VERBAL MORPHOLOGY IN

A Thesis Submitted to the Central Department of Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Tribhuvan University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master's Degree in Linguistics

By Ram Rekha Roy Exam Roll No. : 5646 T.. Regd. No. 44757-93

Central Department of Linguistics Tribhuvan University, 2010

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LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION

It is to certify that Mr. Ram Rakha Roy has completed this thesis on the topic VERBAL MORPHOLOGY IN BAJJIKA under my guidance and supervision. recommend this thesis for evaluation.

Date:

______Dr. Dan Raj Regmi Reader Central Department of Linguistics Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal

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TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Central Department of Linguistics

LETTER OF APPROVAL

The undersigned members of the thesis committee have approved this thesis, entitled VERBAL MORPHOLOGY IN BAJJIKA submitted by Mr. Ram Rakha Roy to the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for M.A. Degree in Linguistics.

Dr. Dan Raj Regmi ______

Supervisor

Central Department of Linguistics

Prof. Dr. Yogendra P Yadava ______

External Examiner

Central Department of Linguistics

Dr. Dan Raj Regmi ______

Head

Central Department of Linguistics

Date :

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am very happy to see my dream and desire of carrying out a research in verbal Morphology in Bajjika materialized. This work, I think makes me feel like a linguist. The sole credit for its completion goes to my supervisor, Dr. Dan Raj Regmi, the head of central Department of Linguistics, T.U. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to him for his time and troble which he provided me to complete this research work. His suggestions, remarks, helps, support, constant guidance, insightful comments and genuine encouragement have been proved to be very significant and inevitable for this work. The work cannot have been shaped without his earnest endeavor. Therefore, I wish to thank him time and again for all he did for the work.

I would not remain silente to express my heartily appreciation to Prof. Dr. Yogendra Prasad Yadava, former Head of the Department of Linguistics for his earnest and insightful suggestion, encouragement, co-operation and creative oppreciation. I am also indebted to Prof. Dr. Madhav Prasad Pokharel, Central Department of Linguistics for his kind cooperation for this study. I adore the effort made by Mr. Dubinanda Dhakal, Lecturer, Central Department of Linguistics, T.U. I am very much thankful to him for his valuable remarks and guidelines. His help and support has become a mile stone for the success of this research work. I could not forget to state my cordial thanks to Mr. Balram Prasain, lecturer, Central Department of Linguistics for the suggestions, remarks and ideas he has provided me. I want to thank Mr. Ramraj Lohani, Mr. Bhim Narayan Regmi, Mr. Bhim Lal Gautam, Mr. Prasad Parajuli, Mr. Lekhnath Pathak, all the lecturers as well as staff of linguistic Department for their academic and technical assistance.

Similarly I would like to express my cordial thanks to Kaushal Kishor Ray, Madhav Prasad , Hari Narayan Mahato, Kashindra Yadav, Suman, Sameer (Balram) Laxmichhane, Ashis, Madhu, Manju and all my colleagues for their in/direct contribution for this work. I owe a special thankfulness to computer typist Rajiv Maharjan (Friend's Computer Service).

Date:

Ram Rekha Roy

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ABSTRACT

Bajjika is an Eastern Indo- language spoken by a total of about 20 million people in the northern regions of the state of and at the boarder area of the . Especially the area of Nepal which is attached to the districts such as , Shivhar and eastern and western champaran are the areas of the Bajjika speakers. Geographically in Nepal Bajjika speakers are located in Rautahat and Sarlahi. The core area of Bajjika language is Garuda village in . This core area was orginally recognized in Sarlahi, the western part attached to Rautahat. But it is charonologically shifted towards Rautahat. The Bajjika speakers belong to different castes and religions. Bajjika speaker community is male dominated. Bajjika speakers have high love and respect for their language. They use their language in almost all domains of language use. They transmit Bajjika language to their youngesters so happily and with pride in order to preserve their culture and tradition.

This work verbal morphology in Bajjika is divided into six chapters. The first chapter deals with the background, objectives, review of literature and other research preliminaries. The chapter two deals with people, culture and language of Bajjika speakers. Chapter three deals with tense, aspect, mood and modality and verb agreement of Bajjika language. In chapter four well discuss causativisation, passivization. Chapter five deals with auxiliary verbs. Chapter six summarizes the findings of all the chapters briefly.

The verb morphology in Bajjika introduces a productive system like other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages with which it shares many linguistic affinities. One characteristic which distinguishes Bajjika as a language from the rest of the Indo- Aryan and Nepal is its elaborate verb system. A simple finite verb in Bajjika consists of a stem and concord. The verb becomes finites after the affixation of thae finite suffix. If the verb is in the aspectual form the occurrence of finite auxiliary is obligatory. The situation external time implied by the verb can be represented by tripartite set of distinctions among present, past and future. The situation internal time is indicated by different aspectual forms of the verb. In Bajjika there are five different mood: indicative, imperative, optative, presumptive and subjunctive (conditional). In Bajjika the verb inflects for person and honorificity as well as tense, agreeing with its subject.

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ABBREVIATIONS 1 First person 2 Second person 3 Third Person ABIL Ability ACC Accusative ARG Agreement Aux Auxiliary CERT Certainty COND Conditional DAT Dative DUR Durative EMPH Emphatic FUT Future GENT Genitive Gloss Glossary H Honorific HH High Honorific IMP Imperative Intr Intransitive IPFV Imperfective NEG Negative NH Non-honorific OBLG Obligation OPT Optative ɸ No marker PASS Passive PCPL Participle PERF Perfect PFV Perfective PL Plural PRES Present PROG Progressive PST Past 6

TNS Tense Tr Transitive V Verb

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background

This study is an attempt to analyze the verbal morphology of the Bajjika language within the functional-typological mainly developed by Talmy Givón (2001). According to the Ethnologue (sixteenth edition) Bajjika has been identified as one of the dialects of Maithili. In the census of Nepal, 2001, Bajjika has been recognized as an independent language spoken in Sarlahi, Rautahat, Bara and Mohattari districts of Terai region of Nepal. The total speaker of Bajjika amounts to 237947 (male: 124088 and female3113859). This is 1.05% of the total polulation of Nepal. This language belongs to Eastern Indo-Aryan language sub-family (Yadava, 2008; , 1967). Till the date no attempt has been made to analyze the verbal morphology of the Bajjika language from formal and functional perspectives (See Review of Literature).

Bajjika is a cross-boarder language and it has its own distinctive characterstc although it is considered as the mixed of Maithili and Bhojpuri. Bajjika is spoken by total of about 20 milion people in thenorthern regions of the Bihar states of India and at the boarder area of the Terai (Singh 1999). Expecially the area of Nepal which is attahed to the districts such as Sitamarhi. Shivhar and eastern and western champaran are the areas of the Bajjika speakers (Arun and Sharma 2008). In Nepal the history of Bajjika is very old. Bajjika has been spoken here for 3000 years. Folk songs of Sarlahi and Rautahat are the evidence. (Sah 2066 B.S.) Bajjika is the language recorded in the 2001 censues but it was not enumerated in the earlier censuses. Uncertainty about the number of Bajjika speaker and its disappearance in the last five censuses may be attributed to the lack of required information and awareness about mother tongues and also the “one-nation one language” policy adopted during the panchayat regime. Geographically in Nepal Bajjika speakers are located in Rautahat and Sarlahi. The core area of Bajjika language is Garuda village in Rautahat district. This core area was originally recognized in Sarlahi, the western part attached to Rautahat. But it is chronologically shifted towards Rautahat (Personal conversation with prof. Dr. Y.P. Yadava, on 16th of Paush). Bajjika is at the 12th position among 92 languages of the country. Its written script is like most Eastern Indo-European .

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1.2 Statement of the problem

The main problem of the study is to analyze the verbal morphology of the Bajjika language from the formal and functional perspectives. The specific problems of the study may be presented in interrogative forms. They are as follows:

1. How are tense, aspect and mood/ modality realized in the language? 2. How are the valance changing devices such as causativization and passivization realized in the complex of the verb in Bajjika? 3. What is the role of auxiliaries in the complex of the verb in Bajjika?

1.3 Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study is to analyze the verbal morphology in Bajjika from functional-typological perspective. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: a) To analyze tense, aspect, mood and modality paterns in the language; b) To examine valence changing devices in Bajjika; and c) To look at the role of auxiliaries in the complex of the verb in Bajjika?

1.4 Review of the literature

Several research works have been done on Bajjika especially in Bihar in India. Only a few researches have been done on Bajjika in Nepal. Some of the important works related to Bajjika language are as follows.

Yadav, R (1997) deals with phonology, morphology, systax and semantics of language very skillfully. In phonology a brief sketch of the segmental phonology and suprasegmental features of stress and intonation is discussed. He has not discussed juncture. The whole of his book does not have any types of diagrames, pictures, and photographs to make the illustration scientific and clearer. He has discussed Maithili verb phrase in detail. Regarding syntax only major types of sentences and some minor types of sentences are discussed in detail but some minor types of sentences are not discussed. He does not discuse pragmatics and discouse area of Maithili.

Bimal (1986) deals with the similarities and differences of the morphology of Nepali, Maithili and languages. He has compared formative affixes, nominal

9 declension, pronominal declension, numerals and the verbs. He has presented the comparision in a greater defail. He has mot discussed morphophonemic process and mophosyntax of either Maithili or Nepali or Hindi.

Singh (1999) has written the first grammar of Bajjika naming “Bajjika Pratham Vyakaran." He has asserted that his book is a grammar but not a linguistic book. , Bihar, India is accepted as the core area of Bajjika. In his grammar he has discussed sound system, Noun phrases and noun declension, declension of indigenous words, verbphrases, and syntax in a greater detail. He has compared Bajjika with Hindi and where it is necessary to make the topics of Bajjika clear. He has discussed the closed wordclass, too.

Arun and Sharma (2008) have written the first scientific dictionary of Bajjika language naming “Bharati Bajjika Hindi Kosh” it is a bilingual dictionary, Bajjika to Hindi. He deals with an introductory part of Bajjika grammar in very short form. He has also listed some reduplicated words and some popular and frequent proverb in the appendices. But this dictionary is a very short collection of Bajjika words. This dictionary has not included thousand of words of Bajjika languages due to some technical problem.

Uranw (2008) deals with the categories of the Uranw Kudux verbs and analyzed their morphology- both derivational and inflectional. He deals with phonologycal system of Urarw-Kuḍux, too. In Uranw Kuḍux verb has a very rich inflectional system. The verb in Urarw- Kuḍux can be classified into primitive, derivative and compound on the basis of its structural complexity. The tense system in Urarw- Kuḍux shows the two-way contrast i.. past and Non-past. He has also discussed the merphophonemic properties of Urarw- Kuḍux briefly.

Thakur (2008) deals with the compare and contrast of verbal affixation of Maithili and English. He found that Maithili has more number of verbal affixes in comparision to English and they are more complex than those of English. Both the Maithili and English languages have more or less similar affixation system. He also found that English has more prefixes than that of Maithili whereas Maithili is richer than English in terms of numbers of suffixes. He has given a worng statement that there are unlimited numbers of verbal affixation in the Maithili langauge.

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A field report (2066 BS.) deals with sociolinguistic context of Bajjika and wordlist. This study reports that the core area of Bajjika language is Garuda, VDC in Rautahat districts. The Bajjika speakers belong to different casts, creed and religion. According to the report there are 31 and six sounds in Bajjika. Diphthongisation and Nasalisation are also found in Bajjika. But the report does not give any detail of morphophonemic process and talks nothing about syntax and semantics of Bajjika.

Roka (2065 B.S.) deals with Byansi verb class. He has described derivational affixes, negative and interrogative makers, s-v agreement system, tense, aspect and modality marking. He found that Byansi is a pronominal language. The person and number agreement occurs accouding to subject. He also asserted that it exhibits sinospheric mprphological type mainly. Byansi borrows some Indospheric lexical items and morphological system.

Though several studies have been carried out concerning Bajjika languages, the researches done are of very limited scope. Within the language study there is not any research work done yet particularly on Bajjika morphology, therefore, the present study aims to make a detail analysis on Bajjika verbal morphology.

1.5 Significance of the study

This study seems to be very small work but, hopefully it will be fruitful to those people who are interested in investigating the relationship of the Bajjika language with its sister and ancestral languages. It will also be helpful to the scholars keen on studying morphology, syntax of Bajjika and other similar languages in detail. Similarly the linguists as well as the grammarians will be equally benefited from this research work. This study will also help the educationist in the preparation of text books as well as other teaching materials.

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1.6 Research methodology

The research work is carried out in the following two steps;’ i) Field work The data is collected from the native speakers for the purpose of the study; a. Elicited data b. Written text i) The collected data is analyzed and interpreted employing descriptive method including some appropriate statistical tool like tables, charts and diagrams.

