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Featured Articles Female Education and Its Effect on Fertility Rates GLOBALVUBy :Derek Brody Argintina and the Falklands IBy: Issie Sargraves

Table of Contents Letter From the Editor The Panopticon and the Case of Anwar al-Awlaki Dear Readers, p. 1 Association and Vanderbilt It is my pleasure to present Student Communications for their The Shadow of Falklands the third issue of GlobalVU, continued support. Our work Sovereignty Vanderbilt’s only undergraduate would not be possible without p. 6 journal focusing on global politics them. and international affairs. The Edward Azar’s Protracted Social staff and I have worked hard As the world becomes increasingly Conflict Theory & its Arab-Israeli creating and selecting thoughtful globalized, it becomes more critical Application and engaging essays that provide to understand and appreciate p. 9 excellent analysis on some of the problems facing the world today’s most important issues. We today. So often, the media glosses Female Education and Its Effect hope readers enjoy these thought- over these issues, especially in on Fertility Rates provoking and informative pieces. developing areas of the world. p. 12 From gender issues, to corruption I would like to take this and transitional issues, we hope UN Peacekeepers: opportunity to thank our entire reading this issue will result in a Friend or Foe? editorial staff for their hard deeper appreciation for the wide p. 18 work and long hours throughout array of matters that face people this semester, preparing the around the world today. The Prevention of Gender-Based print issue and maintaining our Violence in Dadaab: A Capability- website. Additionally, I would Sincerely, Oriented Approach like to thank the Vanderbilt Gabrielle Timm p. 21 International Relations Editor-In-Chief Death by Oil: Venezuela’s Economic Crisis Editorial Board p. 25 Gabrielle Timm Editor-in-Chief Daria Berstell Managing Editor The Relationship Between Benjamin Dong Layout Editor Foreign Direct Investment and Chris Zhang Webmaster Political Corruption Grace Sununu Senior Editor in the Developing World Issie Sagraves Senior Editor p. 29 Writing Staff Layout Staff The Ghost of Gaddafi Aalok Joshi Hannah Rogers p. 35 Adithya Sivakumar Jackie Olson Bella Jones The Push for Populism around the Derek Brody Guest Contributers World Dustin Cai Kayla Morin p. 40 Jackie Olson Christian Gregorich Javan Latson Al-Maqdisi’s Wahhabi Criticism Katie Gao Special Thanks of Saudi Arabia and the Rise of Shelby House Paige Clancy Salafi-Jihadi Organizations Victoria Herring Jeff Breaux p. 43 The Panopticon and the Case of Anwar al-Awlaki

Shelby House All-American Boy Vanderbilt University According to a 2013 Gallup poll, 65% of the Anwar al-Awlaki was born on April 21, 1971, in American public supports the use of surgical drone Las Cruces, New Mexico.3 His father, Nasser al-Awlaki, strikes against ‘suspected terrorists’ in foreign nations, had come to the United States in 1966 on a Fulbright while 41% of Americans support drone strikes against scholarship.4 Nasser finished his bachelor’s degree U.S. citizens living abroad who are deemed ‘suspected quickly, returned to Yemen to get his wife a visa, and terrorists.’ Only 14% of Americans responded that they returned to America where he completed his master’s follow news about drone strikes “very closely.”1 Drones and doctorate degrees and started a family5. In an are an interesting development in modern warfare. interview with Jeremy Scahill, Nasser al-Awlaki said his While soldier deaths and injuries in conventional war son was “really raised like any other American boy, he often spur anti-war sentiment, drones virtually eliminate used to like sports and was very brilliant in school, you casualty and risk on behalf of the attacking party. With know. He was a good student, and he participated in soldiers removed from the battlefield, the public loses all kinds of sports.”6 In 1977, Nasser al-Awlaki and his its personal stake and becomes less aware of ongoing family moved back to Yemen so that he could use his conflicts. As such, the American government garners American education to better his home country.7 After less criticism for waging ‘war.’ In the same Gallup poll graduating from high school, Anwar al-Awlaki returned mentioned above, a mere 13% of Americans support to the United States to study civil engineering in order drone strikes against U.S. citizens deemed “suspected” to find solutions to Yemen’s water shortage.8 At first, terrorists on American soil.2 Distance, along with he was not a particularly devout Muslim; after the Gulf secrecy, dilutes criticism. War started, that quickly changed.9 After graduating, In this essay, I seek to untangle the knotty he became an imam.10 He aligned himself with the problems associated with surgical drone strikes and conservative values of the Republican Party and actually covert operations waged against ‘suspected terrorists.’ encouraged other Muslims to vote for George Bush in To do so, I will set aside the practical justifications listed the 2000 election.11 by proponents for and critics of drone strikes, such as After 9/11, al-Awlaki was seen as “a go-to effects on counterinsurgency. Instead, I will examine Muslim cleric for reporters scrambling to explain Islam. the theoretical implications of extrajudicial killings, He condemned the mass murder, invited television using excerpts from Michel Foucault’s Discipline and crews to follow him around and patiently explained the Punish: the Birth of the Prison and History of Sexuality rituals of his religion.”12 Al-Awlaki was even invited to as frameworks. Furthermore, I will use these lenses speak at a Pentagon luncheon, and in 2002 he led prayer to examine a specific case: the extrajudicial killing of in the Capitol.13 He strongly condemned the attacks, Anwar al-Awlaki, an American citizen killed in Northern saying that U.S. killings “of thousands of Palestinians Yemen in 2011. I will argue that the public response does not justify the death of one civilian in New York to al-Awlaki’s killing reinforces Foucault’s ideas about City or Washington, DC.”14 As anti-Muslim sentiment state-sponsored violence, execution, and surveillance. came to dominate American culture, al-Awlaki said, I will also explain how shifting definitions and legal “My worry is that because of this conflict, the views parameters in wartime raise questions about the nature of Osama bin Laden will become appealing… That’s of human rights and morality in war. This particular a very frightening thing, so the US needs to be careful argument will be primarily informed by Giorgio and not have itself perceived as an enemy of Islam.”15 Agamben’s Homo Sacer and State of Exception. Yet tensions continued to rise, and al-Awlaki and his congregation always felt they needed to be on the 1 defensive. In 2002, U.S.federal agents carried out a series Power Over Bodies of raids on Islamic businesses and homes even though In Michel Foucault’s “Right to Death and Power no charges had been brought against these entities; after over Life,” a chapter from his larger work The History of this, al-Awlaki’s moderate message began to change. Sexuality, he argues that the nature of state-sponsored “This is not now a war on terrorism,” he said. “This is a violence has changed radically over time. Originally, war against Muslims and Islam.”16 sovereign powers could wage war and take life at will; In 1999, the Federal Bureau of Investigation such power was unconditional and unchecked. Later, opened a case against al-Awlaki for alleged the sovereign ruler could veritably only kill subjects who communication with various terrorist contacts, like rose up or posed a direct threat to him. His power was al-Qaeda’s Ziyad Khaleel and the convicted architect “the right to take life or let live,” “a right of seizure.” 25 behind the 1993 World Trade Center Bombing, Omar However, that has ultimately been replaced by “a power Abdel Rahman. The case was closed for lack of to foster life or disallow it to the point of death.” 26 The evidence.17 This became a common theme. Two of state now exercises what Foucault terms “biopower,” the 9/11 hijackers, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al- and there is “an explosion of numerous and diverse Hazmi, attended al-Awlaki’s mosque before the 2001 techniques for achieving the subjugations of bodies and attacks. After 9/11, an investigation on al-Awlaki was the control of populations.” 27 The state is much more opened and subsequently closed for lack of evidence. powerful when it is ingrained in almost every aspect of Al-Awlaki also had contact with Nadal Malik Hasan its subjects’ lives. Now, sovereign powers still exercise years before Hasan carried out the 2009 Fort Hood violence—but in the name of protecting life. Foucault shooting. Still no charges were brought against al- turns to the example of executions, which have become Awlaki. In 2006, al-Awlaki was arrested by US-backed far less common than war. “Capital punishment could forces in Yemen and imprisoned without charge for 18 not be maintained except by invoking less the enormity months.19 He was finally released because the Republic of the crime itself than the monstrosity of the criminal, of Yemen did “not have sufficient evidence to charge his incorrigibility, and the safeguard of society,” him and can no longer hold him illegally.”20 During his writes Foucault. “One had the right to kill those who imprisonment, al-Awlaki’s conception of Islam became represented a kind of biological danger to others.” 28 more fundamentalist and extreme; after his release, he U.S. forces failed to clearly began in earnest to purport violence and jihad against America.21 While there was no proof that al-Awlaki had define what al-Awlaki’s led Nadal Malik Hasan towards violence, he praised him crime had been 22 “ after the attacks, lauding him as a “hero.” Al-Awlaki Anwar al-Awlaki’s killing almost eerily fits preached for martyrdom and jihad online. However, Foucault’s description. Time and time again, U.S. ” until December 25, 2009, the FBI could prove that he forces failed to clearly define what al-Awlaki’s crime was nothing other than a propagandist. had been. However, in nearly all media coverage of On that day, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab tried al-Awlaki’s death, he is referred to as a “radical cleric,” and failed to carry out a terrorist attack. He confessed “charismatic propagandist,” “firebrand cleric,” or “the that al-Awlaki had taught him about jihad, directed him bin Laden of the Internet.”29,30,31 Legally speaking, none to carry out the attack, and helped him prepare. 23 of these terms makes al-Awlaki an acceptable target The Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel for execution. Even the term “terrorist” is problematic, quickly decided that al-Awlaki was a legal target because the term is ambiguous and state-defined. since he had directly plotted against the U.S. and was While no concrete criminal charges are enumerated collaborating with al-Qaeda. In areas where legality was in these various news broadcasts or articles, al-Awlaki questionable, new memoranda were drawn up to meet is condemned for his links to other terrorists and the department’s needs. Two lawyers drew up a hefty terroristic activity. After his death, President Barack memorandum specific to al-Awlaki, “blessing lethal Obama lauded the strike as “another significant force against him.” 24 Finally, on September 30, 2011, al- milestone in the broader effort to defeat al-Qaeda Awlaki was killed by a missile from an American Reaper and its affiliates.” According to the state, Al-Awlaki’s drone. connections to those who have posed direct threats made him a threat to the lives of others. 2 The New Scaffold This also ties into Foucault’s conception of torture and public execution laid out in his chapter “The spectacle of the scaffold” from Discipline and Punish. Torture was an integral part of punishment, because it led the accused to confess and convict himself, thus justifying the state use of torture. Execution lets the state reassert its sovereignty by killing the offending party in a spectacular way.32 In executions, “the role of the people was an ambiguous one,” writes Foucault.33 People needed to be involved, or the execution lost its purpose. They were also allowed to take part in the ritual, and the condemned criminal was humiliated and sometimes attacked by spectators. “The vengeance of the people was called upon to become an unobtrusive part of the vengeance of the sovereign,”34 writes Foucault. Violence was “accepted as a sign of allegiance.” Problematically, sometimes the spectators would reject executions they saw as unjust. In modern times, torture is generally unpalatable to the American public, and with the advent of drones, executions have become remarkably private and secretive. However, Foucault’s ideas still hold true. The public confession and execution now comes from the media, which makes the condemnation seem all the Anwar Al-Awlaki Source: Wikipedia Commons more powerful. Citizens feel less like the ritual is state- controlled; instead, the execution reflects the wants Command (JSOC) by mistake. In the documentary, and needs of the public. The state has also improved the Afghani family shows Scahill videos of the upon the mechanism, because the chance for revolt is American soldiers admitting their mistake. However, diminished. When the state believes a killing would be the International Security Assistance Force reported seen as unjust, the act is kept private at all costs. Anwar that these people had been killed in a Taliban honor al-Awlaki could be demonized and his death could killing. Unjust killings are kept far from public eye; in be justified, so that story was made public. President this case, the American government its mistake as an Obama spoke publicly to celebrate al-Awlaki’s killing; opportunity to reassert the “biological danger” that the however, far more drone strikes and covert operations Taliban poses. Two weeks after the death of al-Awlaki, built on even more questionable foundations are carried his teenage son Abdulrahman was also killed in a drone out each year. According to The Guardian, the human strike in Yemen. Initially, reports were made that the rights group Reprieve calculated that in the year 2014 boy was a twenty-one year old al-Qaeda operative; later, there were 1,147 people killed in drone strikes even he was painted as an innocent bystander, ‘collateral though only 41 men had been named as targets by the damage’ for an intended strike on a real al-Qaeda U.S. government. This number is only a fraction of operative, Ibrahim Banna.35 There were multiple the total deaths, since Reprieve did not incorporate conflicting reports. The CIA claimed Banna was not a targets only struck once. Furthermore, there is evidence target; JSOC claimed there was a different target, but that the American government carries out many other he had not been hit and officials could not disclose similar extrajudicial killings in secret. his identity.36 Even if Abdulrahman had not been the In Jeremy Scahill’s Dirty Wars, he investigates target, US officials once again used the incident to an instance in Gardez, Afghanistan in which seven reaffirm the legitimacy of their intended targets and to people, including two pregnant mothers, were killed by reinforce the “biological danger” of Anwar al-Awlaki. American soldiers of the Joint Special Operations When questioned about the killing of the sixteen-year- 3 old boy, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid said “the the subjects can see each other, adding another layer of American citizens who have been killed overseas… are surveillance and self-policing.42 terrorists, and, frankly, if anyone in the world deserved In the United States, the panopticon is a to be killed, those three deserve to be killed.”37 When veritable reality; the state has almost unlimited access questioned about the attack, Former White House press to surveillance of its citizens. American citizens know secretary Robert Gibbs said, “I would suggest that this, but they have no way to know when they are being you have a far more responsible father if they are truly watched. Furthermore, there is very little rebellion concerned about the well-being of their children. I don’t against this surveillance; if anything, Americans support think becoming an al-Qaeda terrorist is the best way to the all-encompassing surveillance system. go about doing your business.”38 The term “biological This can be seen when the government carries danger” takes on a new meaning in this context. out extrajudicial killings against ‘suspected terrorists’ In one sense, the public generally accepts that based on intelligence which is unlawfully collected or Abdulrahman’s death was justified as ‘collateral damage’ intelligence which is never revealed. For instance, in the due to his alleged vicinity to al-Qaeda operatives. case of Abdulrahman al-Awlaki, JSOC never divulged However, on the other hand, Gibbs and Reid tried to who the target was supposed to be, but American imply that Abdulrahman deserved his fate because of citizens grant carte blanche to intelligence agencies who his father was. Once again, a rhetorical argument, under the assumption that surveillance will make them not a legal one, sealed the fate of an American citizen safer; this explains why these sprawling surveillance who was deemed a threat. In both the case of Anwar techniques have grown markedly since 9/11. Instead and Abdulrahman al-Awlaki, small groups have deemed of being a spectacle, drones are “the natural extension their killings unjust and attempted to protest; however, of an omnipresent surveillance system.”43 Aberrations ultimately these were fringe voices which have been like Anwar al-Awlaki and his son show the compliant drowned out by the majority. To this day, the American members of the panopticon what happens when Civil Liberties Union is still filing complaints and someone falls outside of the system. The panopticon lawsuits against the Department of State, to no avail.39 normalizes its citizens so thoroughly that the actions of The state has perfected the scaffold, and it now carefully the state actually become a reflection of the wants of controls dissension. the people. “To challenge the police is to challenge the American people, and the problem with the police is Panopticon not that they are fascist pigs but that we are majoritarian Both the spectacle of the scaffold and the pigs,” writes Ta-Nehisi Coates in his article “Blue Lives biopolitical justification for al-Awlaki’s death reinforce Matter.” 44 The CIA, the FBI, JSOC, though far above Foucault’s conception of the panopticon, originally laid the police in terms of power and intelligence, are still out by Jeremy Bentham in the 1700s.40 The sovereign purveyors of discipline and order who are borne of the power seeks “to bring the effects of this social power American democratic system; in the end, their actions to their maximum intensity and to extend them as far as reflect the democratic will of American society which possible, without either failure or interval,” and the most has accepted the panoptic model of social control. effective way to do so was to employ the panoptic model of social control.41 Human Rights or Lack Thereof Anwar al-Awlaki was not allowed a trial and Instead of being a spectacle, no charges were brought against him, yet he was, for drones are “the natural all intents and purposes, executed. Law was malleable “ when it came to al-Awlaki.45 This raises many questions extension of an omnipresent about the meaning and purpose of law. Instead of surveillance system protecting the innocent and making war more civilized, laws “facilitate war by providing legal immunity” for That is, to set up a surveillance system in which those carrying out violence. Italian philosopher Giorgio one single power can observe all subjects in the ”system Agamben asserts that because law shifts so often but the subjects do not ever know if they are being according to the will of the state, law doesn’t even truly watched; since the subjects do not know if they are exist—and neither do human rights. Michel Foucault being observed, they will self-police. Furthermore, all expresses that the real power of the state lies in its 4 ability to control life; Agamben conflates this with Carl rights” like enemy combatants and detainees “are Schmitt’s idea that the power of the state lies in the beyond the law and have no recourse to it,” then the ability to “[decide] on the state of exception,” that is, concept of ‘human rights’ are a façade to be lifted at the suspend laws at will.46,47,48 In The History of Sexuality, will of the state.52 Furthermore, Agamben “warns of Foucault writes that “for milennia, man remained… a a ‘coming community’ to which we could all someday living animal with the additional capacity for a political belong.”53 If the ‘democratic’ state decided to one day existence,” but due to the advent and practice of lift all laws out of necessity, then all citizens could biopolitics, “modern man is an animal whose politics suddenly be cleft from their rights altogether, suddenly places his existence as a living being in question.”49 citizens under a totalitarian state. In this scenario, the “state of exception” and the removal from the Time and time again, U.S. law becomes the reality of the entire community. 54 forces failed to clearly define Agamben points out that Hitler never repealed any laws, he simply lifted laws out of necessity, creating “a state “ what al-Awlaki’s crime had 55 of exception that lasted twelve years.” been Post-9/11 America is moving towards “a state of exception,” as the state decides out of necessity who Conversely, Agamben sees the power of the is afforded the rights of a citizen and who is not. Anwar state as being able to reverse that process and strip” al-Awlaki was one such case. He was not afforded the a person down to “bare life,” void of basic rights.50 right to a trial or a jury. Instead, he was summarily Furthermore, if laws can be lifted out of “necessity,” executed because he was portrayed as a threat to the then there is no solid ground on which laws are built.51 American state. If the American public does not hold Similarly, if human rights are constructed by the state the state accountable to the established rule of law, then and are not intrinsic and inviolable, why do they matter? little separates the democratic state from a totalitarian Simply put, they do not. If “those most in need of one, especially in times of war.

