whose time has come ‘Its prospects of developing into a profitable, energy-related, renewable resource appear to be excellent. ’

Demetrios M. Yerrnanos

Thedemand for a substitute for sperm should they be needed for control. It ket demand, and price. The absence of such whale oil and for a lubricant to replace de- requires no specialized cultivation equip- basic data does deter establishing large pleting fossil fuel reserves has been a power- ment, and its oil can be extracted like other commercial plantations, but preliminary ful incentive for development of jojoba, a oilseeds. In addition, jojoba is a low labor- production and marketing data, collected native to . Jojoba has long intensive crop that is easy to grow. for 10 years, and a better acquaintance with been known to scientists for its drought re- Besides being known for its superior lu- its agronomic aspects have led to optimism sistance and for the versatile liquid wax that bricating properties, jojoba has attracted about jojoba’s economic potential. can be extracted from its , but since interest as a landscape and soil conservation A yield of 3,000 pounds of per acre 1974, when several hundred acres have been plant. It is a perennial, evergreen, nonpoi- (3500 kg/ha) from a 9- to 10-year-old plan- planted to jojoba in the U.S., Mexico, and sonous, drought-resistant, low-mainten- tation appears to be a realistic expectation. Israel, it has begun to attract attention as a ance, long-lived, and low-fire hazard plant A price of $2 per pound of oil ($4.4/kg) possible commercial crop. with a deep root system, and therefore it could also be realized in the beginning for It is not difficult to explain its popularity. can be used in highway and roadside plant- low-volume, high-priced products; a pro- Jojoba grows in soil of marginal fertility, ings and hedges. It can also be used as a soil gressive long range drop to $1 per pound needs little water, withstands salinity, and stabilizer in green belts around desert cities ($2.2/kg) may be necessary for the oil to en- does not seem to need fertilizers or other suffering from particulate air pollution. sure a larger market for low-priced, high- polluting chemical treatments. It is not af- Because jojoba has never been grown volume products; at that price it would flicted yet by major diseases or insect pests, commercially, no data are available on cost compete successfully with other lubricants and it can withstand many chemical sprays of production, yields of seed and wax, mar- and sperm whale oil.

4 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY. AUGUST 1979 (a) Different types of fruiting in jojoba: one (a), four (b) and thirty-one (c) per node. (b)

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 5 lished on Hanford, Ramona and Greenfield soils at U.C., Riverside, growth the first two years was not luxuriant, then accelerat- ed progressively and last summer, on the fifth year of development, exhibited superior performance. Extensive pH soil measurements around jojoba populations in Mexico and the U.S. gave readings from 5 to 8, indicating that this may not be an overly critical factor. Soil fertility. Jojoba grows naturally on soils of marginal soil fertility. Fertilization of field plots at UCR with nitrogen and phosphorus for three consecutive years (50 pounds of nitrogen, 50 pounds of phos- phorus, or 50 + 50 pounds of nitrogen and phosphorus per acre annually) has not in- duced any obvious superiority in vegetative development. By contrast, similar fertiliza- tion treatments in the greenhouse with pot- ted plants, where root growth is confined, indicated a dramatic, favorable response. Lack of response in the field might be attri- buted to jojoba’s deep, extensive root sys- tem which enables it to draw nutrients from a much deeper soil profile than most other plants; also, to the fact that fertilization was applied to young plants which pro- Joroba seedlinqs qrown for five months under different photoperiods: 12 hours (left), 18 duced low yields of seed* therefore having hours (center), and24 hours (right). lower nutritional needs. The roots of direct- seeded jojoba plants were in excess of 7 feet These two price levels correspond ap- tive development responds strongly to pho- (2 m) in depth and consisted of one or few proximately to 65 cents and 30 cents per toperiods. In greenhouse experiments seed- major tap roots growing straight down with pound ($1.43 and 66 cents per kilo) of seed ling growth rate increased dramatically as very few fibrous side roots in the upper 2 respectively. Assuming costs of production the photoperiod approached 24 hours of feet (0.60 m) of the soil profile. Jojoba that are comparable to those for walnuts or light. Until the effects of varying photo- plants growing in Hoagland nutrient solu- almonds (although the latter require twice periods on quantity and quality of jojoba tion in the greenhouse for 6 months exhibit- as much water and heavy nitrogen seed and wax production are better known, ed no clearcut deficiency symptoms when applications) the net income per acre of it would seem safer to establish plantings individual nutrients were eliminated, except jojoba at the higher price would be exceed- within the latitude zone of natural popula- in the case of nitrogen. ed only by that from avocados. At the tions. A few plants do grow in California Irrigation lower price, jojoba would rank seventh in outside this zone: in the Botanical Garden net income. Real net income, however, of Santa Barbara, in La Purisima Mission Natural jojoba populations grow in areas would be considerably higher because as the by Lompoc, in&he West Side Field Station receiving 3 to 18 inches (76 to 450 mm) of price would drop to the lower level yield of the University of California at Five precipitation annually. Since some precipi- would rise above 3,000 pounds per acre as Points and on a private ranch in Fresno. tation is always lost as run-off, it would bushes would grow larger and as cultural Seed has been harvested from all these seem that jojoba can grow with little water. technology would improve. plants indicating that the zone of adapta- The best jojoba plants observed so far, 15 This favorable outlook has set the stage tion of jojoba may be extended at least as feet (5 m) in height, were in areas with 10 to for a “getting acquainted” phase in its far north as Fresno. Additional encourag- 15 inches (254 to 380 mm) of annual rain. commercial development. Most of the ing evidence was obtained from jojoba Heavier applications of water in experimen- 1,500 acres (600 hectares) planted in plantings in the Sudan; 1-year-old plants tal plots with relatively good drainage 1977-1978 in California are in small plots growing in Erkowit (18’ N latitude) are stimulated more luxuriant vegetation. ranging from 1 to 20 acres (112 to 8 hec- much larger than plants of similar age in Whether this increased growth would result tares) each. A few large plantations more California. Two- to 3-year-old plants in El in higher seed yield is not known.

