NREM/ZOOL 4464 – Ornithology Dr. Tim O’Connell Lectures 19–23 2, 6, 9, 13 March, 2015

[This sequence of lectures included two class periods spent solely on information related to of the world in laboratory, as a means to make up for a snow-canceled lab. This information is provided in the notes for lab: https://okstateornithology.wordpress.com/lab-notes/]

Ages of birds

Plumage sequences: •Nestling – hatched naked; grows juvenal plumage in nest (~ 10 days) •Juvenal plumage worn for several weeks in summer

•Pre-basic molt – late summer •Produces basic plumage. In juveniles, this does NOT include the flight feathers. In second year and older birds, it includes all feathers.

•Pre-alternate molt – late winter/early spring •Usually limited to contour feathers

Ages of birds – egg laid June 1st •Egg •Nestling – baby confined to the nest. •Fledgling – just left the nest; still beg parents for food •Local/juvenile – still on parent’s territory, but independent •“Immature” – general term for birds not yet old enough to breed. For most songbirds, immature applies for less than 12 months; for raptors or gulls that might take several years to reach sexual maturity the term applies correspondingly longer.

•These (except for the egg and immatures > 1 year old) are all “hatch-year” birds, abbreviated HY.

•All birds celebrate a birthday on January 1. Each HY bird becomes a “second-year” bird, or SY. •A more general term is “after hatch-year” or AHY. All SY birds are AHY, but not all AHYs are SYs. •It is relatively easy to determine the age of an HY or SY bird. If age cannot be determined on a bird between, say July and January, then the age should be considered “unknown.” •If age cannot be determined on a bird between Jan. and July, it is safe to list as the general term AHY. •If a bird can be reliably determined not to be SY between January and July, this means the bird is older than SY, and may be safely listed as ASY. (Some birds’ plumage sequences allow determination of ATY or even AFY.)

•So, our young bird born on June 1st is HY through the summer and autumn. •He becomes SY on Jan. 1. •If lucky and successful, he is tending his own brood by his first literal birthday in June. •He undergoes a complete molt of contour and flight feathers July to September, and ceases to be recognizable as SY. He is now AHY, and he should be able to be aged as ASY the following spring.

•Once a bird attains “adult” plumage (either basic or alternate), we use the term definitive. This means that the bird will look the same, whether in basic or alternate plumage, for the rest of its life.

1 Ageing by other criteria

Skulling •The avian cranium is bi-layered, with supporting struts in between the layers. •The layers take several months to develop – seeing a pattern of incomplete ossification (pneumatization) is best evidence of a HY bird.

Other body parts – •A fleshy gape (corners of the mouth) often lasts on a young bird for many months. The iris color is often different for adults and immatures, e.g., pale yellow in immature Cooper’s Hawks but deep red for adults. Mouth linings can differ, e.g., deep black for an adult Gray Catbird but grayish yellow for HYs.

Feather shape – •Outer rectrices tapered (pointed and narrow) on HY and SY birds. •Outer rectrices truncate (rounded and broad) on AHY birds.

Molt limit – •A distinct difference between “adult” and “retained juvenal” feathers following the pre- basic molt indicates an HY or SY bird. •No contrast means that all the flight feathers grew in at the same time as the contour feathers, i.e., a “complete” pre-basic molt that AHY birds undergo.

In the Indigo Buntings wings at right, note the contrast between the blue greater coverts and the dull gray primaries, secondaries, and primary coverts in the bottom wing. The bird on the bottom is SY; the top bird is AHY (ASY, in fact).

9 March 2015 – guest lectures from Fidel Atuo and Cassondra Rodenbaugh

Drivers of avian poaching for African traditional practices

NREM PhD Candidate Fidel Atuo visited class to deliver a presentation on (that’s on, not over) a recent analysis he conducted concerning the trade in avian body parts among villagers in his native Nigeria.

In cultures around the world, birds are collected live for the pet trade or killed for a variety of purposes. Food is a big one, and people in developing countries especially will eat all sorts of that we generally don’t here in the US.

In addition to food, many cultures also imbue birds with spiritual significance that might make feathers or other body parts valuable for religious rites. Finally, some people believe that certain bird species contain substances in their bodies that can actually heal various maladies. At least 354 different species have been taken in Africa for such traditional uses.

