs are where Puett flung “Professor Compare a disembodied force. agent) and proceeds “from” him “to” “from” agent) and proceeds in an is respected order patient). This real-world active sentence: subject-verb-object corresponds exactly to agent-action-patient. Professor Puett himself gone? Why are his arms still his arms Puett himself gone? Why are Professor in his Who would do such a thing to them here? absence? present in which events usually violate the order world. the real themselves to our minds and senses in is made out Any passive construction, by definition, in any of a transitive verb. Now, X does Y to Z; we conceive of the action as originat- in language by the the agent (represented ing from to work grammatical subject) and moving outwards ety- on the patient (the object). (“Patient” is related mologically to “passive” as “agent” is to “active,” and of an action.”) has a technical sense of “the recipient Puett flings out for example, “Professor When we say, his arms,” we understand in some sense that the action of Active and Passive Voice Passive and Active It is likely that you have heard that pas- have heard It is likely that you writers. assive voice troubles many student many assive voice troubles A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies The reason that you may have been presented The reason First, as we saw in “Authorial Self-Reference,” some object to the circumlocu- Second, however, of active proponents clear prose, In vigorous, P sive voice is an evil. As we noted elsewhere, however As we noted elsewhere, sive voice is an evil. other desidera- are there (“Authorial Self-Reference”), that that we strive for objectivity, ta, like the demand to voice (it is difficult us to use passive seem to force without entirely authorial self-reference circumvent to the passive). What to do? resort voice is, in with conflicting advice about the passive in flux. For exam- conventions are that writing part, first person was ple, use of passive voice to avoid the if not almost universal, in formal very widespread, recent In more academic writing several decades ago. quarters. years, it has fallen into disfavor in some this has happened. two main reasons are There of authorial some writers object to the circumlocution achieved of whether it is voice in principle, regardless by passive voice or by other means. by passive voice tion of authorial self-reference to passive because they object for stylistic reasons against the voice in general. These stylistic arguments and worth powerful, general use of passive voice are laying out in some detail. voice hold, clearly visible agents should be said to do the bush. what they do, with no beating around Active voice achieves this: in active voice, A does B, plain and simple. The use of active voice is thus driv- en by the same motive that we saw compels frugality language that talks in nominalization—it produces the way things happen in the world. Active voice, like 130 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 131 were not . Due to Passive allows were discov- using this have been can be identi- of a discussion have analyzed using been lost topic . Scholars have suggest- in the historical record, ? arms contain new versions of some texts A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | for nearly two decades after their dis- was rumored to active voice, we would have to insert previously unknown in 1976, in a tomb in Hubei Province. The were flung out by Professor Puett”? Why on Puett”? by Professor flung out were that extends over several clauses or sentences, that extends over several clauses or too and the point of view may jump around much without the use of passive. fied with a tradition known as Huang-Lao whose existence but whose contents had long political complications, the manuscripts published ered this methodology in the past...” learns The reader in and by this addition, however, nothing further fact, it might be slightly distracting. There are two main reasons you might need you might reasons two main are There handed down by received tradition, and other texts ed that some of these new texts manuscripts If we were to convert the passive to convert If we were analyzed the verb, an agent as the grammatical subject of as in “The texts that scholars we will discuss the implications of In this essay, recently excavated silk manuscripts for our understanding of early Han intellectual and These manuscripts political history. For example: The texts that have been analyzed methodology in the past have usually been well- methodology in the past have usually been it has known texts from the canons of literature; been little used on demotic or oral texts. modification (the addition of elements modification (the specifying a part of describing or further be secondary or irrelevant speech), and it may the agent. what or who was the topic to remain the grammatical subject the topic to remain of all sentences, even those in which it is the patient and not the agent of the action described by the verb: ms Ar earth would we