REFERENCES 28, 2012) 1Alyssa Brown and Frank Newport. “In U.S., 65% Support Drone Attacks on 31 Aamer Madhani “Cleric al-Awlaki dubbed ‘bin Laden of the Internet.’” USA Today. Terrorists Abroad.” Gallup March 25, 2013. Accessed April 18, 2015. September 20, 2011 2 Brown and Newport “In U.S., 65%” 32 Michel Foucault Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan 3Jeremy Scahill. Dirty Wars. (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 32. Sheridan (New York: Random House Inc., 1975), 47-48. 4Scahill, Dirty Wars, 31. 33 Focault, Discipline and Punish, 58. 5 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 31. 34 Focault, Discipline and Punish, 59. 6 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 31. 35 Scahill Dirty Wars, 507-510. 7 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 32. 36 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 510. 8 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 33. 37 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 510. 9 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 33. 38 Conor Friedersdorf. “How Team Obama Justifies the Killing of a 16 year old 10 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 35. American.” The Atlantic. October 24, 2012. 11 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 36. 39 “Anwar al-Awlaki-FOIA Request-ALCU Reply Brief (OLC Memos).” American 12 Scott Shane and Souad Mekhennett. “Imam’s Path from Preaching Terror to Civil Liberties Union. April 16, 2015. Teaching Jihad.” New York Times, May 8, 2010. 40 “The Panopticon.” The Bentham Project University College London. 13 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 45 41 Focault, Dicipline and Punish, 207. 14 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 42 42“The Panopticon” 15 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 44 43 John Feffer. “Comparing Atrocities” Foreign Policy in Focus, Institute for Policy 16 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 47 Studies and The Nation. March 4, 2015. 17 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 36 44 Ta-Nehisi Coates, “Blue Lives Matter,” The Atlantic, December 22, 2014. 18 Scahill, Dirty Wars, 37 45 Mazetti, Savage and Shane “How a US Citizen” 19 Shane and Mekkhennett “Imam’s Path” 46 Giorgio Agamben State of Exception Trans. Kevin Attell (Chicago: The University lack of evidence: “Yemeni-American Awlaqi Released from ROYG Custody,” US of Chicago Press, 2005), 1. diplomatic cable, December 19, 2007. Released via Wikileaks. 47 Dora Apel War Culture and the Contest of Images. (New Brunswich: Rutgers 20 The Clarion Project. “Anwar Al Awlaki’s Posthumous Call to Jihad (Part 1).” University Press, 2012), 7. Youtube December 21, 2011. 48 Anthony Downey “Zones of Indistinction: Giorgio Agamben’s ‘Bare Life’ and the 22 Mark Mazzetti, Charlie Savage, and Scott Shane. “How a U.S. Citizen Got to be in Politics of Aesthetics.” Third Text. 2009, 111 America’s Cross Hairs.” 49 Focault History of Sexuality, 256. 23 Mazzetti, Savage and Shane “How a U.S. Citizen” 50 Downey “Zones of Indistinction” 109-110. 24 Mazetti, Savage and Shane “How a U.S. Citizen” 51 Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception, 25. 25 Michel Foucault. The History of Sexuality: An Introduction Volume 1 Trans. 52 Dora Apel War Culture, 7. Robert Hurley (New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1990) 259 53 Dora Apel War Culture, 7. 26 Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 261 54 Dora Apel War Culture, 7. 27 Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 262. 55 Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception, 2. 28 Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 261. 29 Jamie Doward and Paul Harris “How US tracked Anwar al-Awlaki to his death in Yemen.” The Observer, October 1, 2011. 30 Chief Republic “Killing al-Awlaki- Glen Greenwald on Real Time.” Youtube March 5 The Shadow of Falklands Sovereignty

Issie Sagraves conceded sovereignty; Argentina wrote their claim into Vanderbilt University their 1994 constitution. In 2013, the Islanders voted At the United Nations talks in late September overwhelmingly to remain British, but the disputes over 2016, two world leaders met for a quick three-minute sovereignty have not ceased. conversation as they passed each other on their way to lunch. Both newly appointed, this symbolic meeting As the Falklands lose their of Mauricio Macri of Argentina and Theresa May of ties to the European Union, the United Kingdom opened a new door of policy “ in order to have a successful negotiations between their two nations as they linger in the shadows of the 1980s Falklands War. The Falklands economy, they might are technically self-governing, but they acknowledge need stronger ones with British sovereignty and allow the United Kingdom and Argentina and the rest of British Parliament to dictate their foreign affairs and South America. defense policies. Argentina maintains that they, too, have sovereignty. Negotiations between the two nations have In the past year, both Argentina and the United begun to address policies that will lift restrictions and Kingdom experienced a change in leadership. Mauricio” increase industry in the Falklands region, but the talks Macri, a center-right politician from the Republican are being detrimentally hindered by the nationalistic Proposal Party, took office in December of 2015 as question of sovereignty. the first non-Peronist in a long time. His policies are mostly focused on reviving the Argentine economy, and Harriet Alexander described him in her article in The Telegraph as “an alternative to the rampant nationalism of Cristina Kirchner.”1 Similarly, Theresa May took over as Prime Minister in the U.K. this summer after David Cameron stepped down post-Brexit. In a letter to Macri, penned in August, Theresa May stated that “It is my sincere hope that, where we have differences, these can be acknowledged in an atmosphere of mutual respect and with the intention to act in a way that benefits all those concerned.”2 Since January, Macri too has been suggesting a relaxation of tensions between the two nations as he has pledged to “chart a calmer course than his fiery predecessor,”3 referring to Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner, the former president who opposed The Falkland Islands. Source: ExamGK compromising with the U.K. on the Falklands policies. Tensions between the United Kingdom and In September, Alan Duncan, the U.K. the Falklands have been high since the 1982 Falklands Foreign Office minister, and Susana Malcorra, the War. The Falklands had been a British territory since Argentinian foreign minister, met for the first time 1841, but in 1982, Argentinian forces invaded the since 2009, and agreed to open discussions about island, prompting retaliation by the British, which several Falklands-related issues.4 The key issues that culminated in an almost two-month-long war that are under consideration right now are oil resources claimed the lives of 255 British and 649 Argentine in the surrounding ocean regions and the opening of soldiers. The war resulted in an Argentine surrender, and flight restrictions between Argentina and the Falkland the British retained control over the Islands. However, Islands. The goal of these discussions is to improve both sides still claim sovereignty. In 1989, the United the Falklands’ economy and to end the era of strained Kingdom and Argentina restored relations, but neither policy between Argentina and the U.K. 6 The Falkland Islands Source: Cruis Reviews

The hydrocarbon issue is a key one in the However, support for these policies is not discussions because it could provide benefits to unanimous – Islander Faith Felton said that “We won the Falklands’ economy through the controlling the war in 1982, you know we should not be appeasing of a valuable resource. Malcorra commented that Argentina and we should be looking towards other hydrocarbon compromise was “a sensible thing to routes. Our economy would still move on.”6 Felton discuss and could make sense;”5 any agreements started a petition entitled ‘Is your cheap holiday worth made between the U.K. and Argentina in which these their lives?’ denouncing cooperation with Argentina resources were opened for use by the Islanders would as a waste of the sacrifice of the soldiers during the create a clear boost in their economy. Falklands War. Conversely, other Islanders do support The other core issue of the talks has been relaxed tensions, as demonstrated by Lizzy Bonnet, a opening the airways to the Falkland Islands. Flights long-term resident of the Falklands who believes that currently only operate through the U.K. and Chile. In “something positive could come from [agreements], like South America, only Chile has an air route to the Islands establishing trade links, which would be great for the because of the Kirchner regime’s banning of flights economy with bringing new products into the islands.”6 through Argentinian airspace. The two nations have This divided support among the Islanders themselves agreed to increase the direct flights to and from the for the policies further complicates the agreements of Falklands, including two stops per month in mainland Argentina and Britain, but the core anti-negotiation Argentina. This has the intended effect of opening argument, as articulated by Felton, shows the influence more tourism to and from the Falklands. of nationalistic pride. 7 The complications brought by the recent and veterans”7 for Macri’s willingness to negotiate “Brexit” are also increasing the Falkland Islanders’ at all with the United Kingdom. Andrew Rosindell, desire for a growth in trade with Argentina and the rest the Conservative MP and secretary of the Falkland of the continent. As the Falklands lose their ties to the Islands All-Party Parliamentary Group, countered European Union, they might need stronger ones with by stating that “They can say what they want to talk Argentina and the rest of South America in order to about as much as they like, but there are going to be have a successful economy2. The Falklands, like most no discussions at all about sovereignty of the islands”1. oversees territories, were united in their desire for Since both parties value sovereignty so highly, and are Britain to stay within the E.U. Three-quarters of the so unwilling to compromise, it will be difficult for the Falklands’ exports go to the E.U. market, which will Falkland Islands to ever truly escape the legacy of the probably become more expensive as Brexit policies and War and its geopolitical implications. trade deals are finalized. True openness and progress on these issues They can say what they is being held back by the nationalistic question of want to talk about as sovereignty. “ much as they like, but Negotiations between there are going to be “ the two nations have no discussions at all begun to address policies about sovereignty of that will lift restrictions the islands and increase industry Taking all of these points in consideration,” it seems evident that the Falklands would benefit from in the Falklands region, relaxed policies between Argentina and the United Kingdom, in that they would be able to expand their but the talks are being economy through increased industry, tourism, and detrimentally hindered by trade with other South American nations. However, the success of these negotiations will rest with the the nationalistic question British and Argentine leadership’s willingness to set aside their nationalistic agenda and cooperate without of sovereignty. constantly arguing over the point of sovereignty. The Islanders held their own referendum and voted to stay With the Falklands War still in the historical under the U.K. rule in 2013, and if another referendum memory of both of these nations, it is difficult to” were held, perhaps it would help to settle the issue; if separate the policy from the popular opinion. Macri has not, Argentina should perhaps cede their claim and stated that Falklands are “inexorably ours”2 and so will focus on their interests in different policies regarding not give up Argentine sovereignty; meanwhile former the Islands. Under the new leadership of the U.K. and president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner has said Argentina, the Falklands seems to have an opportunity she will “ask forgiveness from the fighters, families, for progress, but that goal must not be overshadowed

REFERENCES obstacles’ to Falklands development,” The Guardian, 14 September 1 Harriet Alexander, “Argentina’s Macri eyes Falklands sovereignty 2016, accessed 8 October 2016. talks as he announces ‘high level’ meeting with the U.K.,” 14 5 Patrick Wintour, Argentina promises ‘respectful’ cooperation over September 2016, accessed 9 October 2016. Falklands,” The Guardian, 8 September 2016, accessed 8 October 2 Steven Swinford “Theresa May Extends Olive Branch to Argentina 2016. over Falklands Islands,” The Telegraph, 12 August 2016, Accessed 8 6 Federica de Caria, “In Falkland Islands, some say Argentina-UK October 2016. thaw not worth it,” The Washington Post, 23 September 2015, 3 “Falkland Islands: Argentina to hold ‘high level’ talks with the UK”, accessed 8 October 2016. The Week, 15 September 2016, accessed 9 October 2016. 7 “UK dismisses Macri’s claims over sovereignty talks,” Buenos Aires 4 Patrick Wintour, “Argentina and the UK agree to ‘remove Herald, 22 September 2016, accessed 8 October 2016. 8 Edward Azar’s Protracted Social Conflict Theory & its Arab-Israeli Application

Bella Jones Communal content refers to the “identity group – racial, Vanderbilt University ethnic, cultural and others.”2 For Azar, the communal As one of the forefathers of the field of composition of a society is perhaps the most important conflict resolution, Edward Azar was one of the first determining factor of a PSC conflict. Historical rivalries to introduce a new kind of social theory that identified can form between different groups in which one group a different cause of violence and conflict in the and/or a coalition of groups rule over others and are world than what had been previously thought. Rather “unresponsive to the needs of other groups in society.”3 than the usual compartmentalization of institutional This creates a social structure in which the needs of categories as the main actors in conflict, Azar identified one group are favored over another. Azar refers to this more fluid and relational categories as variables in disjunction as the “disarticulation between the state intensity of conflicts. His theory gave a more nuanced and society as a whole.”4 The relations between these approach to conflict analysis, which allowed for greater different communal groups within a society are crucial understanding of the complexities and mechanisms of a to understanding the next component of the Genesis of conflict rather than reducing it to an inaccurate form. In a protracted social conflict. the following essay, I will provide an explanation of his The second component of the Genesis of theory of Protracted Social Conflict (PSC), contrasting it a PSC is the deprivation of human needs. These basic with the prevailing orthodoxy of the time, and providing humans needs are ontological in nature and are crucial real world applications of the PSC theory. to the survival and well-being of both individuals and The more economically communal groups. Azar states “grievances resulting from need deprivation are usually expressed collectively” dependent a state is on the and that “failure to redress these grievances by the international economy, the authority cultivates a niche for protracted social “ 5 less autonomy they have... conflict.” This is key, for the third variable of the Genesis of a PSC is the role of the state, which is To understand the PSC theory, one must divide to ensure that all the human needs of its constituent a conflict into two main components, the first ”being communal groups are met. In a given state, the type of the Genesis of the conflict and the second being the regime and its legitimacy are crucial for understanding Process of the conflict. The Genesis of a conflict how the deprivation of human needs leads to a is a “set of conditions that are responsible for the protracted social conflict. Often in PSC-affected transformation of non-conflictual situations into a countries, one can observe the dominant communal conflictual one.”1 Azar delineates four key variables in groups suppress the participation of certain communal the Genesis of a conflict: Communal Content, Human groups in the state. For example, in Central American Needs, Government and State Role, and International countries such as Honduras, the basic need of security Linkages. Together, all of these variables are a part of a is not met for many young, working-age adults. Their complex web of relations and interactions. The Process needs are not being met because of the dominance of a conflict is what Azar calls “process dynamics,” of the communal group of drug cartels who have a which given the previously mentioned variables, are corrupting effect on the role of the state. Because the responsible for the activation and proliferation of overt state actors are prone to bribery and corruption, the conflict. There are three main determining factors of needs of the cartels are overshadowing the needs of a conflict’s process dynamic: Communal actions and the citizens. Here, we can see that the state has failed strategies, State actions and strategies, and the Built in to fulfill its role in meeting the needs of many of its Mechanisms of the conflict. communal groups because of the dominance of one. The content of the four aforementioned The fourth and final part of the Genesis variables of the Genesis of a protracted social conflict component is international linkages between state are what determines the intensity of the conflict. actors, which tend to affect internal policy. Two forms 9 of these linkages are economic dependency and client The final component of process dynamics is relationships. The more economically dependent a state the built-in mechanisms of conflict, which operate in is in the international economy, the less autonomy they the long-term and relate to how the conflict influences have in dictating their own economic policies. This point each group’s perceptions of the other, which in turn is especially important and relevant as the contemporary results in behavior that perpetuates the conflict. These sphere of politics and economics are increasingly perceptions are “conditioned by experiences, fears becoming more interconnected and interdependent. and belief systems of each communal group.”8 Each While this trend of global interdependency is generally communal group attributes the worst motivations seen as a positive phenomenon for international peace, and images to the other, which results in a reciprocal it is a structure that has a high potential for the rise of cycle of negative perceptions and can antagonize and protracted social conflict and violence. solidify the protracted social conflict. Examples of this mechanism can be perceptions of power, degrading incidences of violence rhetoric, mistrust and suspicion, and mutually exclusive worked together to fuel experiences. “ This entirety of Azar’s theory went against the perpetuation and much of the existing conventional thought of his time. escalation of the conflict One critical way in which the PSC theory differentiates from the prevailing view is that unlike some approaches To address the second component of PSC which separated conflicts into internal and external theory, the process dynamics are the mechanisms” by dimensions, PSC theory blurs the lines of demarcation which overt protracted social conflicts are activated and and looks at the complexity of relations in, among, and perpetuated. The first determining factor in process throughout states. Another distinction is that prevailing dynamics is the communal actions and strategies. The approaches tended to categorize the conflict aspects beginning of overt conflict can be triggered within into different levels of analysis such as social, political, the communal group when “individual victimization is and economic lenses, while PSC theory acknowledges collectively recognized.”6 This event gives the affected that these dimensions are interwoven and confounded communal group the opportunity to organize, protest, in the conflict. One last critical distinction is that the and draw attention to the event itself and the underlying PSC approach does not simply focus on overt violence systemic issues that caused the event. This organization and conflict but rather also focuses on covert and latent is usually met with some form of suppression from the tensions, which serve as dynamic mechanisms to the state, which can cause the communal group to mobilize conflict process. and gather resources, even making ties outside of the state. This leads us to the second mechanism of process both state- and non-state- dynamics, which is state actions and strategies. The way initiated incidences of in which the state responds to the communal group’s “ expression of its grievances depends on its strength violence worked together and stability. States typically respond to the communal group’s actions either with military force or a co-option to fuel the perpetuation strategy. In the former case, “such a hardline strategy and escalation of the invited equally militant responses from repressed conflict groups,” leading to a downward spiral of violence between the groups. In the latter case, “co-option could The Arab/Israeli protracted social conflict is serve to mitigate communal grievances, but it is usually a case in which we can analyze the components ”and perceived as being a tactical maneuver to fragment the mechanisms of the PSC theory since the conflict is such opposition and divert its opposition.”7 The outcome an enduring issue and involves opposing communal of this second possibility depends on the intentions groups with different identities, experiences, and belief of the state and whether it decides to fulfill its need- systems. Participating in the conflict are the Jewish meeting role or to assert coercively its dominance over collective identity group and the Arab/Palestinian its constituent communal groups. communal identity group. As the conflict progressed over ownership of the same Palestinian territory, 10 factions within each group formed with varying goals psychologically motivations whereas strictly territorially and sentiments towards one another. based reports were only cited 19 times.11 Within the The history of each party bears heavy influence group of psychologically motivated statements, there on the latent Genesis variables that existed between was a three-way tie between statements that reveal the groups before violence broke out. The identity emotion, perception, and group identification, with and perceptions of the Israeli communal group were 25-27 statements in each radial category.12 The study affected by widespread persecution and strong religious goes on to analyze statements and articles up until identity tied with the territory. The Palestinian identity 2008, showing variance in quantity of statements in is shaped by the shame of lost lands, which they had each category in relation to conflict events and violence passionately conquered, and forced religious-based happening during that period. This data reveals that the concessions. Importantly, colonial influence plays a huge built-in mechanisms of the conflict are rooted in deep- part in establishing the pre-conditions to the conflict, seeded resentment due to each group’s perceptions of for at the height of its reign, the Ottoman Empire lost the identity of the other. half of the territory it possessed to European colonial Over time, the perceived resentments between powers.9 The same colonial powers are later involved in the conflict parties and the continual occurrence the mediation of the issue, an attempt in which latent of both state- and non-state-initiated incidences of tensions may have played a part in failed resolutions. violence worked together to fuel the perpetuation and escalation of the conflict. The protracted nature In a given state, the of the conflict is further exacerbated because each type of regime and its side perceives the other as a source of some of its “ identity elements, specifically the view of the self as legitimacy are crucial victim and victimizer.13 Rouhana argues that societies engaged in protracted ethnonational conflicts form for understanding belief systems that are used as coping mechanisms but can also work to perpetuate the conflict.14 Over how the deprivation time these ideas become a part of the group identity of human needs and are major drivers of collective action. Despite these intractable characteristics, significant efforts have leads to a protracted been made to facilitate planned contact interventions between Israeli Jews and Palestinians in the past 20 social conflict. years. These planned meetings are structured to reframe A study beginning in 1948 with the beliefs about coexistence, joint projects, and identity establishment of the Israeli state analyzed a sample” group narratives.15 While there are many more PSC of 61 quotes from different identity groups, such as components to be analyzed in this particular case study the Fighters for the Freedom of Israel and the Arab due to the complex nature of the conflict, it is evident Legion.10 Significantly, this year reported one of the how Azar’s protracted social conflict theory’s framework highest incidences of violence in the conflict between is applicable and helpful for understanding this long- 1948 and 2008. It identified 49 statements containing term identity-based conflict.

