Bad Boy for Life: Hip-Hop Music, Race, and Sports

Earl Smith and Angela J. Hattery University of Delaware

PDiddy’s Bad Boy for Life video provides a strategic point of departure in the quest for values and community, sui generis, in SportsWorld. This study poses an interruption to the “ideological” articulations of discourse on the relationship between hip-hop music and sports by providing an examination of empirical and scientiﬁc data inside of SportsWorld. There is a carefully crafted narrative about the coexistence among Black American athletes, SportsWorld, and hip-hop music. From the beginning of Black athletes’ entry into the White spaces of the so-called level playing ﬁeld of sports—from National Association of Stock Car Racing to the National Hockey Association to Major League Baseball to National Basketball Association—this integration upsets the norms of both civility and history; because for many in White America, the belief persists that these same athletes were not then and should not be today in those sacred spaces. From Jackie Robinson to the Williams Sisters to Jack Johnson to Tiger Woods to Althea Gibson to Fritz Pollard and, of course, Muhammad Ali—all of these pioneers suffered the indignities of racial discrimination. As Smith argues in his 2014 book Race, Sport and the American Dream, fast forward, deep inside the second aught of the 21st century, it is often assumed that the addition of hip-hop music to the pregame and half-time entertainment at ballparks, basketball arenas, stadiums, and ice hockey arenas signals a welcoming to the Black Athlete and their fans. Using a Marxian lens, this study argues that both these assumptions are no more than the ideology of beliefs that Marx describes as “fantasies and illusions” or more straightforward a “phantasmagoria.” These fantasies and illusions show up as a laterna magica projecting images on society and in SportsWorld, where these can be described as commodity fetishism. Through the authors' empirical analysis of data on segregation and integration in SportsWorld, they demonstrate that things are not always as they seem.

Men who, since childhood, have had their backs to the failing football programs. Cities and counties in need of new roads entrance of a cave, cannot see the outside world. On the and public education build stadiums to keep or to lure professional wall inside the cave are projected the shadows of other sports teams, often with losing records and poor attendance men, and by linking the voices of these men to their shadows, records. High-profile athletes are worshipped like Gods and al- the inhabitants of the cave conclude that the first derive from lowed to transgress even the most central of American values, the second. One of the prisoners, however, manages to escape easily forgiven, worship never wavering, unless, of course, these and perceives the true origin of the voices. Finally, he emerges athletes critique racism and other core tenets of American society, from the cave and sees the light of day. At first the sun blinds as Colin Kaepernick did in 2016. SportsWorld is a big business. him, but then he becomes accustomed to it and the vision he Owners, many of whom occupy the top 1% of all Americans, gains enables him to understand the falsehood in which he had accrue tremendous profit off the backs of athlete’s whose labor they been living. (Laclau, 1977) exploit, though this “simple” analysis of the exploitation of athlete — labor calls for a more nuanced perspective when we consider that Today when Dr. Dre is an Apple executive, Jay-Z has even benchwarmers on National Basketball Association (NBA) partnered with Samsung on an album release, and Snoop — and National Football League (NFL) teams earn many times more Dogg has appeared in Chrysler commercials the St. Ides per year than the average family, and superstars earn more than the campaign appears strange, a relic from a time when Hip Hop profits of many mid-size companies. Sports are part of an expand- culture hadn’t yet earned wider Madison Avenue respect. ing capitalist market, locally, nationally, and globally. Specifically, (Coward, 2016) this study utilizes the narrative of P Diddy’s music video, Bad Boy Hip Hop is Dead. (Nas, 2006) for Life, to interrogate the question of Black men’s ability to be fully integrated into the exclusive spaces reserved for the wealthiest SportsWorld, a term coined by Smith, refers to the ways in of Whites who own the teams and record labels that exploit Black which sports are embedded in every aspect of American culture as people’s talent. As we will demonstrate, no matter how many well as the social and political economy (Smith, 2014b). Colleges Whites listen to and purchase P Diddy’s music and no matter how and universities, as well as cities and counties around the country, many White people would hire P Diddy to perform at their invest often scarce resources that could otherwise be used to Martha’s Vineyard Labor Day party, there is no invitation to improve conditions for students and citizens into sports. Colleges move next door. and universities close academic units while they funnel money into At the time of the final revisions to this study, yet another highly publicized relationship between hip-hop and SportsWorld was brokered. Roger Goddell, the commissioner of the NFL signed The authors are with the Department of Women and Gender Studies, University of a deal with Jay-Z and his production company Roc Nation to Delaware, Newark, DE, USA. Address author correspondence to Angela J. Hattery provide exclusive musical entertainment at NFL games. Early at [email protected]. indicators are that this relationship was brokered in an attempt 174 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/27/21 08:14 PM UTC Bad Boy for Life: Hip-Hop Music, Race, and Sports 175 to “tamp down” the antiracism protests by Colin Kaepernick, Eric Hip-hop music fills the arenas of NBA teams across the nation. Reid, and Michael Bennet; protests that superstar tennis player At any moment on ESPN you can catch images of LeBron Serena Williams had also endorsed. This arrangement not only James flying through the air for a monstrous dunk as your serves as a mechanism to sanitize the NFL, but it also serves as yet favorite hip-hop artists provide the soundtrack. It only makes another example of the central argument of this study; no matter sense that the fastest growing sport internationally would be how famous Jay-Z and the Queen Bey are and no matter how many scored by the rapidly growing musical voice of the youth. Yet, White people purchase their music or attend their concerts, Jay-Z as simple as this all sounds, hip-hop and the NBA have come a and Beyonce are still on the outside looking in the superclass world long way to the healthy coexistence they now enjoy. reserved for wealthy Whites. For sure. But, still, there is anxiety in the relationship. Much of this 1 anxiety has to do with race (Duru, 2010). SportsWorld is racialized; Hip-Hop in SportsWorld it is, for the most part, Black and White. Sport sociologist Leonard (2017, p. 12) put it thus: PDiddy’s Bad Boy for Life video (2001) provides a strategic point of departure (Durkheim, 1895/1982; Smith, 2014b)inthis . . . a sporting world that remains “black” and “white.”