sustainability

Article An Analysis of Rural Household Livelihood Change and the Regional Effect in a Western Impoverished Mountainous Area of

Chuansheng Wang Key Laboratory of Regional Sustainable Development Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; [email protected]

 Received: 13 April 2018; Accepted: 9 May 2018; Published: 25 May 2018 

Abstract: Taking , in the western Qinling Mountains region of province, China, as our study area, and using the Sixth National Population Census alongside household survey data, we analyze changes in household livelihoods, and consequent regional effects, following the instigation of the “Grain for Green” program in 1999. Our results show rural livelihood changes with respect to natural assets (e.g., reduction of arable land, planting structure changes), human assets (e.g., labor quality improvement, fluidity of population), financial assets (e.g., income channels widening, income increasing), physical assets (e.g., optimized production tools), and social assets (e.g., information network development, increased outreach opportunities). We suggest that increased household livelihoods play an important role in improving land space utilization efficiency, resource conservation and use, and the ecological environment. However, owing to the natural environment, there are also some problems, such as “hollows” in rural production and living spaces, as well as local environmental degradation. To address these issues, regions such as the western, mountainous, impoverished area of our study should establish a policy of using ecosystems, as well as agriculture, for development in order to improve household livelihoods, build an efficient spatial structure, and providing support for the creation of a resource-saving societal system.

Keywords: assets; ecosystems; Grain for Green program; household; livelihood change; poverty area; sustainable rural livelihood

1. Introduction The concept of “livelihood”, as proposed by Chambers and Conway [1], refers to a means of securing a living, and includes peoples’ livelihood capabilities and activities, as well as their tangible assets (stores and resources) and intangible assets (claims and access). It may also be defined depending on the research angle; for Scoones (1998), whose Institute of Development Studies paper focuses on sustainable livelihoods, a livelihood comprises “the capabilities, assets (both material resources and social resources), and activities required for a means of living” [2]. Ellis (2000) [3], from the perspective of livelihood diversification, points out that “a livelihood comprises the assets (natural, physical, human, financial, and social capital), the activities, and the access to these (mediated by institutions and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household.” Although scholars analyze the concept of “livelihood” in different ways, its definition consistently features elements such as assets, rights, and actions. Since the 1990s, rural poverty and rural development have received increasing international attention, and the concept of “livelihood” has provided researchers with a new perspective through which to study rural poverty alleviation, as well as the environmental protection of rural development in developing countries [4–7]. Fundamentally, a household is observed to be poor in relation to

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738; doi:10.3390/su10061738 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 2 of 17 its vulnerability and location in a high-risk living environment. In China, areas of poverty and of ecological fragility are highly consistent in spatial distribution [8]. A fragile ecological environment, shortage of water resources, ecological problems, ineffective communication structures, and other issues are all associated with a high vulnerability of household livelihood and lack of livelihood strategies [9,10]. Therefore, household livelihood capacity improvement and sustainable ecosystem construction can be seen as contributing factors toward rural poverty alleviation. At the end of the last century, to address the problem of poverty in the country’s western provinces, the Chinese Government implemented a series of poverty alleviation policies, including the “Grain for Green” (or “Sloping Land Conversion”) program, in which farmers were paid to return cropland on steep slopes to forest or grassland. The program, which began in 1999, has already effected 9.1 million hectares of farmland afforestation, involving 25 provinces (cities), more than 32 million households, and 124 million farmers [11]. Of the six key forestation projects implemented in China at the end of the 20th century, Grain for Green is considered to be the most significant in terms of area, scope, investment, and policy—and is closely related to the individual interests (assets, rights, and actions) of thousands of farmers [12]. The program has not only had a remarkable effect on controlling soil erosion and improving China’s rural ecological environment, but has also played an active role in the adjustment of the country’s agricultural economic structure, and in increasing the earning opportunities for many farmers. In contrast to the European Union policy CAP [13], China’s Grain for Green program focuses on reversing the situation of land deterioration in ecologically fragile areas, reducing the heavy food demand and over-reclamation, and developing those areas stuck in long-term poverty caused by these factors. Its aim is to restore the natural environment and to improve household livelihood. Nevertheless, the two agree on the goals of the diversity of household livelihood and the sustainability of rural areas. Our paper takes Longnan city, located in the Qinba Mountains, as its study area for analysis of changes in household livelihoods, as well as in regional resources and the environmental effects of returning cropland to forestland or grassland. As one of the 14 poverty areas, the Qinba Mountains is a key target of the Grain for Green program. Based on the theoretical framework of the sustainable household livelihood analysis set up by the British Government’s Department for International Development (DFID), we study and generalize the characteristics of sustainable household change since the launch of the Grain for Green, in terms of natural, human, financial, physical and social assets. Furthermore, we analyze the positive regional effects observed from the Grain for Green program on the intensification of agricultural production space, urbanization, the resource utilization, and the environmental protection, to provide a scientific basis for the further policy establishment. In China, through a general deepening of research into the issues of poverty, studies of household livelihoods have become more widespread, too [14]. The literature shows that different livelihood strategies not only influence the type and intensity of land utilization, for example, but also the effective allocation of livelihood assets and activities, and the improvement of income and living standards (e.g., [15,16]). Traditional livelihoods increase land burden, ecological overload, and the probability of degradation. Moreover, the frequency and scale of ecological disasters, such as flooding, are increasing too, and the natural environment is deteriorating under burgeoning population pressure. More recently, the ecological effect of the transition of agricultural households’ livelihoods has also been seen to be significant [17,18], as since the 1980s, migration has become popular as farmers seek alternative sources of employment; furthermore, ecological vulnerability deterioration has been alleviated for migrant areas. However, while the ecosystem has been seen to have improved from a national and even an international perspective, the local environment has deteriorated.