The following inductive steps have been followed throughout the research activities: a. Primary source

The data which have been used throughout the work have been provided by the researcher himself. His native competence about language has been useful for enough data. For uniformity more accuracy he also visited his friends, relatives, neighbours and some surrouding villages. b. Secondary source

Available references and textbooks related to the verbal morphology i.e payne (1997), Givoˊn (2001), Parajuli (2005) whaley (1997) Regmi (2007), Yadav, R. (1997), Yadava, Y. P (1980), have been searched and spent enough time for extracting authentic evidences and related literatures as well as for theoretical knowledge. Sufficient time has been spent for purpose of systematizing the findings, searching for ancillary concepts and sources, and widening and comparing the knowledge.

1.7 Limitations of the study The study has the following limitations.

1. This study is limited to a small group of Bajjika speakers of Laxmipur (S)VDC, Sarlahi 2. The research is confined to a small area of Bajjika language-the verbal System.

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1.8 Organization of the study

The study has been organized into four chapters. The first chapter deals with the objectives methodology of the study, signification of the study, literature review and methodology. The second chapter deals with language and culture of Bajjika speakers. Chatper three deals with tense, aspects, mood and modality and verb agreement. In chapter four presents causativization and passivisation. Chapter five deals with auxiliary verbs. Chapter six summaries the findings of all the chapters briefly.

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CHAPTER 2 LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

2.0 Outline

This chapter deals with the people speaking Bajjika language, their culture and language of Bajjika speakers. It consists of nine sections. Section 2.1 deals with the glotonym of the language. In section 2.2 we discuss the history of language in short. Section 2.3 discusses the ethnology with includes occupation traditional culture and religion, and social and family structure. Section 2.4 outlines genetic affiliation of the Bajjika language. In section 2.5 we deal with the distribution of the langauge. Section 2.6 mentions the dialects of Bajjika language section 2.7 deals with socio-economic position of the language. In section 2.8 we discuss endangerment of the Bajjika language. Section 2.9 summarizes the findings of this chapter.

2.1 Glotonym

Bajjika refers to glossonym 'language name'. Bajjika word is derived from the root Bajji. Bajjika is autoglotonym (name given to the language by native speakers). Due to the lack of awareness some people call it Dehati or Thenythi langauge, too. The word Bajji is derived from the word Wajji. Since the Bajjika speaker pronounce W as 'b' it became Bajjika.

The -k suffix is attached and the root Bagjji and it becomes becomes Bajjik'. Bajjik means the resident of Bajji. After attaching a to the stem Bajjik it becomes Bajjika which means the language spoken by the Bajjik. The word Bajji is also known as Brijji (synonym). This Bajji was a powerful province which capital was known as Baishali. This Bajj province was very famous for its powerful republican system. History says that even the lord Buddha had established his 'sangh' on the pattern of this republican province. This province had come into its existence in 725 B.C. and became famous in 450 B.C. The language name Bajjika was first uttered by the great scholar of that time (Arun and Sharma, 2008). He had put this langauge at the thirty sixth positions in the list in his book 'Puratatwa Nibandhawali'. In this book he has presented the list of the mother tongues spoken by the Hindi speaker.

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Now-a-days this Bajji province is in Bihar, India and known as sitamarhi, Shivhar, Champaran, Muzzafarpur etc. The areas of Nepal, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Mohatari and Bara are in the direct contact of these parts of Bihar. Therefore they, too, speak Bajjika language from ancient time.

2.2 History of the language

The history of Bajjika is very old especially in India. In Nepal, too, the history of Bajjika is three thousand years old. Folk songs are the evidence of this history. Even nowadays the folk songs are sung in Bajjika language. History says that Chinese traveler Huensang had travelled allong the to India. He had spent a few days in Samanpur, VDC (in Rantahat). At that time, too, the langauge of Rautahat was Bajjika. At the time when Nepal had defeated England, the langauge of this area was Bajjika since Nepali soldiers had language problem and had called some bilingual from Gaindatar of Chandranigahpur (in Rautahat (Sah, 2066 B.S).

Before Rauhul Sankrityayan Grierson (1968) had prepared seven of . In the first part of seven grammars he had a language as southern-Maithili. In the fourth part of that grammar he had called this language Maithili-Bhojpuri. It is clear from the evidence of sound system of that language that there were may types of newness in that language which were not found either in Maithili or in Bhojpuri. But he couldn't name it exactly (Singh, 1967). Nowadays name give by Rahul Sankrityayan has come into existence and enumerated even in the census, 2001.

2.3 Ethnology 2.3.1 Occupation

The people of Bajjika language form a very rich ethnic status. They belong to the different castes, creed and religion. Some of the castes who speak the langauge are , Kayastha, , Yadav, Sah (, Kanu, Kalwar, Baniya), Kurmi (Raut, Patel, Ray, Singh), , Mahato, (Koiri and Suri), Pasman, Mahara, Mushar, Dom, Mukhiya, and Muslman. They are involved in different occupation and profession for their livelihood such as agriculture (fishing, farming, horticulture, floriculture, poultry, animal husbandary etc.), teaching, business, and trade, factory and garments, various governmental and non-governmental administrative jobs, carpentry, shoe-making, tailoring, and so on. However some castes are famous and

15 identified for special skill in particular field. For example, for worshippng, Rajput for fighting /ruling, Bhumihar for tackling social problem, Kurmi for growing vegetables, Sonar for making the ornaments, Lohar for making iron tools, Kumar for making clay pots, Muslim for selling meat, tailoring and constructing buildings, Dom for keeping pigs, making bambo articles from different bambo split and cleaning toilets, Baitha for washing clothes, etc. (Feild Report, 2066).

2.3.2 Social and family structure

The Bajjika speakers live in community. The community is governed by the rule and regulations santioned by the society. The Bajjika speaker's community is a male- dominated community. In the family the role of the husband is prominent. Most of decisions are finalised by the eldest male member of the family. However, advice and suggestions of the females also have a say in the family. The total responsibility of the management of the household goes to the wife. Most of the Bajjika speakers have been found living in a joint family. Bhauji (elder brother's wife) has a joking relation with her husband's younger brothers. Similarly sala and sali have joking relation with their sister's husband, brothers and sisters. Women are not allowed to talk with their husbands' elder brother and to see each other face to face directly. Therefore, women's put veil and hide their faces whenever they happen to come in front of them. The women are not allowed to talk directly with their husbands' elder brother (bhainsur) and father-in-law (Sasur). Women are not allowed to call their elders in society by their name. They cannot call even their husbands by their name. For this they use tricky way like Ram's Father. (if the name of her son is Ram and want to call her husband).

But now-a-days these customs like puting veil and not calling elders' name is being decreased due to the influence of education in society. And it is a good sign for the social development of Bajjika community. Since in many cases such accident and mishap these practices create more problems. Elder brother never touches their younger bother's wife and vice-versa. If this happens the two have to take bath. The following kinship terms also reveal the family structure of the Bajjika speaker community.

16 a. baba/dada 'grand father' b. dai/dadi 'grandmother' c. 'father' d. mai/matari 'mother' e. beta 'son' f. beti 'daughter' g. gharbala/marad 'husband' h. gharbali 'wife' i. mama 'maternal uncle' j. mami 'maternal aunt' k. bhainsur 'husband's elder brother' l. deor 'husband's younger brother' m. nanad 'husband's sister' n. bhatija 'nephew' . phetiji 'niece' p. phupha 'father's sister's and husband' q. phua 'father's sister' r. kaka/chacha 'uncle' s. kaki/chachi 'aunt' t. pota 'grand son' u. poti 'grand daughter' v. bhaiya 'elder brother' w. bhai 'younger bother' x. sala 'wife's younger brother' y. sali 'wife's younger sister' z. bhaiji 'wife's elder brother' aa. didi/bahianji 'wife's elder sister' bb. bahin 'younger sister' cc. didi/bahin 'elder sister' dd. damad 'son-in-low' ee. sas 'mother-in-law' ff. sasur 'father-in-law' gg. dos/sathi 'friend' hh. kaniya 'bride' 17

ii. barba 'bride groom jj. Samdhi 'father of the son-in-law' kk. Sandhini 'mother of the son-in-law ll Nana ' maternal grandfather' mm Nani 'maternal grandmother'

2.3.3 Tradition and culture

Bajjika speakers belong to different religions such as Hinduism, Islamism and Christianism. Tradition and culture vary according to their religions. Festivals, foods, costume, custom, ornaments, beliefs etc. depend on their religion. But the Bajjika speakers enjoy and respect each other religions. They never conflict among one another on the issue of religions in Nepal. Instead they share each others beliefs and festivals, ' main festivals are , Chhath, Dashain (Dashara), , Tila Sakrat, (Maghe Sakrati), Jur Sital, Saunighari, Anant Pawani, Nagpanchami, Ganesh Chaturdashi, etc. on many occasions men and women fast while celebrating these festivals and worship different god and goddess. The different festivals have their won gods and goddesses. Food, costumes and process of worshipping also vary according to the festivals. Hindu men generally wear dhoti, kurta, pants shirts whereas Hindu women wear sari, blouse, kurta and surwal (unmarried girl) etc. The common dish of the meals in Hindu community is rice, pulse, vegetables, pickles, sause, fruits, sweats etc. on special occasion like Holi they enjoy alcohol and meat. Eating beef is strictly prohibited in Hindu community of Bajjika speakers (Field report 2066).

The Muslim community of Bajjika speaker celebrates the estivals like, Id, Muharam, Bakrid, Ramjan, etc. They wear long kurta and lungi, surwal, pant, shirt etc. women wear both Sari and Blouse and Kurta and sulwar. Adistinct type of cap is a sign of Muslim society. The common dish of the meals in Muslim community is rice, pulse, vegetables, and meat. They mostly enjoy eating beef. Eating pork is strictly prohibited in Muslim community. The Christian community is very few in number in Bajjika speaker. The Christians were originally Hindus but under the influence of Christian Missionary they stopped following Hindu practices and started following Christian practices. These people follow the Biblian beliefs and eat both beef and pork. They wear mostly pant, shirt, and women in Christian society of Bajjika speaker have been found continuity wearing sari and blouse.

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2.4 Genetic affiliation

According to Grierson (1968) southern Maithili belongs to eastern Indo-Aryan language sub family. This very southern Maithili is known as Bajjika today. According to Yadav (2001) Bajjika language, an isolated language belongs to Eastern Indo-Aryan subfamily. The Diagram presents as follows:

Eastern Indo-Aryan Eastern Indo-Aryan

Maithili Bajjika Bhojpuri Majhi Tharu Magahi Bangla Assamese Oriya Koche Rajbanshi Kumali (Source: Yadava (2001)

2.5 Distribution of the speakers

Including Bihar, India and Nepal Bajjika speakers cover more than five thousand square mile. In number they are 20 million. It is spoken in Muzzaffar pur, sitamarhi, Shivhar, Champaran, and Bairginiya, districts of Bihar, India. Geographically Narayani river is the eastern border the Ganges river is the southern border and the Terai in Nepal is its Northern border. The Eastern border is not so clear since in the North Bajjika speaker is mixed with Maithili speaker in the ratio of fifty percent. The language in which the ancient religious literature composed in Brajbhumi about the lord Krishna is very similar to the Bajjika language of Sarlahi and Rautahat. Thus it is

19 stretched over the breadth of thirty kilometer between Bhojpuri in western part and Maithili in the Eartern Part. Throughout sitamarhi, muzzarfarpur, shivhar and champaran it is spread over upto Brindawan (Brajbhumi), the land of the lord Krishna. In Nepal, it is also known as Estern Bhojpuri and western Maithili. It is spoken especially by the speaker of the western part of Mahotari, Sarlahi, Rautahat and Eastern part of (Sah, 2066, Singh, 1967, Arun and Sharma, 2008).

2.6 Dialects

It is very difficult to differentiate between dialect and language. However, by dint of linguistic analysis and on the basis of the decision of speaker demarkation line is drawn. According to the Bajjika scholar Arun (2008) there are four dialects of Bajjika. Its standard form is spoken in Muzzararpur and Slightiy different from of this standard Bajjika and influenced from Maithili is spoken in Nepal. If we study the Bajjika speaker minutely in Nepal we can say that there are three dialects of Bajjika even in Nepal whose standard form is spoken in Sarlahi and Rautahat. Its core area in Nepal is considered in Garuda (Rautahat) but in ancient time it was in Sarhahi.

Three dialects of Bajjika in Nepal; a. The western Bajjika:- Bajjika spoken by the people of western Bara district which dialect is influenced from Bojpuri language. It can be called western Bajjika or Eastern Baojpuri. b. The standard Bajjika:- Standard form of Bajjika in Nepal is spoken by the people of Sarlahi and Rautahat nearby the both sides of the Bagmati river. c. Eastern Bajjika:- Bajjika spoken by the people of Eastern Mahotari district which is iinfluenced from . It can be called Eastern Bajjika or western Maithi.