“Blacks study in the quest for understanding the relationship between hip- remain ‘raced,’ primarily as athletes, and whites prevail hop and SportsWorld. P Diddy’s rap video entitled “Bad Boy for ‘unmarked as racial subjects’ in the role of spectators, the Life,” which first aired on July 10, 2001, is a unique summary of media and administrators.” housing and neighborhood segregation and the place of Black athletes and entertainers who move into White space—even There is a carefully crafted narrative about the coexistence among though they can afford it—and are then scrutinized by White Black American athletes, SportsWorld, and hip-hop music neighbors. Featured prominently in this police role are White (Bukowski, 2008; Dyson, 2016). From the beginning of Black actors Ben Stiller and television host Pat O’Brien. Black actors athletes’ entry into the White spaces of the so-called level playing and athletes known to the viewing public who appear are rappers fields—from National Association of Stock Car Racing (NASCAR) Ice Cube and Snoop Dogg. Athletes who appear are boxer Mike to National Hockey Association (NHL) to Major League Baseball Tyson and basketball players Shaquille O’Neal and Baron Davis. (MLB) to National Basketball Association (NBA)—this integration The video opens in Perfecttown, USA. A White man in a bathrobe upsets the norms of both civility and history because for many in is picking up his paper on the curb when dark clouds begin to White America; the belief persists that these same athletes were not block the sun. He looks up and along with the black clouds are a then and should not today be in those sacred spaces (Anderson, series of black town cars and a black tour bus rolling slowly down 2015). President Trump’s “sons of bitches” commentary coming his street. Other White neighbors out in their yards look up as the after Colin Kaepernick led the “take a knee” movement is an entourage enters the community. The bus door opens in front of a exemplar of this perspective (McNeil, 2017). From Jackie Robinson house with a for sale sign in the yard and Black people, dressed in to the Williams Sisters to Jack Johnson to Tiger Woods to Althea hip-hop swag, NFL and NBA gear stream off the bus. A White Gibson to Fritz Pollard and, of course, Muhammad Ali—all of these woman faints. P Diddy begins rapping “Bad Boy” from the roof pioneering “ballers” suffered the indignities of racial discrimination of the house, installed with speakers in the windows. The party (Harrison & Burkstein, 2014; Shropshire, 1996). These racial spills into the garage and the yard and soon young Black men indignities continue today (Leonard, 2017; Smith, 2014b). dressedinNBAjerseysareriding scooters down the middle of It is often the case that people assume that the presence of the otherwise quiet street—popping wheelies. Slowly, White something or someone indicates significantly more social change neighbors are seen enjoying the music. Pat O’Brien is seen than is reality. On that incredible night in November of 2008 when leaning over the fence, grooving to the music but also his Barack Obama was elected as President, many people more so eyes on the Black women moving to the music themselves. A Whites than Blacks argued or at least speculated that this moment White neighbor emerges with goggles from under the water in a indicated that the United States had become a “postracial” society. hot tub full of Black women, as if he has been ogling their The unparalleled success of Tiger Woods suggested that perhaps the scantily clad bodies. Repetition of the lyrics “we aint, going no racial barriers that had long stood in country club sports like golf and where, we can’t be stopped cause we’re bad boy for life” plays tennis were beginning to crack. Some might argue that the infusion on. Soon, high-profile athletes arrive, including Mike Tyson and of hip-hop into NBA arenas and NFL and MLB stadiums signals a Shaquille O’Neil (Shaq) for pick-up games in the driveway—the leveling of the playing field in SportsWorld (Sims, 2016). We fusion of hip-hop and SportsWorld illustrated clearly. The video disagree. Though our perspective may be unpopular, our argument concludes with a young Black man plugging in an extension cord, is based on an analysis of empirical data and carefully selected case the neighborhood goes dark as all of the electricity is channeled studies analyzed through the narrative lens provided by P Diddy’s to a concert stage in his front yard where P Diddy and his Bad Boy for Life video. In short, we argue that the presence of hip- entourage perform to a packed audience. In the final scene, hop in SportsWorld is simply cultural appropriation as well as the P Diddy goes out in his robe to get his paper off the curb and fetishized commodification of Black bodies without representation he looks left and notices young White punk rockers moving in (Kelley, 2005; Kitwa, 2006). next door, “Damn, there goes the neighborhood.” In addition, we suggest that the inclusion of hip-hop in In this study, then, we pose an interruption to the “ideological” SportsWorld is as much about market expansion and that it in articulations of discourse on the relationship of hip-hop music and no way foreshadows the abdication of the throne to Blacks, who sports by providing an examination of empirical, scientific exam- play sports and music, but still face significant barriers to managing inations of SportsWorld phenomenon. Is the SportsWorld, hip-hop, or owning teams or record labels (Smith, 2014b). Finally, we argue NBA, NFL, MLB relationship one of harmony, goodwill existing that the relationship between hip-hop and SportsWorld is complex in a postracial America or a harbinger of something else (Francis, and requires a more nuanced analysis; “Ballin” is now leisure, a fun 2017)? As Francis (2017) writes: activity with music (Kelley, 1998).