2. Study Area Our study area is located in the southeast of Gansu province (Figure1), between 32◦380 N–34◦310 N and 104◦10 E–106◦350 E, and has a total area of 27,900 square kilometers. Longnan is the only region in Gansu through which the Yangtze River flows. It is situated in the convergence of the Qinghai–Tibet Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

2. Study Area

SustainabilityOur study2018, 10 area, 1738 is located in the southeast of Gansu province (Figure 1), between 32°383′ ofN– 17 34°31′ N and 104°1′ E–106°35′ E, and has a total area of 27,900 square kilometers. Longnan is the only region in Gansu through which the Yangtze River flows. It is situated in the convergence of the Qinghai–TibetPlateau, Loess Plateau, andLoess western Plateau, Qinling and western Mountains, Qinling and hasMountains, a complex and and has varied a complex terrain; and it is variedhigher terrain; in the northwestit is higher than in the in northwest the southeast, than andin the there southeast, are mountains, and there valleys, are mountains, hills, and valleys, basins hills,interwoven and basins throughout. interwoven throughout. LongnanLongnan city city is is in in the the East East Asian Asian monsoon monsoon climat climatee zone, zone, with with an average an average annual annual rainfall rainfall of 450– of 1000450–1000 mm concentrated mm concentrated in the in summer the summer (July–August) (July–August).. There are There 3762 are large 3762 and large small and rivers small within rivers thewithin territory, the territory, which whichbelong belong to the to Jialing, the Jialing, Bail Bailong,ong, Baishui, Baishui, and and Xihan Xihan major major river river systems. systems. Administratively, thethe region region comprises comprises one one urban urban , district, Wudu , district, eight counties,eight counties, (Cheng (, county,, Hui Liangdangcounty, , Wencounty, county, Wen Dangchang county, Dangchang county, Li county, county, Li , county, Xihe and county, Kang andcounty), Kang 191 county), townships, 191 townships, and 3200 villages.and 3200 villages.

FigureFigure 1. LocationLocation map map of of study study area. area.