REFERENCES 10 Melizza Beaudoin, “Protracted Social Conflict: A Reconceptual- 1 Edward Azar, The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: ization and Case Analysis.” USC Scholar Commons (2013). Theory & Cases (Dartmouth Publishing Company, 1990). 11 Beaudoin, “Protracted Social Conflict.” 2 Oliver Ramsbotham, Hugh Miall, and Tom Woodhouse, Con- 12 Beaudoin, “Protracted Social Conflict.” temporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and 13 Herbert Kelman, “ The Interdependence of Israeli and Palestin- Transformation of Deadly Conflicts (Cambridge: Polity, 2011). ian national identities: The role of the other in existential conflicts,” 3 Azar, The Management of Protracted Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999). 4 Azar, The Management of Protracted 14 Nadim Rouhana and Daniel Bar-Tal, “Psychological dynamics 5 Azar, The Management of Protracted of intractable ethnonational conflicts: The Israeli–Palestinian case” 6 Azar, The Management of Protracted American Psychologist 53 (1998). 15 7 Azar, The Management of Protracted Ifat Maoz “Does contact work in protracted asymmetric conflict? Appraising 20 years of reconciliation-aimed encounters between 8 Azar, The Management of Protracted Israeli Jews and Palestinians” Journal of Peace Research 48 (2011). 9 11 Alan Dowty, Israel/Palestine, (Malden: Polity, 2008). Female Education and Its Effect on Fertility Rates

Derek Brody Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Togo, Uganda, Vanderbilt University Zimbabwae, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Indonesia, Sri A number of different studies have been Lanka, Thailand, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican done on the relationship between female education Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and fertility rates up until the mid-1970s, with all of Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago.3 The relationship this research coming to the same conclusion: fertility between fertility and access to education in developing rates decline consistently as education increases. countries is more complex than was thought in the This was stated in a number of studies, including 1970s: access to education results in an initial bump in those by Holsinger and Kasarda in 1976,1 as well as fertility rates, but subsequently results in a decline in Cochrane in 1979.2 The explanation for this was based fecundity due to marriage age, family-size preferences, in socioeconomic transition, with families moving and contraceptive use. up the socioeconomic ladder having easier access to contraceptive devices and a decreased desire to have large number of children. As more research has Education been conducted, however, a new pattern has been Education for women is a topic that has been revealed. Instead of showing the directly linear, inverse historically overlooked globally, but especially in many relationship between education and fertility rates of the countries studied by the World Fertility Study that was expected, a number of poor, rural societies and the Demographic and Health Surveys. In order to displayed an inverted U-shaped relationship. fully comprehend the impact of female education on fertility rates, one must first codify education levels, providing a quantitative measure of female education in Women are less likely order to compare levels cross-nationally. There are two to get married while main measures of education level: years of schooling “ and literacy level. In order to quantify literacy levels, the still in school, so their population was broken into three categories: cannot very presence in formal read, reads with difficulty, and reads easily, as determined by the Demographic and Health surveys, conducted school systems decreases by Macro International. In the countries studied, there the probability they is a considerable amount of differentiation between countries. For example, the countries studied in Asia and will get married, and Latin America display mostly adequate education and henceforth begin having literacy levels while the countries studied in North and children, at a young age. sub-Saharan Africa have a much larger proportion of women who have attended fewer years of schooling and As education increases in developing countries, lack basic literacy skills. Education levels are symbolic there is an initial bump in fertility rates, but that ”bump of a number of attributes, including overall health and eventually subsides and fertility rates begin to decline access to medicine in these countries. It also affects after a critical level of education. Data gathered the bargaining power of women within the household, through the World Fertility Survey supports this thesis, all of which impacts fertility rates in these countries. illustrating that education in the 26 developing countries Moreover, education provides literacy skills, stimulates studied has an initially positive impact on fertility cognitive growth, and can be a driving force in the rates, followed by a negative impact. The countries transformation of norms within a country because included in the study include Botswana, Burundi, educated women begin to question traditional practices. 12 countries. As women gain access to education in these Beginning Bump developing countries, it is likely they will also gain access Fertility rates are defined as the total number to proper pre and post-natal care. This increased access of children that would be born to each woman if she to care results in decreased fetal and infant mortality were to live to the end of her childbearing years and rates, therefore increasing the number children born and give birth to children in alignment with the prevailing increasing fertility rates in these countries. For women age-specific fertility rates.4 As described earlier, many in predominantly illiterate societies, only a few years of of these developing countries experience a “beginning formal schooling is not enough to fully transform social bump” in regards to fertility and education, as fertility norms and expectations. Even six years of schooling, rates begin to rise as education levels rise for individual for example, cannot fully alter the perceived costs women. This is seen most prominently between women of childbirth and childcare. More formal schooling who have zero years of schooling and those with 1-3 is required in order to fully change these norms and or 4-6 years of schooling. In Kenya, for example, expectations, which is one of the reasons why fertility women with zero years of schooling have a fertility rates do not begin to decrease until greater access to rate of 7.2, while women with 1-3 years of schooling education is reached. have fertility rates of 7.5, and women with 4-6 years of The counterargument to be made, however, is schooling have fertility rates of 7.5. Liberia also displays that this “beginning bump” is not evident in all of the a similar fertility pattern, with women with zero years countries studied. In Senegal, for example, women with of schooling having fertility rates of 6.8, followed by zero years of education have fertility rates of 7.0, while women with 1-3 and 4-6 years of schooling displaying women with 1-3 years of formal schooling have fertility fertility rates of 7.1 and 7.5, respectively. This pattern, rates have fertility rates of 6.4. Morocco also shows this however, is not limited to Africa. Trinidad and Tobago, pattern of development, as women with zero formal located in Latin America, also displays similar fertility years of schooling have total fertility rates of 5.5, while patterns. Women with zero years of formal schooling women with 1-3 years of formal schooling exhibit there have fertility rates of 2.3, but these rates increase fertility rates of 3.9.6 These patterns illustrate that the to 4.3 and 3.6 with 1-3 and 4-6 years of schooling.5 “beginning bump” may not be a real pattern, and that a truly inverse relationship is, in fact, the relationship Family-size preferences between education and fertility. The lack of an initial decrease with increased increase in fertility rates in these countries may also be “ due to the fact that these countries are simply more education because higher developed than the other ones studied, so some of educational attainment the causal factors that generate the original increase in increases the opportunity cost fertility may not apply to these countries of having a child. Fertility Decreases as These initial increases in fertility as education Education Increases increases are due to a number of reasons. In countries” such as these in the studies, where the use of birth After the initial fertility bump, fertility rates control is not widespread, physiological factors play a begin to decline as education for women increases. This large role in affecting fertility rates. Traditional practices is apparent throughout the studies, regardless of region. such as lengthy breastfeeding or postpartum abstinence In the ten sub-Saharan African countries studied, begin to disappear as education improves, increasing the fertility rates declined by an average of 4.05 between birth rates in a given country. If women are less likely to women with zero years of schooling and those with stay abstinent or engage in elongated breastfeeding after 10+ years of formal education. The discrepancy is also childbirth, they are likely to wait for a shorter period of extremely prevalent in the Latin American/Carribean time after giving birth to attempt to have another child. region, where fertility rates decline by an average of 3.59 This results in higher fertility rates, as women are more in the ten countries studied. These differences are not as likely to re-engage in sexual activity sooner after giving prevalent in Asia and North Africa, where fertility rates birth. Additionally, increased access to education is decline by 1.1 and 2.7, respectively. 7 directly related to access to health services in individual Fertility rates among the most educated women 13 Rural Indian maternity ward. Source: Times of India is lower than the fertility rate of the least educated young ages, such as Mali, where the median age of women in each country studied, but this difference women at first marriage is 15.7 years old.6 Women in fertility differentiation by region can be attributed are less likely to get married while still in school, so to the different stages of overall development of the their very presence in formal school systems decreases individual countries. The countries studied in Asia are the probability they will get married, and henceforth more economically and socially developed than those begin having children, at a young age. Likewise, their in sub-Saharan or North Africa, meaning that access lengthened presence in formal schooling means that they to contraceptive devices is easier for women of all will likely have higher-income employment opportunities levels of education, and gender equality norms related after their schooling. This effect makes women less likely to childbirth are in more advanced stages in the Asian to be financially dependent on a husband, so women are countries being studied than those in sub-Saharan less likely to enter into early marriages in the interest of and North Africa. The overall decline in fertility rates, financial stability and security. however, can be attributed to three major factors: the increase in marriage age, changing fertility preferences, As could probably be expected, and access to fertility regulation. there is a strong positive “correlation between contraceptive Marriage and Its use and female educational Impact on Education attainment. Education’s role in depressing fertility rates The Asian and Latin American regions studied” can be attributed partly to the interaction between exhibit this pattern of increasing marriage age in education and marriage age. In most of the societies concert with increasing educational attainment. In the studied, childbirth takes place within the confines of a three Asian countries studied, women with 10+ years marriage, meaning that a delay in marriage for women of formal schooling get married 6.1 years later than results in less “fertile” time while married for these women at the lowest level of educational achievement. women. The timing of marriage varies depending on This pattern works in a linear manner, as women with countries, exemplifying the power of cultural norms and 1-3 years of formal schooling get married later than expectations, but all of the countries examined display those with zero years of schooling, those with 4-6 later marriage ages for women with higher educational years of schooling get married later than those with attainment. This has a greater impact in countries with only 1-3 years of schooling, and so on. Marriages of cultural norms that encourage marriage at extremely women in Latin American countries are also affected 14 by educational achievement, with the most educated health care development, and educational attainment. women getting married 5.5 years later, on average, in Educational achievement plays a major role in the the ten countries studied.6 In these countries, marriage decrease in family size preference, creating new norms and childbearing are closely associated, so the delay in and standards because of the increased opportunity entry into marriage for the more educated women result cost associated with a woman leaving the workforce to in reduced fertility rates. have a child. It is important to note that family size Greater access to education preference and actual fertility rates are being compared. does not have equal If family-size preferences are lower than actual fertility “ consequences in every rates, the implementation of widespread contraceptive use will decrease actual fertility rates. If family-size country, but it does have preferences are greater than actual fertility rates, then a noticeable influence in actual fertility rates can only be reduced through the developing countries. transformation of fertility norms and expectations. In the DHS survey conducted, the researchers Sub-Saharan and North African regions also collected ideal family sizes from ever-married women. display large differentiation between median marriage” Desired family size differs by country and by region, but age of the most and least educated women in their the overwhelming trend points to decreased family size societies. In Senegal, for example, the median marriage preferences as female educational attainment increases. age of a women with zero formal years of schooling This pattern is especially prevalent in sub-Saharan is 16.2 years old 6, while the median marriage age of a Africa, where women with 10+ years of schooling woman with 10+ years of schooling is 23.9 years old. report ideal family sizes that are 1.93 people smaller On average, the three North African countries studied than women with zero years of schooling. In the North exhibit a 6.0-year age difference in marriage entry African countries studied, family size preferences between the most and least educated women. In the ten decreased by 0.6 people as women gain more formal sub-Saharan African countries studied, the median age schooling. Asian and Latin American countries for marriage entry increases by 4.61 years as a woman experience decreases of 0.4 people and 0.5 people, goes from zero to 10+ years of formal schooling. 6 respectively, with the same increase in educational The effect of delayed marriage age on fertility is not achievement.6 Since family-size preferences are often as strong in sub-Saharan Africa, however, because of dependent on age and existing family size, the study cultural norms that do not encourage childbearing controls for these variables, hoping to only focus on within the confines of a marriage union. Unlike from the relationship between education and wanted fertility many other cultures, the onset of sexual activity and rates. entry into marriage are not very closely associated in many of these African countries, meaning that this The gap ... is greatest reasoning does not help to explain the decrease in in women at the lowest fertility rates. Charles Westoff’s 1994 study 10 does “ end of the educational prove that, even when sexual activity precedes the entry into marriage, education helps to postpone the age of spectrum. the woman when they first give birth, which impacts Family-size preferences decrease with increased overall family size. education because higher educational attainment ” increases the opportunity cost of having a child. Family-Size As women begin to achieve more academically and Preferences educationally, higher-wage opportunities in the labor Family size preferences and norms are force begin to open to them. Rather than being forced extremely important in the discussion of the to work low-paying jobs, educated women are able relationship between education and fertility. Norms and to acquire jobs that bring relegated income into the standards are intertwined with a number of different household. This means that the cost of her leaving the aspects of an individual country, such as the economic workforce to have a child increases, as the family loses structure and stability, political organization, culture, a larger quantity of income than they previously did. 15 Family Planning program in Ghana. Source: Humanosphere This additional cost of having a child may affect family reasons for this association, including the easier access planning, as some families will not be willing to give up to fertility regulation in societies that also have easier the extra income in an attempt to have another child. access to female education, the increased motivation to Additionally, women who have higher-wage use contraceptive devices, and the increase in correct use jobs gain more bargaining power within the household. of contraceptive devices. Since the wife has a larger income, she has a more credible threat to leave the relationship and still be Fertility financially stable, increasing bargaining power and the Regulation likelihood actual family sizes will reflect the woman’s Societies with greater female educational family-size preferences. It is more likely that a woman attainment are more likely to provide easier access to will have decreased family-size preferences in areas with contraceptive instruments because of economic and greater female educational attainment because of the social development. More developed countries are transformation of norms and expectations, and having also less likely to be led by authoritarian governments, a greater individual income will help her further those meaning they are more likely to provide a wide range of preferences because the partner in the relationship will social services to the citizens of that particular country. be more likely to respect her wants and preferences. This These social services often include schools and health is supported by evidence that states the gap between care facilities, which is why there is often a positive ideal and actual family sizes is greatest in women at the correlation between access to education and access to lowest end of the educational spectrum, where women fertility regulation devices. Likewise, greater literacy rates tend to have less bargaining power within the family and familiarity with health services among women mean structure.6 that women in these societies will be more aware of the As could probably be expected, there is a strong reproductive services offered to them in a particular positive correlation between contraceptive use and society, resulting in greater contraceptive use.7 female educational attainment. There are a number of Better-educated women will also have greater 16 motivation to use the existing contraceptive devices, incentives for women to stay in school longer. due to the increased opportunity cost of having a child. As high-income jobs become available to women with If family-size preferences higher levels of education, the opportunity cost of are greater than actual leaving the workforce to have a child increases. They will “ fertility rates, then actual become more extrinsically motivated to seek out existing contraceptive devices or push for increased access to fertility rates can only them within their own society, resulting in a decline in be reduced through the fertility rates. Increased education also leads women to use contraceptive devices in the appropriate and correct transformation of fertility manner. Less-educated or illiterate women are more norms and expectations. likely to discontinue birth control use, for example, or use other contraceptive devices in an incorrect manner. The relationship between educational attainment Greater literacy and experience with health care services and fertility is a complex one, more complicated” makes women with more educational attainment more than originally thought, particularly in developing likely to follow fertility regulation instructions and countries. Greater access to education does not have decreases overall fertility. equal consequences in every country, but it does have a noticeable influence in developing countries, In Senegal, for example, when coupled with simultaneous economic and social women with zero years of development. In these developing countries, increases in educational access are usually accompanied by medical “ education have fertility rates developments, all of which cause an initial increase of 7.0, while women with 1-3 in fertility rates. After this initial increase in fertility, years of formal schooling sustained development means all women gain access to contraceptive devices, and fertility rates begin to have fertility rates have decline. The increased opportunity cost of having a fertility rates of 6.4. child, the delay in marriage, and the increased access to contraceptive devices all contribute to this decrease in It is possible that this causal relationship fertility rates. Likewise, women who reach a higher level also works in the opposite manner, with access to” of educational achievement are more likely to transform contraceptive devices influencing the educational social norms, changing societal family-size preferences. attainment of women in a particular society. If an As all countries continue to develop, it is likely that this individual woman has greater control over her own inverted U-shape will disappear, as all women will gain fertility, it is likely that her employment options will greater access to education and basic health care. For increase, as she has more control over when she now, however, there is a complex, U-shaped relationship leaves the workforce to have a child. The increase in between education and fertility rates, a relationship that employment options means that the gains of higher- policymakers must consider before constructing new educational attainment become greater, raising the programs.

REFERENCES Ridker. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1 Cochrane, Susan H. 1979. Fertility and Education: What Do We 5 Proceedings of the World Fertility Survey Conference. Voorburg, Really Know? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Netherlands: International Statistical Institute, n.d. Print. 2 Cochrane, Susan H. 1983. “Effects of education and urbanization 6 Proceedings of the Demographic and Health Surveys World on fertility.” In Determinants of Fertility in Developing Countries. Conference. Columbia, MD: IRD/Macro International, n.d. Print. Eds. Rodolfo A. Bulato and Ronald D. Lee. New York: Academic 7 “Relationship between Literacy Rate for Adult Females and Press. Vol. 2, p. 587-626 Contraceptive Use by Females Aged 15-49.” Gapminder. N.p., n.d. 3 “Demography.” Demography: Fertility Rates Definition. OECD Web. 15 Dec. 2015. Data, n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2015. 9 Westoff, Charles F., Ann K. Blanc, and Laura Nyblade. 1994. 4 Holsinger, Donald B. and John D. Kasarda. 1976. “Education “Marriage and Entry into Parenthood.” Demographic and Health and human fertility: Sociological perspectives.” In Population and Surveys Comparative Studies No. 10. Calverton, MD: Macro Development: The Search for Selective Interventions. Ed. R.C. International. 17 UN Peacekeepers: Friend or Foe?