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Our inquiry in this study brings together two theoretical and coaches, but owners also have the power to dictate players’ paradigms not usually employed together, critical race theory behavior and they often do so in ways that run counter to the norms (CRT), which, along with a Marxist lens is merged to provide a of inclusion. For example, some leaders in professional sports, framework for interrogating race and hip-hop in SportsWorld. coaches and owners, police the dress of athletes, especially Black Many scholars credit Kimberle Crenshaw as the founder of athletes, in ways that contradict the narrative of embracing hip-hop. CRT (Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, & Thomas, 1995), but CRT In addition, owners and managers also have the power to make certainly does not begin and end with her work. Many other decisions about where their teams play and when. The decision by scholars, including Collins (2016), have built on and extended the owners or managers to incorporate hip-hop at sporting events her work. CRT provides a point of departure for our analysis of also implies, wrongly, that Blacks are the primary consumers of racism as it unfolds and remains in SportsWorld (Collins, 2006; hip-hop. In fact, White young men account for a significant portion Hylton, 2008). of sales of hip-hop music (Kitwa, 2006). Thus, this more nuanced interpretation might suggest that the incorporating of hip-hop into SportsWorld may be read as a nod to young White men (mostly) as Critical Race Theory the next generation of consumers (Coward, 2016) rather than For all of the scholars (e.g., Crenshaw, Collins, Delgado) whose necessarily a welcoming beacon for Black athletes and their fans. work we employ herein to understand race and its place in hip-hop and SportsWorld, we make it clear that CRT for us is about Marxism and Labor Exploitation interrogating racial power! One way to think about the system of racism that exists and persists in the United States is as a Moving deep inside the second aught of the 21st century, it is often machine. The machine of racism has deep roots, it is embedded in presumed that by adding hip-hop music to the pregame tracks and our constitution, laws, and practices, so deeply that even when we the half-time extravaganza shows at ballparks, basketball arenas, attempt to revise those policies or practices, all we are really doing stadiums, and ice hockey arenas is a welcome mat being laid out for is tweaking a piece of the machine rather than dismantling the the Black athlete and their fans (Smith, 2014b). Using a Marxian ’ machine entirely and replacing it with something new and better. lens (Harcourt, 2012), especially Marx s(1952) critique of com- Let’s say, for example, that the machine of racial domination is like modity fetishism, this study argues that both these assumptions are fi no more than the ideology of beliefs that Marx describes as a car. When the car was rst built it ran on coal, but as the economy “ ” “ ” shifted and coal was more costly, and as our beliefs about coal fantasies and illusions or phantasmagoria. These fantasies changed—it became a “dirty” fuel—car manufacturers tinkered and illusions show up as a laterna magica projecting images on with the car so that it could be powered by gasoline rather than coal. society and in SportsWorld where these can be described as commodity fetishism (Laclau, 1977). As Marx explains it The car itself did not change. It still continued to drive down the (Tucker, 1978) under capitalism the object—sports played by road moving people from place to place. The only thing that Black athletes—emerges in this epoch as a commodity to be changed was the type of fuel used to power it. sold on the world market; there is, to be sure, a monetary value And, so it is with the music played during the pregame rituals, for exchange. It then becomes fetishized. For this study, this means as teams warm-up on the field or course, or the artists chosen to sport fans come to believe that the object has intrinsic value in and entertain expectant crowds during halftime, especially at big events of itself. As hip-hop music has evolved nationally and internation- like the Superbowl, a venue that is now under the supervision and ally from the iconic ghettos embedded deep inside of Black direction of legendary hip-hop mogul Jay-Z. The music may have fl American Civil Society, to a much more broadly consumed changed to re ect the tastes of the fans or to appeal to future fans, commodity, it has been expropriated from its original owners— but the balance of power has not shifted. Not one inch. in similar ways that Marx discusses in “Theft of the Wood” We employ CRT as a tool for interrogating the presence of hip- (Linebaugh, 1976); an expropriation that has now become normal- hop music in NBA (and other) stadiums, because it centers the ized as a routine activity inside the hip-hop and SportsWorld discussion on race and racial inequalities from the perspective of relationship (Bukowski, 2008). non-White people. CRT is also useful, because it is attentive to the The exploitation of the Black athlete has been examined social, economic, and political conditions in which a particular thoroughly (Edwards, 1969). There is extant literature on hip- phenomenon takes place (Billings, 2009). For example, consider- hop and sports (Francis, 2017), but there needs to be more, ing only the racial demographic of NBA players, wherein Blacks especially a theoretically sophisticated examination of the inter- – make up a dominant majority of the players in the NBA (77 81%), section of hip-hop and sports that exposes that both are tools of it is understandable that one could easily come to the conclusion capitalism designed to exploit labor and extract profit. As we have that the NBA must be inclusive of Black voices and Black argued extensively elsewhere (Smith, 2014b), integral to Sports- leadership. Certainly, an analysis devoid of a CRT perspective World in the 21st century is global expansion. Here, we use the could easily come to this conclusion. However, when a CRT lens is term to suggest both expansion outside of the United States and applied, the element of power is illuminated. Blacks may make up expansion into previously untapped or undertapped markets, the vast majority of the players, but as we document here and including the Black community. From the NBA to NASCAR, elsewhere (Smith, 2014b), Black men (and we chose the gendered sports franchises are eagerly looking to expand their brand in the term to denote the fact that Black women are nowhere to be found United States and abroad. For example, NASCAR had enlisted the outside of the traditional roles of mother, wife, cheerleaders, baby hip-hop/rap artist for 50 cents to bring more African American fans mamas or hookups, or half-time entertainers, even Beyonce) have to the races (Gluck, 2013). Internationally, MLB, NBA, and NFL absolutely no power in the NBA; they are not NBA presidents of have all expanded their regular season games and special contests basketball operations or general managers, and they are certainly to places around the globe such as London, Mexico, and Latin not owners. America (Vargas, 2000); similarly, as Smith argues with regards to Being an owner or a manager means that you hold the power the global expansion of hip-hop “Hip-Hop’sinfluence is, at last, a not only to hire and fire your employees, in this case the athletes true and not merely an ancillary currency” (Smith, 2014a).