want to assume the perspective of to assume the perspective would we want earth Puett’s Professor the most common being to focus on the patient, the following: 2. The patient may be the 1. grammatical The patient may require an action from the point of view of the actor. But actor. view of the point of the from an action “ flung out his arms” is mean that passive voice is to be not ofessor Puett (that is, the real-world “patient,” as (that is, the real-world Generally speaking, you should use passive when Taken together, these various arguments make a these various arguments together, Taken This does In a passive sentence, however, word order inverts order word however, sentence, In a passive often found in conjunction passive voice is Third, passive voice usually leads to slightly Fourth, shunned completely, however. It would not exist if it however. shunned completely, did not have its uses. Under what circumstances, then, is passive useful? to put the focus on the you have a special reason logical object function of the pas- defined above). This is the proper we have it in our language in the first sive, the reason place. If I say “John hit Joe,” the focus is on John, and If I say “Joe we imagine him dealing out the blow. was hit by John,” on the other hand, the focus is on a It is the blow. Joe, and we imagine him suffering which is why passive can lead matter of point of view, to such peculiar sentences when used with a little “Pr ingenuity. perfectly normal, because we readily conceive of such normal, because we readily perfectly strong case for preference of the active voice in gener- case for preference strong active voice suggest that for these reasons, al. We should only should be your “default position.” You to do reason use passive voice when you have a clear than our watchword so. This amounts to no more that “Good writing serves its purpose.” Unmotivated for no good use of passive voice, that is, passive voice purpose, does not make for good writing. real-world order: “Arms are flung out by Professor “Arms are order: real-world A passive sen- patient-verb-agent. Puett” is ordered mental a nanosecond of extra requires tence therefore action back into to translate the reader the work from things being equal, sequence, and other real-world voice is detrimental to clarity. this means passive clarity. that compromise features with other stylistic to use the passive, writers By cultivating reluctance of these other uncon- themselves can help to break example, excessive nominaliza- structive habits. For passive voice. or requires encourages tion frequently fos- constructions than active, and therefore wordier ters flabby prose. these the had were and even with new versions in that in that of this tradi- have suggested published discovered the implications of them in that interval contain had spoken some of these new texts discuss were studied were d chaeologists all trace of its content. Due to did study ecor identify some results of those studies in in scholarly journals. in scholarly had lost down, and other texts that nobody have appeared on the scene, and with such have appeared about previously. Scholars about previously. publish A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies tion, but political complications, nobody privileged access and scholarly journals. manuscripts in 1976, in a tomb in Hubei Province. The manuscripts that we can with a tradition known as Huang-Lao. The historical r a crowded stage, it is more difficult to discern difficult stage, it is more a crowded action is. the real where Implicit in this discussion of when it is useful to Every is now in active voice verb in the paragraph all this (italics). But we have paid a price for now dealing with a much more are action. We of active characters (underlined)— motley crew the historical record, we, archaeologists, nobody knew In this essay, we will In this essay, manuscripts for our recently excavated silk Han intellectual and understanding of early Ar political history. interval by Chinese scholars with privileged Chinese scholars with interval by studies some results of those access, and published covery, though they though covery, paragraph (italics) passives in this The several and their contents (under- allow the manuscripts focus of our gaze. firmly in the lined) to remain what would happen if we Contrast this with put everything mechanically and dogmatically into active voice: manuscripts for nearly two decades after their manuscripts for nearly two decades after though Chinese scholars discovery, of some texts that the received tradition of some texts that the received tradition handed use passive voice are two concepts: “Topic,” and “Old two concepts: “Topic,” use passive voice are recom- Information First, New Information Last.” We sections on these two to the relevant mend you refer suggestions about how to handy ideas for further decide whether you need passive voice in any given situation. 