SPECIAL REPORT Old Livelihoods in New Weather Arctic indigenous reindeer herders face the challenges of climate change

BY ANDERS OSKAL selves have chosen to focus on developing local adaptation strategies based on their traditional knowledge of land use. This THE ARCTIC IS HOME to many indigenous peoples, including article addresses the impacts of climate change on reindeer those who depend on reindeer herding for their livelihood in husbandry and local adaptation techniques developed and/or one of the harshest environments in the world. For the large - shared through international cooperation, and a multi-stake - ly nomadic indigenous peoples, reindeer not only form a sub - holder and interdisciplinary Vulnerability Network Study stantial part of the Arctic food base, but they are culturally aimed at supporting circumpolar reindeer herding peoples. important, shaping their way of life, mythologies, festivals and ceremonies. Circumpolar reindeer husbandry Climate change is occurring faster in the Arctic than in other areas of the world. Independent of international discus - REINDEER HUSBANDRY has a long history in the Arctic, and sions on the causes of climate change, reindeer herders them - is practiced by more than 20 different indigenous peoples in

Sámi reindeer herder Nils Peder Gaup working with his herd in Northern Norway.

22 Development Outreach WORLD BANK INSTITUTE husbandry and will continue to do so both directly, for example through changes in food availability, and indirectly such as through changes in human land use. Changes in biodiversity: Some species replacing others have already been documented by reindeer herders (ACIA 2004). One example is the spreading of shrubs into the barren tundra areas. Shrubs can contribute to a hard packing of snow during the tough winter months, thus making access to food a challenge for reindeer. In addition, important food resources for the reindeer, such as lichens and reindeer-preferred FIGURE 1: The main part of World reindeer husbandry and reindeer species of grasses, may disappear partially, if not fully. herding peoples of Eurasia. Changes in insect populations could also change reindeer behavior during the summer by not allowing them to feed long Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Mongolia, China, Alaska, enough in summer pastures. Canada and Greenland. This livelihood involves some Changes in temperature, precipitation and climate 100,000 herders and around 2.5 million semi-domesticated variability : Changes in temperatures have aleady been reindeer, which graze on approximately four million square observed (See Figure 2 on next page). These changes could kilometers of land in Eurasia. cause rivers to freeze later in the autumn and melt earlier in the While reindeer husbandry is spread across the Arctic and spring, causing challenges for the annual migration of reindeer across many cultures, its organization is remarkably similar between different seasonal pastures. Yet another change already everywhere, consisting of a nomadic livelihood with family- observed is increasing climate variability . This is especially chal - based working communities and a typical indigenous way of life. lenging during the critical wintertime, where increasing peri - For hundreds of years, reindeer herders have managed vast ods of mild weather with rain followed by cold frost periods barren circumpolar areas of land that hold little value for oth - form ice layers in the snow and block the reindeers’ access to ers. Herding represents a model for sustainable management food on the ground. As reindeer live only on natural pastures, of these areas that has developed through generations. Today, this often represents a “worst-case scenario” from the reindeer Arctic reindeer herders face major challenges, such as climate herders’ perspective. Increasing precipitation in the form of change, loss of grazing land due to development by humans, snow can add to these challenges, while warming would shorten and effects of global change in their local societies. The the period of snow cover in any particular year. Association of World Reindeer Herders, established in 1997, Indirect effects of climate change: Due to the sea ice created a unique circumpolar international cooperation that melting and longer summers, there are other changes that can represents 97 percent of the world’s reindeer herders, with impact reindeer husbandry, especially increased accessibility local representation in all reindeer herding countries, to help of the Arctic regions for human activities. Human develop - meet some of these challenges. ment and activities represent disturbances with negative effects for the semi-domesticated reindeer herds (UNEP Impacts of climate change on reindeer husbandry THE ARCTIC CLIMATE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (ACIA), a large climate study initiated by the Arctic Council, concluded that the rate of cli - mate change in the Arctic is faster than in other regions of the world. For example, the study conluded that 10 years of climate change in the Arctic is equivalent to 25 years of climate change elsewhere in the world (ACIA 2004). Reasons for this include reduction of Arctic snow and ice-covers and diminishing reflec - tion of sunlight. Ice covered with snow reflects 85-90 percent of the sunlight, while seawater only reflects about 10 percent, and the earth’s surface about 20 percent (ACIA 2004). Therefore, ice melting reduces solar energy reflection and increases Arctic temperatures, which will, in turn, lead to the ice melting even faster. The changes in ice cover and increases in temperature have already impacted reindeer