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Cultural Appropriation What Do the Data Tell Us? Despite hip-hop’s roots deep in the iconic Black ghetto (Anderson, Despite all of the gains made by Blacks who play revenue- 2015), a music form that is revolutionary and begets social move- generating sports like football and basketball, the needle has moved ments in the post-Civil Rights era, today, hip-hop is consumed by very little when it comes to sites of power managing or owning a people of all races, including young White men. Many of whom team. The legal scholar Shropshire (1996, pp. 456–457) put it “act Black” as part of their consumption of the music, see espe- this way: cially Clift’s(2010) documentary “Blacking Up: Hip Hop’s Remix of Race and Identity.” Further evidence for the importance of In the harshest of terms, the sports industry resembles a black- White audiences in the sales of hip-hop comes from a study bottomed pyramid: large numbers of African American ath- published in Forbes in 2017, when, for the ﬁrst time in history, lete-participants, but few African-Americans in non-playing hip-hop surpassed rock as the highest-selling music genre positions at the highest levels. (McIntyre, 2017). According to the Media Behavior and Inﬂuence In the NBA, a league of 30 teams, that is nearly 75% Black in terms Study, though Blacks are disproportionately represented among of its players, Black men coach only 23% of the NBA teams. The hip-hop listeners, 40% of all those who listen to hip-hop identify as NBA has just seven African American coaches out of 30 teams. White, and more Whites than Blacks report consuming hip-hop Black coaches in the NBA as of August, 2019 (Figure 1). Hip-hop’s mainstream appeal is important, because it suggests Lloyd Pierce—Atlanta Hawks that the decisions by game day managers to play hip-hop during Nate McMillan—Pacers pregame and half-time shows may have much less to do with Dwane Casey—Detroit Pistons signaling Black inclusion and may have everything to do with appealing to young White men and women (Clift, 2010) fans that Alvin Gentry—New Orleans Pelicans both the NBA and NFL desperately want to hold on to and sports Doc’ Rivers—Los Angeles Clippers. like NASCAR want to continue to cultivate. David Sean Fizdale—New York Knicks The data on fan attendance and racial–ethnic representation of the team have been researched (Harrison, Moore, & Evans, Monte Williams—Phoenix Suns 2006) and the results demonstrate that fans do pay attention to the The same is true when it comes to the NFL. In a league of 32 racial makeup of the teams they support (Nadeau, Pegoraro, teams, which is close to 70% Black in terms of its players, there are Jones, & O’Reilly, 2011). The data on who watches and attends just two Black head coaches which translated into 6% of the teams football, basketball, baseball, hockey, and NASCAR events informs in the NFL having Black head coaches. us that overall these fans are overwhelmingly White (Nadeau et al., NFL Black coaches (August, 2019) 2011); 92% of the fan base of the NHL is White, they are bested by Anthony Ray Lynn—Los Angeles Chargers NASCAR which reports that 94% of their fan base being White. Racial tensions often arise between the athletes who are mostly Mike Tomlin—Pittsburgh Steelers Black and the audience or fans who are mostly White, as it did in When it comes to ownership, which is where the real money is, 2017 when Kevi Durant returned to Oklahoma City to play against when taken together, including the NFL, NBA, MLB, NHL, and his former team (Snyder, 2017). There is one singular exception, the NASCAR, there is only one Black outright owner, the legendary fan base for the NBA, which is about 45% Black, is the least White, basketball player Michael Jordan. This point can be rather conten- but still predominantly White. tious; critics of this claim will often cite the fact that Magic Johnson Analyzing these data points through the lens of CRT illu- owns the Los Angeles Lakers or Derek Jeter owns the Florida minates the ways in which Whiteness and power operate in Marlins. In fact, just like with horse racing, an analogy not lost on practice, enabling Whites with the discursive resources and racial the authors, other than the case of Michael Jordan, Black ownership power to culturally appropriate hip-hop, intentionally or uninten- of sports teams is an investment that comes with no more power tionally, for their own purposes, essentially demanding that the than we have as investors in our 401K plan or any other organiza- music be played at stadiums, ballparks, and today at NASCAR tion. Both Johnson and Jeter are part owners, they are investors. So, race tracks. to be clear, despite decades of integration, Black men remain members of the proletariat class when it comes to sports. This is a well-compensated proletariat, but proletariat nevertheless.