132 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 133 cumspect cised most cir to build a wall the built the Qin into a rational decided to ally himself against ove him (see “Dummy Relative Clauses” in seems to have come to naught. A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | burn books in 213, lest the historical record It was... that inspire malcontent with Qin rule and foment He even exer instability. Li Si (280?-208), prime minister of the Qin and Li Si (280?-208), prime minister of the Qin first unified empire, prime architect of China’s It was seems to have been a very cautious man. with caution that he caution that dr him caution when he centralized state and subsequent empire. It was centralized state and subsequent empire. Qin Shihuang’s rightful heir upon the latter’s Qin Shihuang’s death in 209, and support the plot of Zhao Gao. It is especially ironic, therefore, that Li ended his days on the execution ground, and that within a few years the empire he planned was in ruins. All his caution length of China’s northern frontier, to keep out to northern frontier, length of China’s saw barbarian hordes. Cautious fear of disaster When the topic is not the agent of action, not When the topic is not For example: The topic, here, is obviously Li Si’s caution. This is obviously Li Si’s The topic, here, in the paragraph, even though justifies the repetition is as a rule to be shunned. It also prose repetitive justifies the judicious use of a few other techniques such as the construc- that sometimes lead to trouble, tion it see the difference “Rewriting and Editing”). To let makes to keep the topic of caution firmly in view, eco- us imagine the same paragraph written far more time, it turns out that the topic is also the agent time, it turns out that verb, and this is why active of action for the main default—it keeps the topic as voice should be your the subject. of verbal only passive voice, but almost any amount true topic into gymnastics can be justified to get the a concept useful is therefore subject position. Topic active and than deciding the toss between for more passive voice. . Topic subject topic , . In the sec- topics of its sentence, -internal and grammatical subject ” so often, while the topic . In fact, it is because we “change subject —a matter of the reality the lan- —a matter of the reality e that topic and grammatical subject subject tion between t is very useful to understand the distinc- t is very useful to understand Much confusion surrounds this distinction, this Much confusion surrounds throughout remains the manuscripts and remains throughout -external ; in other words, to make sure that when you to make sure ; in other words, topic This gives us a very sensible and concise way of In thinking about writing, however, it is useful to however, In thinking about writing, Not all of these italicized items are I remains the same, that the second paragraph is a less the same, that the second paragraph is remains the same ideas. elegant way of presenting saying how to decide when to use active and when to use passive voice: Use passive voice only when you coincide need it to ensur the (grammatical) change the grammatical subject, you are also “chang- change the grammatical subject, you are in the sense of ing the subject,” however slightly, talking about”—the topic. Most of the “what you are because in ordinary speech “subject” is used to refer speech “subject” because in ordinary to both. subject use “subject” to mean only the grammatical is a grammati- of the main verb in the sentence. This the reality and has nothing to do with the cal matter, language describes; it is language about Han ond version of the example paragraph Voice”), tomb manuscripts (see “Active and Passive every the italicized item is the action of because it labels the thing that performs the main verb (underlined). using “topic” in the sense of here are We however. thus mainly talking about.” It is “what you are language do with gram- guage describes—and has nothing to in the same example paragraph (Han Again, mar. Voice”), tomb manuscripts, “Active and Passive the their contents, despite the kaleidoscopic changes of grammatical , he was not cautious . He also a wall the preventing the historical against Qin Shihuang’s rightful heir against Qin Shihuang’s A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies enough. keep out barbarian hordes. In 213 he burnt a lot keep out barbarian of books, cautiously Li Si (280?-208), prime minister of the Qin and prime minister Li Si (280?