ItIt is is home home to to 21 21 ethnic ethnic groups, groups, including including the the Han, Han, Hui, Hui, Tibetan, Tibetan, and and Zhuang Zhuang peoples. peoples. At the At end the ofend 2012, of 2012, its total its total population population was was 2.58 2.58 million, million, including including 1.98 1.98 million million rural rural people people (accounting (accounting for for 76.6%76.6% of the totaltotal population).population). TheThe region’s region’s GDP GDP was was 22.6 22.6 billion billion yuan yuan (N.B. (N.B. All All monetary monetary units units in this in thisarticle article areRMB; are RMB; the exchange the exchange rate for rate the dollarfor the is dollar 1 USD is = 6.28551 USD yuan = 6.2855 at the yuan time ofat publication),the time of publication),representing representing 3.98% of Gansu’s 3.98% GDP. of Gansu’s Longnan’s GDP. rural Longnan’s per capita rural net per income capita was net 3088income yuan—much was 3088 yuan—muchlower than Gansu’s lower 4506.7than Gansu’s yuan, as 4506.7 it is one yuan, of the as province’s it is one of less the developed province’s rural less regions. developed rural regions. 3. Materials and Methods 3. Materials and Methods Data Collection Data Collection The graphic data required for research was sourced from the international scientific data service platformThe graphic and the data man–land required system for research database was of source the Chinesed from Academythe international of Sciences. scientific Household data service data platformwas obtained and the through man–land Gansu’s system 2010 database population of the census Chinese [19], Academy and through of Sciences. the use of Household questionnaires. data wasWe selected obtained 19 through typical villages Gansu’s situated 2010 po inpulation different census geomorphologies [19], and thro tough obtain the farmers’ use of questionnaires. livelihood data, Weincluding selected situation 19 typical of population, villages situated education, in differen cultivatedt geomorphologies land area and type,to obtain income farmers’ and expenditure, livelihood data,housing, including water, energy,situation infrastructure, of population, and education, so on. In total,cultivated 455 questionnaires land area and were type, sent income out, 428 and of expenditure,which were returned housing, (94%).water, Inenergy, addition, infrastructure, economic data and wereso on. derived In total, from 455 questionnaires the “Statistical were Yearbook sent out,for Gansu428 of which Province”, were the returned National (94%). Territory In addition Bureau,, economic the Forestry data Bureau,were derived and the from Office the “Statistical of Poverty Alleviation and Reduction, among other official sources. The sample region is the Wudu district, which is the administrative seat of Longnan city. It is the region with the most significant population distribution, the highest density, the most considerable Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 4 of 17 land pressure, and is the affected by the Grain for Green program. Further, the sample region located on the mid-west of the study area includes almost all physiognomy types and modes of production in the area. Regarding selecting sample areas, the study not only takes different types of landforms into account, letting the research cover as many of the main livelihood characteristics of rural households in different regions as possible, but also considers the differences in the income of households in different areas. Table1 shows the basic information of households in the sample region.

Table 1. Basic statistics of sample questionnaires.

Each Household Overall Average Max Min Mode Population (person) 2342 5.1 12 1 4 Population aged 15 and under (person) 418 0.9 5 0 1 Population aged 60 and over (person) 462 1.0 4 0 2 Illiterate population (person) 233 0.5 2 0 1 Population college graduate and over (person) 212 0.5 3 0 0 Labor force (person) 1256 2.8 5 0 2 Arable land (hm2) 155 0.3 1.3 0.01 0.2 Annual income (yuan/person) 3250 / / / / Annual income (yuan/household) / 16,728.6 40,000 400 20,000 “Grain for Green” area (hm2) 42.2 0.2 0 0.01 0.1

4. Research Design The concept of sustainable development, or sustainability, can be traced to the 1987 report of the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (or, the Brundtland Commission), “Our common future” [20]. The term “sustainable livelihood,” commonly used by researchers and development actors with a focus on poverty reduction and livelihoods in developing countries, is one of several derivatives of “sustainable development.” An early attempt at defining sustainable livelihood in the spirit of the Brundtland Commission’s report was made by Chambers and Conway [21], whose definition was, in turn, modified by Carney) [22]: “A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base” (e.g., [23,24]). The sustainable livelihood framework is a conceptual approach used to understand the linkages between livelihood assets and activities, and to identify livelihood strategies and the ways in which local people respond to shocks and stresses. It is a people-centered dynamic that bridges gaps between micro- and macro-development approaches, which focus on people’s strengths rather than on their needs [25,26]. The framework brings together all relevant aspects of sustainable livelihoods into development theory, and provides a way to understand the complexity and diversity of livelihood systems. The sustainable livelihoods approach focuses on the diverse ways in which people attain their livelihoods, which is particularly relevant in poor and rural communities, such as those in our study area, where people attain livelihoods through multiple activities rather than through a single, formal job [27]. Organizations that have developed or adopted various versions of the sustainable livelihood framework include the Sustainable Livelihoods research program of the Institute for Development Studies (University of Sussex, UK), the British Government’s Department for International Development (DFID), the United Nations Development Programme, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, and CARE, a non-governmental relief agency [24]. DFID’s version of the sustainable livelihood framework is perhaps the most cited in the literature, and the most representative. A sustainable livelihoods approach to development generally focuses on the existing capital of local people in five capital-based assets: (1) natural, (2) financial, (3) physical, (4) human, and (5) social [2,28–30]. Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17 representative. A sustainable livelihoods approach to development generally focuses on the existing Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 5 of 17 capital of local people in five capital-based assets: (1) natural, (2) financial, (3) physical, (4) human, and (5) social [2,28–30]. InIn our our study, study, a a specific specific conceptual conceptual framework framework fo forr sustainable sustainable rural rural livelihoods livelihoods was was designed designed for for Longnan,Longnan, as as illustrated illustrated in in Figure Figure 22.. We focusfocus onon vulnerabilityvulnerability analyses,analyses, and onon livelihoodlivelihood (assets)(assets) changes,changes, strategies, strategies, and and outcomes outcomes for for Longnan. Longnan.