2.7 Socio-linguistic position of the language 2.7.1 Language resources

Bajjika language is not rich in language resources but some monthly, terminal and yearly newspapers, journals are published and some of them have been publishing now-a-days, too. Folk songs, folk tale, and poems are also available in Bajjika language. There are some organizations and media which are working to promote the Bajjika language. Poem collection pachis deng 'twenty five steps (2061) and Bajjika

20 kahabati Sangrah 'Bajjika proverb collection '(2062) written by Sanjay Sah are published by plan Nepal. Bajjikarpan, a terminal journal is being published by Nepal Bajjika Counsil, Rautahat. Rautahat F.M. (A local F.M.) is also broadcated in Bajjika language (Field Report, 2066).

Many national journals and newspaper like the Gorkhapatra, the Kantipur, the Annapurna post, the Nepal Samachar Patra, etc. have also promoted Bajjika language a lot by publishing literary work, and linguistic work in Bajjka. However, the Bajjika language is very rich in language resources in Bihar, India.

2.7.2 Multilingualism

Bajjika is the amalgmated form of many languages such as Maithili, Bhojpuri and Hindi. That's why the Bajjika speaker can understand these languages. They learn Hindi from songs, and TV program and Nepali from schools. The educated people can read, write and speak Nepali, Bajjika and Hindi so clearly. But the illiterate people can't understand Nepali and Hindi well. They communicate with Nepali and Hindi speaker in Bajjika language. Due to mutual understanding the Bejjika speaker communicate with Bhojpuri and Maithili Speaker in their own Language. Thus, educated people are multilingual in Nepali, English, Maithili, Hindi, as well as Bajjika language. Whereas uneducated people are bilingual in Bajjika and either in Maithili or in Bhojpuri or Hindi. Some illiterate people are monolingual too.

2.7.3 Language attitude

There is a crucial role of the native speaker's attitude for the survival of the language. The positive attitude fosters intergenerational transmission, maintenance of linguistic boundaries and the sense of language's historic status. The Bajjika speakers have high love and respect for their language. Tey feel their language is very much prosperous, melodious, and easier to make other understnd, powerful and useful in employment, easier to trade, social activities and in the medium of education in comparison to other languages.

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2.7.4 Language maintenance and shift

Almost all of the children of the Bajjika speaker use Bajjika in their home, with friends and neighbour, and in the local schools. Some of them only use other language such as Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Hindi in their home. There are no schools and teachers to teach mother tongue in their community. They wish that their children would learn and take primary education in mother tongue. If such type of school is established they would be very happy and are ready to help. They will provide all kinds of possible facilities to these types of schools (Field Report, 2066).

2.7.5 Code mixing and loan words

Code mixing is a common phenomenon for the Bajjika speaker. They don't hesitate for code mixing while speaking to the Hindi speaker, Maithili speaker, Bhojpuri speaker, and Nepali speaker in offices, business and schools. Many of the Bajjika speakers realize that their language becomes much easier and sweeter when they introduce or borrow words from the other languages. Normally in a bilingnal or a multilingual community a speaker is likely to borrow a word from anotherlanguage when it is not readily available in the native language or make their language richer. Bajjika speakers use the words from Maithili, Nepali, Bhojpuri, and English as loan words (Field report 2006).

2.7.6 Language transmission vitality and loyalty

Bajjika language has been transmitted well from one generation to another in the area they inhabitate. Most of the speakers of Bajjika think this langauge will be spoken even by their youngsters. Bajjika speakers are very loyal to their language. The speakers of Bajjika don't give loyalty to those people who have forgotten to speak their language. They feel very sad while the young generation of their community use other language instead of their own language. Instead they inspire the new comers to learn their native language. They encourage the youngersters to learn their own language Bajjika because only Bajjika language can preserve and promote their culture and tradition well (Field Report 2006).

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2.7.7 Context or domains of language use and language choice

Bajjika language is used more frequently in the daily life while counting, singing, joking, abusing teasing, marketing, story telling, arguing, quarrelling, praying, talking to the family and neighbours, dreaiming, playing, giving speeches, etc. They also use Bajjika in almost all social, educational and family activities such as talking about election, festivals, fairs, marriage ceremony, etc. They also use Bajjika in writting letters and their friends as well as parents, ringing people (talking on phone), etc. The Bajjika langauge is also used in the local F.M. and newspapers. Only a few educated people are using Nepali and English in a few selected contexts (Field Report, 2066).

2.8 Language endangerment

Bajjika is the language recorded in the 2001 census but it was not enumerated in the earlier consuses. Uncertainty about the number of speaker of the Bajjika language and its disappearance in the last five censuses may be atributed to the dack of required information and awareness about mother tongues and also 'the one nation one language policy' adopted during the panchayat regime. In the last censuses it may have enumerated in Maithili or due to the lack of highly trained man power and weak linguistic knowledge. A total speaker of Bajjika is 237947 which is 1.05 percent of the total population. Most of the speaker of Bajjika language thinks their language is not in endangered state because all the people in community happily use the language. They have neither any shame nor they feel any kind of inferiority to speak the language in any of the situations in community. They are very eager and vigorously energetic in promoting and preserving the language for ever.

The negative attitude accelerates the endangerment. There are number of factors for endangerment of the Bajjika language. By didn't of these factors we can say that Bajjika in Nepal is also an endangered language. a. Intergenerational language transmission

Some educated people are not transmitting the Bajjika language to their children. They are shifting to Nepali since they think Nepali is the language of nation and using Nepali from boyhood facilitate them in governmental jobs. But these types of people

23 are very few in numbers. The attraction of Hindi and English is also an obstacle in intergenerational language transmission to some extent. b. Absolute number of speaker

The Bajjika speaker is only 1.05 percent of the total population. This fact leads to reassess its endangerment level. On this basis Bajjika language is a seriously endangered language. c. Loss of existing language domain

It has been reported the Bajjika speaker in the past could sing plenty of songs in Bajjika language. But nowadays they use Hindi songs. The folk songs are also being less practiced. They cannot utter mantras rituals in the Bajjika language. Gradualy they are losing one after another domain of language use. d. Response to new domains and media

There is no access to the media of the Bajjika speakers at all if we ignore a few instances. Moreover, they are using more and moe Nepali words in their expression. e. Materials for primary education and literacy

The speakers of the community are gradually transferring to Nepali through endogenous process. This led to the endangerment of their native language. Most of the Bajjika speakers are illiterate. Even today they don't send their children to school. There are no materials for education in Bajjika language. f. Governmental and Institutional language attitudes and policies, including official status and use:

Before 2001 census Bajjika has not been identified a seperate language. It was considered a dialect of Maithili. Now it is one of the of Nepal. Recently the Bajjika speakers have been found getting slowly conscious about their ethnic identity and language.

24 g. Community members' attitude toward their won languages

Many Bajjika speakers are ignorant and indifferent about the importance of the mother tongue since most of them are illiterate. Nowadays some Bajjika speakers have been awakening to preserve and promote this language. h. Migration

The Bijjka speakers live in different district such as Rautahat, Salahi, Mahotari and Bara in Nepal. In search of employment, livelihood, government job and business they migrated individually or in a small group to other language speaking area. This phenomenon gradually ceases to stop speaking the native language and they start to speak the dominant language, especially Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri and Hindi. i. Marginalization

The Bajjika speakers are marginalised ethnic group of Nepal. Most of the Bajjika seaker, especially living in villages have been found illiterate. They have been found marginalized not only economically but also politically. They are deprived of education. Neither they have their own land for cultivation nor do they have sustainable economy. (These criteria were proposed by an international expert meeting on UNESCO program "Safeguarding of the Endangered language" (March 10-12, 2003) in the endangered languages fund Newsletter, Vol. 7, Number 1, May, 2003 (Regmi, D.R., 2007).

2.9 Summary

In this chapter we discussed the people who speak Bajjika, their culture and tradition. Bajjika is spoken in limited areas of Mahotari, and Bara and in Sarlahi and Rautahat district. A total speaker of Bajjika is 237947. The name of this language is derived from 'Wrijji'. The history of Bajjika language is traced three thousand years old. The Bajjika speakers belong to different castes and religions. Bajjika speaker community is male dominated and women are dominated by men of the family. Some practices like putting veil in front of elders and are not allowed talking to their elders are the superstitions of the Bajjika speaker. Food, costumes and beliefs are determined by their religion. Bajjika belongs to Eastern Indo-Aryan sub family. Bajjika language is not rich in language resources. Most of the Bajjika speakers are either bilingual or

25 multilingual in Nepali, Hindi, Bhojpuri and Maithili except a few illiterate people who are monolingual.

Bajjika speakers have high love and respect for their language. They use their language in almost all domains of language use. They transmit Bajjika language to their youngesters so happily and with pride in order to preserve their culture and tradition. However, they think their language is an endangered language since there is no school and any literacy programme in Bajjika language. Nepali as a language of nation is threatening this language on the one hand. On the other hand Bhojpuri and Maithili language speakers are also discouraging the language.

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CHAPTER -3 TENSE, ASPECT, MOOD AND MODALITY

3.0 Outline

This chapter deals with tense, aspect, moods and modality and verb agreement in Bajjika language. It consists of five sections. Section 3.1 deals with tenses in Bajjika. In section 3.2 we discuss aspects in the Bajjika language. Section 3.3 deals with moods and modality in Bajjika language. In section 3.4 we discuss verb agreement. Section 3.5 summarizes the findings of this chapter.

3.1 Tense

Bajjika language possesses a morphological tripartite set of distinction among present, past and future. Bajjika verbs are inflected to indicate these three tenses by means of various tense marking morphemes. If the event precedes the point of reference, it is past. If it is follows, the time axis it is future and if it includes the time axis, it is present. The diagram presents the tense system in Bajjika:

Past Future

Present (Moment of speaking)

The same idea is further employed in the following diagram: Past Present Future not-now now not-now

This diagram can further be extended as below: A B C D E

(Point of reference) (time axis)

The past tense refers to the situation or event prior to the present time/now, whereas the future tense refers to the situation/event after the present time/now.

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3.1.1 The past tense

The past tense implies the event prior to the present situation. It does not state anything about the time period occupied by the event, its initiation and termination. It simply implies that the event does not hold at present.

Person is marked in the complex of verb. The past tense in Bajjika is marked differently according to the person and honorificity only i.e. its morphological form is free from gender and number. Therefore, the past tense in Bajjika has uniformity.

In Bajjika person markers on the verbs distinguish the subject and help in their identification and distinction. The past tense marker in Bajjika is <-1>. They are exemplified as follows; (1) həm kitab pəṛli həm kitab pəṛ-l-i 1 book read-PST-1 'I read a book.'

(2) tu kitab pəṛle. tu kitab pəṛ-l-e 2(NH) book read-PST-2 'You read a book.'

(3) u kitab pəṛlək u kitab pəṛ-l-ək 3(NH) book read-PST-3 'He read a book.'

(4) əpəne kitab pəṛl thin əpəne kitab pəṛ-l-thin 2(HH) book read-PST-HH 'You read a book.'

(5) bahuji kitab pəṛ lthin babu-ji kitab pəṛ-1-thin father-H book reas-PST-HH 'Father read a book.'

(6) həm səb kitab pəṛli həm səb kitab pəṛ-l-i 1 PL book read-PST-1 'We read a book.'

From the above examples (1-6), the person inflected differently to the verbs respectively. In example no. 3 <-ək> is transitive marker which is attached to the verb

28 endings of the third person subject. In the example no. 4 and 5 is honorific marker which is attached to the verb ending of 2nd person subjects as well as 3rd person subject. can be replaced by <-thun> also.

The examples above represent the same day past. To express the other day past the various time adverbials are used. No distinct marker is used to indicate the remote of distal (other day) past e.g.

(7) həm kail bhat khəili həm kail bhat khəi-1-i I yesterday rice eat-PST-1 'I ate rice yesterday.'

(8) tu pərsue upnyas pəṛle tu pərsu-e upnyas pəṛ-l-e 2(NH) the day before yesterday-EMPH novel read-PST-2 'You read a novel the day before yesterday.'

(9) tu kitab pəṛla tu kitab pəṛ-l-a 2SG book read-PST-2(H) 'You read a book.'

In the above examples, the morpheme kail in (7) indicates yesterday and the morpheme pərsu in (8) indicates the day before yesterday. Thus, it is clear that the language has its past tense that can be further studied as its aspects.

A verbal paradigm of the verb pər ̣ 'read' for past tense. Person Pronouns Words/Utterances Glosses Free Translation 1st həm pərli pəṛ-l-i I read tu (NH) pəṛle pəṛ-i-e You read 2nd tu (H) pəṛle pəṛ-l-a You read əpəne (HH) pəṛ thin pəṛ-1-thin You read 3rd u(NH) pəṛlək pəṛ-l-ək He read 3.1.2 The future tense

The future tense refers to the situation or event after the present time/now. In Bajjika the future tense marker, as in the past, inflects to the finite verbs for all the persons. For 1st person and 2nd person <-əm/əb> is the future marker whereas for third person <-ət/təi> is the future marker.

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They are exemplified as follows:

(10) həm kitab pəṛəm/pəṛəb həm kitab pəṛ-əm/pəṛ-əb-ɸ I book read-FUT/read-FUT-1 'I shall read a book.'