APRIL 2008 23 2001) and irreversible loss of marginal pasture resources—a herders have adapted to living in these conditions, reindeer serious challenge for reindeer husbandry. In the last 50 years, herding cultures themselves represent an adaptation to for example, around 25 percent of the reindeer pastures of the extreme climate variability. Senior Sámi reindeer herder and Euro-Arctic Barents Region have in effect been lost due to Secretary General of the Association of World Reindeer human development (Tyler et. al 2007). Of particular relevance Herders, Johan Mathis Turi put it this way: today, the Arctic is estimated to contain approximately 25 per - “…We have some knowledge about how to live in a changing cent of the world’s remaining undeveloped petroleum environment. The term ‘stability’ is a foreign word in our language. resources. For instance, Yamal in Western Siberia holds about Our search for adaptation strategies is therefore not connected to 90 percent of Russia’s gas reserves, while also representing the ‘stability’ in any form, but is instead focused on constant adapta - largest reindeer herding area in the world. Activities to access tion to changing conditions.” these resources would contribute to reducing the grazing Sámi reindeer herders have over 200 analytical expressions lands, which can also be viewed as “available room for adapta - for snow and snow change in their language, and over 400 for tion” for reindeer husbandry . reindeer, which represent an integral part of reindeer herder - s’ traditional knowledge. When referring to “traditional Adaptation and use of best available knowledge,” we are not talking about outdated knowledge, but knowledge rather critical knowledge used by reindeer herders in their everyday lives. Such traditional knowledge could and should be THE CHALLENGES reindeer herding communities are facing tested and integrated with scientific knowledge to provide the because of the effects of climate change are of such magnitude best possible knowledge foundation for the future. Constraints that the best available knowledge has to be used to minimize on use of reindeer herders’ traditional knowledge resulting the impacts of these changes. To some extent, this knowledge from national legislation, for example, is an important chal - is scientific, but in many cases, the best knowledge is the lenge when discussing adaptation to climate change. experience-based knowledge of the herders themselves. The Arctic has experienced a rapid temperature increase Reindeer herders and their reindeer live for eight to nine similar to the one which occurred in the 1920s-30s, but with months a year in snowcovered environments and always more variation. There are still reindeer herders alive who have changing climatic conditions. Temperatures can vary, for knowledge about how reindeer husbandry adapted during that example, from 25 o C down to -65 o C. As both reindeer and time and that knowledge is relevant for the 21st century.

FIGURE 2: CLIMATE VARIABILITY IN THE ARCTIC, ANNUAL AVERAGE CHANGE IN NEAR SURFACE AIR TEMPERATURE FROM STATIONS ON LAND RELATIVE TO THE AVERAGE FOR 1961-1990 FOR THE REGION FROM 60 TO 90°N.

(ºC) 2

1

0

1

2

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Source: ACIA, 2004.