Dustin Cai problems created by peacekeepers and aid workers Vanderbilt University themselves. In the post-WWII era, the United Nations In 2015, the UN was hit with multiple new (UN) was established with the goal of global security counts of rape and sexual abuse of civilians by and peace. Since its conception, the UN has made peacekeepers in areas where they have been stationed. significant strides towards its goal with the use of UN Accusations from the past 10 years, which were peacekeepers, who, as their name suggests, act as neutral swept under the rug previously, have now come to military units that occupy volatile areas to maintain light, bringing the credibility and legitimacy of the peace.1 These peacekeepers are only able to enter agreed peacekeepers to a new low. Rape accusations have grown -upon areas, and they lack the use of military force 25% from 2014-2015, partially due to a new inside except in cases of self-defense.2 Currently, the UN focus on correcting sexual abuse by the UN.7 Multiple deploys a little over 100,000 peacekeepers to various victims exist in the Central African Republic, Mali, Haiti, countries around the world, with many more in reserve the Democratic Republic of Congo, and virtually all for emergency situations.3 Peacekeepers have had many other places where UN peacekeepers have a presence.8 great achievements over the years, from aiding Kuwait’s Despite peacekeepers being an international symbol of independence and playing a major role in ending the the protection of human rights, this program is riddled Iraq-Iran war, to monitoring peace in Namibia and with human rights violations and refusals to fix the overseeing a fair election process in Nicaragua.4 UN lack of accountability in the program. The UN is faced peacekeepers, therefore, have succeeded in many of with a growing problem of how to mend a theoretically their efforts to secure and maintain peace. positive program that has both massive international On the other hand, UN peacekeepers have had support and serious flaws. asubstantial failures as well, sometimes due to their lack of force, and other times because of their excessive use of force. This puts UN peacekeepers in a hard place, as Only 12% of victims of they must battle the contradictory notion of ‘keeping sexual abuse and rape peace’ rather than ‘making peace’ in dangerous and “ volatile regions. One of the most cited areas of failure have been given any sort for peacekeepers is Rwanda, a small African country that of assistance, but no saw one of the worst recent genocides as almost one million Tutsis (an ethnic minority) were killed by Hutus, data exists as to what (an ethnic majority). 5 Lightly armed and unable to use assistance was given. any real force, peacekeepers could only stand and watch as civilians of Rwanda died. This seemed to be a pattern A glaring issue with the UN peacekeeping” in countries where active conflict existed, such as Bosnia program is a lack of accountability for issues created and Somalia. 6 Even though UN peacekeepers have by peacekeepers. For example, in 2012, there were failed when it comes to preventing armed conflict in 60 unique rape accusations against UN peacekeepers countries they are present in, peacekeepers have certainly from just 10 field operations, a statistic that is simply been useful in establishing and fostering peaceful unacceptable by anyone, let alone an organization situations where military combat is not as necessary. dedicated to upholding human rights.9 Although this But recent events regarding the UN number is one that has decreased significantly from peacekeepers turn our attention to another aspect the decades prior, the lack of punishment for such of these international forces. What happens when international crimes allow for these numbers to sustain UN forces dedicated to protecting these rights create and grow in more recent years. One of the reasons as violence, instability, and violations of human rights? to why this exists is the inability for the UN to enforce This article highlights the errors of UN peacekeepers punishment. The individual peacekeeper’s country does and UN humanitarian aid workers by discussing the the vast majority of reporting for sexual aabuse and 18 Civilians being held back by U.N. peacekeeprs in Central African Republic. Source: newsbangladesh.com rape (e.g., a French peacekeeper would have France protection, or other items, is taken into account. release abuse and rape reports, and would also respond Peacekeepers engage in transactional sex more to France’s criminal law standard) rather than the UN. 10 frequently than rape and sexual assault, and the In addition, the UN has only recently gained the limited vast majority of transactional sex happens when power to begin initial investigations on misconducts, but peacekeepers take advantage of the impoverishment if donor countries still do the reports with the potential and malnutrition that plagues most of the areas that for evidence tampering, then these investigations will peacekeepers occupy. Although the UN banned continue to rarely go to trial.11 As a result, multiple transactional sex in 2003, it occurs more frequently than barriers exist that prevent proper reporting of sexual sexual abuse and rape. It also faces the same issues of abuse and rape. Not only is rape severely underreported underreporting and no punishment, but with additional because there is no strong infrastructure that exists to concerns: many civilians do not know transactional sex support the investigation of these crimes, but there is is illegal, leading to a lack of reporting. Furthermore, also an absence of international accountability to even many civilians depend on transactional sex in order fix these problems, leading to a two-fold problem: rape to get food and survive. 14,15 One teenage boy from and sexual abuse are being underreported and few cases Southern Sudan responds to the abuse of transactional of rape and sexual abuse lead to punishments.12 Despite sex and says, “People don’t report it because they are the fact that there were hundreds of sexual abuse and worried that the agency will stop working here, and we rape accusations against the UN in 2015, with at least need them.” 16 Despite the acknowledgment by the UN 100 accusations coming out of the Central African that there is a widespread violation of the zero tolerance Republic, only 17 have been investigated, speaking to policy on transactional sex (which also exists for rape the magnitude of the issue.13 This structural problem and sexual abuse), action is rarely taken to remedy these that has persisted over the years has culminated into the problems. The Washington Post released a survey study current scandals against the UN peacekeepers that have on women in Monrovia that revealed, “about half of put their international credibility into a dangerous zone. them report having engaged in transactional sex,” with This problem is even worse when transactional the majority of results being women who were minors at sexual acts, or sex that is traded for money, food, the time. 17 This problem also extends to other countries 19 where UN peacekeepers are stationed, including Haiti UN actually goes through with an investigation, the and Côte d’Ivoire. 18 UN peacekeepers, despite being victims rarely get any compensation or justice for the deployed for the purpose of protecting human rights, crime done against them. thus become the instigators in violations of human UN peacekeepers have had a monumental rights. impact on the world in terms of achieving the goal of The problem of sexual abuse, rape, and maintaining peace. While those achievements should transactional sex is exacerbated by the fact that these not be overlooked, the international crimes committed criminal acts facilitate the spreading of sexually by UN peacekeepers should not be ignored either. Far transmitted diseases, with HIV/AIDS being the most too many discussions focus on either UN peacekeepers’ prominent. UN peacekeepers often act as transmitters success in monitoring the first democratic elections for HIV/AIDS to the population of occupied nations in multiple countries or their inability in stopping as a direct result of the sexual abuse and rape. 19 multiple genocides; the discussion on peacekeeper’s Moreover, the sexual abuse and rape crimes are likely role in protecting international humanitarian rights, to leave significant, long-term mental and psychological however, has been ignored for far too long, allowing impacts on victims and heavily reduce the quality of life the problem to become systemic. The recent reforms in these areas. In many cases, these peacekeepers act to the UN’s process when facing accusations of as negative agents and create further instabilities in a sexual exploitation and abuse have clearly not worked. region that already needed additional aid. Allowing this problem to continue without real action But rather than receiving protection, the vast or justice runs contrary to the UN’s ultimate goal and majority of these victims are often ignored by the UN, therefore destroys the UN’s international credibility. despite evidence that should have aided their case. UN peacekeepers have undeniably accomplished many Only 12% of victims of sexual abuse and rape have important feats, but in order for this success to keep been given any sort of assistance, but no data exists moving forward, the UN needs to fix the internal as to what assistance was given. 20 Even when sexual problem that allows for sexual exploitation and abuse to exploitation and abuse is reported to the UN, and the go unpunished and without justice. REFERENCES 2016. 1Norton, A. R. and Weiss, T. G, “UN Peacekeepers: Soldiers 13Joshua Berlinger, Holly Yan, and Richard Roth, “U.N. with a Difference,” Foreign Policy Institution 292 (1990), accessed Peacekeepers Accused of Raping Civilians,” CNN, April 6, 2016, October. 2Rosalyn Higgins, “Peace and Security Achievements and accessed October 2, 2016. Failures,” European Journal of International Law 6 (1995): 445-446, 14Rahul Sur and Emily Hampton-Manley, “Evaluation of accessed October 1, 2016. the Enforcement and Remedial Assistance Efforts for Sexual 3Kambiz Foroohar, “The UN Peacekeepers Rape Scandal Gets Exploitation and Abuse by the United Nations and Related Worse,” Bloomberg, June 16, 2016, accessed October 2, 2016. Personnel in Peacekeeping Operations,” Office of Internal 4Rosalyn Higgins, “Peace and Security Achievements and Failures,” Oversight Services May 15, 2015: 22. 450. 15Corinna Csáky, “No One to Turn to: The Under-reporting 5Thomas W. Jacobson, “U.N. Peackeeping: Few Successes, Many of child sexual exploitation and abuse by aid workers and Failures, Inherent Flaws,” International Diplomacy & Public Policy peacekeepers,” 12. Center (2012): 3. 16Corinna Csáky, “No One to Turn to: The Under-reporting 6Thomas W. Jacobson, “U.N. Peackeeping: Few Successes, Many of child sexual exploitation and abuse by aid workers and Failures, Inherent Flaws,” 3. peacekeepers,” 12. 7Kambiz Faroohar, “The UN Peacekeepers Rape Scandal Gets 17Bernd Beber, Michael Gilligan, Jeny Guardado, and Sabrina Worse.” Karim, “U.N. Peacekeeping and Transactional Sex,” The 8Joanne Mariner, “UN Peacekeepers Who Rape and Abuse are Washington Post, June 16, 2015, accessed October 4, 2016. criminals – So Treat Them as Such,” The Guardian, August 20, 18Corinna Csáky, “No One to Turn to: The Under-reporting 2015, accessed October 2, 2016. of child sexual exploitation and abuse by aid workers and 9Carla Frestman, “Criminalizing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by peacekeepers,” 12. Peacekeepers,” United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 335 19Thomas W. Jacobson, “U.N. Peackeeping: Few Successes, Many (2013): 3. Failures, Inherent Flaws,” 1. 10Carla Frestman, “Criminalizing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by 20Rahul Sur and Emily Hampton-Manley, “Evaluation of Peacekeepers,” 5 the Enforcement and Remedial Assistance Efforts for Sexual 11Carla Frestman, “Criminalizing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by Exploitation and Abuse by the United Nations and Related Peacekeepers,” 5 Personnel in Peacekeeping Operations,” 23-24. 12Corinna Csáky, “No One to Turn to: The Under-reporting of child sexual exploitation and abuse by aid workers and peacekeepers,” Save the Children (2008): 20, accessed October 2, 20 The Prevention of Gender-Based Violence in Dadaab: A Capability-Oriented Approach

Kenyan mother staring into the Camera Source: Rescue.org

Kayla Morin to effectively address GBV in Dadaab, humanitarian Northwestern University agencies must promote a proactive, capability-oriented Refugee camps offer a form of protection approach aimed at combatting the root causes of GBV to refugees fleeing home, providing critical medical by empowering women and girls. assistance, food provisions, and temporary shelter Refugee women occupy a low position in the to displaced persons. Yet camps are far from a safe camp hierarchy, subordinate to both camp management haven for refugees, especially women and girls, who and to the refugee men within the community. 2 This face the threat of gender-based violence (GBV) within subordinate status increases the vulnerability of refugee and around camps. The pervasiveness of GBV in women to instances of GBV, which the Declaration on refugee camps is particularly evident in Dadaab, the the Elimination of Violence against Women defines world’s largest refugee camp. 1 The efforts aimed at as “any act…that results in, or is likely to result in, preventing GBV in Dadaab—and throughout refugee physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to camps worldwide—are divided into responses along women.” 3,4 Examples of GBV include rape, sexual two schools of thought. The first school of thought, abuse, psychological abuse, forced marriage, and forced a structural response, advocates improvements in the prostitution. 5 Within Dadaab, established in the early design and management of refugee camps. The second 1990s in northeastern Kenya, GBV continues to be school of thought, a capability-oriented response, a pressing problem among the camp’s population.6 focuses on the root causes of GBV, namely the From 2014-2015, for instance, 533 cases of GBV were vulnerability of women and girls to a lack of agency reported within the five Dadaab camps; women made within camps. After contextualizing the issue of GBV up 96.2% of the victims in these cases.7 Originally in Dadaab, this paper will outline scholarship on constructed as a temporary solution for Somali both types of responses, ultimately advocating for a refugees fleeing civil war, Dadaab continues to house 21 capability-oriented response to prevent GBV. In order hundreds of thousands of refugees over two decades later, presenting a critical case study into the long-term women to walk through the camp to community latrines successes and failures of GBV prevention.8 at night. 15 The authors’ third and fourth hypotheses deal Structural with the physical security presence on the ground in Dadaab. They hypothesize that both an increase in Responses Kenyan police forces and the establishment of refugee- The first type of response to high levels of run community patrols will reduce the occurrences of GBV in Dadaab focuses on improving the structural rape. The authors’ results are mixed: while both Kenyan design and security of the camp. 9 These responses police forces and community patrols do reduce rape, stress organizing camps according to a “gender sensitive they pose additional security problems. Kenyan police camp design,” which in theory decreases instances of are sometimes abusive to Somali refugees, and refugees GBV by improving the safety features in and around in community watch programs have been specifically the camp.10 Some of the most “basic deterrents” to targeted with violence for their participation in the GBV are emphasized in structural responses, including patrols. 16 The minimal success of an increase in security an increased distance between male and female latrines, forces is indicative of the limits of structural responses the deployment of peacekeepers throughout the camp, as a whole—ultimately, each structural measure Aubone thorn bushes placed along the camp’s border to deter and Hernandez assess fails to significantly impact overall intruders, and an emergency distress system with a rapid levels of rape in Dadaab. 17 response time.11 Samer Abdelnour and Akbar M. Saeed go The protracted situation in Dadaab has even further in their critique of structural responses facilitated the opportunity for scholarship to evaluate to GBV, suggesting that these responses harm refugee structural responses and their impacts on GBV. Amber women by disregarding their complex social and cultural Aubone and Juan Hernandez assess four structural circumstances. In Dadaab, Abdelnour and Saeed argue responses introduced in Dadaab, and hypothesize that the Dadaab Firewood Project oversimplified the that each will lead to a decrease in the occurrence of “pervasive violence” of GBV “as a problem manageable rape: (1) the distribution of firewood to refugees; (2) with a technical solution.”18 They extend their analysis to improvements in the camp’s security; (3) an increase in the provision of fuel-efficient stoves to refugee women the number of Kenyan police; and (4) the establishment in Darfur, Sudan, which again aimed to reduce rape by of community patrols.12 The authors first examine the limiting the need to gather firewood outside the camp. impact of distributing firewood to refugees, specifically Not only were the stoves unsuccessful at decreasing via the Dadaab Firewood Project. This initiative rape, they also propagated a “stoves reduce rape” aimed to reduce the amount of rapes occurring while rhetoric that oversimplified the challenges faced by women collected fuel on the outskirts of camp by refugee women.19 According to the authors, this rhetoric directly providing refugees with firewood. Aubone and “relegate[d] the lives of Darfuri women to two domestic Hernandez find that while the project did reduce rapes activities: firewood collection and cooking,” ignoring during the collection of firewood, this reduction was the other challenges and complexities women faced in cancelled out by an increase in other rapes, as women camps. Both in Darfur and Dadaab, structural responses continued to forage for other materials on the outskirts have been unable to put an end to GBV, offering only a of the camp. 13 superficial solution to widespread violence in camps.20 The authors’ second hypothesis examines The failure of structural responses to prevent improvements in camp design, including the installation rape in refugee camps points to the vulnerability of of “thorn bush fences” along the camp’s perimeter and refugee women to a lack of agency over their own lives. the construction of family latrines. 14 Thorn bush fences In her fieldwork in Kenya, Jennifer Hyndman notes are designed to prevent night raids originating from that the challenges of refugee women “were often outside the camp, and have been moderately effective invisible, inaudible, and secondary to other issues and at reducing the occurrence of rapes at night. However, actors in the camps.”21 She finds that fewer refugee much like the Dadaab Firewood Project, these fences women than men speak English, and points out the have had little impact on the total amount of rape in lack of opportunities for women to obtain camp Dadaab. Family latrines, on the other hand, have proved jobs and participate in the policy-making process of effective at reducing rape by eliminating the need for aid organizations.22 Similarly, Christina Clark-Kazak 22 notes that vulnerability is not a fixed trait, but rather to help them earn an income.30 Refugee women can is contingent on the circumstances and attributes use this additional income to purchase wood for fuel of each individual.23 In this vein, refugee women are and construction purposes, eliminating the need to not innately vulnerable, but instead are vulnerable to venture to the outskirts of the camp where they are the power structure and male-dominated hierarchy more vulnerable to rape. 31 Employment opportunities within the camps. The ineffective structural responses can also reduce GBV within the camp: Carol Pavlish implemented in Dadaab point to two ways in which and Anita Ho reference a women’s micro-finance Conclusion and Policy refugee women are rendered vulnerable to GBV: via (1) program in South Africa in which participants not only a lack of opportunities for employment and education reported increased confidence, but also fewer instances Recommendation and (2) barriers to political voice within the camp of intimate partner violence. 32 This type of program hierarchy. In contrast to structural responses, capability- can be replicated in Dadaab to expand employment oriented responses seek to combat these underlying opportunities for refugee women, reducing GBV in the vulnerabilities by empowering women and girls.24 process. In addition to increasing employment Capability-Oriented opportunities for women, a capability-oriented response would also promote educational opportunities for Responses refugee girls. Greater emphasis must be placed on Instead of only superficially addressing GBV, keeping girls in school, especially when families face as the structural response does, a capability-oriented incentives to marry off their daughters at a young age.33 response aims to prevent GBV by addressing the lack of Ho and Pavlish propose scholarship programs, dialogues agency women and girls are afforded in refugee camps. with parents, and the provision of school supplies to The theoretical background behind a capability-oriented girls as concrete steps in expanding their educational response stems from the work of Amartya Sen’s opportunities. In Dadaab, educational efforts could capabilities approach. According to Sen, an individual’s also incorporate GBV and women’s rights into school capabilities are composed of the “substantive freedoms curricula, informing both girls and boys at a young he or she enjoys to lead the kind of life he or she has age about their human rights.34 Together, increased reason to value.” 25 In refugee camps, these freedoms educational and employment opportunities will help are severely limited, particularly for women and girls.26 empower women and girls to have agency over their In contrast, Sen cites empirical evidence showing that own lives and reduce their vulnerability to GBV. the well-being of women is enhanced by expanded The second way in which refugee women employment opportunities, increased literacy rates, are rendered vulnerable is to their lack of a political and the prospect of participating in decision-making voice within camps. Refugee women “often perceive processes. 27 Furthermore, Sen notes that women’s themselves as having little power to change their empowerment can bolster their position within male- situations,” a perspective that a capability-oriented dominated households, lower fertility rates, and increase response seeks to change by increasing avenues the survival rates of their children. 28 Sen’s capability to political participation for women.35 Refugees, framework of empowering women can be applied particularly women, have little voice in the decision- to Dadaab to reduce GBV by addressing refugee making hierarchy, which is dominated by aid agencies women’s vulnerabilities to (1) a lack of employment and and leaders that do not fully understand the challenges education and (2) barriers to political participation. refugee women face. 36 Research shows that an A capability-oriented response to GBV would individual’s lack of agency over his or her life is focus first on providing women with the agency to correlated to poor health outcomes, and Ho and Pavlish provide for themselves and their families through argue that this trend also applies to instances of GBV employment programs. Recent programs have aimed in refugee camps. 37 In response, refugee women must to address the shortage of employment opportunities be afforded “substantive opportunities to influence for women in camps, which, according to one United the policies directly affecting them” via participation in Nations staff member, constitute a “contributing factor community meetings, collaboration with aid agencies to sexual and gender-based violence.” 29 In Dadaab, and the UNHCR, and a right to protest unpopular for example, aid agencies have initiated business policies. 38 A capability-oriented response ultimately seminars and agriculture programs for women in order provides women with the ability to “take control of 23 and effect change in their lives while in a camp” by political participation will provide women with the increasing their avenues for political participation.39 The ability to directly shape the policies affecting their lives. empowerment fostered by the participation of women In Dadaab, aid agencies have launched several and girls reduces their vulnerability to a lack of political initiatives directed at addressing the root causes of GBV. agency, and in turn prevents GBV. As mentioned above, these efforts include business seminars and agriculture programs that aim to empower Conclusion and Policy women with the ability to earn a sustainable livelihood. Yet in spite of these initiatives, work remains to be Recommendation done. Ho and Pavlish outline four concrete policy The vulnerability of refugee women to (1) a lack recommendations that can be implemented in Dadaab of employment and educational opportunities and (2) to further empower women and girls: (1) “structured an absence of participatory political avenues constitutes community dialogues” to increase awareness of women’s a root cause of GBV in refugee camps. Structural rights and decrease stigma; (2) cooperative policy- responses that aim to prevent GBV in Dadaab and making between aid agencies and refugees, especially other refugee camps fall short of addressing this root women; (3) educating men and boys on GBV to “break cause, offering only temporary, ineffective solutions. In the pattern of violence;” and (4) a continued push contrast, this paper has shown how a capability-oriented for employment and educational programs. 40 While response seeks to prevent GBV by addressing the root the policies above do not constitute a panacea to the cause of the violence, namely, the disempowerment problem of GBV in refugee camps, they each address of women and girls. Under this approach, expanding the root cause of the disempowerment of women and the opportunities women and girls have in regards to girls. With these capability-oriented recommendations employment and education will increase their ability to implemented, Dadaab can become a safer place for the earn a sustainable livelihood and provide for themselves thousands of refugee women and girls that build their and their families. Similarly, eliminating barriers to lives within the camp. REFERENCES 18 Abdelnour and Sneed “Technologizing Humanitarian Space” 151. 1 UNHCR. “Dadaab - World’s biggest refugee camp 20 years old.” 19 Abdelnour and Sneed “Technologizing Humanitarian Space” 145. Last modified February 21, 2012. 20 Abdelnour and Sneed “Technologizing Humanitarian Space” 154. 2 Jennifer Hyndman. Managing Displacement: Refugees and the 21 Hyndman, “Managing Displacement,” 90. Politics of Humanitarianism. N.p.: University of Minnesota Press, 22 Hyndman, “Managing Displacement,” 90-91. 2000. 23 Clark, C. R. “Understanding Vulnerability: From Categories to 3 UNHCR. “Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Experiences of Young Congolese People in Uganda.” Children and Women.” Last modified December 20, 1993. Society 21, no. 4 (2007): 284-96. 4 Anita Ho and Carol Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability and 24 Ho and Pablish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 99-104. Empowerment in Tackling Gender-Based Violence: Lessons from 25 Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. N.p.: Oxford University a Refgee Camp in Rwanda,” Journal of Refugee Studies 24 (2011): Press, 2001. 88-109. 26 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 95. 5 UNHCR. “Declaration on the Elimination”. 27 Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom 191. 6 UNHCR “Dadaab- World’s Biggest” 28 Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom 194-195. 7 UNHCR. “Dadaab Operation: Sexual and Gender Based Violence 29 UNHCR. “Braving Dust Storms, Women Plant Seeds of Hope at Dashboard July 31, 2015.” Last modified July 31, 2015. Accessed the Dadaab Refugee Camp.” Last modified October 24, 2014. Ac- November 17, 2015. cessed December 4, 2015 8 UNHCR “Dadaab- World’s Biggest” 30UNHCR “Braving Dust Storms” 9 Samer Abdelnour, S., and Akbar M. Saeed. “Technologizing Hu- 31UNHCR. “Braving Dust Storms” manitarian Space: Darfur Advocacy and the Rape-Stove Panacea.” 32 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 103. International Political Sociology 8, no. 2 (2014): 145-63. 33 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 106. 10 Amber Aubone and Juan Hernandez. “Assessing Refugee Camp 34 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 105. Characteristics and the Occurrence of Sexual Violence: A Prelimi- 35 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 98. nary Analysis of the Dadaab Complex.” Refugee Survey Quarterly 36 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 96. 32, no. 4 (2013): 22-40. 37 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 96. 11 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 32 38 Loren B. Landau and Marguerite Duponchel. “Laws, Policies, 12 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 34 or Social Position? Capabilities and the Determinants of Effective 13 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 36 Protection in Four African Cities.” Journal of Refugee Studies 24, 14 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 36. no. 1 (2011): 1-22. 15 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 36-37. 39 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 91. 16 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 37-38. 40 Ho and Pavlish “Indivisibility of Accountability” 105-106. 17 Aubone and Hernandez “Assessing Refugee Camp” 36-37. 24 Death by Oil: Venezuela’s Economic Crisis