(11) tu kitab pəṛəbe tu kitab pəṛ-əb-e 2(NH) book read-FUT-2 'You shall read a book.'

(12) tu kitab pəṛəba tu kitab pəṛ-əb-a 2(H) book read-FUT-2H 'You will read a book.'

(13) əpne kitab pəṛthin/pəṛtən əpne kitab pəṛ-ət-thin/pər-ət-tən 2(HH) book read-FUT.HH/read-2-HH 'You will read a book.'

(14) u kitab pəṛət/pəṛt əi u kitab pəṛ-ət-ɸ /pər-təi-ɸ 3(NH) book read-FUT-3/read-FUT-3 'He will read a book.'

(15) babuji kitab pəṛətən/pəṛəthin Babu-ji kitab pəṛ-ət-tən/pəṛ-ət-thin Father(H) book read-FUT-HH/read-FUT-HH 'Father will read a book.'

From the above examples (1-6), the persons inflect differently to the verbs respectively. The future tense is not extended further. Therefore, it is clear that the language has its future tense that can be further studied as aspects like past tense as well as present tense.

A verbal paradigm of the verb pəṛ 'read' for the future tense. Person Pronouns Words/Utterances Glosses Free Translation 1st həm pəṛəm/pəṛəb pəṛ-əb-ɸ I shall read. 2nd tu (NH) pəṛəbe pəṛ-əb-e You will read. tu (H) pəṛba pəṛ-ab-a You will read. əpəne pəṛthin pəṛ-thin You will read. 3rd u(NH) pəṛtəi pəṛ-təi He will read.

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3.1.3 The present tense

The present tense refers to the situations or events at the present time/now. In Bajjika the present tense as in the past as well as future inflects to the finite verbs differently. For the first person the present tense marker is <-ile>. But no overt marker is used in the present tense for the second person and third person; in other words, in present tense construction the auxiliary itself serves the function of the tense. For purposes of analysis, this implies that when in a combination of main verb and auxiliary without tense manifestation as in the present tense, the non realized tense marker should be located in the auxiliary; the following examples are the illustrations:

(16) həm dekhile həm dekh-ile-ɸ I see-PRES-1 'I see.'

(17) tu dekhəitche tu dekh. əi(t) ch-e you see-DUR AUX-PRES.1 'You see/ You are seeing.'

(18) tu dekhəitcha tu dekh-əi(t) ch-a 2(H) see-DUR AUX-2H 'You see/You are seeing.'

(19) əpəne dekhəi (t) chi əpəne dekh-əi(t) ch-i 2HH see-IMPERF AUX-2(HH) 'You see/You are seeing.'

(20) u dekhəi chəi u dekh-əit ch-əi 3NH see-IMPERF AUX-3 'He sees/is seeing.'

(21) babuji dekhəit chəthin Babu-ji dekh-əit ch-thin Father-H see-IMPERF AUX-HH 'Father sees/is seeing.'

In the above examples (4) HH marker <-chi> can be replaced by morpheme or <-hətin>.

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The present tense can be further studied as aspect like the past tense as well as the future tense as its extension is not exerted further in the verification.

A verbal paradigm of the verb dekh 'see' for the present tense. Person Pronouns Words/Utterances Glosses Free Translation 1st həm dekhile dekh-ile-ɸ I see. 2nd tu (NH) dekhəitche dekh-əit-ch-e You see. tu (H) dekhəitcha dekh-əit-ch-a You area seeing əpəne dekhithəthin dekh-əit-həthin You see. 3rd u(NH) dekhəitchəi He sees./He is seeing

Thus Bajjika verbs inflect for three tenses - past, present, and future.

The tense markers are listed below:

Past -1 Future - əb/əm -First and second person - ət/təi - 3rd person

Present -o/ile - First person -o 2nd person and 3rd person - ile is optionally used for 3(NH).

Person is also marked in the complex of the verb. These tenses are not marked according to the number and gender. When there are no aspect markers of auxiliaries occurring immediately after the verb stem, then the tense markers are added directly to the verb stem itself. Otherwise, these occur after the auxiliary, which is preceded by the aspect markers. All this is really just a consequence of the fact that the finite verb is one that is marked for tense.

3.2 Aspect

There are two types of aspects of a verb: Lexical and grammatical aspect. This can be shown as below:

Aspects

Lexical Grammatical 32

3.2.1 Lexical aspect

The lexical aspect is referred to as aktionsart - that is, an inherent aspect that speakers assume the verb to carry unless otherwise indicated. Language appear to form the same Aktiansart classes in their lexicons (Whaley 1997). There are four basic classes of the lexical aspect of verbs: state, achievements, accomplishments and activities. The lexical aspects of verbs is defined as follows: states are non-dynamic and temporally unbounded. Achievements code instaneous changes, usually changes of state but also changes in a activities as well. They have an inherent temporal point. Accomplishments are temporally extended changes of state leading to a terminal point. The lexical aspects of the verb may be characterized by [+ static], [+ telic] and [+ punctual]: a. state [+ static], [-telic] and [-punctual] b. Activity [-static], [-telic] and [-punctual] c. Accomplishment [-static], [+telic] and [-punctual] d. Achievement [-static], [+telic] and [+punctual]

The lexial aspect of verbs codes the states of affairs in a language. There are four basic types of states of affairs; situations, events, processes, and actions. Situations are defined as static, non-dynamic states of affairs. Events are states of affairs which seem to happen instantly. Processes are states of affairs which involve change and take place over time. Actions are dynamic states of affairs in which a participant does something. These states of affairs can vary in terms of number of participants there are, whether there is a terminal point, whether the state of affair happens spontaneously or induced. Thus lexical aspects of the verbs correspond to the state- of- affairs: Lexical aspects of verbs state of affairs i. stats situation ii. achievements events iii. Accomplishment process iv. activities actions

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There are four basic classes of the lexical aspect of verbs in Bajjika. The following verbs in Bajjika fall in the following lexical aspect of verbs;

1. States a. udashəi 'be sad' b. khusi həi 'be happy' c. gərəm həi 'be hot' d. jannai 'to know' e. bəṛnai 'be tall' f. dəbəknai 'to be afraid' g. thəknai 'to be tired' h. sutnai 'to sleep' i. mənnai 'to wish'

2. Achievements a. thuknai 'to spit' b. khonknai 'to cough' c. kudnai 'to jump' d. pitnai 'to beat/hit' e. girnai 'to fall' f. chhilnai 'to peel' g. ropnai 'to plant' h. mərnai 'to die'

3. Accomplishments a. ənai 'to come' b. jənai 'to go' c. bəithnai 'to sit down' d. khədəknai 'to boil' e. uthnai 'to stand up' f. milnai 'to meet' g. bətiənai 'to talk' h. majnai 'to scrub'

4. Activities

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a. toḍnai 'to break' b. chəlnai 'to walk' c. pəṛnai 'to read' d. kərnai 'to work' e. nəchnai 'to dance' f. khənai 'to eat' 3.2.2 Grammatical aspect

Aspect has been defined as a grammatical category that refers to the way of temporal organization of the activity denoted by verbs (Crystal 1999:27). Aspect describes the internal temporal shape of events or states (Payne 1997: 238). It is concerned with marking notions like the duration of an event whether it is repetitive or not, whether it has a terminal boundary, etc. Aspects are temporal constituency of a situation.

In Bajjika aspects are of two types named perfective and imperfective. Imperfective aspect can be further extended in morphologically distinct two subcategories: progressive and durative.

Bajjika exhibits a complex aspectual system. Apart from the major categories and subcategories of aspects the figure below shows the combinations of aspects and tenses in Bajjika.

Aspects

Perfective (PFV) Imperfective (IPFV)

Past Progressive Durative

Present

Past Past Future Present Present

Future Future

The above diagram can further be extended as below:

35 Future

Aspects

PFV IPFV

PST DUR PROG PRF

PRS PST PST PRF DUR PROG

FUT PRS PRS PRF DUR PROG

FUT FUT In Bajjika the sufix inflection <-le> for transitive andDUR <-ə l> for intransitive indicatePROG the perfective marker. It can be commbined with any tense categories: past and non- past. Thus there are three types of perfective aspects in Bajjika. Past perfect, present perfect and future prefect. For example;

3.2.2.1 Perfective aspect

Perfective aspect looks at the situation from outside, without necessarily distinguishing any of the internal structure of the situation.

Example:

Present perfect (22) həm khəelechi həm khəe-le ch-i I eat-PERF AUX-PRES.1 'I have eaten.' (23) tu khəeleche tu khəe-le ch-e 2(NH) eat-PERF AUX-PRES-2 'You have eaten.' (24) tu khəele tu khəe-le ch-a 2(H) eat-PERF AUX-PRES.2HH 'You have eaten.' (25) əpəne khəele chəthin /chi

36

əpəne khəe-le ch-əthin/chi you(HH) eat-PERF AUX-PRES-HH 'You have eaten.' (26) u khəele h-əe u khəe-le h-əe 3 eat-PERF AUX-PRES-3 'He has eaten.' (27) həm sutəlchi həm sut-əl ch-i I sleep-PERF AUX-PRES.1 'I have slept.'

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Past Perfect

(28) həm khəele rəhli həm khəe-le rəh-l-i I eat-PERF AUX-PST-1 'I had eaten.' (29) tu khəele rəhle tu khəe-le rəh-l-e 2(NH) eat-PERF AUX-PST-2 'You had eaten.' (30) tu khəele rəhla tu khəe-le rəh-l-a 2(H) eat-PERF AUX-PST-2H 'You had eaten.' (31) əpəne khəele rəhlthin əpəne khəe-le rəh-l-thin 2(HH) eat-PERF AUX-PST-HH 'You had eaten.' (32) u khəele rəhləi u khəe-le rəh-l-əi 3 eat-PERF AUX-PST-3 'He had eaten.' (33) həm sutəl rəhli həm sut-əl rəh-l-i I sleep-PRES AUX-PST-1 'I had slept.'

Future perfect (34) həm khəele rəhəti həm khəe-le rəh-ət-i 1 eat-PERF AUX-FUT-1 'I shall have eaten.' (35) tu khəele rəhəte tu khəe-le rəh-ət-e 2(NH) eat-PERF AUX-FUT-2 'You will have eaten.' (36) tu khəele rəhəla tu khəe-le rəh-əl-a 2(H) eat-PERF AUX-FUT-2H 'You will had eaten.' (37) əpəne khəele rəhətthin əpəne khəe-le rəh-ət-thin 2(HH) eat-PERF AUX-FUT-HH 'You will have eaten.' (38) u khəele rəhətəi u khəe-le rəh-ət-əi

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3 eat-PERF AUX-FUT-3 'He will have eaten.' (39) həm sutəl rəhəti həm sut-əl rəh-ət-i I sleep-PERF AUX-FUT-1 'I will have slept.'

3.2.2.2 Imperfective aspect

Imperfectivity is not incompatible with perfectivity and both can be expressed if the language in question possesses the formal means to do so. In imperfective aspect the situation is viewed from inside; as an ongoing process.

In Bajjika the impetrative aspect is divided into progressive and durative aspects. They are discussed below:

Durative aspect The general durative marker in Bajjika is <-əit> where <-t> is optional with the aux - ch. It can be combined with any tense categories: past and non-past. Thus these are three types of durative aspect in Bajjika. Past durative, present durative and future durative. For example:

Present Durative (40) həm khai(t) chi həm -i (t)-ch-i 1 eat-DUR AUX-PRES-1 'I am eating.'

(41) tu jait che tu -i(t) ch-e 2(NH) go-DUR AUX-PRES-2 'You are going.'

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(42) tu jait cha tu ja-i(t) ch-a 2(H) go-DUR AUX-PRES-2H 'You are going.' (43) əpəne jait chəthin əpəne ja-i(t) ch-thin 2(HH) go-DUR AUX-PRES-HH 'You are going.'

(44) u jait həe u ja-it h-əe 3 go-DUR AUX-PRES-3 'He is going.'

Future durative (45) həm jait rəhəb-ɸ həm ja-it rəh-əb-ɸ 1 go-DUR AUX-FUT-(1) 'I shall be going.'

(46) tu jait rəhəbe tu ja-it rəh-əb-e 2(NH) go-DUR AUX-FUT-2 'I shall be going.'

(47) tu jait rəhəba tu ja-it rəh-əb-a 2(H) go-DUR AUX-FUT-2H 'You will be going.'

(48) əpəne jait rəhəthin əpəne ja-it rəh-ət-thin 2(H) go-DUR AUX-FUT-HH 'You will be going.'

(49) u jait rəhətəi u ja-it rəh-ət-əi 3 go-DUR AUX-FUT-3 'He will be going.'

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Past durative (50) həm jait rəhli həm ja-it rəh-l-i 1 go-DUR AUX-PST-1 'I was going.'

(51) tu jait rəhle tu ja-it rəh-l-e 2(NH) go-DUR AUX-PST-2 'You were going.'

(52) tu jait rəhla tu ja-it rəh-l-a 2(H) go-DUR AUX-PST-2H 'You were going.'

