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Sampling Music Keyboards Having Fluidly Continuous Fluid Samplers: Sampling music keyboards having fluidly continuous action and sound, without being electrophones Steve Mann, Ryan Janzen Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Toronto http://www.eyetap.org/publications/ ABSTRACT 1. BACKGROUND Present-day sampling music keyboards are electronic instru- Musical instruments are traditionally grouped into three ments that fall under the last (5th) category of the Horn- categories: strings, wind, and percussion, as for example, by bostel Sachs musical instrument classification scheme. Con- de Brossard’s Dictionaire de musique, which, in 1703 had versely, we first propose an entirely acoustic/mechanical the top level categorization: mellotron-like sampling keyboard instrument that neither 1. ENCHORDA (strings); uses nor involves electricity in any way. Instrument voice/ 2. PNEUMATICA (wind); voicing is changed by replacing mechanical storage media 3. PULSATILIA (beaten instruments). similar to Edison phonograph cylinders, gramophone disks, or vinyl records that were commonly used from 1870 to 1980. Each of these three top levels was further subdivided, e.g. We next propose a fluid version of our instrument in which string instruments are further devided 1.1 plucked with fin- hydraulic (water) action is used to fluidly index into the me- gers; 1.2 bowed, etc.[3, p158]. chanically stored samples, again, without the use of electri- In the 19th century, a newer system was devised as a“clas- cal components. Finally, we present a computerized version sification scheme to cover and identify all instruments the of our instrument in which digital signal processing is used world over... for contemporary needs.” to obtain fluidly continuous control of musical sampling from [3, p162] a hydraulic keyboard in which each key is a water jet. The The first classification system specifically designed to en- final result gives rise to new musically expressive capabili- compass all of the world’s instruments was developed in 1893 ties for continuously flowing manipulation of music samples. by organologist and acoustician Mahillon. It had four top- Moreover, we propose versions of the computerized instru- level classes, denoted by Roman numerals: ment that derive the initial sound source from the water • Class I Autophones (self-sounders: sound is produced itself, such that the instrument is not an electrophone. by elasticity of instrument’s body, not by any tension); • Class II Membranophones (sound produced by tightly Categories and Subject Descriptors stretched membranes); H.5.2 [Info. systems]: Info. interfaces and presentation— • Class III Aerophones (contain a column of air); User Interfaces; J.5 [Computer applications]: Arts and • Class IV Chordophones (sound produced by stretched Humanities strings). In 1910, Galpin also proposed four classes of instruments General Terms and added a 5th class in 1937, as follows: Design, Experimentation, Human Factors, Performance • A sonorous substances (autophones = self-vibrators); • B vibrating membranes (skin-vibrators); Keywords • C stringed instruments (string-vibrators); Fluid-user-interfaces, fluid sampling, tangible user interfaces, • D wind instruments (wind-vibrators) [Galpin 1910, C water-based immersive multimedia, hydraulophones, inter- and D reversed; what is shown here is the ordering active art proposed in 1937]. • E electrophones (electric vibrators)[1, pp29-30]. Galpin was the first to add a category for instruments in which sound was produced electrically, e.g. by oscillations in electric valves[3, p176]. The term “electric valves” referred Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for specifically to vacuum tubes, but more generally (and more personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are recently) can be understood to encompass devices like tran- not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies sistors (whether discrete or in the form of integrated circuits, bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to chip-level firmware, or executing software) that perform a republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific similar function. permission and/or a fee. MM’07, September 23–28, 2007, Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany. In 1914, ethnomusicologists Horbostel and Sachs proposed Copyright 2007 ACM 978-1-59593-701-8/07/0009 ...$5.00. a taxonomy “to be able to order all existing and conceivable 912 instruments in a manner independent of space and time (for – II.B=free cavities; ‘all nations and all times’)... they wanted it to be logically – II.C=air column. exhaustive...”