Venezuelans mother showing an empty fridge. Source: NBC News

Aalok Joshi acute, severe, and wide-ranging effects of the disease a Vanderbilt University country has ever seen. Many fear that the combination In 1959, large gas deposits were found in the of overreliance on oil, heavy government interference in North Sea bordering the Netherlands. This seemingly the market, monopoly in the industry by State Owned good news created a sharp rise in Dutch oil exports and Enterprises (SOEs), and a crumbling state apparatus a sharp rise in the value of Dutch currency. However, which cannot provide basic necessities to its citizens this simultaneously resulted in making all other Dutch (like food, water, and medicine) is a signal of Venezuela’s exports uncompetitive in a global market which pushed inevitable death spiral. the Dutch economy to rely even more heavily on their In 1914, the first oil reserves were proven in gas industry. By 1977, ‘The Economist’ had coined Venezuela and since then the country’s fortune has been the term “Dutch Disease” to explain the pattern of tied to its oil output. 4 Decades of political instability discovery of natural resources in an area leading to an and inability to capitalize on these huge reserves were overreliance of the nation’s economy on that single followed by a period of economic boom under firebrand resource.1 Since then, Dutch Disease has struck a leader Hugo Chavez. During his administration, variety of nations - both developed and developing, increased oil output, sharp rise in demand for petroleum, industrial and agrarian, dynamic and sluggish. 2 In all and a boom in prices produced a climate of easy cases the country which experiences this “disease” economic gains and quick wealth for everyone. 5 This has undergone a major economic boom followed by led, at first, to economic improvement and upheaval, but a period of crash and decline, which has forced the then devolved into a general economic malaise which nation to diversify its production and sometimes even has been very typical of nations undergoing Dutch devalue its currency. 3 The most recent example of a Disease. The state-owned oil company, PDVSA, was country hit by Dutch Disease is Venezuela, however, reporting lush profits, and Chavez was able to promise unlike other victims, Venezuela is experiencing the most and deliver significant gains in standards of living for 25 his people. However, this changed quickly when oil government which sets price schedules on everything prices plummeted. 6 The scope of the oil price macro from food to water to medicine to technology. 11 This trends is wider than the focus of this article, however, has resulted, in the case of many primary products such as oil prices fell from a high of near $150 to well as sugar, milk, flour, and pain killers, in prices being below $50, and the effect on Venezuela’s economy was set lower than costs of production - thus making it devastating.7 While the Venezuelan people had come unprofitable to sell or produce in Venezuela. to expect quarter after quarter of economic growth, improving lifestyles, and abundant imports of primary Protests erupt almost goods, this simply wasn’t possible with the prevailing daily throughout economic conditions. Chavez had come to power under “ a wave of populism in which he promised lower prices Caracas with riot police for all goods, decreasing inequality, and expanded social spending for the lower and middle class.8 When the and the military being oil crash came, Venezuelans hoped that price controls called in to restore and spending could continue in the same way it had, and there was immense pressure on Chavez to continue order to the city. his policies. It worked on the short term, however, in The Venezuelan people have borne the burden the weeks, months, and years after the oil crash these of these policies - not the military, oil, and government” policies failed horribly.9 Instead of proving dynamic, higher ups who enacted these policies. Average working the Venezuelan economy, under the reigns of Chavez’s class Venezuelans have to wait in hour- and day-long socialist government, proved unable to change and lines for basic goods like bread and toilet paper. Others adapt. The death spiral had begun. are looking to the black market as the prevalence of smuggling everyday commodities into Venezuela has skyrocketed. 12 However, prices on the black market are purposefully exorbitant. This combined with the 700% inflation crippling the currency means that even with the black market many Venezuelans can not afford day to day goods.13 The most desperate individuals are flooding into Venezuela’s neighboring countries - Colombia and Brazil - in search of goods which are luxuries to the impoverished citizens. Unsurprisingly, this mass exodus into these MERCOSUR giants has not been a smooth process. Columbia and Venezuela have always had a tumultuous relationship and the dramatic decrease in oil prices has only amplified this into a border crisis. Graph from Value Walk With allegations of smuggling, attacks by Colombian Things are bad in Venezuela - not a superficial, rebels on Venezuelan border patrol, and general border blaze “bad,” but rather the overarching underlying bad misconduct coming from both sides the Colombian- which nobody wants to acknowledge but is getting Venezuelan border was shut down by the Venezuelan worse everyday. The Venezuelan collapse has been a president, Nicolas Maduro, which crippled his own long time coming and it’s because the economy is solely citizen access to regular goods. 14 Recently, pedestrian centered around oil. According to OPEC statistics, border crossings have been reopened because of an oil proceeds make up 95% of Venezuelan export increasingly starving and sickly Venezuelan population revenue.10 This would make sense for the country with that has escalated into a humanitarian crisis. These the largest proven oil reserves in the world - larger border crossings are still heavily guarded on both sides than Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Canada, Nigeria, and the and herds upon herds of people cross every day into United States. Surely the dramatic decrease in crude Columbia to buy essential products like milk and blood prices affected these nations as well. However, unlike pressure medicine.15 Venezuelans describe conditions in all of those countries, Venezuela has the unfortunate these border crossings to be extremely embarrassing. combination of overreliance on oil and overactive 26 Venezuelans leaving for the United States and Spain Source: Deutsche Welle Everyone from menial factory workers to retail who are simply looking for their next meal. Protests managers and increasingly even those involved in the erupt almost daily throughout Caracas with riot police oil industry have to make the cumbersome crossing and the military being called in to restore order to the into Colombia. 16 These people, generally middle class city. Many of these protests are aimed against Maduro, individuals, are dipping into the last of their savings the current president, who is being blamed for policy to provide for their families. Border crossings over the decisions carried over from Chavez who passed away several pedestrian bridges between the countries are in 2013 20. Recent food protests have been getting backed up for hours and hours. Many of those who closer and closer to the Presidential Palace and there is try to cross simply cannot because of the harrowing mounting pressure on Maduro to resign, however, it is conditions. 17 Heat, crowds of desperate people, and the unclear how his resignation would change the situation. chaos associated with such crossings have put pressure In fact a change in regime could result in greater political on Colombia - a nation which is still in a civil war with instability, more civil unrest, and a slimmer chance of a rebel group named FARC and is just starting to show stopping the death spiral. 21 signs of true economic gains. Venezuela, the formerly The road forward for Venezuela is unclear. Day- prosperous neighbor has now become an eyesore for to-day life has become increasingly hard for Venezuelans both Colombia and Brazil. 18 The situation in Venezuela and many citizens are uninterested and unaware of is so bad that international pressure, horrid conditions, the global conditions which led to their current state. and embarrassment are still not enough to dissuade However, regardless of who is in charge in Venezuela, Venezuelans from flocking abroad and taking their the economic changes that the country must make needs precious capital with them. to be supplemented by large international aid. Venezuela Venezuelans who are going to Columbia and is going to have to devalue its currency further in order Brazil are hurting, but even these citizens are not the to make exporting things other than oil profitable most desperate of the lot. For others, generally lower again.22 This will eventually drive business and capital class individuals, living in large cities like the capital, back to the region, however, this will also make daily Caracas, have resorted to mass looting and robbery use products even more expensive - at least on the short in grocery stores and warehouses. 19 This has led to term. This may also result in increased capital flight on violence, chaos, and the suffering of many individuals the part of rich Venezuelans who do not want to see 27 their wealth devalued. Business and capital coming back generally tended to increase its agricultural output rapidly. to the region will not have any effect if Venezuelans are Exporting agricultural raw materials has been a forte still starving. Hence, only by working with the UN and for other South American countries for a long time, so MERCOSUR, will Venezuela climb out of the hole it competing with giants like Colombia and Brazil who have is in right now. Additionally Venezuelan policy-makers achieved economies of scale in this sector will not be need to look at other OPEC countries - like Saudi easy.25 However, at this point any type of diversification Arabia and Nigeria who have also been pinched by the would be a welcome sign for the Venezuelan economy. oil price crash.23 Looking at these nations as an example In fact, Maduro’s government has aimed at doing just Venezuela will need to diversify its economic output. that - by mandating that Venezuelan citizens increase work and output in the agricultural sector.26 This has not Heat, crowds of desperate gone across well with the citizenry because many young people, and the chaos people aspire to oil or military jobs. The Venezuelan military has also become a thorn in the country’s side. “associated with such crossings Many see their privileges and increasing budget as have put pressure on Colombia ridiculous in a time of such crisis in the country. Military - a nation which is still in a civil members and their families have their own special food war with a rebel group named distribution system and so they don’t need to suffer from food shortages. 27 This combined with the loyalty that the FARC and is just starting to military apparatus has shown to Maduro has convinced show signs of true economic some Venezuelans that the military won’t let protests or gains. Venezuela, the formerly civil upheaval get bad enough to have any effect on the prosperous neighbor has now government. Venezuela’s military needs to realize that the stability of their entire nation is at risk because of become an eyesore for both what they are doing. Simply put, Venezuela has the worst Colombia and Brazil. conglomeration of conditions and historical precedents possible in terms of Dutch Disease, however, if Venezuela has been in this situation before, overarching reform is made at the central level Venezuela though never quite this severe. Several times during” can still be pulled out of its death spiral. the twentieth century the country has experienced Dutch Disease24. During these periods Venezuela has REFERENCES 17 Al Jazeera “Venezuela: Oil Shock” 1 The Economist “What Dutch Disease Is, and Why It’s Bad.” The 18 Al Jazeera “Venezuela: Oil Shock” Economist. November 5, 2014. 19 Gupta Girish and Alexandra Ulmer, ‘We Want Food!’ Looting 2 Investopedia Root. “Dutch Disease.” Investopedia and Riots Rock Venezuela Daily,” Reuters, June 12, 2016. 3 The Economist “What Dutch Disease” 20 Girish and Ulmer, ‘We Want Food!” 4 Sonia Schott, Danile Fermin and Vanessa Neumann interviewed 21 Girish and Ulmer, ‘We Want Food!” by Folly Bah Thibault, “Is Venezuela on the Brink of Collapse?” Al 22 Mark Weisbrot “4 Steps to Fix Venezuela’s Economy,” Forbes Jazeera May 16, 2016. February 20, 2016. 5 Schott, Fermin, Nemann and Thibault “Is Venezuala” 23 Roseline Okere, “OPEC, UN Harp on Economic Diversification 6 Schott, Fermin, Nemann and Thibault “Is Venezuala” of Oil Producers,” The Guardian October 20, 2016. 7 MacroTrends “Crude Oil Prices - 70 Year Historical Chart.” Mac- 24 Hilary Heath “Venezuela’s Case of Dutch Disease: Cursed by roTrends, 2016. Oil,” Panoramas- University of Pittsburgh May 19, 2016. 8 Schott, Fermin, Nemann and Thibault “Is Venezuala” 25 UPI “Latin American economies too dependent on commodity 9 Schott, Fermin, Nemann and Thibault “Is Venezuala” exports” UPI September 3, 2010. 10 Virginia Lopez “Venezuela: Oil Shock and Economic Catastro- 26 Patrick Gillespie, Rafael Romo and Osmary Hernandez, “Ven- phe,” Al Jazeera June 14, 2016. ezuela’s New Decree: Forced Farm Work for Citizens,” CNN July 11 Lopez “Venezuela: Oil Shock” 29, 2016. 12 Lopez “Venezuela: Oil Shock” 27 BBC “Venezuela Army Deployed to Control Food Production 13 Arianna Cubillos, “Venezuela Food Shortage: Family Liquidates and Distribution,” BBC, July 13, 2016. Savings to Stockpile Food,” CBS July 18, 2016. 14 Cubillos “Venezuela Food Shortage” 15 Cubillos “Venezuela Food Shortage” 16 Al Jazeera “Venezuela: Oil Shock and Economic Catastrophe,” Al Jazeera August 12, 2016. 28 The Relationship Between Foreign Direct Investment and Political Corruption in the Developing World