than 100 acres each were established early in Obeid (12 O N latitude) are 60 to 90 cm tall Jojoba utilizes most water during iate 1979. If these initial plantings live up to and bloom profusely. winter and spring and thus does not com- expectations, acreage is expected to increase Soil type. Practically all natural jojoba Pete for water with traditional irrigated rapidly. This report summarizes the art of populations occur on coarse, light or medi- crops. Since new appear in late growing jojoba. um textured soils with good drainage and summer, a midsummer irrigation in Locating plantations good water penetration. Experimental excessively dry years might insure good plantings established on heavy soil bloomed production and, thus, good seed Latitude. Natural populations occur be- much later and grew slower than did those yield. tween 23 ’ and 35 ’ north latitude. Vegeta- on light soils. In jojoba nurseries estab- Jojoba appears to tolerate soil salinity.

6 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 Robust jojoba plants grow as close as 10 from female seedlings before flowering. Individual seeds or seedlings are planted 1 feet (3.3 m) from the ocean. Further verifi- This would seem to create a problem in fol- to 1 1/2 feet (30 to 45 cm) apart. As male cation of jojoba's salt tolerance has been lowing a given planting plan regarding posi- plants flower, they are thinned out to one offered by greenhouse experiments and by tion and frequency of male and female male every 40 feet (13 m) on the row. As experimental field with brackish plants. This difficulty, however, can be cir- female plants flower, usually in the third water. In one large planting by the Salton cumvented by overplanting, especially year, any slow-growing, obviously late and Sea, seedlings are growing with no obvious when seeds rather than seedlings are plant- unproductive plants are rogued out, leaving sign of stress in spite of a brackish water ed. A grower can rogue out extra males and a female plant at every 2 to 3 feet (60 to 90 table at 6 feet (1.80 m) below the surface cm) on the row. Spacing between rows de- and electroconductivity in excess of 24. 'In one large planting by the pends on the harvester to be used and on the expected rate of growth. With hand har- Temperature Salton Sea, seedlings are vesting and cultivation, rows could be as Temperature may be the most critical growing with no obvious sign close as 10 feet (3.3 m) apart. In mechan- factor in growing jojoba. In Riverside, the of stress in spite of a ized farms space should be allowed between temperature drops gradually after sunset ' rows for vehicular traffic with optimum and remains at the lowest level for 3 to 5 brackish water table.. . spacing closer to 14 to 16 feet (4 to 5 m). If hours usually between 1 and 6 a.m. When ~~ these planting patterns are excessively dense temperatures reach 20" to 22" F (-6" to a large number of inferior female plants after the tenth year or so, every other row -5" C), flowers and terminal portions of from the field soon after blooming. and a few plants from each row could be young branches of most jojoba plants are Rooted cuttings have not been used taken out. For optimum distribu- damaged. During early seedling develop- widely to establish commercial fields be- tion, male plants are thinned so as to devel- ment, excessive cold may kill entire planta- cause of lack of long-term performance op a rornbic rather than a square distribu- tions. As'plants grow taller, frost may not records from mother plants verifying their tion pattern over the entire field. endanger their survival to the same degree superiority as sources of cuttings. In addi- Plants are allowed to grow naturally for but it may curtail yields. In this regard, tion, production of cuttings proceeds slow- about three years. After thinning is com- frost damage in the early flowering stages ly and requires considerable controlled pleted, the rows are pruned vertically with may not be as destructive as at later stages; greenhouse facilities. As soon as superior the kind of cane cutter used in vineyards. given enough time, a new crop of flowers genetic material is available for propaga- The vertical sickle bar cutter moves parallel will replace the damaged one. Monitoring tion, use of rooted cuttings and tissue cul- to the planted row and is adjusted to cut of temperatures during the last two years in ture may become popular. Vegetative prop- one foot away from the center of the row