[3, p169]. They adapted Mahillon’s scheme, renaming the first of Mahillon’s four top-level categories as “idiophones”, and re- ordering the four top-level categories (Galpin had C and D 2. PHYSICS-BASED ORGANOLOGY reversed in 1910) as follows: In this paper, we propose new musical instruments that • 1. idiophones: instruments sounded by the “sub- organologically challenge our pre-conceived notions of exist- stance of the instrument itself, owing to its solidity and ing instruments. We also problematize the existing taxon- elasticity... without requiring stretched membranes or omy while attempting to broaden the space of known instru- strings” ments across all states of matter. • 2. membranophones; Although previous classification schemes attempted to ex- haustively cover all possible and conceivable instruments, we • 3. chordophones; have recently proposed a number of new instruments, some • 4. aerophones. based on liquid and some based on plasma, as well as some Further numbers were used to subdivide this classification based on combinations of liquid and plasma. Since liquid scheme at each stage, much like the Dewey Decimal System (or plasma) is neither solid nor gas, these new instruments of Classification. forced us to re-consider the above categorizations. In 1940, Sachs added a 5th category he called “electro- Along with proposal of these new instruments, we have phones”[5] for instruments involving electricity. also proposed a physics-based musical instrument classifi- Present-day organologists and ethnomusicologists have come cation scheme, re-arranging the first three top-levels of the to a mutually agreed-upon understanding that this classifi- Hornbostel Sachs system (those in which sound is produced cation scheme should depend only on how sound is initially by matter in its solid state) as sub-categories, under the produced in the instrument. top-level “solid”, and the fourth top-level of the Hornbostel Thus it is now generally agreed that the 5th category, Sachs system (in which sound is produced by matter in its namely “electrophones”, should only be used for instruments gaseous state), under the top-level “gas”, like the top-level such as the Theremin, ondes martenot, and, of course, the of the Andre Schaeffner classification system. modern synthesizer, that actually generate the sound signal However, unlike the Andre Schaeffner classification sys- source itself, electrically. tem, we also include a top-level classification for the other For example, a pipe organ is still an aerophone regardless two states of matter: liquid and gas, resulting in the follow- of whether the wind source is an electric motor or hand- ing scheme: operated blower, and regardless of whether the valves deliv- ering wind to the pipes are mechanically, electrically, pneu- 1. “Earth”/Solid: matically, or hydraulically actuated. (a) chordophones (strings): stretched solids that are An interesting case, for example, is the Greek Hydraulis essentially 1-dimensional, i.e. their cross sec- (invented by the hellenistic scientist Ctesibius of Alexandria, tion is much less than their length; in the 3rd century BC) an early pipe organ that used the dynamic energy of water (“hydor”) as a source of power to (b) membranopones: stretched solids that are essen- generate air pressure to blow air into organ pipes having tially 2-dimensional, i.e. their thickness is much valves that were mechanically actuated. Thus the source of less than their surface area; power is water (hydraulic). The source of actuation (to open (c) idiophones: solids that are essentially 3-dimensional the valves) was mechanical. However, it is still an aerophone — no tension. because the pipes are wind-driven. The diversity of musical instruments and how they are 2. “Water”/Liquid: hydraulophones; controlled (i.e. that which comes before the initial sound 3. “Air”/Gas: aerophones (wind instruments); production mechanism) and how they are post-processed 4. “Fire”/Plasma: ionophones, (that which comes after the sound production mechanism), highlights the importance of better understanding the physics giving the four states of matter as the top-level categories. behind sound production. In addition to adding two new top-level categories, we In 1932, Andre Schaeffner developed a new classification attempt to “deconstruct” or problematize Sachs’ fifth cate- scheme that was “exhaustive, potentially covering all real gory (Electrophones), through the construction of new mu- and conceivable instruments”[3, p176]. Schaeffner’s system sical instruments that synthesize sounds, or play back sound has only two top-level categories denoted by Roman numer- samples, but that either do not involve or use electricity, or als: involve and use electricity merely for control purposes (as with a pipe organ) or to post-process acoustically generated • I: instruments that make sound from vibrating solids sounds (as with the electric
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