(53) əpəne jait rəhli əpəne ja-it rəh-əl-i 2(HH) go-DUR AUX-PST-2HH 'You were going.'

(54) u jait rəhləi u ja-it rəh-l-əi 3 go-DUR AUX-PST-3 'He was going.'

Progressive aspect

Progressive aspect implies an ongoing, dynamic process (Payne 1999:240). The general progressive marker in Bajjika is <-rəhəl>. It can be combined with any tense categories: past, present and future. Thus there are three types of progressive aspects in Bajjika. Present progressive, past progressive and future progressive. For example: Present progressive: (55) həm kharəhəlchi həm kha-rəhəl ch-i 1 eat-PROG AUX-PRES-1 'I have been eating.'

(56) tu kharəhəl che tu kha-rəhəl ch-e 2(NH) eat-PROG AUX-PRES.2(NH) 'You have been eating.'

(57) tu kharəhəl cha tu kha-rəhəl ch-a 2(H) eat-PROG AUX-PRES-2(H) 'You have been eating.'

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(58) əpəne kharəhəl chi/chəthin əpəne kha-rəhəl ch-i/chəthin 2(HH) eat-PROG AUX-2(HH) 'You have been eating.'

(59) u kha rəhəl həi u kha-rəhəl h-əi 3(NH) eat-PROG AUX-PRES-3(NH) 'He has been eating.'

(60) hun kharəhəl chəthin hun kha-rəhəl ch-əthin 3(HH) eat-PROG AUX-PRES-3(HH) 'He has been eating.'

Future progressive (61) həm kharəhəl rəhəti həm kha-rəhəl rəh-ət-i 1 eat-PROG AUX-FUT-1 'I shall have been eating.'

(62) tu kha rəhəl rəhəte tu kha-rəhəl rəh-ət-e 2(NH) eat-PROG AUX-FUT-2(NH) 'You will have been eating.'

(64) tu kha rəhəl rəhəta tu kha-rəhəl rəh-ət-a 2(H) eat-PROG AUX-FUT-3(H) 'You will have been eating.'

(65) əpəne kha rəhəl rəhəti/rəhtthin əpəne kha-rəhəl rəh-ət-əi 3(HH) eat-PROG AUX-FUT-3(H) 'You will have been eating.'

(66) u kha rəhəl rəhətəi u kha-rəhəl rəh-ət-əi 3(NH) eat-PROG AUX-FUT-3(NH) 'He will have been eating.'

(67) hun kha rəhəl rəhətthin hun kha rəhəl rəh-ət-thin 3(HH) eat. PROG AUX. FUT. 3(HH) 'He will have been eating.'

Past progressive (68) ram kha rəhəlrəhe ram kha-rəhəl rəh-e Ram eat-PROG AUX-PST-3

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'Ram had been eating.'

(69) tu khait rəhəl rəhe tu kha-rəhəl rəh-e 2(NH) eat-PROG AUX-PST.2(NH) 'You had been eating.'

(70) tu khait rəhəl rəha tu khait-rəhəl rəh-a 2H eat-PROG AUX-PST-3(H) 'You had been eating.'

(71) əpəne khait rəhəl rəhi/rəhthin əpəne khait-rəhəl rəh-I/rəh-thin 2(HH) eat-PROG AUX- PST-2(HH) 'You had been eating.' (72) u khait rəhəl rəhəi u khait-rəhəl rəh-əi 3(NH) eat-PROG AUX-PST-3(NH) 'He had been eating.'

(73) hun khait rəhəl /rəhthin/thun hun khait-rəhəl rəh-thin/thin 3(HH) eat-PROG AUX-PST-3(HH) 'He had been eating.'

The aspect markers of Bajjika verbs are:

Perfective -le transitive -əl intransitive Durative -əi(t)/əi Progressive -rəhə1

Note- 't' is optional with the aux 'ch'

Unless a modal or a compound verb intervenes, the aspect markers are attached directly to the verb stems themselves.

3.3 Moods and modality

3.3.1 Mood

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Mood describes the speaker's attitude towards a situation including the speaker's belief in its reality, or likelihood. It is sometimes the speaker's estimation of the relevance of the situation to him or herself (Payne 1997: 244).

Mood defines as a set of syntactic and semantic contrasts signaled by alternative paradigm of the verb, e.g. indicative, subjunctive, imperative. Semantically, a wide range of meanings is involved, especially attitudes on the part of the speaker towards the factual concept of the utterances, e.g. uncertainty, definiteness, vagueness, possibility (Crystal 2003:299).

Mood is an indication of what the speaker wants to do with the proposition in a particular discourse context. It is a grammatical reflection of the speaker's purpose in speaking (Bybee 1985:22).

In Bajjika, five moods are distinguished; indicative, imperative, optative, presumptive, and conditional.

3.3.1.1

The imperfective mood conveys an order or a request: the speaker commands (or requests) the addressee to realize the event.

As in very many natural languages of the world, the unmarked imperative forms in Bajjika are the affixless verb stems themselves. However, overt morphological devices are employed in order to indicate honorificity. Unlike in most Indo-Aryan languages, imperative forms are also available in Bajjika for the first and third person subject pronouns. The markers of the imperative mood are shown below:

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Imperative mood 1 u 2H a 2HH u 2NH ɸ, 0 3 0

(74) (həm) jau həm ja-u 1 go-IMP.1 'May I go !'

(75) tu cəla tu cəl-a 2(H) walk-IMP.(2H) '(You) go !'

(76) tu cəl tu cəl-ɸ 2(NH) walk-IMP.(2) '(You) go !'

(77) əpəne cəlu əpəne cəl-u 2(HH) walk-IMP.(2HH) '(You) go !'

(78) ucəlo u cəl-o 3 walk-IMP.(3) 'He may go (let him go!)'

(79) tu kho tu kh-o 2(NH) eat-IMP.(2NH) '(You) eat !'

All the sentences used to exemplify the imperative mood above were examples of ordinary of present imperative. However, Bajjika also has future imperative construction involving 2H and 2NH subjects alone.

The term future imperative may appear to be a contradiction in terminology since imperative sentences are notionally always future in semantics. In an ordinary imperative sentence, the speaker's commands, requests, etc. the addressee to realize

45 the event, and it is anticipated that the addressee will perform the event at a time immediately succeeding the time of asking. For the future imperative Bajjika uses a distinct morphological markers-ih-which then conveys that the speaker asks the addressee categorically to perform the task at a time later than the time of asking.

The full forms of the furture imperative mood with person and honorific grades are given below; 2NH -ih-e 2H -ih-əh

(80) re rames tu kalh jəihe re rames tu kalh jə-ih-e voc.(2NH) Ramesh 2(NH) tomorrow go-FUT-IMP.2(NH) 'O' Ramesh, go tomorrow !'

(81) ho bhola tu ghər dekhihəh ho bhola tu ghər dekh-ih-əh voc.(2H) Bhola 2(H) house see-FUT-IMP.(2H) 'O' Bhola, have an eye on the house !'

In impersonal imperative constructions, the marker of the imperative mood is invariably -i.

(82) ena nə boli ena nə bol-i this way not speak-IMP 'One should not speak like this.'

(83) bhor me ramke namli bhor me ram-ke nam l-i morning in Ram-GEN name take-IMP 'One should chant the name of Lord Tam in the morning !'

Prohibitive imperative simply add the ordinary negative marker 'nə' to an imperative form;

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(84) nə jo nə j-o not go-IMP.(2NH) 'Don't go.'

(85) i nə kha i nə kha-a this not eat-IMP.(2H) 'Don't eat it.'

3.3.1.2 Optative mood

In an optative construction, the speaker desires an event of some participant; usually blessings and curses are expressed; the markers of the optative mood are shown below: 1 -i 2(NH) -0 3(NH) -e 2(H) -əh 3(H) -əiti

(86) he bhəghan həm pashojai he bhəgban həm pas ho ja-i voc.(3H) God 1 pass become go-OPT.(1) 'May I pass, O' Lord !'

(87) tu mər jo tu mər j-o 2(NH) die go-OPT.(2NH) 'May you die !'

(88) he bhəghan tu okrasərap də he bhəgban tu ok- sərap d-əh voc.(3H) God 2(H) he.(NH)-ACC/DAT curse give-OPT.(2H) 'May you curse him, O' Lord !'

(89) he bhəgban uratema mər jae he bhəgban u rat-e me mər ja-e voc.(3H) God 3(NH) night-EMPH in die go-OPT.(3NH) 'May he die overnight, o' Lord !'

(90) babuji dirghau hoiti babu-ji dirghau ho-iti father-H long life become-OPT.(3H) 'May father live ling !'

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3.3.1.3 Subjunctive (conditional) mood

A typical conditional sentence consists of an antecedent (or a condition) and a consequent. The antecedent represents the event described by the (jədi) if clause, while the conseuent represents the event described by the 'tə' then-clause.

(91) (jədi) tu pəṛəiche tə thik həu jədi tu pəṛ-əi ch-e tə thik h-əu if 2(NH) read-DUR AUX-PRES.(2) then right be-2(NH) 'If you study, then it is good.'

(92) (jədi) həm khəda hoile tə tu cheka jəeba jədi həm khəda hoil-e tə tu cheka jəe-b-a If 1 stand become-PST.1 then 2(H) block go-FUT-2(H) 'If I stood, you would be blocked.'

(93) (jədi) u cəltəi tə həm -hu cələb jədi u cəl-təi tə həm-hu cəl-əb if 3(NH) walk-FUT 3(NH) then 1-EMPH walk-FUT-1 'If he goes, then I will go, too.'

Sentences above (1-3) are all the examples of 'indicative' conditionals, in which both the antecedent and the consequent clause are tensed and the conditionality is coveyed distinctly through an overt marker 'jədi' if. In contrast to indicative conditionals, 'counterfactual' conditionals are mood-marked in both the antecedent the consequent clause, and also use the marker jədi. Tense distinction may not be shown, but the honorificity distinctions are obligatory, maintained even in counterfactual conditionals.

The following examples are illustrative

(94) (jədi) bərkha hoit tə khub dhan hoit jədi bərkha ho-it tə khub dhan ho-it if rain be-COND.(3NH) then much paddy be-COND.(3NH) 'Had it rained, the paddy would have grown in plenty.'

(95) (jədi) tu puja kərta tə həm-hu kərti jədi tu puja kər -ta tə həm-hu kər-ti if 2(H) worship do-COND-(2H) then 1-EMPH DO-COND-1 'Had you worshipped, I would have, too.'

(96) (jədi) u həmər bat sunəit tə okra enanəi hoit jədi u həm-ər bat sun-əit tə ok-ra ena nə ho-it if 3(NH) 1-GEN talk hear-COND(3) then 3(NH)-DAT this way not be-COND (3NH) 'Had he listened to me, he wouldn't have suffered so.'

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As is self evident from the above examples, the marker of the counterfactual conditional mood in Bajjika is basically -it-for all persons.

The full forms of the counterfactual conditional mood with persons and honorific grades are shown below:

The full forms of the counterfactual conditional mood with persons and honorificic grades are shown below:

Counterfactual Conditional mood 1/2H it-i 2NH it-e 3NH it-o 3H it-əi

3.3.1.4 Presumptive mood

The presumptive mood conveys the meaning of possibility. It is formed by adding future tense markers to the auxiliary ho-be when the main verb is in the perfective aspect, e.g.

(97) həm khəele hoeb həm khəe-le hoe-b 1 eat-PERF AUX-FUT.(1) 'I may have eaten.'

(98) tu kathmanu gel hoebe Tu kathmandu ge-l hoe-b-e 2.(NH) kathmandu go-PERF AUX-FUT.2(NH) 'You may have gone to Kathmandu.'

(99) u uthəl hoet u uth-əl hoe-t-ɸ 3(NH) rise-PERF AUX- FUT-3(NH) 'He may have gotten up.'

3.3.1.5 Indicative mood

This is the basic mood in which information is imparted in Bajjika. There is no explicit marker signaling indicative mood. All the Bajjika sentences which are not the examples of other moods discussed below are in the indicative mood.

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(100) nokər bhat khait həe nokər bhət kha-it hə-e servant rice eat-DUR AUX-PRES.(3NH) 'The servant is eating rice/eats rice.'

(101) nokər bhat khəelək nokər bhat khəe-l-ək servant rice eat-PST-3(NH) 'The servant ate rice.'

(102) nokər bhat kaṛhət nokər bhat kaṛh-ət servant rice serve-FUT 'The servant will serve the rice.'

Not all of these moods are indicated by overt morphological markers on purely morphosyntactic grounds. Only three moods can be distinguished: imperative, optative and conditionals.