FigureFigure 2. 2. TheThe specific specific conceptual conceptual framework framework for for su sustainablestainable rural rural livelihoods livelihoods on on Longnan. Longnan.

5. Background 5. Background

5.1.5.1. Research Research Context Context Longnan,Longnan, located located to to the the west west of of Qinling Qinling Mountains, Mountains, is is a a traditionally traditionally poor poor and and ecologically ecologically key, key, yetyet fragile, fragile, area area of of China China [31,32]. [31,32]. It It is is also also ascribed ascribed to to the the Qinba Qinba Mountains Mountains region, region, one one of of 1414 poverty poverty areasareas identifiedidentified in in China’s China’s “Twelfth “Twelfth Five-Year Five-Year Plan” Plan” which which guides guides national national poverty poverty alleviation alleviation planning. planning.Its poverty Its and poverty ecological and ecological fragility are fragility delineated are delineated as follows. as follows.

5.2.5.2. Lack Lack of of Living Living Space Space and and Production Production Space Space AsAs shown in FigureFigure3 ,3, in in Longnan, Longnan, land land area area with with a slope a slope gradient gradient greater greater than than 25 degrees 25 degrees is 43% is 43%of the of total the total land area,land andarea, below and below 15 degrees 15 degrees is a quarter is a quarter of the total of the land total area; land within area; the within latter the category, latter category,below 8 degrees, below 8 which degrees, is suitable which foris suitable large-scale for urbanizationlarge-scale urbanization and industrialization, and industrialization, is 2350.4 square is 2350.4kilometers, square accounting kilometers, for accounting just 8.4% offor total just land 8.4% area. of total Based land on area. data Based from the on Landdata from Department the Land of DepartmentLongnan, the of city’s Longnan, industrial the andcity’s urban industrial land area and is urban only 34.6 land square area kilometers,is only 34.6 accounting square kilometers, for 0.12% accountingof the land areafor 0.12% (per capita,of the land only area 13.2 square(per capita, meters); only the 13.2 central square city meters); per capita the constructioncentral city per land capita area constructionis only 51 square land meters, area is whichonly 51 is square only equivalent meters, which to half is that only of equivalent the national to per half capita that rate.of the Cultivated national perland capita accounts rate. for Cultivated one-fifth of land total accounts land area, for but one-fifth if slope farmlandof total land is removed, area, but below if slope 15 degrees farmland arable is removed,land accounts below for 15 only degrees 5% of arable the land land area accounts (see Figures for only3 and 5%4). Largeof the areasland ofarea ecological (see Figures space 3 featureand 4). Largealongside areas a lackof ecological of production space and feature living alongside space in Longnan,a lack of production so it is difficult and toliving construct space a in scale Longnan, benefit sospatial it is structure, difficult whichto construct has seriously a scale restricted benefit development.spatial structure, which has seriously restricted development. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 6 of 17 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

FigureFigure 3. 3. SlopeSlope in in Longnan. Longnan.

Figure 4. LUCC in Longnan. FigureFigure 4. 4. LUCCLUCC in in Longnan. Longnan.