Analytical Approach PDiddy’s Bad Boys for Life video (2001) provides the contextual or frame analysis pioneered in the work of sociologist Goffman whose work focused on interactions in everyday life (1986). Frame analysis allows us to epistemologically assess the question that we examine in this study, the degree to which a seeming embrace of hip-hop by SportsWorld, as evidenced by the incorporation of hip-hop in pregame and halftime shows, signals an embrace of Black people, both athletes and fans, into the White community. In addition, we ponder the question of power, as explicated in CRT: does member- ship in an organization, players on an NBA team, or rappers who Figure 1 — Race and age make-up of hip hop listeners compared to the move into predominantly White neighborhoods indicate that the ™ US population. Source. Media Behavior and Inﬂuence Study. structures of power have opened up, ever so slightly for Blacks with

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/27/21 08:14 PM UTC 178 Smith and Hattery social class standing? Our analysis reveals evidence for a cultural members of the team had confided in him that they also believed rupture, just as P Diddy’s Bad Boy for Life video narrates; Black Sterling was a racist. Davis says he struggled with speaking out, people have been welcomed as athletes (and entertainers) but their because he feared that he would be traded to another team. entrance into hip-hop and SportsWorld requires that they play the Our concern is that at no time, unless we missed it, did the team role of the minstrel; please the audience and stay in your lane. We as a whole make a public protest. Doc Rivers came aboard as head highlight at a series of events that have racially rocked SportsWorld, coach in 2013, a year before Sterling was barred from the NBA; thus offering counter evidence to the argument that Blacks and their Chris Paul and Blake Griffin, both of whom played for the Clippers music are indeed welcome in SportsWorld (Duru, 2010). during the controversy, were deafening. Coaches and players are To assess the degree to which Black athletes and fans are to stay in their lane. There is no room for accusations or protest welcome in the kinds of stadiums and arenas that regularly pipe of racial tensions on the team or in the larger community if one wants hip-hop through the speakers and even invite hip-hop artists to to continue working. Owners own, coaches coach, players play. The perform at half-time shows, we consider several incidents or “mini lines of demarcation are clearly and reinforced. Blake Griffinrecalls cases,” including those involving Donald Sterling, Danny Ferry, and that as a rookie Sterling would invite him to his parties. He said he the NFL owners’ response to the “take a knee” protest that Colin was unable to escape Sterling’sgrasp(Fox Sports, 2014): Kaepernick is often credited with starting. There are many examples that we could choose from. We chose these specific cases, because Donald Sterling had me by the hand. You know that thing they demonstrate both the timeliness and timelessness of these elderly women do where they grab the top of your hand with tensions, spanning the entirety of SportsWorld in the 21st century. just their fingers and lead you around? That’s what he was Altogether, these case studies allow us to carefully interrogate the doing . . . . I was hoping to escape down the stairs, find one of deep meanings of the actions embedded within the events themselves. my teammates and blend in with the rest of the crowd. I tried to Donald Sterling: Donald Sterling, past owner of the Los Angeles pull my hand away. Nope. Clippers, found himself embroiled in controversy after a series of But the silence of players like Griffin and coaches like Rivers was disagreements between him and his then-girlfriend Vivian Stiviano nothing new. In 2009, basketball legend, Elgin Baylor filed a found their way into social media. We provide a short excerpt of the wrongful termination lawsuit after he was fired from his position as exchange here (Associated Press in San Francisco, 2014). Clippers general manager by Donald Sterling. Included in the Stiviano lawsuit is a revealing statement Baylor says was made by Sterling (Manfred, 2014): I saw someone I admire. I admire Magic Johnson. [Sterling] said, “Personally, I would like to have a white Southern Stiviano coach coaching poor black players.” And I was shocked. And he looked at me and said, “Do you think that’s a racist statement?” I And I took a picture with someone I admire. He happens to be said, “Absolutely. That’s plantation mentality.” black, and I’m sorry. The Donald Sterling “crisis” comes to an end in May of 2014 when Sterling Steve Ballmer, the former CEO of Microsoft, purchased the Los I think that fact that you admire him—I’ve known him well, Angeles Clippers for an estimated price tag of $2 billion, one of the and he should be admired. And I’m just saying that it’s too bad highest prices ever paid for a sport franchise. you can’t admire him privately, and during YOUR ENTIRE Bruce Levenson and Danny Ferry: Atlanta Hawks coowner FUCKING LIFE, your whole life, admire him, bring him here, Bruce Levenson and Danny Ferry were themselves embroiled in controversy in much the same ways as Donald Sterling, when feed him, fuck him, I don’t care. You can do anything. But controversial e-mails made their way to social media for all of us to don’t put him on an Instagram for the world to have to see so ’ see. On August 25, 2012, Levenson sent an offensive, racist e-mail they have to call me. And don t bring him to my games. OK? to general manager Danny Ferry. Controversy does not end there Some stood to defend Sterling, others called him a racist. In the end, for Ferry, who got into trouble several years later, in 2015 when he ’ under intense pressure on social media, Adam Silver banned Donald made statements many considered racist about Atlanta Hawk s Sterling from ownership in the NBA and his wife (at the time they player Luol Deng. According to the media reports (King, 2014). were engaged in a contentious