3.3.2 Modality

The categories of the modality code the speakers judgements concerning the propositional information indicated by special grammatical marking in the verb. Modality interacts with any of the tenses, either in the same morphome or in combinations of morphemes. Bajjika modality system can be analyzed in terms of the main distinction between epistemic and evaluative (deontic) judgement (Givón 2001:300). The main categories of the modality can be further elaborated into subcategories in Bajjika. The major categories and subcategories of modality in Bajjika are shown below:

Modality

Epistemic Evaluative

Probability Certainty Obility Obligation

3.3.2.1 Epistemic modality

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The main function of epistemic modality is to indicate the degree of commitment of the speaker to the truth or future fruth of the proposition. The epistemic modality has the whole proposition in their scope. In Bajjika epistemic modality includes probability and cortainty.

Probability

The main function of this mood is to indicate that the situation described in the proposition is probably true. It is maked by adding future tense markers to the auxiliary ho -'be', for example:

(103) həm khait hoeb həm kha-əit hoe-b 1 eat DUR AUX - FUT.1 'I may be eating.'

(104) u khəele hoet u khəe-le hoe-ət 3(NH) eat-PERF AUX-FUT 'He may have eaten.'

(105) tu kharəhəl hoebe tu kha-rəhəl hoe-be 2(NH) eat. PROG AUX. FUT. 2(NH) 'You may have been eating.'

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Certainty

It denotes that the speaker is emphasising that the proposition is true. In Bajjika the marker of centainty is <-be kər->. It is directly attached to the root of the verb. It may be combined with any of the tenses whether in the same morpheme or in the combinations of other morphemes.

(106) u pəṛbe kərtəi u pəṛ-be kər-təi 3(NH) read-CERT do-FUT.3(NH) 'He will certainly read.'

(107) həm pəṛ be kər bəi həm pəṛ-be kər-b-əi I read-CERT do-FUT-1 'I will certainly read.'

(108) tu pəṛ be kəe le tu pəṛ-be kəe-l-e 2(NH) read-CERT do-PST-2(NH) 'You certainly read.'

3.3.2.2 Evaluative

The main fnction of evaluative (deontic) is to describe internal or external ability of the willful agent with respect to the completion of the predicate situation. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same marpheme or in combinations of the morphemes. In Bajjika there are two evaluative modalities which are coded by verbal affixes. They include ability and obligation. a. Ability

The ability indicates that the agent of the verb has the mental or physical obilits to complete the action of the main verb. It is indicated in the complex of the verb by suffix <-sək>. for example, (109) ram pəṛ səkəichəi ram pəṛ sək-əi ch-əi Ram read ABIL-DUR AUX-PRES.3(NH) 'Ram can read.'

(110) tu pəṛ səkle tu pəṛ sək-l-e 2(NH) read ABIL-PST-2(NH)

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'You could read.'

(111) həm pəṛ səkbəi həm pəṛ sək-b-əi 1 read ABIL-FUT-1 'I will be able to read.' b. Obligation

The obligation indicates that the agent is obliged to perform the action of the verb. It is indicated in the complex of the verb by suffix <-hike>, and the subject is marked with ACC/DAT marker <-ra>.

(112) həmra pəṛhike həi həm-ra pəṛ-hike h-əi 1-ACC/DAT read-OBLG AUX-PRES-1 'I have to read.'

(113) tohəra pəṛhike rəhələu tu-ra pəṛ-hike rəh-1-əu 1(NH)-ACC/DAT read-OBLG AUX-PST-2(NH) 'You had to read.'

3.4 Agreement pattern

Verb agreement inflections encode the person and nonorific grad of the subject noun phrase which is in the nomiral case. Verb agreement inflections do not encode the number and gender of the subject noun phrase. For example: (114) a. həm kitab pəṛ li həm kitab pəṛ-l-i I book read-PST-1 'I read a book.'

b. həm səb kitab pəṛli ham səb kitab pəṛ-l-i I PL kitab read-PST-1 'We read a book.'

(115) a. tu kitab pəṛəbe tu kitab pəṛ-əb-e 2(NH) book read-FUT-2 'You will read a book.' b. tu səb kitab pəṛ əbe. tu səb kitab pəṛ-əb-e 2(NH) PL book read-FUT-2 'You will read a book.'

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(116) a. chɒ̃ ra kitab pəṛləi chɒ̃ ra kitab pəṛ-l-əi boy book read-PST-3(NH) 'The boy read a book.'

b. chɒ̃ ri kitab pəṛləi chɒ̃ ri kitab pəṛ-l-əi girl book read-PST-3(NH) 'The girl read a book.'

(117) babuji kitab pəṛlthin babu-ji kitab pəṛ-l-thin Father (HH) book read-PST-HH 'Father read a book.'

Here in examples 114 (a-b) we see -i is the first person maker of the present tense which is used for both the first person singular number as well as the first person plural number subject. Similarly in examples 115(a-b) we see -e is the 2nd person marker of the future tense which is used for both the first person singular number subject and the first person plural number subject. In the examples 116 (a-b) we see -əi is the third person marker for both chɒ̃ ra (male) and chɒ̃ ri (female). In the example (117) -thin is high honorific marker used for babuji. The following list shows S-V agreement according to the tense and person marker: The past tense Person Marker 1- i 2(NH) e 2(H) a 2(HH) thin/tən 3(NH) ək (TRNS) 3(NH) ɸ (INTR) 3(NHH) thin/tən

The future tense Person Marker 1 ɸ/əi 2 (NH) e

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2(H) a 2(HH) thin/tən 3(NH) ɸ 3(HH) thin/tən The present tense Person Marker 1 ɸ/-i(i with ch-'be' verb) 2(NH) e 2(H) a 2(HH) thin/-tən/-i 3(NH) əi 3(HH) thin/tən From the above list we conclude that -thin/tən is high nonorific maker -e and a are 2(NH) and 2(HH) marker respectively for all the tenses.

3.5 Summary

In this chapter we discussed tense, aspect, mood and modality and verb agreement. Bajjika language posses a morphological tripartite set of distinction among present, past and future. Bajjika verbs are inflected to indicate these three tenses by means of various tense marking morphemes. Bajjika verbs show the different morphological aspect marking system like durative, progressive and perfective. There are four lexical aspect in Bajjika language; achievement, activities, state and process. The mood system in Bajjika shows the distinction of imperative, optative, presumptive, subjective and indicative. There are four types of modality in Bajjika; probability, certainty, ability and obligation.

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CHAPTER - 4

CAUSATIVIZATION AND PASSIVISATION

4.0 Outline

This chapter deals with passivization, causativization and negation in Bajjika. This chapter consists of four sections. Section 4.1 discusses causativization in Bajjika. In section 4.2 we discuss passivization in the Bajjika language. Section 4.3 summarizes the findings of this chapter.

4.1 Causativisation

Causative verbs in Bajjika are derived through a highly productive morphological process. Causativisation in Bajjika is mainly suffixal. Basically, there are two types of causative verb form in Bajjika. (i) the 'first' causative, which implies that the degree of closeness between the cause and effect is immediate or direct and is formed by adding the suffix-a to the non-causative verb stem, and (ii) the 'second' causative which implies that the degree of closeness between cause and effect is mediated or less direct, and is formed by adding the suffix- to the non-causative verb stem.

Thus, a total of three constrasting verb forms may be recognized in Bajjika; (a) the basic non-causative verb form: hət 'move' (intr)' (b) the 'first' causative form: həta 'remove'; and (c) the 'second' causative form: hət-ba 'have someone remove'. Or, simply (a) pəṛh 'study/read' (Tr), (b) pəṛh-a 'teach' (c) pərh-ba 'have someone teach'.

In a few instances, however, a set of four contrasting verb forms is available;

a. kət 'get cut' (Intr), b. kat 'cause to get cut' (Tr), c. kət-a 'cause to cut', and d. kət-ba 'have someone cut'

Note that upon addition of the causative suffix the resultant form is a single causative verbstem to which all the agreement affixes may be added.

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As is shown above, in Bajjika both intransitive and transitive verb becomes a transitive verb when the causative suffixes are added to the stem. As a matter of fact, then the direction of derivation is from intransitive to Transitive, the derived transitive is often referred to as 'causative'. Thus, a few intransitive verbs first become transitive (with a 'causative' meaning) through the process of sound change and suppletion; and only then are the causative suffixes added onto them. Consequently, a total of four contrasting verb forms are realized.

The process of transitivisation through a stem alternation and causativisation of such intransitive verbs are illustrated below.

4.1.1 Intransitive verbs i. A few monosyllabic intransitive verb stems of the CVC type (where v = ə) are transitivised by lowering the stem onto a: Int Tr Cause I Cause II mər mar mər-a mər-ba 'todie' 'kill/cause to die' 'cause to kill' 'have someone kill' sət sat sət-a sət-ba 'get strick 'cause to get strick' 'Cause to strick 'have someone strick' nəŋh naŋh nəŋh-a nəŋh-ba 'get crossed' 'cross over/cause to 'Cause to cross 'have someone Crossover' get crossed over over

57 ii. A few disyllabic intransitive verb stems of the type (C) VC VC (where the second vowel = ə) also become transitivised by lowering the second vowel onto a: Int Tr Cause I Cause II sudhər sudhar sudhr-a sudhər-ba 'get 'improve/cause to get cause to improve 'have someone improved' improved' improved' nikəl nikal nikla nikəl-ba 'come out' 'bring out' 'cause to come 'have someone bring out' out' usər usar usr-a usər-ba 'get finish/cause to get 'fause to finish' 'have someone finish' finished' finish' iii. A few irregular intransitive verb stems are transitivised through the process of vowel gradation (high vowels becomes mid, and mid vowels become low), accompanied by change in place and manner of articulation of stem final (for which no systematic rules seems to be stateable).

Int Tr Cause I Cause II ruk rok rok-a rok-ba 'get stopped' 'stop/cause to get stop' 'cause to stop' 'cause someone to stop' phut phoṛ phoṛ-a phoṛ-ba 'get 'crack/cause to get 'cause to crack' 'have someone crack' creacked' cracked' iv. A limited set of intransitive verb stems and their transitive forms stand in a suppletive relationship. Intr Tr

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a an 'come' 'bring'

ja pətha/bhej 'go' send/cause to go

ho kər/bəna 'become' 'make/build'

rəh rakh 'remain' 'keep'

Not all intransitive verbs, however, yield a set of four contrasting forms -thus rendering the paradigm asymmetrical. Below is a list of a few intransitive verbs of (C) VC and CVCVC types which provide only three contrasting forms. In other words, the causative suffixes are added directly onto the intransitive stems themselves.

Intr Cause I Cause II kud kud-a kud-ba 'jump' 'cause to jump' 'have someone jump' jhul jhul-a jhui-ba 'swing' 'cause to swing' 'have someone swing' ghət ghət-a ghət-ba 'lessen' 'cause to lessen' 'have someone lessen'

Similarly ban (be/bcome/get/made) bhər (get filled), khich (pull/get pulled), khəul (boil, get boiled), ḍər (be afraid), ḍub (drown), cəṛh (climb), uṭh (lift/wake up), bədəl (change) ṭəhəl (walk) etc. are other examples of the verbs which provide only three contrastive forms.

4.1.2 Transitive verbs

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The causativisation of (intrinsically) transitive verbs is a straight forward process in Bajjika, and generally speaking, there is no stem alternation of any kind. Tr Cause I Cause II likh likh-a likh-ba 'write' 'cause to write' 'have someone cause to write' pəṛh pəṛh-a pəṛh-ba 'read/study' 'teach/cause to read' 'have someone teach' duh duh-a duh-ba 'milk' 'cause to milk' 'have someone milk'

There are, nonetheless, a small number of transitive verb stems ending in vowel the 'first' causative forms of which are made by stem alternation of a non-high vowel- i.e., e and a change into i. Also the 'second' casuative verb forms of such transitive verbs are characterized by the 'first' causative stem and the 'second' causative suffix -ba. Intr Cause I Cause II kha khi-a khi-ba 'eat' 'feed' 'have someone eat' pi pi-a pi- 'drink' 'cause to drink' 'cause someone to drink' si si-a si-ba 'sew' 'cause to sew' 'have someone cause to sew'

There are nonetheless, a small number of transitive verb stems ending in vowels the 'first' causative forms of which are made by stem alternation of a non- high vowel i.e., e- and a- change into- i. Also the second causative verb forms of such transitive verb are formed by adding the causative suffix directly to the transitive stems themselves.

Intr Cause I Cause II li-a l-ba 'bring' 'cause to bring' 'have someone bring'

60 de di-a de-ba 'give' 'cause to give' 'have someone cause to give' le li-a le-ba 'take' 'cause to take' 'have someone cause to take'

Yet other transitive verb stems ending in 'a' are characterized by the attachment of a suffix -b preceding the 'first' and 'second' causative suffixes.

Note that the rule of a  b applies to them as well. Intr Cause I Cause II gəb-a gəb-ba 'sing' 'cause to sing' 'have someone sing' ba bəb-a bəb-ba 'open' (mouth) 'cause to open ' 'have someone open' pəb-a pəb-ba 'find' 'cause to find' 'have someone find'

4.2 Passivisation

A passive verb in Bajjika is derived through a highly productive morphological process involving a series of morphological modification in the verb phrase of an active sentence. Both transitive and intransitive verbs may passivism in Bajjika.