Christian Gregorich expected profitability of investment projects. Because Vanderbilt University corruption interferes with the rule of law, including Private capital flows to developing countries access to and protection of property rights, one of have increased significantly since the early 1990s. In the key components of economic development, it is order for developing countries to benefit from these reasonable to expect that the degree of corruption in a capital flows, however, a number of factors must be given country will impact the amount of foreign direct in place. These include ongoing investment in human investment. In other words, investors will take the level capital to produce positive spillover, liquid domestic of corruption in a host country into account in making financial markets to reduce market volatility, a system of decisions to invest abroad.4 This paper explores the oversight and regulation to prevent crises in domestic complex relationship between political corruption and financial markets, and low levels of corruption.1 This FDI, relying on a review of the literature associated with paper is concerned with the relationship between this these topics, as well as a discussion of several real-world last factor, the degree to which a country evidences examples involving low and middle income countries in corruption, and levels of foreign direct investment the developing world. (FDI) in developing countries. Of the four major types of capital flows, Trends in FDI, equity portfolio investment, bond finance and Foreign Direct commercial bank lending, FDI has the greatest potential for alleviating poverty in developing countries. This Investment stems from the benefits of FDI, defined as “the Beginning in the early 1990’s, FDI became acquisition of part of a foreign-based enterprise one of the most important foreign capital flows to the that exceeds a threshold of 10 percent, implying developing world, displacing commercial bank lending in managerial participation in the foreign enterprise,”2 importance and surpassing direct foreign aid by donor which extend beyond the realm of mere investment countries. From 2004 to 2008, FDI inflows more than returns, manifesting in important spillovers, including tripled to about $600 billion, before falling dramatically, new ideas, technologies, and improvements in skills as a result of global recession and financial crisis.5 and training. Investors also have a tendency to reinvest Unfortunately, FDI is highly concentrated, and many a portion of retained earnings from their investments, developing countries receive little or no FDI inflows.6 In and as FDI capital stock depreciates, new inflows are 2009, for example, low-income countries accounted for needed to sustain the existing capital stock. When all 12 percent of global population, one percent of global goes well, FDI can contribute to the global production GDP, and only one percent of global FDI. In contrast, and trade of goods and services in the host country, middle-income countries accounted for 71 percent of generate employment, promote competition, increase global population, 43 percent of global GDP, and 32 productivity, improve the skills of host country workers, percent of global FDI. Most global FDI flows (67%) and facilitate the transfer of technology transfer to went to high-income countries.7 developing countries.3 Despite the paltry percentage of investment in Theoretically speaking, corruption - or bribing low-income countries, FDI now stands as by far the corrupt government officials in exchange for favors, most important capital flow to these countries, having such as permits, investment licenses, tax assessments, reached $15 billion in 2008 and dwarfing all other and police protection - is essentially an additional sources of capital flows. Unfortunately, the one percent cost of doing business, or a tax on production of FDI flowing to low-income countries is highly costs. As a result, corruption is likely to decrease the concentrated, with the top five low-income countries 29 accounting for more than half of the FDI flows.8 A access to the political process, and transactions are based comparison of net FDI inflows between 1990 and 2008 on the rule of law, property rights, equal access to public for low-income countries shows dramatic increases in services, and economic choice. Inclusive institutions FDI for some of these countries,9 but for many low create incentives for regular citizens to increase their income countries, the lack of participation in FDI productivity by gaining skills, investing capital, and inflows is a major impediment to alleviating poverty. seeking technological innovation, thereby generating Although few solutions are apparent, most economists wealth for all participants.15 agree that an improved investment climate for both Hernando de Soto argues that when people foreign and domestic investors is vital, and that policy do not have access to a legal property rights system makers have a role to play in facilitating investment by that documents, tracks and represents their assets in streamlining bureaucracies, investing in the physical and a manner that makes them widely transferable and human capacities, and combating corruption.10 fungible, they operate in the extralegal sector of the economy. As a result, they do not provide certain The Relationship benefits to society such as economies of scale and tax between the Rule of revenue.16 De Soto maintains the difference between advanced nations and the rest of the world is that Law and Corruption developed countries have widespread, formal property Corruption is more likely to occur in societies rights, while poorer countries are divided into those who where the rule of law is weak and where economic can obtain legal property rights and produce capital and and societal institutions are typically extractive.11 A those who cannot.17 One could argue that preventing key underpinning of economic development is the people from accessing established laws protecting existence of the “rule of law,” a term coined by Samuel private property, as described by De Soto, is itself a Rutherford in his 1644 work, Lex, Rex. The rule of form of corruption. law consists of a body of rules of justice that bind a community together. Rutherford argues that a society Corruption on a that functions based on the rule of law (a set of formal and informal rules) will fare better than one that relies Global Scale on absolutism (the arbitrary decisions of its leaders). Historical and modern day examples of Indeed, America’s rapid economic development in the government corruption are rampant, as are widespread 19th century stemmed partly from strong protections of efforts to eliminate it. In 2009, Hamid Karzai, then- private property rights, a key component of the rule of President of Afghanistan, pledged to wipe out law inherited from British Common Law.12 corruption in his country.18 Indian Prime Minister Mancur Olson also emphasized the importance of the Manmohan Singh made a similar oath two years later.19 rule of law to economic development when he asked: That same year, citizens across Egypt revolted in what “What do the individuals in an economy need if they are is now known as the Arab Spring; one of their main to have the maximum confidence that any property they grievances was corruption.20 Later that same year, a accumulate will be respected and that any contracts they judge found former Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich sign will be impartially enforced? They need a secure guilty in a sensational corruption case.21 This year, government that respects individual rights.”13 soccer fans all over the world were shocked to learn that He points out that capital, the fuel of economic numerous FIFA officials had been arrested and indicted development, flees from countries with unstable by American authorities on corruption and bribery governments that do not operate under the rule of charges.22 law, to stable democracies, even when those countries Despite corruption’s devastating impact on have plenty of capital and offer modest rates of organizations, the economic development of countries return.14 Acemoglu and Robinson concur that economic and the faith and trust of citizens, employees, and institutions are the result of political processes and investors, attempts to deal with corrupt individuals are institutions. These political institutions are considered often stymied or derailed by deeply layered institutional “extractive” if elites dominate society and wealth is corruption and criminal violence intended to limit or transferred from the masses to elites. Institutions are undermine state authority and the rule of law. Even “inclusive,” on the other hand, if many people have when significant reforms are proposed, as was attempted 30 in Mexico to contain drug trafficking and the related as a representation of higher costs, to corruption violence and corruption, it is difficult to make progress as an indication of poor governance. One of Wei’s against entrenched institutions.23 explanations was that corruption levels can signal of Even so, efforts to expose and contain poor contract enforcement, something that would be a corruption have increased in recent years. One of significant deterrent to potential international investors. the global leaders in the fight against corruption is This is consistent with the earlier discussion regarding Transparency International, a non-governmental the importance of the rule of law to economic organization dedicated to identifying, measuring, and development, especially as it relates to the role of combating corruption. The Berlin-based organization’s contract enforcement.30 mission “is to stop corruption and promote transparency, accountability and integrity at all levels Although there is and across all sectors of society.”24 Transparency considerable research to International defines corruption as “the abuse of “ suggest that corruption entrusted power for private gain.”25 The organization’s deters foreign investors Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) attempts to rank order countries according to the level of existing Similarly, a Cato Institute study authored by corruption. The index is based on survey responses Al-Sadig31 found that a one-point increase in corruption” from business people and experts in individual countries, corresponded with an eleven-point decrease in FDI. and despite criticisms of its methodology favoring However, the study also found that when controlled the opinions of the elite,26 the index remains the most for the quality of institutions, the relationship nearly widely used indicator for corruption today. disappeared and may have even reversed, although the effect was not significant. In fact, Al-Sadig found that Review of the Literature the quality of a country’s institutions is more important than the level of corruption in encouraging FDI inflows on the Relationship into the country.32 He noted that corruption is correlated between FDI and with many other characteristics of the host country such Corruption as the quality of institutions, lack of competition, and cultural values. A review of the literature on the relationship In a similar study funded by the International between corruption and foreign direct investment Monetary Fund, Abed and Davoodi (2000),33 like Castro reveals inconsistent findings. Some empirical studies and Nunes and Wei, found that more corrupt countries provide evidence of a negative link between corruption tend to have lower FDI inflows. However, like Al-Sadig, and FDI inflows, while others fail to find any significant Abed and Davoodi found that after controlling for relationship. Castro and Nunes found a large, significant structural reforms, the relationship between corruption relationship between the two after controlling for a and FDI was reduced to a non-significant level. number of other variables.27 This study equated a one-point decrease in CPI (measured on a scale of 0 The Corruption Perceptions to 100) to a decrease in FDI between 0.13 percent and Index vs. Foreign Direct 0.245 percent, a considerable effect. Castro and Nunes Investment as a Per Cent of GDP concluded that if countries want to attract more foreign investment, they should promote more transparent Mapping the relationship between corruption political institutions and enact policies to discourage and foreign direct investment inflows using the 2014 corruption.28 Corruption Perceptions Index34 and foreign direct In a similar study, Wei, using a measure of investment inflows35 reveals no detectable pattern (Fig. corruption known as the Business International Index, 1)., There are many potential explanations for this; rather than the Corruption Perceptions Index, found the benefits of investing could outweigh the costs of that a one-point increase in corruption equated to a corruption for investors or investors may not perceive sixteen percent reduction in foreign direct investment, corruption as a significant cost of doing business in a again a large effect.29 There are many possible host country. Other potential explanations include the explanations for these findings, ranging from corruption possibility that the methodology used by Transparency 31 International to assess the degree of corruption in 2010, approximately $32 billion dollars simply went a given country is flawed,36 or that the effects of missing from the accounts of Angola’s state-run oil corruption are confounded by the level of violence or company, Sonangol.40 The money, apparently spent for the quality of institutions in the host country. unofficial uses, or directly deposited into the hands of the dos Santos clan, dwarfs the GDPs of many African Corruption Perceptions Index vs. Foreign Direct countries and represents about a quarter of Angola’s Investment as a Per Cent of GDP yearly national income.41 Despite potentially crippling levels of corruption, Angola has significant inflows of foreign direct investment. With FDI of $12.2 billion, Angola ranks fourth among sub-Saharan African countries.42 While one might not expect such a highly corrupt society to attract significant FDI, Angola shares one of the major characteristics of low-income countries with high foreign direct investment inflows: the prevalence of extractive industries. These industries vary throughout the world from valuable minerals to fossil fuels, but the most prevalent extractive industry in the world, and the dominant industry in Angola, is oil. Three quarters of (Fig. 1) the government’s revenue comes from Sonangol, and oil Because the literature on the relationship comprises 98 percent of Angolan exports.43 Extractive between corruption and FDI reveals inconsistent industries such as oil in Angola attract foreign investors, findings, it is helpful to examine specific examples despite the level of corruption, as does the relative to understand what other variables may affect the absence of violence, even if due due to its perpetuation relationship between corruption and FDI. of a semi-police state. While corruption has not deterred foreign Case Studies investors interested in Angolan oil, it does have other Angola effects on a society. Corruption and intimidation, for The Republic of Angola is of particular interest example, directly impact people’s freedom. Amartya as it relates to the interplay of political corruption and Sen argues that increasing freedoms of all kinds is the foreign direct investment. Despite its location in sub- end goal of the process of development and that the Saharan Africa, a challenged region where many of dissemination of these freedoms is also the best path the world’s poorest countries exist, Angola, with its to achieve development.44 Thus reducing corruption, a per-capita income of $6,052, ranks 91st in the world in clear expansion of freedom, can help a society develop, GDP per-capita.37 As such, the World Bank considers even if it does not encourage inflows of FDI. Angola an upper-middle-income country in spite of its The Democratic Republic of the Congo crippling income inequality and the number of people in extreme poverty. In terms of corruption, however, The Democratic Republic of the Congo Angola fares much worse. In fact, Angola scored a 19 on provides another interesting example of the relationship the Corruption Perceptions Index, placing it among the between corruption and foreign direct investment. very worst (i.e., 161 out of 174) in the world.38 Angolan Unlike its neighbor, Angola, whose endowment of citizens (and potentially foreign investors as well) deal oil has resulted in relative prosperity on average, the with persistent corruption in every aspect of their lives. Democratic Republic of the Congo, with its per-cawpita Under President Jose Eduardo dos Santos, who ruled GNI of just $380, and with over 63 percent of its the republic for 33 years before actually being elected, population living in poverty, is one of the very poorest Angolans have dealt with torture and execution of countries in the world.45 Like its southern neighbor, the political opposition, surveillance, and intimidation by Democratic Republic of the Congo fares quite poorly security guards on every Luanda street corner.39 In on Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions addition, during the four-year period leading up to Index, scoring a mere 22, which puts the country well below even the African average and squarely amongst 32 the worst in sub-Saharan Africa.46 more competition, greater productivity and greater Corruption in the Democratic Republic of investment in human capital and technology. In order the Congo is near ubiquitous. According to a report to attract FDI, however, some research suggests that a authored by Chene,47 corruption ranges from small number of conditions must exist, including low levels bribery by lower government officials to grand schemes of corruption. Although there is considerable research of corruption perpetrated by some of the country’s top to suggest that corruption deters foreign investors, leaders. Although perhaps most apparent in the mining other research has concluded that the negative impacts sector, this corruption is present in all major Congolese of corruption disappear when controlled for the host industries, and its size and scope completely hinder the country’s institutional quality, suggesting that foreign Congolese government from collecting desperately- investors value the quality of institutions more than needed tax money.48 In addition, rebel militias and rogue they are concerned with the level of corruption. The Congolese military personnel often extort protection authors caution, however, that these conclusions should money, and corrupt military officers run the mining not be interpreted as evidence that elevated corruption industry in the eastern and southern regions of the levels do not reduce the amount of FDI. Mapping the country.49 relationship between corruption and foreign direct The Democratic Republic of the Congo investment inflows using Transparency International’s attracted just $1.5 billion in FDI in 2007,50 placing Corruption Perceptions Index and foreign direct it 134th out of 151 countries included in the survey. investment inflows reveals no detectable pattern, but However, among low-income countries, the Congo is these results could reflect flaws in the way the CPI is one of the leaders.51 As one might expect, extractive constructed or could be an indication of that investors industries represent a large portion of the economy; the are more concerned with the quality of institutions or Democratic Republic of the Congo is one of the most the level of violence in a given country, which reflects resource-rich states in Africa and in the world. Eighty the strength of the rule of law– a key determinant of per cent of the world’s known columbite-tantalite, a the level of corruption. mineral used in the inner workings of electronic gadgets commonly referred to as “coltan,” lies within Congolese One could argue that borders. In addition, within the Katanga province lies preventing people from over half of the world supply of cobalt.52 These natural “ accessing established laws resources, among others, represent a large portion of Congolese economy just as oil does in Angola, and the protecting private property, as role of these resources probably explains the relatively described by De Soto, is itself sizeable amount of foreign investment when compared a form of corruption. to other low-income countries. Unlike Angola, The Democratic Republic of the The research also suggests that low-income Congo is extremely violent. Ongoing ethnic violence countries generally attract less foreign investment” continues between Hutus and Tutsis in the eastern than do countries with higher incomes. This could portion of the country, and the Congolese government occur for a host of reasons, including a lack of proper constantly struggles with rebel groups for control institutions, lack of natural resources, the presence of of territory and mining operations.53 The relatively armed conflict, and in some cases, political corruption. large FDI inflows despite high levels of corruption However, low-income countries with large endowments and violence, underscores the importance of natural of resources in extractive industries, including petroleum resources, especially in low-income countries such as and rare earth metals, tend to have significant inflows The Democratic Republic of the Congo. of foreign direct investment, even with relatively high levels of corruption. In these cases, the benefits of the Conclusion and extractive resources outweigh the costs of corruption. Implications An interesting area for further research would be to compare the relationship between FDI and corruption FDI plays an important role in alleviating in countries with extractive industries and those without poverty in the developing world by producing positive extractive industries. Corruption may be a greater spillover effects, which include higher employment, disincentive to FDI in countries without extractive 33 industries. that benefits them. Encouraging inflows of FDI could Although fighting corruption may not be a potentially provide progress toward a solution to this very effective method of increasing foreign direct problem. Foreign corporations can provide relatively investment, finding other ways to encourage FDI high paying jobs to local people and, through spillover can certainly be beneficial to society. According to effects, arm people with the knowledge they need to Hernando De Soto, the reason the poor people fail operate their own businesses. Foreign enterprises could to get out of poverty is because of a lack of strong thus become a driver of political and social change, property rights, causing many people operate their leading to the reduction and even the eradication of businesses extra-legally.54 He argues that the elites of corruption. these societies have little incentive to change the system

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Jakaya Kikwete and Muammar al-Gaddafi shaking hands. Source: Wikipedia Commons