5.3. Fragile Ecological System, Heavy Ecological/Environmental-Protection Task 5.3.5.3. Fragile Fragile Ecological Ecological System, System, Heavy Heavy Ec Ecological/Environmental-Protectionological/Environmental-Protection Task Task On the one hand, with the area’s geological structure, broken geomorphology, OnOn thethe one one hand, hand, with thewith area’s the geological area’s structure,geological broken structure, geomorphology, broken geomorphology, over-reclamation, over-reclamation, and other factors, the phenomena of flood-waterlogging, landslides, mud–rock over-reclamation,and other factors, and the phenomenaother factor ofs, flood-waterlogging,the phenomena of flood-water landslides, mud–rocklogging, landslides, flow, and soilmud–rock erosion flow, and soil erosion are particularly problematic in Longnan. According to information provided flow,are particularly and soil erosion problematic are particularly in Longnan. problemati Accordingc in Longnan. to information According provided to information by the region’s provided Land by the region’s Land Resources Bureau, Longnan, as one of the most frequent mud–rock flow areas, byResources the region’s Bureau, Land Longnan, Resources as Bureau, one of theLongnan, most frequentas one of mud–rock the most frequent flow areas, mud–rock is a key flow mud–rock areas, is a key mud–rock flow defense site. To date, the mud–rock flow area is about 11,658 square isflow a key defense mud–rock site. To flow date, defense the mud–rock site. To flow date, area the is aboutmud–rock 11,658 flow square area kilometers, is about or11,658 41.8% square of the kilometers, or 41.8% of the total area. Meanwhile, the landslide distribution area is around 9076 kilometers,total area. Meanwhile,or 41.8% of thethe landslide total area. distribution Meanwhile, area the is landslide around 9076 distribution square kilometers, area is around accounting 9076 square kilometers, accounting for 32.5% of the total area. In addition, the deterioration of the natural squarefor 32.5% kilometers, of the total accounting area. In addition,for 32.5% theof the deterioration total area. In of addition, the natural the environment deterioration in of some the natural places, environment in some places, due to long-term land cultivation and unauthorized mining of mineral environmentdue to long-term in some land places, cultivation due to and long-term unauthorized land cultivation mining of and mineral unauthorized resources, mining is so severe of mineral that to resources, is so severe that to build effective and sustainable ecological areas will require resources,build effective is so and severe sustainable that ecologicalto build areaseffectiv wille requireand sustainable considerable ecological time and areas extensive will ecosystem require considerable time and extensive ecosystem restoration and management. considerablerestoration and time management. and extensive ecosystem restoration and management. On the other hand, Longnan has an important ecological protection status, in which the “two jiang and one river” (the Bailong Jiang and Baishui Jiang tributaries and the Xihan River) area Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 7 of 17

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17 On the other hand, Longnan has an important ecological protection status, in which the “two jiang representsand one river” an important (the Bailong ecological Jiang and region Baishui of th Jiange upper tributaries Yangtze and River, the and Xihan has River) an important area represents water conservationan important function. ecological More region than of 60% the upper of the Yangtzearea is listed River, as and an hasecological an important function water zone conservation (Figure 5), withfunction. areas Morewithin than it categorized, 60% of the according area is listed the asnational an ecological territory function development zone (Figureplan, as5 ),“prohibitive with areas development”within it categorized, or “limited according development” the national zones. territory Among development these, limited plan, development as “prohibitive zones development” include theor “limitedBaishui Jiang development” Nature Reserve zones. in Among Wen county, these, limited Jifengshan development National zonesForest include Park in the Cheng Baishui county, Jiang TianchiNature National Reserve inForest Wen county,Park in JifengshanWen county, National and Guanegou Forest Park National in Cheng Forest county, Park Tianchi in Dangchang National county;Forest Parknational in Wen prohibitive county, and development Guanegou Nationalzones, such Forest as Park in inQinba; Dangchang and biodiversity county; national and conservationprohibitive development ecological regions, zones, such such as as in in Qinba; Wudu and district biodiversity, Dangchang and conservation county, Liangdang ecological county, regions, Wensuch county, as in Wudu and Kang district, county. Dangchang county, Liangdang county, Wen county, and .

FigureFigure 5. 5. MainMain Area Area of of Ecological Ecological Construction Construction in in Longnan. Longnan.