sites where natural populations of jojoba agation will enable growers to plant accord- on each side. This gives the planted row the occur lead to some striking observations: ing to planting plans. shape of a continuous rectangular hedge- (a) Minimum temperatures of sites with row, approximately 2 feet wide and 3 feet Planting plan southern exposure at 4,600 feet (1500 m) tall (60 x 90 cm); branches which are initiat- elevation were higher than those recorded Until recently little was known about ed 4 feet (1.2 m) or higher from the ground at sea level in the same latitude. (b) Old plant development or performance, com- are allowed to develop sidewise and as the plants exhibited no serious frost damage ponents traditionally used to arrive at an plants continue to grow in height the cross- symptoms although temperatures dropped optimum number and arrangement of section of the hedgerow starts to resemble to 16 F" (-9 C"). (c) Snow was on the plants per acre. The planting plan we now a tree's center cross-section. ground in January within the area occupied recommend is based on the following obser- It may be unnecessary to allow plants to by wild jojoba. (d) High temperatures do vations: grow any taller or wider than 10 to 15 feet (3 not have adverse effects unless they exceed 1. During the first 10 years and under fa- to 5 m). This decision, however, will have 122" F (50" C). vorable soil and climatological conditions to wait until yield data from various types in California, jojoba grows 1/2 to one foot of 10- to 20-year-old hedgerows are availa- Propagation (15 to 30 cm) per year in diameter and in ble. We anticipate that hedgerows will be Jojoba may be propagated through seed, height. Under warmer conditions, this pruned back to a uniform height and width rooted cuttings, and tissue culture. Present growth rate may double. and then sprayed with one of the growth sources of seed are the natural populations. 2. The seed is borne on new growth and regulators that has been found to stimulate Single plant selections have been based gen- most of it is found on the plant's outer peri- new and profuse branching on jojoba. Be- erally on seed yield per plant and large seed phery. cause flowers and seeds occur on pew size. In some cases, growth habit, high wax 3. The ratio of male to female plants that growth, a balanced system of pruning and content, and fruiting pattern have been should be expected in commercial plantings spraying will, it is hoped, both maximize considered. Single plant variability in seed is about 1:l or slightly in favor of males by and stabilize yields in time and will promote size, yield, morphology, and wax content is about 5 percent. uniformity in seed maturity, size, wax striking, both within and among natural 4. Crowding of plants does not seem to quantity, and quality. populations. Wax composition, however, is depress plant growth and production. This planting plan involves overplanting extremely uniform throughout the area of 5. When several seeds are planted per hill initially; as much as 7 to 9 pounds of seeds adaptation, in spite of broad botanical vari- it is time consuming and expensive to rogue per acre (6 to 8 kg per hectare) may be need- ability and differences in geographic origin. out extra male plants. ed. Overplanting is recommended, how- Differing cultural practices do not seem to 6. Jojoba pollen travels distances in ex- ever, because it enables a grower to adjust cause major departures in wax composition cess of 100 feet (33 m) with relatively mild the density and pattern of males in his field, and no mutants have been encountered as breezes. to eliminate low-producing females and to yet. With these observations in mind, the fol- maximize yield per acre during the first It is still not possible to distinguish male lowing planting plan is practiced at UCR. Continued on page I0

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 7 (1) Crop loss was 30 to 40 percent in some fields near Lost Hills, Kern County. (2) Cross-section of an infected beet showing advanced rotting in the root center and the characteristic blackening of vascular elements scattered throughout the periphery. (3) An electron micrograph of Erwinia betavasculorum. Hair-like flagella give the bacterium mobility. (4) Inoculated plants show great differences in resistance to the Erwinia pathogen. After three cycles of selection, plants on the left show little infection while parent plants on the right are severely rotted.