Javan Latson minister David Cameron remarked that, “People in Vanderbilt University Libya today have an even greater chance, after this news, It was October 20, 2011, when anti-government of building themselves a strong and democratic future.”6 rebels surrounded the formidable compound of African Other world leaders were not so fond of the events Strongman Muammar Gaddafi.1 Following months of that occurred in Libya. Some like President Mugabe brutal fighting, opposition forces had finally reached of Zimbabwe criticized the UN for the role it played his hometown of Sirte, and after a brief battle they in the event, calling the death of Gaddafi, “a tragic wrested the deposed leader from his fortress. Still loss to Africa.”7 Five years have passed since the Arab dressed in his khaki military garb, he tried to prevent Spring and the dramatic events that led to the toppling rebels from killing him. In a plea for mercy, he says to of Gaddafi, but is the world truly safer with him gone? them, “What is this my sons? What are you doing?”2 More importantly, did the mission truly achieve its Unfazed by the apparent repentance, he is impaled with goal of creating a peaceful environment of the Libyan a bayonet before uttering the phrase, “Haram aleikum” people, or was this just another blunder like the 2003 which translates to “it is a sin what you are doing.”3 invasion of Iraq? In a somewhat poetic ending to his 42-year reign, he, In order to analyze and discuss the effects of who had once proclaimed himself the “Godfather of this major world event, we must first learn more about Libya,” and the “King of Kings of Africa” was reduced the factors that led up to the events of 2011. How did to nothing.4 The former dictator’s life ended in shame Gaddafi come to power and how did his policies set the and humiliation, and the people rejoiced at his downfall. stage for his demise? Following this event, President Obama stated, “This Muammar Gaddafi was born to a Bedouin 5 35 is a momentous day in the history of Libya.” Prime family in the Libyan town of Sirte in 1942, during the time of Italian colonial rule.8 During his youth he was including two American serviceman, and the 1989 greatly influenced by the ideology of Arab Nationalism, bombing of a French Airliner over Niger that killed 170 and was inspired by Egypt’s President Nasser. At the people.13 Because of these actions, Libya was designated age of 27, Gaddafi, along with a group of other military as a State Sponsor of Terror in the U.S. until 2007, officials, would successfully conduct a coup against King and even earned a spot on President George W. Bush’s Idris I.9 The process was without violence, and the “Axis of Evil” in 2002.14,15 Its erratic and unpredictable young and charismatic officer was appointed as leader behavior of the regime led President Ronald Reagan of the newly established government. Upon being to call Gaddafi the “Mad Dog of the Middle East” in appointed to leadership, Gaddafi began enacting policies 1986.16 Gaddafi also proved to be a general nuisance in to transform Libya from an underdeveloped nation Africa, which can be seen in during the 1973 invasion into a modernized state. An ardent nationalist and of Chad over a dispute regarding territory believed to anti-imperialist, he shut down all foreign military bases, be rich in uranium deposits.17 The regime constantly expelled the Jewish and Italian communities, and secured meddled in the affairs of its southern neighbor in an the majority of revenue shares from oil companies attempt to create a Libyan client state. operating within the country. The increased profits from Eventually, Libya would tone down its behavior oil production along with the relatively small population following crippling economic sanctions from the would turn Libya into one of the most prosperous U.S., EU, and the UN.18 In an attempt to reconcile African states. with the West, the government terminated its nuclear program, compensated the victims of its terror attacks, Following the war, the and expelled terror groups from within its borders.19 Libyan economy took a Diplomatic ties were formed as Libya partnered with “ tremendous hit due to the Italy in efforts to curb illegal immigration.20 However, destruction of infrastructure this phase of rapprochement would be interrupted by and change of governance. the events of the Arab Spring. World leaders expected that with Gaddafi out of the Eventually, Gaddafi’s worldview and political” beliefs led him to restructure Libya’s government. In “ picture, the country could 1977 he declared Libya, the “Great Socialist Popular make a peaceful transition Arab Jahamariya” and ruled the country according from autocracy to becoming to a variation of Islamic socialism.10 Private a democratic state. Things enterprise began to be reduced and the government appeared to be going right became increasingly centralized as the power became on schedule in July of 2012, concentrated in the hands of Gaddafi and his close associates. Dissent was not tolerated and political when the first democratic parties were eventually dissolved, cementing the leader’s elections were held. status as a dictator.11 Beginning in the winter of 2010, a series Under the leadership of Gaddafi, Libya had of events would occur throughout the Middle East” the characteristics of a rogue state and several of its and North Africa that would shake up the political policies made it a pariah in the international community. scene in the area. Protests in Tunisia led to a series of One of the main sources of critique came from the demonstrations throughout the Arab world in countries fact that the Gaddafi regime was a major sponsor of like Egypt, Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, and Syria. The goal terror throughout the world. The Libyan government of the protestors was to end years of autocratic rule and provided resources and training for terrorist groups to usher in reform-minded leadership and democratic like the Irish Republican Army, Palestinian Liberation policies. The Arab Spring would find its way to Libya Organization, Sierra Leone’s Revolutionary Front, in early 2011 when a series of peaceful protests were Colombia’s M-19, and the Japanese Red Army.12 In met by a vicious crackdown from government forces.21 addition to this, the Libyans had been accused of Despite opposition, Gaddafi refused to step down from involvement in a string of terror attacks such as the power and vowed to stay in charge or “die as a martyr.”22 1988 Lockerbie Bombing that killed 270 people, the The continual clashes between protesters and troops 1986 West Berlin nightclub bombing that killed five would soon lead to war. 36 Following increasing violence and the threat of danger The first major event in post-Gaddafi Libya to civilians in the country, the UN Security Council occurred on September 11th, 2012 in the city of adopted a resolution that calls for a no-fly zone in Benghazi. Following an anti-American protest outside the country and the use of “all means necessary” for the gates of the consulate, armed militants proceed to the protection of civilians.23 These statements were break in, leading to a firefight between them and security based on the belief that a massacre along the likes of forces. The ensuing conflict led to the death of U.S. Srebrenica in the Yugoslav wars of the early 1990s was ambassador Christopher Stevens, his colleague Sean likely to be conducted by the regime.24 UN Secretary Smith, and two Navy SEALS.34 Later, it was determined Ban Ki-Moon condemned the actions of the Libyan that the attack was the result of terrorism and it was government whereas Gaddafi blamed the uprising on swiftly condemned by President Obama. This, however, Al-Qaeda and foreign meddlers.25 marked the beginning of a period of instability in the In response to the resolution, French, U.S, and nation.35 British Aircraft began enforcing the no fly zone, and tomahawk missile strikes from allied warships began The constant conflict hitting government targets, which the U.S considered between these militias vital for civilian safety.26 The mission was later handed “ developed into another over to NATO and was called Operation Odyssey Dawn, but the mission remained a humanitarian one.27 civil war in 2014 following Amidst NATO airstrikes and rebel advances, Gaddafi the decision to replace the condemned the intervention and sought help against General National Congress what in his mind was foreign imperialism.28 He even with a new parliament. went so far as to write a letter to President Obama urging him to cease the bombings. Elsewhere, other Prior to the 2011 uprising, very few people nations became wary that the mission was shifting from expected the conflict to have an effect outside ”of the a humanitarian endeavor to one of regime change.29 continent. However a mass exodus to Europe began Eventually, the NATO aerial campaign decimated the quickly and would be centered primarily in Libya. Libyan military, clearing the way for the rebels to secure Today, the world is undergoing a migrant crisis as large areas of territory, and Gaddafi was captured and millions of people flee war torn nations like Syria and executed in the town of Sirte. NATO officially ended Iraq, or autocratic nations like Eritrea with the hopes the mission on October 31st, 2011, after conducting of obtaining a better life for themselves and their around 120 missions a day and destroying more than families.36 Many of these refugees and migrants have 6,000 targets.30 When the dust finally settled, between their sights on the European Union, and the majority 10-50,000 individuals lost their lives and the 42-year of them cross the Mediterranean from coastal towns reign of Muammar Gaddafi had finally ended.31 in Libya.37 Prior to his death, Muammar Gaddafi, in With the exception of a few critics, the results an address to the Italian parliament said that Europe of the Libyan Civil War of 2011 were lauded as a major would “turn black” and become “another Africa” if achievement for the Libyan people. World leaders there were no deals made in order to prevent the flow expected that with Gaddafi out of the picture, the of illegal immigration.38 The two nations eventually country could make a peaceful transition from autocracy made an agreement, which gave the Libyan Government to becoming a democratic state. Things appeared to 5 billion euros a year to prevent illegal immigration into be going right on schedule in July of 2012, when the Europe.39 Five years following his death, it appears first democratic elections were held.32 This marked as if his prophecy is being fulfilled as an estimated 1 the beginning of the post-Gaddafi era as the General million people came to Europe by sea in 2015 alone.40 National Congress gained power over the country.33 This massive influx of people has put an enormous These actions signified that the country was ready to strain on the economies of the recipient countries, and move away from the years of tyranny that existed in the has caused some political effects as well, as European Libyan Jahamariya. However, this time of peace would nations struggle with quotas and debate as to whether only be shortly lived, as two months later an event or not they should even let them in the country.41 The would occur that would shake up the world and also the current government in Libya is not strong enough to American political landscape. stem the flow of people, and simply lacks the resources 37 to capture and return all the migrants to their homeland. nations, has been reduced almost to nothing. Decline in The country’s vast coastline has essentially become an oil production and the collapse of the Libyan economy open border for anyone with the resources to make are largely the results of the lack of central governance the trip across the Mediterranean, and the number of and the high amount of instability in the country. It’s crossings has increased more than 4 fold since 2013.42 estimated that 1,700 armed groups and militias are The lack of a strong government in Libya will continue currently active within the country, including notorious to affect the European continent as thousands upon terror organizations like IS and Ansar Al-Sharia (the thousands of people continue to take this perilous group believed to be responsible for the Benghazi journey from Africa. attacks).51 Like in Somalia, these groups each jockey for In addition to affecting the nations of Europe, power and each control small areas of territory without the war in Libya had some serious effects on the a central government strong enough to keep them in neighboring states in the region. During the Libyan check or to confront them. civil war, there was evidence that the Gaddafi regime The constant conflict between these militias began to rely on foreign fighters to supplement their developed into another civil war in 2014 following the losses.43 Many of those foreign fighters were ethnic decision to replace the General National Congress with Tuaregs from the northern regions of neighboring a new parliament.52 Two political factions with relatively Mali.44 The Tuaregs are a nomadic group and dwell equal support from these various armed groups, formed in the deserts, and have often been marginalized by two separate governments. One, made up of a group of the Malian government, leading to a heavy sense of Islamist Berbers who were disgruntled with the results resentment.45 After the defeat of government troops of the 2014 election, formed Libya Dawn, which serves in Libya, many of the Tuareg soldiers returned home as the armed forces for the GNC.53 Their rival forces to Mali with an abundance of weaponry obtained from are led by General Khalifa Haftar, a former member Gaddafi’s arsenal, which included advanced surface-to- of Gaddafi’s military, which represents the current air-missiles.46 Equipped and experienced in warfare government of the House of Representatives. General because of their time in Libya, these fighters joined Haftar and the Libyan National Army have made the radical Islamist group Movement for Unity and impressive strides including the removal of Islamist Jihad in West Africa.47 The group, which is a faction militants from the majority of Benghazi.54 However of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, went on an the conflict between these two rival governments, in offensive campaign that resulted in the conquering of addition to the presence of jihadist terror groups like the northern part of the country. Using the instability ISIS, has caused carnage and conflict that seems to be of Mali’s 2012 coup, the group made rapid advances unending. Libya is officially a failed state in all senses of against the weak interim government.48 They only the term. stopped gaining territory following the intervention More importantly did the of the French military in 2013, although there is still tension in the region. One could make the point that mission truly achieve its this whole ordeal was a part of the aftermath of the “ goal in creating a peaceful collapse of one of the few stable countries in the region. environment of the Additionally, the failure to secure the military arsenal Libyan people? should be a concern to many, as the weapons are easily accessible by the various extremist groups residing in the Muammar Gaddafi was no saint, and his country. crimes must not be exonerated, but was it necessary” to Following the war, the Libyan economy took a remove him? Five years later we are still dealing with tremendous hit due to the destruction of infrastructure the consequences of an unstable Libya, as thousands and the change of governance. Prior to 2011, Libya (a of Migrants flee for Europe and terrorist organizations member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting establish their footholds in the country. The inability Countries) produced 1.6 billion barrels of crude oil of both of Libya’s governments to exert full control each year.49 Oil production has decreased dramatically over the nation has lead to a power vacuum that has to a rate of around 350,00 barrels, leading to a reduced dragged the country into another brutal war. Initially, amount of oil revenues.50 The industry that had once the NATO airstrikes seemed like a tremendous success, accounted for 95 percent of its export earnings, and almost too good to be true, but they were just that. The helped make it one of the most prosperous African operation was lauded because of how inexpensive it 38 was in addition to the fact that no lives had to be lost the belief that we were protecting the lives of civilians, in order to achieve the desired goal. Another dictator but now as a new civil war drags on, the governments was removed from this world, but in his place we got that took place in the airstrikes are doing very little to more than 1,000 different militia groups on all sides of help curtail it. The intervention in Libya shows the dire the spectrum.55 As seen in Mali, instability in Libya can consequences of meddling in another country’s affairs have disastrous effects on the neighboring countries of and not following through to help the nation peacefully the Sahel and Northern Africa. The people of Libya transition. We either need to be all the way in or not have shifted from one dark chapter of history to an involved at all, and as our previous attempts at nation even darker one as chaos and anarchy sweep through building in Iraq and Afghanistan attest, one needs to the country and neighboring regions. During the rule have a thorough plan of action in order to ensure that of Gaddafi, life was not great, but at least it was stable. the newly created institutions have a chance to succeed. Although the early years of his reign were marked by The next presidential administration will have to deal irrational decisions and provocative policies, towards the with the effects of the 2011 campaign and the rise of ends of his days, he began to relax his hardline stances. IS in the region. This should make stabilizing Libya an Instead of resorting to a military campaign, couldn’t issue of major concern for not only the US but our it have been possible to continue to use economic or Allies as well. It is my hope that our leaders learn from political leverage to pressure him into enacting reforms? the consequences of Libya and make informed policy It’s easy to speculate and examine what we decisions taking into consideration the potential effects could have or should have done in the past, but the they may have in the future. The world cannot afford truth is that we have to address the consequences of to have any more Libyas, and we must do all we can to our actions. We began the operations in Libya under prevent the creation of more failed states.

REFERENCES 26CNN. “2011 Libya Civil War” 1Martin Chulov, “Gaddafi’s last moments: ‘I saw the the hand holding the 27North Atlantic Treaty Organization. “NATO and Libya,” NATO No- gun and I saw it fire,” The Guardian October 20, 2012. vember 9, 2015. 2Chulov “Gaddafi’s Last Moments” 28CNN. “2011 Libya Civil War.” 3Chulov “Gaddafi’s Last Moments” 29CNN. “2011 Libya Civil War.” 4Chulov “Gaddafi’s Last Moments” 30North Atlantic Treaty Organization. “NATO and Libya.” 5BBC, “Muammar Gaddafi death: World Reaction,” BBC, October 20, 31Milne, “If the Libyan war” 2011 32The Economist. “That it should come to this,” The Economist, January 6“Muammar Gaddafi Death” 10, 2015. 7Arshad Mohammed, “Mugabe says Gaddafi’s death as tragic as U.S. 33The Economist. “That it should come to this.” envoy’s,” Reuters September 27, 2012. 34BBC, “Benghazi US Consulate Attack: Timeline,” BBC, November 16, 8Editors of Britannica “Muammar al-Qaddafi” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2012 9Editors of Britannica “Muammar al-Qaddafi” 35BBC, “Benghazi US Consulate” 10Al Jazeera, “Profile: Muammar Gaddafi,” Al Jazeera August 21, 2011. 36BBC, “Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe explained in Seven Charts,” 11Al Jazeera, “Profile: Muammar Gaddafi” BBC, March 4, 2016. 12Council on Foreign Relations, “State Sponsors: Libya,” Council on For- 37Amanda Sakuma, “Damned for Trying,” MSNBC. eign Relations, December 1, 2005. 38Squires, Nick. “Gaddafi: Europe will ‘turn black’ unless EU pays Libya 4 13Council on Foreign Relations, “State Sponsors.” billion pounds a year,” The Telegraph August 31, 2010. 14Eben Kaplan, “How Libya got of the list” Council on Foreign Relations, 39Squires, Nick. “Gaddafi: Europe” October 16, 2007. 40BBC, “Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe” 15BBC, “US Expands ‘Axis of Evil,’” BBC May 6, 2002 41BBC, “Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe” 16Ronald Reagan, “The President’s News Conference,” The American 42Sakuma “Damned for Trying” Presidency Project, April 9, 1986. 43Mark Tran. “Mali: a guide to the conflict. The Guardian January 16, 17Michael Pukrop, “ICE Case Studies,” American University November 2013. 1997 44BBC, “Arab Uprising” 18BBC, “Timeline: Libya Sanctions,” BBC, October 15, 2004. 45Tran. “Mali: a guide” 19Kaplan “How Libya got off ” 46BBC, “Arab Uprising” 20Squires, Nick. “Gaddafi: Europe will ‘turn black’ unless EU pays Libya 4 47BBC, “Arab Uprising” billion pounds a year,” The Telegraph August 31, 2010. 48Tran. “Mali: a guide” 21BBC, “Arab Uprising: Country by Country- Libya,” BBC December 16, 49Sudarsan Raghavan, “As oil output falls, Libya is on the verge of eco- 2013. nomic collapse,” The Washington Post, Apil 16, 2016. 22Sudaarsan Raghavan and Leila Fadel, “Gaddafi vows to ‘die as a martyr’, 50Raghavan, “As oil output falls” refuses to relinquish power,” The Washington Post, February 22, 2011. 51Priyanka Boghani, “Regrets of a Revolution? Libya After Qaddafi,” PBS 23CNN Wire Staff. “A timeline of the conflict in Libya,” CNN August 24, Frontline September 29, 2015. 2011 52Boghani, “Regrets of a Revolution?” 24Seumas Milne, “If the Libyan war was about saving lives, it was a cata- 53The Economist. “That it should come to this.” strophic failure,” The Guardian, October 26, 2011. 54BBC, “Profile: Libya’s Military Strongman” 25CNN. “2011 Libya Civil War Fast Facts,” CNN April 4, 2016. 55Boghani, “Regrets of a Revolution?” 39 The Push for Populism around the World

Adithya Sivakumar enacted many controversial measures. These include the Vanderbilt University creation of an intense drug war, one that has killed more Through the entire course of the U.S. election, than 3,000 people since the start of his presidency.5 individuals throughout the nation were surprised at the He has given police and others near impunity to attack type of rhetoric being transmitted on the national stage, those who are perceived as drug addicts or criminals, particularly from Republican Donald Trump as well as leading to frequent criticism from various governments Democrat Bernie Sanders. Early in their presidential and human rights organizations. In response to these campaign, observers from both sides of the political criticisms, Duterte has become bellicose, particularly spectrum accused Trump of promoting fascism, a towards the United States. He has called President charged statement that many individuals have continued Obama, among other obscenities, “a son of a whore.”6 to echo to this day. On the other hand, Sanders was As fringe as Duterte may have unique in that he was considered to be a socialist, which brought criticism from both sides of the political seemed, he was a change from spectrum.1,2 Although the situation in the United “the usual brand of politics and States may seem unique in terms of the general trends gave his supporters a voice of national politics, the United States is not the only in a world where they felt country facing a new emergence of populist movements overwhelmed with bureaucracy in 2016, and this trend may lead to a very different global political climate than what is present today. To and oligarchy. analyze this trend, two particular examples, their origins, However, the most earth-shaking decision and their impacts will be discussed. These two are he has made was to recently declare a “separation” certainly not the only manifestations of populism on the from the United States,” and instead pledge to work global political spectrum, but offer the best avenues of closely with China and Russia.7 This statement was analysis to view its recent upbringing. especially interesting given the long-lasting cooperation between the Filipino and American governments, and First, although there might be the previous Filipino administration’s opposition to a figure or group seemingly China’s island-building territorial encroachment in the “heading a movement, they often South China Sea. Although Duterte later clarified he represent a deeper distrust and did not mean actual separation, many were still reeling anger with the status quo from from the implication of his comments, which, should they become true, could shift the entire geopolitical their supporters. landscape in Southeast Asia. The rise of President Rodrigo Duterte and his On the other side of the world, the United policies in the Phillippines is one of the most poignant” Kingdom sent shockwaves in June with its rejection examples of populism rearing its head. The campaign of the European Union, a decision colloquialized as of Duterte was rife with populism, even drawing “Brexit.” One of the main drivers of Brexit was the comparisons as the “Trump of the East.”3 He spoke United Kingdom Independence Party, a populist group brashly, trashed the Pope in this predominantly Catholic which had the singular goal of leaving the European country, and made rape jokes, He has also supported Union. The group exploited, among others, fears the concept of death squads to attack crime; death about increasing immigration into the country.8,9 This squads were also used in his tenure as the mayor of the exploitation included promoting posters that decreed city of Davao. Despite his rhetoric, he won the vote refugees as undesirable; these types of tactics capitalized with a staggering lead over the competition.4 on a fear that influenced many votes in the decision to After the beginning of his presidency, Duterte go ahead with Brexit.10 40 President Rodrigo Duterte gives a speech Source:qz.com The immediate reaction of Brexit included an end, but rather started at a very late time in the election economic downturn, one that caused the pound to process.14 Brexit was certainly a pre-planned initiative, fall to its lowest value in 30 years, and which has not but the public largely rejected the advice of world recovered since that time.11 Additionally, the vote has leaders as well as various “expert” organizations to stay been blamed for increasing xenophobic sentiment, as in the European Union, choosing instead to follow a reasonable uptick in hate crimes against minorities the template of supposed independence from a larger has occurred in the country.12 Four months after the governing body. decision, the nation faces deep uncertainty, as even the In terms of Duterte, some point to the Filipino UKIP, which led the charge for EU separation, faces electorate’s desire to change the prescribed status quo succession struggles.13 of political dynasties, namely the Aquinos, and the Analysis: increasing frustration with corruption in government. As fringe as Duterte may have seemed, he was a change To analyze this trend, two particular from the usual brand of politics and gave his supporters examples, as well as their impacts a voice in a world where they felt overwhelmed with “ and reasons for inception, will be bureaucracy and oligarchy. Despite his harsh crime- discussed. These two are certainly fighting measures and desire to get close to China, the not the only manifestations of public largely supports his rule, demonstrating approval populism on the global political ratings upwards of 80%, a number that may benefit spectrum, but offer the best avenues from the administration’s social policies.15 Additionally, of analysis to view its recent the lack of negative media portrayals of the presidency, upbringing. due to fear of what can happen to members of the media who criticize the government under Duterte, To many observers, both of these outcomes as well as Duterte’s expansive social media presence were widely unexpected, and are wrenches in what” and fandom, may discourage portrayals that affect the has been considered traditional political theory. How presidency negatively. Largely, however, the public could such fringe groups gain power through the sees his presidency as a break from the status quo, and support of the majority of the electorate? In the case therefore a way to address the concerns of overlooked of Duterte, his campaign was not planned for years on communities. 41 Brexit, on the other hand, is unique in that it commonalities. First, although there might be a figure is not favored by a large majority of the individuals or group seemingly heading a movement, they often in the United Kingdom. Regardless, a large enough represent a deeper distrust and anger with the status proportion of the United Kingdom made the move quo from their supporters. Additionally, as outrageous from the Union possible, making it necessary to as the movement’s head may be in their statements observe their sentiments. and actions, the supporters Immigration, as mentioned of the movement will earlier, played a large part still likely back them, as in the reaspmomg of backing away from their many voters. However, cause implies going back other factors included a to the status quo, negating negative opinion of the their cause of following EU’s globalization policies, the movement in the first which did not positively place. The aforementioned affect many of those phenomenon is not who voted for Brexit. constrained just to Donald Additionally, there was, Trump, as one may have as in the Philippines, a believed in the course of his general frustration with the presidential campaign, but political system in place, rather populist movements specifically concerning throughout the world. As its disregard of many unappetizing as a candidate domestic issues in favor or a position may be to of pursuing policies the media or political of globalization and establishment, the support cooperation with Europe.16 Brexit Election Results Source: BBC they receive is largely due Voting to leave the to this opposition by established power structures, European Union, in effect, was a direct affront to the requiring governments who wish to avoid such existing political machinery of the United Kingdom, upheavals to make outreach efforts to include various and forced the country to view communities that felt communities in power-making decisions, rather than left behind by globalization and Eurocentric policies. excluding them to the point that they must live life on In the analysis of these populist movements the fringe. across the world, one can find some important

REFERNCES Rise,” BBC, November 21, 2014. 1MJ Lee “Why some Conservatives say Trump talk is Fascist” CNN 9Kim Hjelmgaard and Gregg Zoroya, “Exploding UK Immigration November 25, 2015. Helped Drive ‘Brexit’ Vote,” USA Today June 28, 2016. 2Paul Starr “Why Democrats Should beware Sanders’ Socialsm,” 10Heather Stewart and Rowena Mason, “Nigel Farage’s Anti-Migrant Politico Magazine February 22, 2016. Poster Reported to Police” The Guardian, June 16, 2016. 3Emily Rauhala “The ‘Trump of the East’ could be the next 11Tim Bowler, “Brexit: Who is affected by the Falling Pound,” BBC president of the Philippines” The Washington Post May 7, 2016. June 29, 2016. 4“Philippines election: Maverick Rodrigo Duterte Wins Presidency” 12Angela Dewan “Hate Crime Reports Surge in Britain in Weeks BBC May 10, 2016. Around Brexit” CNN July 8, 2016. 5Kristine Guerra “Duterte has a Name for Innocent People Killed 13Tom McTague, “How Brexit Brought UKIP to its Knees,” in Philippines’ Drug War: Collateral Damage,” The Washington Politico, August 19, 2016. Post October 18, 2016. 14Primy Cane “Duterte Decides to Run for President,” ABS CBN 6Oliver Holmes “Duterte tells Obama ‘son of a whore’ remark News November 22, 2015. wasn’t personal” The Guardian, September 6, 2016. 15Aurora Almendral, “Rodrigo Duterte, Scorned Abroad, Remains 7“Duterte Backtracks on Philippines’ ‘separation’ with US” Al Popular in the Phillippines,” October 13, 2016. Jazeera October 21, 2016. 16Matthew Goodwin “Inequality, not personalities, drove Britain to 8Alex Hunt “UKIP: The Story of the UK Independence Party’s Brexit” Politico August 29, 2016. 42 Al-Maqdisi’s Wahhabi Criticism of Saudi Arabia and the Rise of Salafi-Jihadi Organizations