There are two types of passive verb forms in Bajjika : (i) the inflectional (or strict morphological) passive, which is formed by suffixing -a to the non-passive main verb stem followed by an appropriate desinence; and (ii) the 'morphological' passive, which is formed by suffixing the past participle əl to the non-passive main verb stem followed by a passive auxiliary verb of motion ja 'go' and followed by an appropriate desinence. The subject-agent of the active sentence (henceforth, the ex-subject) is marked by the instrumental postposition se. The morphological modifications that characterized the passive formation is Bajjika are summarized as follows: i. Main verb  main verb + PST PCPL. əl + a passive auxiliary verb of motion ja 'go' (morphological passive)

61 ii. Main verb  Main verb + a (inflectional passive)

Agreement affixes change in order to reflect derived grammatical relations.

A few examples are given below for illustration:

(1) a həm hə̃səi(t) chi (active) həm hə̃s-əi(t) ch-i 1 laugh-DUR AUX-PRES-1 'I laugh.'

b. həmra se nə hə̃sait həe həm-ra se nə hə̃s-a-it hə-e 1-AC/DAT by not laugh-PASS-DUR AUX-PRES. (3NH +1) (Inflectional passive) 'I am not able to laugh (It is in opporture to do so). (lit; It is not laughed by me).'

(2) a. ram kita pəṛhlək (active). ram kitab pəṛh-lək. Ram book read-PST-3(NH) 'Ram read a book.'

b. ram se kitab nə pərh æ lək ram se kitab nə pərh-a-lək Ram by book not read-PASS-PST-(3NH) (inflection passive) 'Ram couldn't read the book. (he was unable to); (lit: 'the book was not read by Ram).'

c. ram se kitab nə pərh əl ge lək ram se kitab nə pərh-əl ge-lək Ram by book not read-PSST.PCPL go-PST.(3NH) (periphrastic passive) 'Ram couldn't read the book (the story was too sad); (lit; the book couldn't be read by Ram).'

(3) a. ram kitab kinlək (active) ram kitab kin-lək Ram book buy-PST.(3NH) 'Ram bought a book.'

b. kitab kinael (agentless inflectional passive) kitab kin-ə-1 book buy-PASS-PST.(3NH) 'The book was bought.'

c. kitab nə kinəlgel kitab nə kin-əl ge-l

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book not buy-PSTP.CPL go-PST.3(NH) (agentless periphrastic passive) 'The book was not bought.'

(4) a. həm okra pitbəi (active) həm u-ra pit-b-əi 1 3-ACC/DAT beat-FUT-(1+3NH) 'I will beat him.'

b. u pitiaet (agentless inflectional passive) u pit-a-et-0 3(NH) beat-PASS-FUT-(3NH) 'He will be beaten.'

c. u pitəl jəet (agentless morphological passive) u pit-əl ja-et-0 3(NH) beat-PST. PCPL go-FUT.(3NH) 'He will be beaten.'

Note that the (usually, but not necessarily, negative) passive sentence in example (1- 2) convey a capabilatative meaning, while the passive sentences in (3-4) convey a passive meaning. In general, if the ex-subject of (agent) is present, the passive sentence conveys a capabilitative meaning (i.e., it conveys that the agent is able to carry out the act suggested by the verb). On the other hand, a straightforward passive meaning is conveyed when the ex-subject is optionally deleted in the passive sentence; in such an instance, the capabilitative meaning is blocked.

4.4 Summary

In this chapter we discussed passivisation and causativisation. Causative verb in Bajjika are derived through a highly productive morphological process. Causativisation in Bajjika is mainly suffixed. Basically there are two types of causative verb form in Bajjika. The first form is formed by adding the suffix to the non-cousative verb stem, and the second causative is formed by adding the suffix-ba to the non-causative verb stem. There are two types of passive verb form in Bajjika: Inflectional and strict morphological passive. The first one is formed by suffixing -a to the non-passive main verb stem followed by an appropriate desinence; and the second one is formed by suffixing the past participle to the non-passive main verb stem followed by a passive auxiliary verb of motion ja 'go', and followed by an appropriate desinence.

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CHAPTER - 5 AUXILIARY VERB 5.0 Outline

This chapter deals with the auxiliary only. It consists of three sections. Section 5.1 discusses the auxiliary as copula verb. In section 5.2 we discuss the auxiliary as helping verb section. 5.3 summarize the findings of this chapter.

5.1 Auxiliaries as copula verb

There are multiplicities of forms in Bajjika whose functions correspond closely to what is designated as the auxiliary 'be' in English. Broadly speaking, these auxiliary forms perform one of the two main functions; they act either as 'helping' verbs or as 'main' verbs. In this section, a brief discussion of auxiliaries as main verbs will be presented. A bewildering number of perhaps diachronically related but synchronically distinct alternates exist, and these need to be differentiated from one another in terms of their precise distributional properties.

The auxiliary verbs under discussion are three in number. They are: i. ch - 'to be' (stative) ii. ho - 'to be' (stative) iii. ho- 'to become (non-stative)

When used as a stative main verb, ch- 'to be' has a large number of supletive stem alternates, as shown below: ch- ch present tense h rəh past tense ho future tense rəh One peculiarity of ch- 'to be' and its suppletive alternates is that no aspect markers (followed automatically by an auxiliary verb) can be attached to them. Another peculiarity of ch- 'to be' as a main verb is that it cannot act as a polar verb to join with a vector verb in a compound verb expression: I. ch- 'to be' as a stative main verb

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A. ch- 'to be' and its alternates: ch- forms are quite regular and systematic in their distribution. They are used in present tense forms - both honorific and nonhonorific. A brief discussion of all the alternates is given below. ch- 'be' occurs with 1, 2 (NH) and 2(H) noun phrases in present tense forms;

(1) həm chi həm ch-i 1 be-PRES.1 'I am.'

(2) tu che tu ch-e 2(NH) be-PRES.2(NH) 'You are.'

(3) tu cha tu ch-a 2(H) be-PRES.(2H) 'You are.'

(4) əpəne chəthin əpəne ch-thin 2(HH) be-PRES.(2HH) 'Who are you ?'

(5) tu ke che ? tu ke/kon ch-e ? 2(NH) who be-PRES.(2NH) 'Who are you ? -h is quite commonly used in place of 'ch-' with 3(NH) person of demonstrative pronoun noun phrases;

(6) u h-əi u h-əi 3(NH) be-PRES.3(NH) 'He is.'

(7) u ke/kon həi u ke/kon h-əi 3(NH) who be-PRES.3(NH) 'Who is he/that ?'

(8) i kitab h-əi i kitab h-əi this book be-PRES.3(NH) 'This is a book.' 66

(9) i kəthi h-əi i kəthi h-əi this what be-PRES.3(NH) 'What is this ?' rəh- 'was' occurs as the past form of ch (or h, 'to be' more exact);

(10) həm rəhi həm rəh-i 1 be-PST.1 'I was.'

(11) əpəne rəhi əpəne rəh-i you (HH) be-PRES.2(HH) 'You were.'

(12) u rəhe u rəh-e 3(NH) be-PST-3(NH) 'He was.'

(13) hun rəhthin Hun rəh-thin 3(HH) be. PST. 3(HH) 'He was.'

(14) ego raja rəhe ek-go raja rəh-e One-CLS king be-PST.3(NH) 'Once there was a king.' ho- and rəh- 'will be' are the future forms of ch- 'to be' which are used with appropriate agreement affixes; (15) həm hoeb/rəhəb həm ho-eb/rəh -əb 1 be-FUT.(1) 'I will be.'

(16) tu hoe ba /rəhba tu hoe-b-a/rəh-b-a 2(H) be-FUT-2H 'You will be.'

(17) u hotəi /rəhtəi u ho-t-əi /rəh-t-əi 3(NH) be-FUT-3(NH) 'He will be.'

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B. ch- 'to be' as a coupla

When used as a main verb, ch- 'to be' links as a copula, a subject and a predicate nominal or adijective;

(18) bhəgban nəmhər chəthin bhəgban nəmhər chə-thin God big/great be- PRES.3(HH) 'God is great.'

Only simple existential constructions used in highly specialized circumstances to assert the existence of a being or thing use the complementless ch- verb;

(19) bhəgban chəthin bhəgban chə-thin God be-PRES.3(HH) 'God is/exists.'

(20) pap həi pap h-əi sin be-PRES.3(NH) 'Sin is/exists.'

Constructions used as brief replies to questions also have complementless copula verbs: (in response to ke chi/che ? 'who is there ?')

(21) həm chi həm ch-i 1 be-PRES.1 'I am.'

Note that even the question form is complementless, it may be argued, however, that both the question and the reply forms above are truncated forms of such full forms as i ke chi ? 'Who is this/he ?' and, i həm chi 'This is I'

Different types of existential equational and possessive construction make use of the verb ch: i. Temporal existential (22) sən həi ai sən h-əi today Saturday be-PRES.3(NH) 'Today is Saturday.'

(23) bhoj sãjh me hotəi

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bhoj sãjh me ho-t-əi feast evening in be-FUT-3(NH) 'The feast will be in the evening.' ii. Locational existential (24) dol me pani həi dol me pani h-əi bucket in water be-PRES.3(NH) 'There is water in the bucket.'

(25) tebul pər kitab həi tebul pər kitab h-əi table on book be-PRES.3(NH) 'There is a book on the table.'

(26) həm ene rəhəli həm ene rəh-əl-i 1 here be-PST.-1 'I was here.' iii. Equational

(27) ram master chəthin ram master ch-əthin Ram teacher be-PRES.3(HH) 'Ram is a teacher.'

(28) babu professor rəhəlthin babu professor rəh-əl-thin father professor be-PST-3(H) 'Father was a professor.' iv. Predicative adjectival equative:

(29) nokər hosiyar həi nokər hosiyar h-əi servant wise be-PRES.3(NH) 'The servant is wise.'

(30) əpəne nimən chi əpəne nimən ch-i 2(HH) good be-PRES.2(HH) 'You are good.' v. Alienable possession (31) hunka dugo ghora həi hun ka du- go ghora h-əi

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3(HH) ACC/DAT two-CLAS horse be-PRES.3(HH) 'He has two horses.'

(32) əpəne ke bəhut kitab həi əpəne ke bəhut kitab h-əi 2(HH) ACC/DAT may book be-PRES.3(HH) 'You have many books.'

(33) i həmər ghər həi i həm-ər ghər h-əi this I-GEN house be-PRES.3(NH) 'This is my house.' vi. Inalienable Possession (34) hunka dugo beti həi hun ka du-go beti h-əi He.(HH) ACC/DAT two-CLA daughter be-PRES.3(HH) 'He has two daughters.'

(35) əpəne ke hath chot həi əpəne ke hath chot h-əi you.(HH) GEN hand small be-PRES.3(HH) Your hands are small.

(36) okər kes ujjər həi u-kər kes ujjər h-əi He-(NH).GEN hair white be-PRES.3(NH) 'His hair is white.' iv. Psychosomatic possession (37) hunka dukh həi hun-ka dukh h-əi He.(HH)-ACC/DAT sad/sorrow be-PRES.3(NH) 'He is sad.' (He has sorrow.)

(38) həmra khusi həi həm -ra khusi h-əi 1. ACC/DAT happiness be-PRES.3(NH) 'I am happy.' (I have happiness.)

II. ho- 'to be' as a stative main verb ho- 'to be' is a highly idiosyncratic stative verb. When combined with the DUR aspect marker<-əit>, it conveys a number of different meanings.

Note that upon addition of an aspectual marker, an auxiliary verb will automatically follow:

70 i. Generic (39) gaike nəŋri hoit chəi gai-ke nəŋri ho-it ch-əi cow-ACC/DAT tail be-DUR AUX-PRES.3(NH) 'A cow has a tail.'

(40) ek dɒlər me səe sent hoitchəi ek dɒlər me səe sent ho-it ch-əi one dollar in hundred cent be-DUR AUX-PRES.3(HH) 'There are hundred cents in a dollar.'

ii. Process (41) rəh rəh ke megh hoit chəi rəh rəh ke megh ho-it ch-əi remain. REDUPL after rain be-DUR BE-PRES.3(HH) 'It rains off and on.'

iii. Iterative (42) hunka khali bettie hoit chəi hun-ka khali betti-e ho-it ch-əi He.(H)-ACC/DAT only daughter-DUR be-IMPERF AUX-PRES.3(HH) 'Only darghters are born to him.'

What is of interest is that in some expressions having to do with kinship relations, ho followed by future tense markers express the meaning of the present tense; (43) həm əpəneke bəhnoi hoeb həm əpne-ke bəhnoi hoe-b-0 1 2(HH)-ACC/DAT sister's husband be-FUT-1 'I am your brother -in-law.'

(44) əpəne hunka sar hoithin əpəne hun-ka sar ho-it-thin you.(HH) he-ACC/DAT wife's brother be-FUT-2(HH) 'You are his brother -in-law.'