divorce that was never completed) On the call, which occurred June 6, 2014, Ferry characterized Shelley, and they were forced to sell the Los Angeles Clippers. The “ ” athletes who played for the Clippers during Sterling’s ownership were Luol Deng as a player who has a little African in him, and added, “He’s like a guy who would have a nice store out front very quiet about his racism. One player who did voice concern was ” Baron Davis who played for 3 years under Sterling. He had this to say: and sell you counterfeit stuff out of the back. fi Ferry was subsequently let go by the organization. But, it is Bruce Playing on the Clippers, that was the rst time I really felt like I ’ was like on an island by myself. I was the only one saying that Levenson s e-mail that we analyze here. In that e-mail, Levenson “Yo, this is going on.” vented about the Black fans of the franchise. He was unglued over several things including, according to him, that Blacks did not Like nobody’s paying attention? This is going on. This man is stand for the National Anthem; they did not arrive at the arena on racist. time; they did not buy food from the vendors and the following (Vivlamore, 2014): Levenson then goes on to offer his “theory” of Clearly. why things were as he saw them (Vivlamore, 2014): Davis went on to say in the interview that he was not the only My theory is that the black crowd scared away the whites member of the team who had these feelings. According to him, other and there are simply not enough affluent black fans to build

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a significant season ticket base. Please don’t get me wrong. (Associated Press, 2017). It has also been suggested that Jerry There was nothing threatening going on in the arena back then. Jones was listening when President Donald Trump called for i never felt uncomfortable, but i think southern whites simply just this type of response from the NFL owners. Even Jerry Jones, were not comfortable being in an arena or at a bar where they a thought leader in the world of the NFL succumbed to the were in the minority. pressure. David Stern: David Stern, who was the commissioner of the These views expressed led to the downfall of Levenson and soon NBA from 1984 to 2014 (30 years) is also no stranger to contro- thereafter he sold his majority share ownership in the team. versy, but he found himself on the other end of criticism in 2005. it’s 70 pct black Under Stern’s leadership just before the 2005–2006 season, the the cheerleaders are black NBA announced a new dress code policy, which banned players from wearing headphones, chains, shorts, sleeveless shirts, indoor the music is hip-hop sunglasses, T-shirts, jerseys, and headgear such as baseball caps at the bars it’s 90 pct black. during NBA-related public appearances. One player, Allen Iverson criticized the policy saying: Dan Gilbert: Dan Gilbert, owner of the Cleveland Cavaliers, “They’re targeting guys who dress like me, guys who dress Hip found himself embroiled in controversy in the old-fashioned way, Hop . . . I think they went way overboard” (Anonymous, 2005). when he penned an open letter to LeBron James when James left Reilly, a then Sports Illustrated writer (2001) exposes a much for Miami in 2010 to join the Heat. James said the letter was deeper rift between Allen Iverson, David Stern, and the NBA. Rick disloyal and it had racial overtones (Zucker, 2017). Certainly, we Reilly argues that Stern’s dress code policy goes back to 2001 when can have a debate about James’ decision to “take his talents to ” Allen Iverson appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated shirtless South Beach, but a Marxist analysis would suggest that any “ ” member of the proletariat has the right to seek the best labor deal and tattooed (April 22, 2001). He had on bling. The readers, they can find. A CRT framework centers race and power in the mostly White, of the most popular sports magazine at that time discussion. Not so many years removed from slavery, the analysis were vocal about their assessment of Allen Iverson on the cover of made by sports writer Rhoden (2007) in his 2007 book 40 Million the beloved Sports Illustrated: Dollar Slaves, a White man, Gilbert, feels that he has the right to “The cover with Allen Iverson made me sick to my stomach.” tell a Black man where and when he can work. “Those preening idiots barely belong to the human race.”; “ ... stare, tattoos and pants to the waist showing his jockstrap sum Dear Cleveland, All Of Northeast Ohio and Cleveland Cava- up the reason I have not watched an NBA game in years.”; liers Supporters Wherever You May Be Tonight; As you now “The picture of Allen Iverson is revolting” and “I object to this know, our former hero, who grew up in the very region that grotesque and irreverent picture.” Reilly ends saying what the he deserted this evening, is no longer a Cleveland Cavalier. fans objected to most was how comfortable Iverson was: “hip- This was announced with a several day, narcissistic, self- hop to his heart.” (Reilly, 2001) promotional build-up culminating with a national TV special of his “decision” unlike anything ever “witnessed” in the If the coveted NBA were serious about “diversity and inclusion” history of sports and probably the history of entertainment. (Lee, 2016) why would Stern and his leadership team go this far to (Gilbert, 2010) tell grown men how to dress (Lorenz & Murray, 2013)? Stern wanted “respectability.” He saw it manifested in suits and ties, Jerry Jones: Jerry Jones is certainly no stranger to controversy. shoes (not sneakers), and manners. He wanted to fill the stadium But, in 2017 he became one of the most visible and vocal NFL seats with primarily White fans who came out to see respectable owners opposing the “take a knee” protest waged by a visible but Black guys playing basketball. His role models for doing this had to tiny fraction of NFL players. Prior to Colin Kaepernick’s kneeling, be, from our perspective, Branch Rickey and ‘Bear’ Bryant. Jerry Jones, owner of the NFL franchise Dallas Cowboys, could be