Grace Sununu challenges to the state based on Wahhabi ideology began Vanderbilt University long before him. Even before the official establishment Without close examination, it is easy to imagine of the Kingdom Saudi Arabia, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. ‘Abd al- Salafism as a monolithic ideology, and to conflate Rahman Al Sa’ud, the first Saudi king, faced a Wahhabi the brand of radical Salafism championed by Abu challenge to his rule. The Ikhwan fighters—a group that Muhammad al-Maqdisi, a prominent Salafi scholar, had helped the king conquer land that would become with the Wahhabism enforced by the Saudi Arabian the Saudi state—objected to his close relationship to the government. Both al-Maqdisi and the Saudi state espouse British, as well as his tolerant attitude towards the Shia the importance of strict enforcement of sharia law, minority, actions that the Ikhwan viewed as contradictory denouncing Sufi and Shia Muslims, and maintaining to the tenets of Wahhabism.1 While Ibn Sa’ud was able a legitimate ruler within a Muslim state. However, to defeat the Ikhwan forces in 1929, their challenge to there exist fundamental differences between the two his religious and political authority set a precedent for philosophies, pushing al-Maqdisi to starkly reject the criticizing the Saudi state using Wahhabi principles. Saudi state, using Wahhabi sources to undermine the In 1979, a group of dissidents organized an regime’s claims to religious legitimacy. Al-Maqdisi argues occupation of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, arguing that not only has the state failed to rule in a manner that that the Saudi rulers were governing on illegitimate is consistent with its proclaimed Salafi values, but also grounds. While this challenge reignited some interest that Saudi rulers are responsible for actively perpetuating surrounding the legitimacy of the Saudi regime, the apostasy through the implementation of non-sharia protest was quashed in a matter of weeks and had little legislation, accepting membership in several un-Islamic lasting impact on the authority of the state. The most international organizations, and their close relationship enduring challenge to the Saudi government followed the to the United States. Consequently, al-Maqdisi proclaims immigration of members of the Muslim Brotherhood that Saudi Arabia is a state of unbelievers and declares to Saudi Arabia beginning in the 1960s. These Muslim takfir on Saudi rulers, arguing that, as a result of their Brothers united around a politically charged brand of infidelity, they should not be considered Muslims at all. Wahhabism, resulting in the sahwa movement.2 The sahwa All of these claims are based on the belief that through took on topics such as morality and politics in relation its actions, the Saudi state has repeatedly violated the to Wahhabism, arguing that the Saudi regime failed to Islamic concept of tawhid, or the unity of God. properly apply Salafi principles within these spheres. Consequently, the underlying concepts that al- The Saudi government responded by implementing Maqdisi applies in his critique of Saudi Arabia—using modest reforms that, at least in appearance, illustrated a a broad definition oftawhid , applying takfir to Muslim movement toward a more religious, Wahhabi state. leaders, and rejecting Muslims who associate with the Al-Maqdisi’s critique of the Saudi regime West—have significantly influenced the ideology of following these challenges by the sahwa, presenting a rising Jihadi-Salafi organizations, including al-Qaeda in similar critique of the state, while framing his message the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and the Islamic State. in a slightly different manner. His rejection of the Saudi The social, political, and cultural contexts into which regime took on a more religious tone than that of the al-Maqdisi’s ideas were introduced—in addition to his sahwa who preceded him. As a result, he ultimately use of Wahhabi sources to justify his argument—allowed reached more radical conclusions about the nature of al-Maqdisi’s scholarship to significantly influence radical the Saudi state, its rulers, and the actions that were Salafi jihadist organizations over the last two dedecades. necessary to address their infidelity. Unlike thesahwa , al-Maqdisi openly proclaimed takfir on the Saudi rulers Early Resistance to and insisted that true believers had a duty to wage jihad the Saudi Regime on the Saudi institutions that perpetuated un-Islamic ideals under the guise of a Wahhabi regime. Al-Maqdisi Although al-Maqdisi’s criticisms of Saudi Arabia asserted that Saudi Arabia puts forth an “incomplete have been some of the most impactful in recent history, tawhid,” through which the state “deceives the people by 43 its encouragement of tawhid” while implementing both attempt to circumvent this issue and indicate that these domestic and foreign policies that are inconsistent with actions did not pose a threat to the divinely sanctioned this Islamic principle.3 sharia, the Saudi regime referred to these regulations For al-Maqdisi, the proclamation of one’s belief as “systems,” “protocols,” and “decrees,” rather than in Islam is not enough to qualify someone as a true “laws.”6 However, applying his broad definition of Muslim. Rather, in order to prove one’s devotion to the tawhid, al-Maqdisi rejects this distinction and proclaims religion, an individual must faithfully perform all of the that the implementation of this legislation is one of the duties associated with the faith, live according to the primary factors that him to classify the Saudi regime as Islamic values prescribed by God, and actively reject infidels. any institution that does not uphold those ideals. As a result, al-Maqdisi concludes that, based on the actions al-Zarqawi implemented of the Saudi regime—specifically the institution of non- these philosophies in an even sharia laws, membership in un-Islamic organizations, “ more extreme manner than and association with the unbelieving United States— his predecessor... the nation cannot be considered truly Islamic. In his 1989 work, Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya fi Kufr al-Dawla al- The next issue that al-Maqdisi takes with the Sa’udiyya (The Obvious Proofs of the Saudi State’s Impiety), Saudi regime is the state’s association with international” al-Maqdisi highlights several specific instances in which organizations that promote un-Islamic values. These Saudi Arabia violates fundamental principles of Salafi organizations include the International Court of Justice, Islam. This work uses Wahhabi reasoning as a means the United Nations, the Gulf Cooperation Council, of delegitimizing the Saudi state, marking the first and the Arab League.7 Similarly to the non-sharia laws time that these criticisms were transcribed and widely enacted within Saudi Arabia, al-Maqdisi underscores disseminated.4 With this book’s publication, al-Maqdisi the fact that man-made laws, rather than God’s laws, positioned himself not just as a critic, but also as an govern these international institutions. Consequently, enemy of the regime. Saudi Arabia’s association with these organizations indicates that the state condones the elevation of man’s Al-Maqdisi’s Criticisms of law above sharia. He equates following non-sharia law the Saudi State with idolatry, as, in doing so, one is willingly accepting guidance from a source other than God. In Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya, Al-Maqdisi identifies In the case of Saudi Arabia’s United Nations three primary issues with the Saudi state, which, in membership, al-Maqdisi accuses the state of actively combination, he deems to be sufficient justification promoting the UN charter, which he views as being for declaring Saudi Arabia a nation of unbelievers, and in direct conflict with Islam. In his text,Millat Ibrihim, proclaiming the Saudi rulers infidels. al-Maqdisi argues that “until [a Muslim] opposes every The first of these issues is the Saudi assembly […] in whichever (disbelief) it is famous for,” implementation of man-made legislation, which al- he has not “openly declared his religion.”8 In this way, Maqdisi views as being contradictory to sharia, the he condemns the Saudi rulers who have welcomed perfect and complete law of God. He contends that Western institutions for their failure to uphold their because Saudi Arabia has passed laws that do not religious duties of rejecting any system that promotes follow from sharia, the state is directly undermining the disbelief in Islam. Wagemakers argues that al-Maqdisi’s authority of God. This “un-Islamic” legislation included adamant opposition to Saudi association with the UN trade laws that originated outside of Islam, publishing is likely tied to both religious and political motives.9 laws that require books to be approved by the state, and In addition to his argument that the UN Charter is smoking regulations.5 While al-Maqdisi briefly notes the fundamentally un-Islamic, al-Maqdisi’s also criticizes of adverse societal effects of these laws, he focuses more the manner in which the institution favors the Jewish on the underlying implications of enacting legislation state of Israel. outside of sharia. According to the Salafi tradition, Finally, al-Maqdisi uses the close relationship implementing man-made laws subverts the authority of between Saudi Arabia and the United States—the God and His tawhid, submitting to a legal code other ultimate embodiment of Western infidelity—as a than the one that He put forth in the Qur’an. In an clear example of the apostasy of the Saudi regime. In 44 addition to explaining the implication that Saudi Arabia classification of Saudi Arabia as a kufr state serves condones apostasy through its association with an to nominally—and eventually, as we will see later, un-Islamic country like the United States, al-Maqdisi practically—undermine its legitimacy, affecting the also notes the specific secular consequences that this perspective of many Wahhabi Muslims and ultimately relationship has had for the Saudi populace. Al-Maqdisi igniting several Jihadi-Salafi organizations that oppose argues that although the Saudi government invests a the Saudi regime. Al-Maqdisi places the Saudi state in significant amount of money into its military operations, the same category as unbelieving nations such as the most of these funds are put towards “achiev[ing] the United States and the United Kingdom, which al- goals and policies of the United States of America,” Maqdisi further underscores in Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya causing the country’s armed forces to remain weak and by evoking images of “the [British] flag of the cross ineffective despite its ample funding.10 By allowing the flutter[ing] in the streets of Jeddah […] next to the flag United States to maintain significant control over the of tawhid.”13 By depicting Saudi Arabia as a state that Saudi military, the regime has sacrificed its own strength holds Western and Islamic symbols in the same regard, in favor of furthering the aims of an unbelieving al-Maqdisi reminds readers of the need for purification country. within the Islamic tradition (including the removal of In addition, al-Maqdisi contends that the United the hypocritical Saudi regime) and the return to the States has tried to maintain low oil prices at the expense tradition of the Salaf. of the Saudi economy, again calling into question the After his portrayal of Saudi Arabia as a nation reason for the U.S.-Saudi alliance. He also emphasizes of unbelievers, al-Maqdisi prescribes a specific course the ongoing relationship between the United States and of action for true believers to follow in response to Israel, a state that is widely considered to be a direct the Saudi’s infidelity. After moving away from the state, threat to the Muslim world.11 While al-Maqdisi passed believers are instructed to fulfill their religious duty of judgment on the Saudi regime’s passive acceptance of waging jihad against Saudi Arabia in order to restore un-Islamic ideals through the state’s association with the true religion Islam in the region.14 In this way, al- the United Nations, the relationship between Saudi Maqdisi once again connects his disdain for the Saudi Arabia and the United States drew even wider criticism, state back to the ultimate Salafi goal of establishing causing the general public to begin call into question the a pure version of Islam throughout the world. He religious legitimacy of the Saudi state. presents his opposition of Saudi Arabia as more than a personal or political movement, integrating Saudi Depicting Saudi rejection with the religious duties of those who wish to Arabia as Kufr be considered “true” Salafis. Using Saudi Arabia’s ties to un-Islamic nations Explaining the and organizations, al-Maqdisi depicts the Saudi state as Success of Al- one that actively perpetuates apostasy behind a façade of Wahhabi ideology. Applying his broad definition Maqdisi’s Message of tawhid, he portrays these associations with infidels Although al-Maqdisi presents several compelling (as well as Saudi’s enactment of non-sharia laws) as arguments for the infidelity of the Saudi regime, he is direct challenges to the oneness and supreme status still only one—non-Saudi, informally educated, not of God. Through this, al-Maqdisi does not hesitate widely published—voice among many, begging the to call into question the religious status of the Saudi question: why was al-Maqdisi’s opposition to Saudi rulers, ultimately classifying them as kuffar, a term that Arabia able to influence such a widespread movement is usually reserved for those who openly and outright against the state? Wagemakers posits that al-Maqdisi reject Islam.12 This is one of the primary areas where framed his argument in a manner that “resonate[d] with al-Maqdisi deviates from the views of the sahwa, in the public” and largely echoed the sentiments of the demonstrating a willingness to apply the label of kuffar deviant Salafi groups that were forming following the liberally to those he deems to be incorrect practitioners Gulf War in the late 1990s and early 2000s, including of Islam. AQA P. 15 He also extends the “unbelieving” label to the Al-Maqdisi introduced Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya into Saudi state as a whole, proclaiming it to be kufr. The social, political, and cultural climates that were already 45 being conditioned to reject Western influences following examples of Saudi Arabia’s rejection of their proclaimed the U.S. military involvement in Saudi Arabia and ideology in favor of politically advantageous actions, the Middle East at large. After the Saudi government presenting Saudi rulers as hypocrites or, from the approved the placement of 500,000 U.S. troops in perspective of al-Maqdisi’s Jihadi-Salfism, infidels who Saudi Arabia during Operation Desert Shield, Saudis cannot be considered Muslims at all. began to recognize the “glaring contradictions between the Saudi state’s official policy of encouraging citizens Al-Maqdidi’s Influence on to stay away from non-Muslims as much as possible on the one hand and its invitation of half a million Jihadi-Salafi Organizations ‘infidels’ from […] the United States on the other.”16 Despite his consistent emphasis on the The sharp disconnect between the state’s proclaimed importance of jihad and frequent takfiri declarations, Wahhabi ideology and its underlying political motives al-Maqdisi never physically waged jihad, instead became widely apparent, setting the stage for the rise combatting apostasy through his writing. Regardless, of al-Maqdisi’s religiopolitical scholarship. In the years he was still successful in mobilizing several jihadist following the Gulf War, Muslims became increasingly organizations, religiopolitical movements, and individual sensitive to the Saudi transgressions that al-Maqdisi citizens as a means of advancing his goal of purifying noted in Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya: the state’s implementation Islam in light of Salafi values. In contrast to the of man-made laws, association with un-Islamic moderation of the sahwa, al-Maqdisi’s combination of international organizations, and reliance on the United “radical solutions” and “close adherence to the (quietist) States for financial and military support. Salafi-Jihadi tradition” resonated with organizations that were emerging in the Arabian Peninsula following the al-Maqdisi contends that the Gulf War, specifically AQAP.19 United States has tried to Although AQAP initially focused on targeting “ maintain low oil prices at the non-Muslims following 9/11 and the organization’s expense of the Saudi economy... displacement during the Afghanistan war, AQAP turned its jihadi attention to the U.S.-backed Saudi state, In addition, al-Maqdisi legitimizes his critique following the lead of al-Maqdisi.20 Using al-Maqdisi’s of Saudi Arabia by basing his reasoning not simply” in Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya, AQAP was able to legitimize its Islamic teaching, but specifically in Wahhabi scholarship, disdain for the westernized Saudi state and its man- using the ideological foundation of the Saudi state made laws and it was able to justify attacking the state against itself. He supports a significant portion of that was clearly distorting the Wahhabi tradition. In his arguments in Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya with the texts addition, AQAP employed the moderation that al- of Wahabbi scholars including Muhammad b. ‘Abd Maqdisi preached, avoiding indiscriminate killing and al-Wahhab (the founder of the Wahhabi movement), excessive takfiri proclamations within the jihad that they Sulayman b. ‘Abdallah Al al-Shaykh, and Hamd b. waged. ‘Atiq.17 By bringing his condemnation of the Saudi However, al-Maqdisi’s philosophy also regime back to the religious scholarship on which the influenced organizations that did not adopt his tradition state claims to base its rule and religious legitimacy, al- of moderation. The most striking example of this is Maqdisi makes it difficult for Saudis to refute his claims the movement led by one of al-Maqdisi’s mentees, without reinterpreting or completely rejecting these Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who would go on to lead al- texts. In addition to referencing these particular scholars, Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), and ultimately found the Islamic al-Maqdisi also draws from the fatwas of former Saudi State. While he embraced the importance of tawhid, mufti Muhammad b. Ibrahim Al al-Shaykh, once again jihad, takfir, and sharia as al-Maqdisi had, al-Zarqawi using the proclaimed ideology of the state as a means implemented these philosophies in an even more of refuting the actions of the Saudi regime.18 Although extreme manner than his predecessor, insisting on the Ibn Ibrahim sought to maintain the state’s adherence to immediate establishment of a caliphate, employing sharia by refuting legislation that he viewed as contrary excessively violent jihadi tactics, and arbitrarily declaring to God’s legal code, many of these laws were still passed takfir.21 Al-Maqdisi established a jihadi framework that by the Saudi government. These scholars provide direct was easily appropriated by al-Zarqawi and had already 46 mobilized the Salafi masses against both the “near” and the works of the same Wahhabi scholars revered by the “far” enemies, which allowed al-Maqdisi’s more radical Saudi government, al-Maqdisi tore down the foundation protégé to piggyback on the success of his mentor. of the regime’s religious validity, while raising larger Although he quickly denounced the al-Zarqawi’s method, questions about the legitimacy of other self-proclaimed al-Maqdisi had already popularized the Jihadi-Salafi Salafi establishments in the region. Through his ideology in the Arabian Peninsula and had provided scholarship, al-Maqdisi has created a framework for al-Zarqawi with the tools necessary to push forward his criticizing, challenging, and actively pushing against own radical movement. institutions that do not live up to Salafi values or fulfill their Islamic duties. Al-Maqdisi’s For al-Maqdisi, the proclamation of one’s belief Legacy in Islam is not enough to qualify someone as a true Muslim. Rather, in order to prove one’s devotion to the Indirectly, al-Maqdisi’s criticism of the distorted religion, an individual must faithfully perform all of the Wahhabism practiced by the Saudi state created an duties associated with the faith, live according to the ideological foundation for several radical Salafi groups Islamic values prescribed by God, and actively reject that would gain traction beginning in the mid-1990s. any institution that does not uphold those ideals. As a Although many of his texts focused on specifically result, al-Maqdisi concludes that, based on the actions of criticizing Saudi Arabia, democracy, and man-made law, the Saudi regime—specifically the institution of non- the underlying principles of his works—the importance sharia laws, membership in un-Islamic organizations, of tawhid, upholding the duties of Islam, and denouncing and association with the unbelieving United States— apostates and un-Islamic institutions—were appropriated the nation cannot be considered truly Islamic. In his by Jihadi-Salafi organizations in the years following 1989 work, Al-Kawashif al-Jaliyya fi Kufr al-Dawla the publication of his books. Al-Maqdisi’s analysis of al-Sa’udiyya (The Obvious Proofs of the Saudi State’s hypocritical Islamic institutions arrived at a time when Impiety), al-Maqdisi highlights several specific instances Western influence in the Middle East was both increasing in which Saudi Arabia violates fundamental principles and being increasingly challenged. of Salafi Islam. This work uses Wahhabi reasoning as a The timing of his books’ publication—along means of delegitimizing the Saudi state, marking the first with the harshly critical tone that he takes—allowed time that these criticisms were transcribed and widely his writing to resonate with Salafi Muslims who disseminated. With this book’s publication, al-Maqdisi harbored resentment toward the Saudi regime and other positioned himself not just as a critic, but also as an hypocritical Islamic institutions in a way that previous enemy of the regime. challenges to these structures had failed to do. Utilizing

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