(45) hunəpəneke damad hoithin hun əpəne-ke damad ho-it-thin He.(HH) You.(HH)-ACC/DAT daughter's husband be-FUT-3(HH) 'He is your son-in-law.'

III. ho- 'to become' as a non-stative verb ho- 'to become' is a nonstative full verb. As a full verb, ho can take an obligatory aspect marker followed by an auxiliary verb to carry tense and other inflectional affixes. ho- as a full verb can also act as a polar verb and join with a vector ja 'go' in a

71 compound verb expression. This features markedly differentiate the non-stative ho- 'to become' from the stative ho- 'to be' on the one hand and from ch- 'to be' and its alternates on the other ho- 'to become' has two alternates: ho-and bh-. As an inchoative verb, ho-occurs in compound verb expression and is always followed by present participal <-əit> in order to carry the process of gradual change.

(46) hun bərabər bəṛa hakim hoit rəhəit chəthin hun bərabər bəṛa hakim ho-it rəh-əit chə-thin He.(HH) always commissioner become-PRES.PCPL remain-DUR AUX-PRES.3(HH) 'He keeps on becoming a commissioner regularly.'

(47) beta rəserəse nəmhər hoit jai(t) chəi beta rəse rəse nəmbhər ho-it ja-i(t) ch-əi son slowly big become-PERS.PCPL go-DUR AUX-PRES.3(NH) 'The son is getting taller day-by-day.'

(48) əpəne dhənik hoit geli əpəne dhənik ho-it ge-li He (HH) rich become-PRES.PCPL go-PST.3(HH) 'He went on getting rich.'

(49) əpəne jəldi-e nimən hoit jaeb əpəne jəldi-e ninən ho-it jae-b 2(HH) soon-EMPH good become-PRES.PCPL go-FUT.2(HH) 'You will go on getting well soon.' bh- forms are more commonly used in compound verb expression:

(50) əpəne bərabər bimar bhe jaichi əpəne bərabər bimar bhe ja-it ch-i 2(HH) always ill become go-DUR AUX-PRES.2(HH) 'You become ill regularly.'

(51) hun aikal hosiyar bhe gel chəthin hun aikal hosiyar bhe ge-l chə-thin 3(HH) these days wise become go-PERF AUX-PRES.3(HH) 'These days he has become wiser.'

(52) megh bhe rəhəl chəi megh bhe rəhəl ch-əi rain become.PROG AUX-PRES.3(NH) 'It is raining' (It has been raining).

(53) hun hakim bhe gelthin hun hakim bhe ge-l-thin 3(HH) officer become go-PST-3(HH) 'He become an officer.'

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5.2 Auxiliary as helping verb

The auxiliary requires an aspect marker to appear on the verb stem. In other words, it would be preferable to say that the auxiliary governs the form of the main verb. Since the auxiliary occurs after the aspect marker, the tense, mood, honorific and agreement markers are all attached to the auxiliary itself. The auxiliary forms of Bajjika are listed below:

Present tense ch(həe is optionally used for 3NH) Past tense rəh Future tense rəh (ho)

It should be noted that the auxiliary forms listed above are by their very nature tense carriers, and their grammatical function is to provide finiteness to the verbal constellation. Consequently, their forms are in themselves always incomplete until the agreement affixes are added to them. The potential for structural combinations of aspect and auxiliary markers in Bajjika is immense. Auxiliary can occur after almost all aspect markers. The combinations of aspect and auxiliary and tense are listed in the Appendix. ho, he, bh, che, rəh are the main auxiliary in Bajjika. An auxiliary verb is a verb which is based on another verb in a sentence, and which shows grammatical functions such as aspect, , mood, tense and person (Richard, J.; et al, 1985: 23). So auxiliary verb supplements main verb of the sentence and it can stand as a verb as well.

5.3 Summary

In this chapter we discussed auxiliary verb in the Bajjika language. There are multiplicities of forms auxuilary in Bajjike whose functions correspond closely to what is designated as the auxiliary 'be' in English. Broadly speaking these auxiliary forms perform one of the two main functions; they act the as 'helping' verb or as copula verb.

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CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Bajjika language belongs to the Indo-Aryan . This langauge is spoken by the people located in Rautanat and Sarlahi. These people were called Bajjiya in the past but now-a-days they do not prefer to be called Bajjiya since it is considered as abuse due to the influence of the Nepali word Bajjia used in abuse. Bajjika is at the 12th position among 92 languages of the country. It written script is Devragri like most Eastern Indo-European languages of Nepal. A total speaker of Bajjika is 237947 which is 1.05% of the total population.

Bajjika language posses a morphological tripartite set of distinctions among present, past and future. Bajjika verbs are inflected to indicate these three tenses by means of various tense marking morphemes. Bajjika verbs show the different morphological aspect marking system like durative, progressive and perfective.

There are four lexical aspect in Bajjika language; achievement, activities, state and process. The mood system in Bajjika shows the distinction of imperative, optative, presumptive, subjective and indicative. There are four types of modality in Bajjika; probability, certainty, ability and obligation. There are multiplicities of forms auxuilary in Bajjike whose functions correspond closely to what is designated as the auxiliary 'be' in English. Broadly speaking these auxiliary forms perform one of the two main functions; they act the as 'helping' verb or as 'main' verb.

Causative verb in Bajjika are derived through a highly productive morphological process. Causativisation in Bajjika is mainly suffixed. Basically there are two types of causative verb form in Bajjika. The first form is formed by adding the suffix to the non-cousative verb stem, and the second causative is formed by adding the suffix-ba to the non-causative verb stem.

There are two types of passive verb form in Bajjika: Inflectional or strict morphological passive. The first one is formed by suffixing -a to the non-passive main verb stem followed by an appropriate desinence; and the second one is formed by suffixing the past participle to the non-passive main verb stem followed by a passive auxiliary verb of motion ja 'go', and followed by an appropriate desinence.

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References Arun, A and R.N. Sharma. 2008. Bharati Bajjika Hindi Kosh. New : Konark Prakashan Rohini. Bimal, R. P. 1986. A comparative study of the morphology of Nepali, Maithili and Hindi languages. BHU: Ph.D. dissertation. Central Bureau of statistics. 2001. Population census, 2001 National report kathmandu. HMG Nepal: Natiool Planning Commission, kathmandu, Nepal. Crystal, D. 2003. A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. New York Blackbell. Dilliram, D. 2050 BS. Himal. Kathmandu: Kantipur Publication. Field report on Bajjika 2066 BS. T.U. Givon, T. 2001. Syntax: a Functional Typological Introduction. Amsterdam Bejamins. Grierson, G.A. 1968. Linguisti Survey of India. Delhi: Motilal Bararasidas Publisher. Parajuli, K.P. 2005. Aspects in Kumal. An Article Published in Centemporary Issues in Nepalese Linguistics. T.U: LSN. Pyne, E. 1997. Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide for field linguists Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. Regmi, D.R. ( 2007). The Language.Ph.D dissertation, T.U. Roka, D.B. 2065 BS. The verbal moprhology of Byansi Language. M.A. thesis, T.U. Sah, S. 2066 BS. Bajjikaparan. Rauthat: Nepal Bajjika Parisad. Sah, S. 2066 BS. Rautahat Parichaya. Birjung: Pratik Prakashan. Singh, S. 1967. Bhojpuri and Hindi: With Appendices of Maithili, Magahi, Hindi and Nepali. Muzzafarpur: Bhawan Publication. Singh, Y.P. 1999. Bajjika Ka Pratham Vyakaran. Muzzaffarpur: Bajjika Sansthan. Thakur, C. 2008. Verbal affixation in Maithili and English: M. Ed. Thesis,T.U Uranw, R. K. 2008. Verbal Morphology in Uranw Kudux. M.A. thesis, T.U. Whaley Lindsay J. 1997. Introduction to Typology. The unity and diversity of language. New Delhi: Sage Publication. Yadav, R. 1997. A Reference Grammar of Maithili. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal publisher. Yadava, Y.P. 1980. Time, Tense and Aspect in English and Maithili. CIEFL Hyderabad: M. Litt. Disser tation. Yadava, Y.P. 2001. 'Language' Population Monograph of Nepal. Vol. I. CBS and UNFPA, Kathmandu. pp 137-172. 75

Appendix

The combinations of aspect, auxiliary and tense Stem Aspect Aux TNS/AGR Resulting form Gloss kha əi (t) ch o+i khai(t) chi I eat/am eating. kha əi (t) ch o+e khai(t) che You eat/are eating. kha əi (t) ch o+a khait cha You(H) eat/are eating. kha əi (t) ch o+i/əthin khait chi/chəthin You (HH) eat/are eating. kha əi (t) ch/h o+əi/əe khait chai/həe(əi) He (NH) eats/is eating kha əi (t) ch o/thin khait chəthin He (HH) eats./is eating. kha Le ch o+i khəeli chi I have eaten. kha Le ch o+e khəele che You (NH) have eaten. kha Le ch o+a kaəele cha You (H) have eaten. kha Le ch o+i/əthin khəele chi/chəthin You(HH) have eaten kha Le H o+əe(əi) khəele həe/əi He (NH) has eaten. kha Le H o+əthin khəele həthin He (HH) has eaten. kha rəhəl ch o+i kharəhal chi I have been eating kha rəhəl ch o+e kharəhəl che You have been eating. kha rəhəl ch o+a kharəhəl cha You(H) have been eating. kha rəhəl ch o+i/əthin kharəhəl chi/chəthin You (HH) have been eating. kha rəhəl ch o+əe kharəhəl həe He (NH) has been eating. kha rəhəl ch o+əthin kharəhəl chəthin/th He (H) has been eating. kha əit rəh l+i khait rəhli I was eating. kha əit rəh l+e khait rəhle You (NH) were eating. kha əit rəh l+a khait rəhla you (H) were eating. kha əit rəh l+i/thin khait rəhli/thin You (HH) were eating. kha əit rəh l+əi khait rəhləi He (NH) was eating. kha əit rəh l+thin khait rəhlthin He (H/HH) was eating. kha Le rəh l+i khəele rəhli I had eaten. kha Le rəh l+e khəele rəhle You (NH) had eaten. kha Le rəh l+a khəele rəhla You (H) had eaten.

76 kha Le rəh l+thin khəele rəhthin You (HH) had eaten. kha Le rəh l+əi khəele rəhləi He (NH) had eaten. kha rəhəl rəh l+i khaitrəhəl rəhli I had been eating. kha rəhəl rəh l+e khaitrəhəl rəhle You (NH) had been eating. kha rəhəl rəh l+a khaitrəhəl rəhla You (H) had been eating. kha rəhəl rəh l+thin khaitrəhəl rəhlthin You (HH) had been eating. kha rəhəl rəh l+əi khaitrəhəlrəhləi He (NH) had been eating. kha əit rəh əb+o khait rəhəb I will be eating. kha əit rəh əb+e khait rəhəbe You (NH) will be eating. kha əit rəh əb+a khait rəhəba You (H) will be eating. kha əit rəh əb+thin khait rəhthin You (HH) will be eating. kha əit rəh əb+əi khait rəhətəi He (NH) will be eating. kha Le rəh əb+əi khaele rəhəb I will have eaten. kha Le rəh əb+e khaele rəhəbe You (NH) will have eaten. kha Le rəh əb+a khaele rəhəba You (H) will have eaten. kha Le rəh əb+thin khaele rəhəthin You (HH) will have eaten. kha Le rəh əb+əi khaele rəhbəi He (NH) will have eaten. kha rəhəl rəh ət+i khait rəhəl rəhəti I will have been eating. kha rəhəl rəh ət+e khait rəhəl rəhəte You (NH) will have been eating. kha rəhəl rəh ət+a khait rəhəl rəhəta You (H) will have been eating. kha rəhəl rəh ət+thin khait rəhl rəhəthin You (HH) will have been eating. kha rəhəl rəh ət+əi khait rəhəl rəhətəi He (H) will have been eating. kha əit ho əb+o khait hoeb I may be eating. kha əit ho əb+e khait hoebe You (NH) may be eating. kha əit ho əb+a khait hoeba You (H) may be eating. kha əit ho ət+thin khait hoethin You (HH) may be eating. kha əit ho ət+o khait hoet He (NH) may be eating. kha Le ho ət+o khəele hoeb I may have eaten.

77 kha Le ho əb+e khəele hoebe You (NH) may have eaten. kha Le ho əb+a khəele hoeba You (H) may have eaten. kha Le ho ət+thin khəele hethin You (HH) may have eaten. kha Le ho ət+o khəle hoet He (NH) may have eaten. kha rəhəl ho əb+o kharəhəl hoeb I may have been eating. kha rəhəl ho əb+e kharəhəl hoebe You (NH) may have been eating. kha rəhəl ho əb+a kharəhəl hoeba You (H) may have been eating. kha rəhəl ho ət+thin kharəhəl hoithin You (HH) may have been eating. kha rəhəl ho ət+o kharəhəl hoet He (NH) may have been eating.

Note: High Honorific markers is -thin/thun which is the same for the 2(HH) (əpne) and 3(HH) (hun/thin).

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