Fidel and his research team interviewed men in remote villages both in proximity to or distant from parks and natural areas in the Cross River Region of southeastern Nigeria. They asked the men if they were aware of any trade in avian body parts and if they themselves had traded avian body parts in the last two years. The objective was to identify predictive aspects of the men or their villagers that might be associated with participation in the trade for birds and their body parts.

2 Data – Men from 18 villages were interviewed. From their responses, at least 27 species from 13 families were represented in the regional trade. The most often reported were Hooded Vulture, Great Blue , Martial Eagle, and Grey Parrot (vulture, eagle, and parrot are IUCN Red List species).

Martial Eagle (l) and Great Blue Turaco (r)

Additional findings: *Hunters, farmers, traders, and government workers – respectively - were the most to least likely occupations to be involved in avian body parts trading. *Young people, poor people, and men with multiple wives were more likely to engage in the trade. This might be due to young men trying to provide for growing families for which they lack sufficient resources, and the sale of birds is an important supplementary income. *The people who hunted and sold birds did not necessarily know or care about which birds they killed. Instead, they persecuted birds indiscriminately, confident that someone somewhere would want to purchase whatever body parts they had. *The last category of positive prediction for involvement in trade were those people who suffered from some ailment and felt they had a specific need for a bird-based medicine. For example, Great Blue Turaco is widely sought due to the belief that it is a remedy for respiratory ailments.

Why is this a problem?

Other than the obvious that some very rare species are highly sought after, there was one especially troubling result from this study: people were collecting birds to sell in other regions where those birds were already rare (or extirpated). This suggests that the zone of influence for cultural attitudes towards wildlife can extend well beyond the boundaries of where those attitudes occur. (This is in line with what we know about rhino horn and elephant ivory – collected in Africa for markets in Asia.)

What can be done? *Sustained economic development opportunities should decrease the need for bird body parts, both in terms of greater food security and financial security. *Education and delivery of medical supplies can reduce reliance on traditional medicines that feature avian body parts.

In our second lecture on March 9th, your fellow classmate Cassandra Rodenbaugh delivered a presentation on her study abroad experience in Spain last fall. Specifically, she worked at a research facility for the spectacular Bearded Vulture: The Most Awesome Bird that Americans Don’t Know About

2 subspecies separated geographically

3-4 feet long w/ 7 ½ - 9 foot wingspans (less than a foot shorter than a California Condor’s wingspan) and around 13 lbs

Females and Asian birds are slightly larger

“Bearded” comes from the black band across lores and eyes that goes down to black whiskers under their head. [small image below is a Bearded Vulture flying with a crow for comparison]

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Occur in rocky mountains with cliffs, crags, gorges, etc. (rarely below elevation of 1,000 m) Uneven populations: For instance, in 2011 there were only 3 known nest sites in Kenya but a few hundred pairs in Ethiopia 1 Live around other predators like Golden Eagles and wolves as well as the domesticated and wild ungulates that form the bulk of their diets. Capable of long-distance dispersal (usually in non-breeding individuals) but generally non-migratory.

Juvenile: 1-2 years old Immature: 2-3 years old Subadult: 4-5 years old Adult/fully mature 5-6 years old Begin breeding at age: 8 years (first breeding attempt) 10-11 years (first successful breeding attempt) Longevity: wild individuals on average 20-30 years. In captivity: 40 years. Chicks hatch March-April. First fledging at June-August. Nests: normally 1 meter in diameter and composed of skins, wool, and sticks.

Only member of Gypaetus Closest living relative: Egyptian vulture Occasionally polyandry has been documented although mostly monogamous. Ossivorous/eat carrion (their diet is typically up to 85% bone) 1,2 Only living bird species that specializes in feeding on bone (energy from the fat content is almost equal to that from muscle) 1 They forage (up to 700 km in one day) Can swallow bones up to the size of the femur of a lamb (30 cm) Otherwise bites through, bangs on rock, or flies high to drop bones (fly 50-80 m high and can drop bones that weigh almost as much as them)

4 Bearded Vultures don’t normally kill something to eat unless desperate and they will kill other Bearded Vultures over territories but sometimes accidents happen. In 456/455 BC the Greek playwright Aeschylus in 456/455 BC died when an eagle – which was the umbrella term for “big bird” at the time – dropped a turtle on his head and killed him as he sat outside reading. Young BVs will practice their aim for dropping bones on rocks and what most likely happened was a very young BV mistook his bald head for a rock.