-208), empire, first unified of China’s prime architect He built the been very cautious. seems to have state and subse- Qin into a rational centralized quent empire cautiously upon the latter’s death in 209, and supported death upon the latter’s It is especially ironic, the plot of Zhao Gao. his days on the execu- therefore, that Li ended the tion ground, and that within a few years he empire he planned was in ruins. Even though did everything cautiously length of China’s northern frontier, to cautiously northern frontier, length of China’s record from inspiring malcontent with Qin rule record from inspiring He even allied himself and fomenting instability. cautiously The paragraph is now fifteen words shorter, and the shorter, The paragraph is now fifteen words topic is now just The for each missing word. poorer poor old Li Si, and the intended focus—caution—is it where lost in pokey little corners of the sentences, your- If you keep asking sees the light of day. barely write, talking about as you really self what you are in the sentence and checking that this topic is placed of vague- sort so that it actually looks like one, this ness should be much easier to avoid. nomically, with the single word “cautiously” and no and “cautiously” word with the single nomically, topic: for regard 134 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording 135 . unfortunately also often . are implicit in this discussion of A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | by novice and journeyman writers. the feudal lords and wo concepts when it is useful to use passive voice. neglected T The last of the “pieces” commonly found in the The last of the “pieces” commonly found terms. opening of a paper is the definition of Definition of terms is Like topic, the principle of “old information Implicit in this discussion of when it is useful to use passive voice are two concepts In the first version, the first sentence prepares the the first sentence prepares In the first version, flow is In the second version, by contrast, this use of passive, example of this is one more Here This sentence, though slightly less contrived, puts all and therefore on the table straight away, its cards first, new information last” can help us see the good than just types of unusual wording for more reason passives. For example, above we wrote: concepts,” which “two introducing here were We constituted our new information. Even therefore is unusual, it is justified by order though the word a more the logic it adds to the flow of ideas. Compare order: word regular ground for, and then introduces, the Tokugawa peace; the Tokugawa then introduces, and for, ground up as the topic of each clause this peace is then taken of each clause and the predicate in the next sentence, in about it. In other words, more tells us something peace is the “new information” the first sentence, the gradu- comes last; in the second, it has and therefore and comes ated to the status of “old information” first. second have to wait for the end of the We destroyed. is still on we know that the camera sentence before bit the peace, and in the meantime two distracting the shot—ourselves players have walked through (we) above: “Defining Key Terms” from credit assign had taken to Ieyasu alone. New Information Last Last Information New Old Information First, First, Information Old . This peace cannot . We be assigned cannot over a hundred years to forge this it of useful functions for passives can be of useful functions he second notion implicit in our discussion he second notion implicit summed up thus: “Old information first, summed up thus: “Old took ds lor over a hundred years to forge, however, and over a hundred years to forge, however, credit for Compare: With the famous Battle of Sekigahara on Ieyasu established a October 20 1600, Tokugawa hegemony that his scions would oversee for more than two and a half centuries, and ushered in a new age of peace because various feudal to Ieyasu alone, however, With the famous Battle of Sekigahara on Ieyasu established a October 20 1600, Tokugawa hegemony that his scions would oversee for more than two and a half centuries, and ushered in a new age of peace You will see that this dictum overlaps a good deal see that this dictum overlaps a good will You this by showing when this prin- can illustrate We peace. T new information last.” new information last.” being “what to topic. Topic, attention with proper talking about,” is by definition old informa- you are have section we the previous tion, and throughout This principle been placing topic first in the sentence. threads can guide us even when no single topic where several consecutive sentences (i.e. through to a new an old topic each sentence takes us from one, as it were). It is possible ciple would justify the use of a passive. of bridge or to use a passive construction as a kind in the signpost, to pick up an element introduced to it for the sentence and shift the attention previous of the new next sentence. In this case, the patient new sentence, passive construction is the topic of the smooth and the use of passive is justified by the bridging between sentences that results: A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies For a more extended illustration of the way this illustration extended For a more it moves like the tide advances, As good prose exerts less of a hold on the attention of the reader. of the attention on the less of a hold exerts in sentences, order word decides the clearest principle of Jennie Johnson’s first paragraph see the excellent give in paper sample response paper (the response “The Response Paper”). Each sentence is like a wave advancing up a beach. When inland than the last. a little further reaches the sea falls back upon itself each wave has passed, a made, and regroups it has already and the progress next advance. The advance of each the little before of new by the introduction is achieved wave in prose sentence, information, usually at the end of each when we while the falling-back motion occurs for each old information in readiness regroup new step. 136 |