People love a “feel good” story like Jackie Robinson’s inte- seen, on any given Sunday, standing arm-in-arm with players on gration of Major League Baseball or Paul “Bear” Bryant’s opening his team as they took the field. Many on the outside may have the doors of the storied Alabama football team to Black players predicted that Jerry Jones would take the side of protesting players much earlier than other southern schools. But the truth is that whose bodies and talents he had been exploiting for decades. And, neither Branch Rickey nor Bear Bryant were acting on moral initially he did. On September 25, 2017, Jerry Jones, head coach grounds. They were, instead, prudent businessmen deeply embed- Jason Garrett, and Cowboys players, took a knee, arm-in-arm. ded in capitalism. Ricky knew that if he allowed Jackie Robinson Though they took the knee after the National Anthem, the photo into Major League Baseball that Whites as well as Blacks would was printed on the front page of the New York Times, and many line up to buy a ticket to watch him play (Newman & Rosen, 2016). interpreted it as support for and in solidarity with Colin Kaeper- And, after Alabama’s thumping by the University of Southern nick. Others expressed surprise given Jerry Jones’ close relation- California, a game in which Sam “Bam” Cunningham put up ship with and vocal support for President Donald Trump. Not long 135 yards and scored two touchdowns, it is believed that after, Trump expressed extreme discontent for the fact that players Bear Bryant said that they better get some “N’s” if they wanted were kneeling in protest, even calling out to NFL owners during his to stay competitive (Smith, 2014b). Let us be clear here. Integration rallies: “Wouldn’t you love to see one of these NFL owners, when takes place under only two circumstances, law and the confluence somebody disrespects our flag, you’d say, ‘Get that son of a bitch of interests (Bell, 1980, p. 523). Legal scholar Derrick Bell put fi ’ fi ” off the eld right now. Out! He s red. it thus: Not long after Jones and the Cowboys appeared on the cover of the New York Times, Jones went to 345 Park Ave, New York, This principle of “interest convergence”: provides the interest the headquarters of the NFL to conspire with other owners and of blacks in achieving racial equality will be accommodated NFL administrators to draft policy against the player protests only when it converges with the interests of whites.

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What Branch Rickey and Bear Bryant did to integrate sports is an today, Compton is 41% Black (Compton California Population and example of the latter. We argue the same is true of hip-hop and Demographics Resources, n.d.) the NBA. Although we quibble with Rhoden’s concept of the 40 million dollar slave, the CRT lens applied to the NBA and the NFL reveal Discussion that the players occupy the same role that Black people have since they were kidnapped and brought to the “new world.” They are here to make money for White people. And, though the work of the As is the case for cultural production generally, the politics of NBA or the NFL is much more interesting than the work of a slave, rap music involves the contestation over public space, expres- and the compensation is undeniably better, the NBA is a modern- sive meaning, interpretation, and cultural capital. In short, it is day version of the same racial formations that have always existed. not just what one says, it is where one can say it, how others Black mens’ bodies are exploited for the entertainment and money react to what one says, and whether one has the means with making for White men. The same can be said for the NFL (Harrison which to command public space. Cultural politics is not simply & Bukstein, 2014). We also gender the language herein that poetic politics, it is the struggle over context, meaning, and although the White women as wives and daughters benefit from public space. (Rose, 1991, pp. 276–277) the capitalism that White men engage, just as the mistresses on the plantation did, women, like the players, have no power in the P’ Diddy’s Bad Boy for Life video (2001) provides insight into the system (Crenshaw et al., 1995). appropriation of Black culture as Professor Rose explains it (1991). We note here that just because P’ Diddy moves into a White neighborhood, it is clear to us based on housing data in the post- Conclusions 2000 era (Jan, 2018), which does not mean other Blacks can do so (Korver-Glenn, 2018). If neighborhoods were truly open for racial Smith (2014b) has argued that SportsWorld is a microcosm of integration, then it would not be the case that two decades into the society. Everything, which is present in the larger civil society, is 21st century, affluent Black families are living in deeply concen- present in SportsWorld, including, but not limited to racism, trated poor communities and neighborhoods while similarly situ- sexism, violence, homophobia, class wars, and the cultural appro- ated Whites live in communities and neighborhoods that are more priation of Black life. SportsWorld has no moral high ground. socioeconomically mixed (Eligon and Gebeloff, 2016). Much as Cashin (2017) argues in her analysis of antimiscegenation laws in the United States, under capitalism Whites have developed “ ’ Ben Stiller: Hey. How you doing. Puffy or P Diddy or Pop or all kinds of contradictory laws, policies, and practices when it — ’ papa Diddy Pop I am sorry but I don t know what your comes to race to ensure their racial and economic dominance (also calling yourself these days. But aah Mr. Daddy. Listen glad see Desmond, 2019). As Cashin demonstrates (2017), during the ’ you re here in the neighborhood. Welcome. But this. [Holds same period that antimiscegenation laws were being written to up a black golf ball: note golf is never played with a black ball, prevent the unions of newly emancipated Blacks across color lines, golf balls are always white, or less often, yellow, the image a “No US antimiscegenation laws ever barred whites from marrying fl clear message] Golf