8 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 Jojoba Continuedfrom page 7 critical 10 years. If future data will indicate Production and transplanting of seed- soil around each jojoba seedling and con that higher yields may be obtained by lower lings. Planting seedlings speeds the estab- tributes to lower transplanting losses. Thc population densities, these can easily be lishment of plantations and gives jojoba a grain stalk may be nipped off at transplant adjusted downward by removing plants or headstart over weeds. In seedling produc- ing. Equipment is now available for me entire rows at the appropriate stage of de- tion at UCR seeds are pregerminated in chanically transplanting such seedlings. velopment. An additional advantage of this large containers filled with vermiculite, To insure fibrous (rather than tap root sand or similar material at about 80" F development, the flats or Styrofoam block:

(27 O C). As soon as germination starts and should not rest on the soil. If they do, the 'There is little doubt that before a radicle starts to grow (usually in 2 tap root is not air-pruned but penetrates jojoba yields could be raised days), single seeds are transplanted 1 inch and continues to grow into the soil and feN substantially through plant deep (2.5 cm) in 2x2x5-inch (5~5~12.5cm) if any side roots develop. square paper containers, filled with potting Planting in large containers, e.g., gallon breeding.. . ' mix, that are open at both ends. The paper pots, appears to be unnecessary unless the containers are placed in plastic 16x16-inch plants are to be kept in them for more than plan is that it does away with tying, wrap- (40x40-cm) flats, with large holes at the bot- 8 to 10 months before transplanting. As ping and staking of individual plants which, tom, 64 per flat. Jojoba does not seem to jojoba is susceptible to root rot (Phytoph- although necessary for research plantings require a particular potting mix; a mix of 30 thora parasitica) and other soil-borne path- where individual plant performance needs percent to 40 percent organic matter with a ogens in the very early seedling stage, the to be evaluated, are time consuming and ex- medium or light loamy soil has given satis- soil should be sterilized before it is used in pensive for commercial enterprises. factory results. With such a mix watering in the potting mix. Overwatering and high a greenhouse is needed only every 4 to 5 temperature increase this disease's severity. Stand establishment days. Emergence occurs in about 15 to 20 Direct seeding. Most of the direct- days, and the seedlings are ready for trans- Expected yields seeded commercial jojoba fields were plant- planting when they are 6 to 12 inches (15 to ed with commercially available planters on 30 cm) tall, usually in 8 to 10 weeks. At that What kind of seed and oil yields can be raised beds. With two planters mounted on time, the paper container is partly disinte- expected from jojoba under domestication? a tool bar, one tractor operator can plant 60 grated and may be left undisturbed or may That cannot be answered at this time, Ap- acres a day. Large seed, easier to harvest be peeled off as seedlings are transplanted. proximations are based on information and usually with a higher wax content, is As soon as the jojoba tap root outgrows gained from the harvest of wild plants and preferred in planting because it is likely to the 5-inch(12.5-cm),deepcontainerand gets from the few experimental plots here and produce large-seeded plants. Large seed outside the soil column it self-prunes. This abroad. produces more vigorous seedlings than triggers initiation of many fibrous side Seed yields in natural populations range small seed during the first 2 to 3 months of roots. Side roots do not develop if the con- from a few seeds to more than 30 pounds growth; however, this superiority disap- tainers are closed at the bottom; instead, (14 kg) of clean dry seed per plant. The high pears later. After planting on dry beds, seed the tap root continues to grow in an abnor- yields have been recorded on plants approx- is irrigated up. mal coiled pattern which persists un- imately 15 feet (5 m) tall with as large a di- For faster emergence, plantings should changed in the plant's later life. ameter, following warm and wet years. be made during the warm months of the year and depth of planting should not ex- ceed 1 1/2 inches (2 to 3 cm). With soil tem- 'The oil content of the seed of both cultivated and wild