Appendix • Miscellaneous Points of Grammar and Wording Appendix • Style Conventions for East Asian Studies 139 of , only 10:2 (1984), 10:2 (1984), 㠿◝⃵ㄦ兞枏 Thursday July Thursday , ᇷ䦮嵵ቑ➾巧崻ቑ䔈 (Beijing: Zhonggong 99(50-1), 173-180. 99(50-1), A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | ₼␀₼⮽⏩㪰⒉䓗䯍 Journal of Japanese Studies, Journal of Japanese Studies, South China Morning Post, Post, Morning South China 㹪㾌₫店㹪㾌₫ have spelled things correctly, referring to a dictionary referring correctly, have spelled things titles Note also that when transcribing if necessary. Asian languages, it is in articles of books and journal the first word practice to capitalize standard the title; thereafter you should capitalize only proper you the title; thereafter below). nouns (see the examples ◿ㄵⷵ⅞㟨ⷵ䪣䴅 ǌ APPENDIX: gaku kenky ǀ as a Pattern of Civilization”, Ie , "Shindai no tsuite" ni setsu no tokushoku yuishiki Mao Zedong tan Mao Zedong Mao Zedong tan rya and North Korean Literature: The Failure of Socialist Realism in the Realism in the Literature: The Failure of Socialist rya and North Korean , ǂ Indogaku bukky , Han S 印➁⽿⼸䞿嵵槨 ǀ (Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1994). 1994). University,(Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell you must be careful to correctly and to correctly you must be careful hen listing items in Asian languages, hen listing items in consistently use a single, accepted consistently use a single, Style Conventions for East Asian Studies Asian for East Conventions Style BOOKS Hu, Zhefeng zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, Xinhua shudian jingxiao chubanshe, Xinhua zhongyang dangxiao 1993), 27-43. 1993), Myers, Brian, 279-363. Iwata, Taij DPRK JOURNAL ARTICLES “ Yasusuke, Murakami, 唁቎ቇሧ቉ᇸ NEWSPAPER ARTICLE “UniversityYeung, Linda, Intake”, to Boost Foreign D12. 29 2004, WEBSITE Cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’”, “Regarding the Establishment of an Action Plan to Education, Culture, website of the Japanese Ministry of on the dated 2003/03/31 document (accessed Science, Sports and Technology at http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm 2004). August 3, W Romanization system for the language concerned. Romanization system chop and change between Do not, for example, you and make sure Wade-Giles, Hanyu pinyin and A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies 140 |

Appendix • Writing Resources at Harvard Appendix • Writing Resources at Harvard 141 A Student’s Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies | FOR STUDENT WRITERS LAMONT LIBRARY’S WEBSITE LAMONT LIBRARY’S http://hcl.harvard.edu/lamont/resources/guides/ www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources WRITING WITH SOURCES WRITING WITH HOUSE TUTORS IN ACADEMIC WRITING This is a good collection of handouts and research This is a good collection of handouts to help you librarians by Lamont’s guides created begin your research. or non-resident house may have a resident Your hours. office writing tutor who holds regular This booklet is Harvard’s official publication on official This booklet is Harvard’s including and citing sources, conventions for using policies on plagiarism. the University’s APPENDIX: Writing Resources at Harvard at Resources Writing . http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~bsc/index.html 617-495-2581 http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~wricntr/html/ tools.htm www.fas.harvard.edu/~wricntr/ 617-495-1655 Barker Center 019 WRITING CENTER’S “WRITING TOOLS” BUREAU OF STUDY COUNSEL HARVARD UNIVERSITY WRITING CENTER HARVARD The Bureau offers students help with some common offers The Bureau workshops available are There academic problems. time manage- writing, procrastinating, about reading, also ment, and other academic issues. The Bureau per- individual counseling, both academic and offers sonal, as well as peer tutoring, and other services. These are brief articles explaining various elements of brief articles These are how to write an introduc- from the academic essay, tion to how to construct a counterargument. Free, pre-scheduled conferences with trained peer conferences pre-scheduled Free, Friday during through Monday offered tutors are 7 to 9 p.m., from offered hours are Drop-in the day. and Center, Thursday at the Barker Monday through year from, on Sunday evenings during the academic (During 7 to 9 p.m. in Room 209 at Hilles Library. than 8 PM to the week, you need to arrive no later in also welcome to drop are guarantee a slot.) You he and, if one of the tutors is free, during the day, time. or she will gladly meet with you at that