Currently believed to be a sign of status Their sclera have loose blood giving it its trademark crimson color. The red sclera actually swell with extant activity so anything that might get the bird excited – introducing something new to their environment, a mating proposition, etc. – will make the sclera actually swell as their blood pressure rises.

Even though they are large birds, they use whistles as sound.

The birds are almost entirely blind in the dark and chicks have been taken by martins from right in front of the mothers at night and she never figured out what was happening.

First described by Linnaeus in 1758.

Nearly wiped out in Europe a hundred years ago primarily due to hunting (to protect children/livestock which people believed the birds could carry off, as well as for trophies).

Went extinct in the Alps in 1913.

EEP: European Endangered Species Programme (EEP). Collaboration between zoos, breeding centers, and private partners since 1978. Developed Specialized Breeding Centers to breed birds in captivity for reintroduction. Major efforts for reintroduction in Austrian, French, Italian, and Swiss Alps beginning in 1980s. Reintroduction in Southern Spain (Andalusia) and northern Spain (Cantabrian Mounts).

As of July 2014: IUCN Red List = “Near threatened” Around 10,000 individuals potentially exist in the wild with up to 6,700 mature which, considering the wide range of countries they’re distributed throughout, isn’t really a lot. Current threats: poisons (mostly targeting carnivores), habitat degradation, reduced food availability (changing cultural practices of herders), power line collisions, disturbances to breeding birds, hunting (in Nepal, intestines are used in traditional medicine) and environmental contaminants like lead.

5 This is where my experience in Spain really comes in because I worked at the Centro de Fauna de Vallcalent in Lleida, Spain, which is an SBC with the Bearded Vulture EEP. This center is actually organized by Alex Llopis Dell, the Bearded Vulture Programme Manager. Breeding these birds is very tricky and programs in Europe take many unique approaches to their care

The largest concern with breeding BVs is the delicate balance between aggression and pair bonding. These birds have no natural predators or competitors for food so they are normally very placid, however they can become extremely aggressive during the breeding season. The birds are observed for a couple of hours a day for signs of increased aggression because if they become aggressive it can be barely a day before their mate is on the ground with its head crushed. In the wild, pairs only meet up for copulations and nesting duties – otherwise they are foraging for nesting materials and food – but in captivity they don’t have that luxury. Instead, Alex learned to put magpies in with the birds. Magpies are native species to their habitats and the magpies are too fast for the BVs to catch. Instead, they will chase the magpies and sometimes team up to chase the magpie which facilitates pair bonding.

Pair bonding is also encouraged by enabling the birds to see other birds nearby through wooden slats and wire but have walls along platforms so they can’t actually get to the other pairs. The act of patrolling parameters encourages pair bonding. Also, with young birds, if they can see adults then they can learn some of the behaviors involved in copulation and nest building (although they have to figure out the fine details of copulation on their own which still takes time).

The other major concern is how easy it is to spook these birds. About 5 years ago, caretakers at a zoo came in one morning to find their male BV dead. Security cameras revealed that the female was playing with a stick, hit the stick on a pole, and the sound startled the male. These birds “fly blind” so he flew in a frenzy, hit a tree, and died. SBCs have strict guidelines for their cages because the birds pick at and get their beaks ripped off in cracks in platforms; can collide, get tangled in, and lose toes in mesh; and if you give them too much nesting material even if they aren’t using it then they will stop building their nests because the nesting material isn’t interesting enough to them anymore. This means that breeders must provide separate mud baths for cosmetics and nesting platforms as well as make sure no vegetation or other structure stands in the middle of the cage, all materials to make the cage must meet strict size guidelines, and tools like ladders and lawnmowers must be taken into the cage as little as possible. Vallcalent’s cages have natural ground in and around the cages so Alex rotates three groups of guinea pigs around the cages and has sheep and a goat trimming the lawn outside the cages. This also functions to prove that the birds do not kill the guinea pigs (although in the wild desperate birds have been documented as killing). They will however eat the rodents if they die naturally.

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