peratures of 70" F (21 O C) or higher, plants has been about 52 percent with a range extending germination occurs within a week; the tap from 44 to 59 percent. A significant positive correlation has roots develop rapidly, at first at the rate of about one inch (2.5 cm) a day. Emergence been observed between seed size and oil content. The quality occurs in about 20 days. Low soil tempera- of the oil has exhibited very little variation regardless of the ture may delay emergence by 2 to 3 months. geographic origin of the seed. ' Irrigation should be applied as needed dur- ing the first 2 to 3 months to maintain ade- quate moisture near to the surface of the Instead of paper containers, Styrofoam These high yields were observed on a small raised bed to insure good germination and blocks with 128 pyramidal perforations number of plants and in certain years only. root establishment. Later, irrigations may each, 2x2 inches at the top and 1/2 x 1/2 The mean yield of several hundred wild be applied at monthly intervals between inches (5x5 cm and 1x1 cm) respectively at plants harvested in California over a period September and June to supply the field with the bottom, have also been used successful- of 5 years was about 4 pounds (1.8 kg). The a total of about 1 1/2 acre-feet (45 hectare ly for seedling production. When seedlings average height of these plants was about 6 cm) of water. Overwatering jojoba seed- are 6 to 8 inches tall (15 to 20 cm) in about 8 feet (2.7 m) and the diameter 5 feet (2.3 m). lings or planting the seed inside the irriga- to 10 weeks, they are pulled off the styro- Years of no seed production by entire wild tion furrow may be disastrous to seedling foam blocks and are transplanted. To avoid populations were observed following ex- emergence and survival. damaging the seedlings as they are detached tended drought spells. NO jojoba cultivars exist as yet and, from the Styrofoam blocks and to produce A 5-acre (2 ha) cultivated jojoba plot therefore, no varietal recommendations can firm seedlings, the following technique is with rows 10 feet (3.3 m) apart and plants 5 be made. One should, however, avoid using utilized: On the sixth week after planting, a feet (1.5 m) apart on the row, having about seed harvested from natural stands in warm grain of barley or wheat is planted next to 900 female seedlings per acre, produced the climates if plantings are to be made in areas each jojoba seedling in the block. The following yields: On the fourth summer af- where frost is common. dense, fibrous grain root system binds the ter planting, in 1977, less than 10 percent

10 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 (about 400) of the female plants produced start plantations in locations where environ- quantities of wax that will be available ini- any seed and of the latter less than 10 per- mental stresses often reach extreme levels. tially from cultivated plantations will be ab- cent (about 40) plants approached a yield of It may be wiser to locate plantations where sorbed by the more lucrative markets such 1/2 pound of dry clean seed per plant. On environmental factors offer the best as the cosmetics, waxes, and possibly phar- the fifth year (1978) practically all female chances of success and then explore pro- maceuticals. The real challenge for jojoba plants produced some seed; the average gressively the ability of jojoba to produce, will be to penetrate the vast market of lubri- yield of the best strain was 350 pounds per not merely survive, under more extreme en- cants. This may not be too difficult, how- acre (400 kg/ha). Some plants exceeded 1 vironmental stresses. ever, because with the rapid disappearance pound (450 g) per plant; the best producers Jojoba made the move from obscurity of fossil oils, cheap sources of lubricants of 1977, however, were not among the best into the real world of agriculture with un- will also be lost. Lubricants will be needed in 1978. This fluctuation in yield did not precedented speed. Its prospects of devel- in the near future, as badly as fuels. None seem to be a typical case of alternate bear- oping into a profitable, energy-related, re- of the new sources of energy now contem- ing; more data are needed to fully under- newable resource appear to be excellent. If plated (solar, atomic, geothermic) has stand the year-to-year production pattern. it succeeds in this, jojoba may be cited in lubricants as byproducts. If the number of female seedlings in this the future as an example of a well-con- field was increased to 1,800 per acre, by ceived, appropriate technology. Dernetrios M. Yermanos is Professor, Department of planting 2 1/2 feet apart on the row, the Current expectations are that the small Botany and Plant Sciences, U.C., Riverside. above yields could have been doubled. There is little doubt that jojoba yields could be raised substantially through plant breed- ing; there are also clear indications that large amounts of hybrid vigor are available to be exploited in the genetic makeup of this species. The oil content of the seed of both culti- vated and wild plants has been about 52 percent with a range extending from 44 to 59 percent. A significant positive correla- tion has been observed between seed size and oil content. The quality of oil has ex- hibited very little variation regardless of the geographic origin of the seed. No mutants have been identified with an oil composi- tion radically different from that reported in recent publications. Jojoba breeding The most significant yield components in jojoba include: large seed; high oil content; flowers at every node; more than one seed per node in clusters; early flowering to es- cape frost damage; precocious seed produc- tion starting before the fifth year; consis- tent high production from year to year, and upright growth habit. The combination of all of these desirable components in one superior variety will re- quire years of persistent breeding research followed by years of testing. By contrast, the development of cultivars having some of the above botanical traits, such as large seed, fruit at every node and seeds in clus- ters, could be accomplished through vegeta- tive propagation in a relatively short time. Conclusion In summary, the establishment of com- mercial plantations of jojoba does not re- quire agricultural methodology or special- ized equipment. Of particular significance may be the choice of locations for the first commercial plantations. Although jojoba is not demanding of soil fertility, water quali- ty and altitude, it might be a mistake to

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, JULY - AUGUST 1979 1 1