balls thru the window. Not gonna y. That Chicanos or other Hispanic groups . . . only a small number of states happens once but it does not happen again. Understand what I banned marriages between whites and indigenous people, as a ban am saying. Sorry dog, Ok. Just want to clear that up. Because, would have interfered with white men’s ability to marry native uh, I am a big fan. Love your music. Enjoy the whole ...uh women and thereby claim any attendant land. Yet again, miscege- you know I love that thing. Good. Uh and listen man uh nation laws and the racial hierarchy they supported were designed having one of those crazy house party things. Shout me a to enable asset accumulation” (2017, p. 69). ” holler dog. (3:03) https://musicvideo.fandom.com/wiki/ Asset accumulation is important as all decisions in Sports- Bad_Boy_for_Life World from college to the professional ranks are rooted in capital- Social segregation continues to exist, even though Ben Stiller who ism. As we conclude this study, we also note what Gillborn cannot remember P’ Diddy’s name but wants an invite to the next says (2015): “ ” homie party to ogle the young Black girls and women in attendance. The title will displease many people. For some, it will be too ’ This critique extends also to the television host Pat O Brien peeking provocative; any attempt to place race and racism on the across the back yard fence, also ogling the young Black women. The agenda, let alone at the center of debate, is deeply unpopular. irony of the video, which is exactly why we chose its narrative to In the academy we are often told that we are being too crude examine the status of Blacks in SportsWorld, is the carefully woven and simplistic, that things are more complicated than that, that narrative that a little money, fame, and hip-hop personality will grant we’re being essentialist and missing the real problem. entry for Blacks into mainstream White America. Not so (Duru, 2010). If anything, the video and our analysis here show a careful This quote from Gillborn (2015) underscores our main points being policing of Black bodies (Hattery & Smith, 2018). made herein. It is a Leninist proposition of One Step Forward, Two In an undercited study of urbanization by Sides (2004) entitled Steps Back (Lenin, 1964) when it comes to the Black athlete in “Straight into Compton: American Dreams, Urban Nightmares, America. and the Metamorphosis of a Black Suburb” we learn that the slogan The presence of Black people has never signaled equality. “Keep the Negroes North of 130th Street” was widely accepted Never. Throughout the history of the United States, more Black even though waves of thousands of Blacks flooded to Los Angeles. people have lived in the south than in any other region of the For all of the White people who bought the music of NWA and country, and it is in the south that we had first the system of chattel Compton’s Most Wanted and DJ Quick or tickets to the feature film slavery and later Jim Crow and other social structures meant Straight Outta Compton, fame did not save the neighborhood; to limit the movement and freedoms of Black people, while

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/27/21 08:14 PM UTC Bad Boy for Life: Hip-Hop Music, Race, and Sports 181 simultaneously continuing to make enormous profits of their labor Compton California Population and Demographics Resources. (n.d.). (Hattery & Smith, 2018). Compton population and demographics. Retrieved from http:// P’ Diddy may be welcome in the neighborhood, just as Obama compton.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm was in the White House, hip-hop may be played in the biggest sports Coward, K. (2016). When hip hop first went corporate. The Atlantic. arenas, at the biggest events, but this in none of these discrete events Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2NgW8IV signals a postracial United States. We chose P Diddy’s video Bad Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Thomas, K. (Eds.). (1995). Boy for Life to illustrate the realities of racial segregation even for Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement. Black men in the top 1% of the income distribution. P Diddy may be New York, NY: The New Press. able to afford the house, but that’s quite a different story than his Desmond, M. (2019, August 14). In order to understand the brutality of ability to live there, or at least to live freely, black golf balls and all. American capitalism, you have to start on the plantation. New York Rather, as we have argued throughout this study, hip-hop in Times. Retrieved from https://nyti.ms/2LaIUNq SportsWorld is cultural appropriation, partly an effort to keep the Durkheim, E. (1895/1982). Rules of sociological method. New York, NY: players happy, and most of all a tool for recruiting the next Free Press. generation of season ticket holders: young White men, consumers Duru, J. (2010). This field is our field: Foreign players, domestic leagues, of hip-hop, sports, and budding capitalists. In their own rights, these and the unlawful racial manipulation of American sport. Tulane consumers will 1 day grow up to watch the NBA and the NFL, but Law Review, 84, 613–674. not stand with the issues that Colin Kaepernick protests. They will be Dyson, M. (2016). The courage of Colin Kaepernick. The Undefeated. content, rather, to continue to profit off the backs of Black laborers, Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2u4nObR be they professional athletes or the people who clean our houses, Edwards, H. (1969). Revolt of the black athlete. New York, NY: cook our food, and take care of our children and aging parents. We MacMillan Publishing Company. elucidate the “diversity and inclusion” mantra of SportsWorld here Eligon, J., & Gebeloff, R. (2016). Affluent and black, and still trapped by as not quite like it is portrayed in the news media, including how segregation. Retrieved from http://nyti.ms/2b8KX0M relatively weak is SportsWorld’s embrace of hip-hop music, without Fox Sports. (2014). 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