24 Development Outreach WORLD BANK INSTITUTE Adaptation to climate change does not happen in the corri - of the remaining winter. The compressed snow and ice layers dors of national ministries or international agencies, but rather constitute a serious challenge for reindeer in accessing food. at the local level where people are actually facing the changes in Reindeer herders have extensive knowledge about such phe - their everyday lives. Furthermore, adaptation must be discussed nomena, explaining and understanding snow conditions with a with a societal perspective, as it is about the human dimension. completely different set of analytical expressions and concepts Hence, a network study was set up to help prepare the reindeer founded on experience and of great importance for adaptation. herders for the changes they are likely to face and the options One adaptation strategy EALÁT is studying is reindeer cas - they have. It was named “ EALát —the Sámi term “ Ealát ” means tration, a technique commonly used in reindeer husbandry as “good pasture,” and is connected to “ Eallu ,” meaning “herd,” a tool for herd structure management. Castrates generally both of which come from the word “ Eallin ,” which means “life.” calm down female reindeer and calves, making herds easier to In other words: Pastures are the foundation for the reindeer control. Due to their larger size, castrates are also more able to herd, and the reindeer herd is the foundation for the lives of easily break through ice layers in the snow, facilitating access reindeer herding peoples of the Arctic. to food for females and calves. Adjusting herd composition The EALÁT-Network Study aims to prepare reindeer through castration could represent a possible strategy for herding communities and local authorities for adaptation to future climate change. climate change, in order to reduce the impact of climate change on these soci - eties. EALÁT focuses on adaptive The knowledge challenges capacity of reindeer pastoralism of circumpolar reindeer to climate variability and change herders and, in particular, on the inte - gration of reindeer herders’ IN CONCLUSION, both knowl - knowledge in the study and edge and leadership are neces - analysis of their ability to sary to increase adaptive adapt to environmental capacity to climate change in variability and change. local communities. Local Launched in February capacity building—building 2007 and to be concluded local knowledge and local by the end of 2010, EALÁT organizations—is needed to is an interdisciplinary reduce the risk climate study that actively involves change poses to local herding reindeer herders, and societies. Using a holistic indige nous institutions approach, integrating social and organizations. EALÁT and natural sciences and (see Figure 3) attempts to reindeer herders’ under - understand the wide spec - standing in the co-produc - trum of issues related to tion of knowledge, can con - climate change and adap - FIGURE 3: FOCUS AREAS OF EALÁT: REINDEER HERDING REGIONS tribute to local competence tation of reindeer hus - OF FENNOSCANDIA (NORWAY, SWEDEN AND FINLAND), RUSSIA building in indigenous peo - bandry, and address the (NENETS, YAMALO-NENETS, SAKHA AND CHUKOTKA) AND THE ples’ societies and help face knowledge challenges of AMERICAN CONTINENT (ALASKA). THE MAIN RESEARCH AREAS the future challenges of cli - circumpolar reindeer ARE NORWAY AND YAMALO-NENETS. mate change. herders in a holistic man - SOURCE: WWW.EALAT.ORG ner. Local competence and Anders Oskal is Director of the capacity building in International Centre for Reindeer indigenous societies are Husbandry. major objectives of EALÁT, through community-based work - shops in local reindeer herding societies, education and devel - References opment of new communication tools (www.reindeerportal.org, ACIA, 2004. Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact www.reindeerblog.org and www.ealat.org). EALÁT is anchored Assessment. Cambridge University Press 2004. www.acia.uaf.edu/ in the University of the Arctic (www.uarctic.org). Tyler, N.J.C. et. al., 2007. Saami reindeer pastoralism under climate change: EALÁT seeks to integrate scientific and traditional knowl - Applying a generalized framework for vulnerability studies to a sub-arctic edge to better understand and prepare for climate change. For social–ecological system. Global Environmental Change , Volume 17, Issue 2, example, air and surface temperatures combined with precip - May 2007, Pages 191-206. www.elsevier.com/locate/gloenvcha/ itation data are used to model snow conditions and the forma - UNEP, 2001. GLOBIO. Global Methodology for Mapping Human Impacts on tion of compressed snow near the ground. Such conditions the Biosphere. UNEP/DEWA/TR.01-3. www.globio.org/ occurred from December 2006 and continued through much

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