5.4. Large Poverty Areas, Ecological Construction Policy Implementation Facing “Failure” Risk 5.4. Large Poverty Areas, Ecological Construction Policy Implementation Facing “Failure” Risk The rural poverty area in Longnan is large. Before the latest “poverty area” categorizations The rural poverty area in Longnan is large. Before the latest “poverty area” categorizations published in China’s national poverty alleviation guidance, other than Cheng county and Hui published in China’s national poverty alleviation guidance, other than Cheng county and Hui county, county, seven of the region’s nine district/counties (182 townships, 2338 administrative villages, seven of the region’s nine district/counties (182 townships, 2338 administrative villages, which, which, respectively, account for 95% of the total townships and 73% of the total administrative respectively, account for 95% of the total townships and 73% of the total administrative villages) were villages) were identified as poverty areas. Moreover, in the recent national “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” identified as poverty areas. Moreover, in the recent national “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” for poverty for poverty alleviation, all of Longnan’s district/counties were all listed within Qinba key poverty alleviation, all of Longnan’s district/counties were all listed within Qinba key poverty areas, owing to areas, owing to the implementation of a new poverty alleviation standard. Comparing Longnan’s the implementation of a new poverty alleviation standard. Comparing Longnan’s rural per capita net rural per capita net income with the national and provincial averages shows that only Cheng income with the national and provincial averages shows that only Cheng county’s and Hui county’s county’s and Hui county’s rural per capita net income are more than 50% of the national average, or rural per capita net income are more than 50% of the national average, or more than 95% of the more than 95% of the province’s average (Table 2). The remaining seven district/counties’ rural per province’s average (Table2). The remaining seven district/counties’ rural per capita net income are all capita net income are all less than 40% of the national average, or less than 70% of the provincial less than 40% of the national average, or less than 70% of the provincial average. average.

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 8 of 17

Table 2. Comparison of per capita net income of rural households in Longnan with national and provincial averages.

Accounting for the Proportion of Accounting for the Proportion of District, Counties National (%) Province (%) Longnan 38.84 67.13 Wudou 37.42 64.68 Cheng 55.50 95.92 Dangchang 31.64 54.69 Xihe 35.50 61.35 Hui 56.07 96.92 Liangdang 30.66 53.00 Li 37.15 64.21 Kang 36.39 62.90 Wen 33.57 58.02

In late 1990s, the national Grain for Green program was launched as an important strategic measure to curb the deterioration of the natural environment, and alleviate regional ecological pressures, as well as to address rural poverty. However, owing to factors such as the very large areas of mountainous agricultural land and poverty areas, relatively fragile household livelihoods, low income available through local agricultural production, and issues of technical upgrading, product quality improvement, as well as the combating market fluctuations of eco-composite agricultural production, there have been problems with rehabilitation and with interplanting high-stalk crops. In some places, such crops are even planted in the spring and destroyed in autumn in Longnan on the returned farmland. According to a 2005 study from the Forestry Department of Wudou District, the area of high-stalk crops is more than 40% of 180,000 new afforestation lands. Furthermore, because of low levels of urbanization, limited capacities of the receiving surplus population, the migrant workers proportion is high, but not the migrant population ratio; that is to say, this particular population reduction and alleviation mechanism has not completely been integrated. Given the current situation, if there is no other, more effective population policy or system to alleviate poverty in these areas, population pressures will increase again, and once the “floating population,” or migrants from the area, return home, the Grain for Green program will face the risk of failure.

5.5. Traditional Resource Utilization Mode Is General, Economizing Resources Utilization Mode Faces Technical Bottleneck From the perspective of agricultural land output benefit, because of the changes in agricultural planting structures since the launch of Grain for Green, the proportion of economic crop with high output has significantly increased, and forest-under-economy has also seen rapid development. Since 2005, the gross agricultural production value of units of cropland (including gardens) is 2.3% to 2.5% higher than that of the province, and the total production value of farming, forestry, herding, and fishery units of agricultural land is 4% higher than that of the province. However, because Longnan is located in a mountainous area, the establishment of an economizing type of intensive, recycling resources utilization model would require high investment costs and technical requirements. Therefore, the traditional, extensive resource utilization model is still relatively common. At present, the extensive use of resources is mainly manifested in two ways. On the one hand, affected by the land form, rural settlements are scattered in layout, the degree of intensive utilization is low, and per capita rural residential land is 159 square meters (more than the national standard of 150 square meters). On the other hand, while the benefits from mining mineral resources are low, the exploitation of mineral resources, in some areas, is still in the state of low efficiency and effect serious damage to the environment. SustainabilitySustainability2018 2018,,10 10,, 1738 x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 ofof 1717

6. Results and Analysis 6. Results and Analysis Longnan, by the end of 2011, completed a total of 231,230 hm2 under the Grain for Green program,Longnan, of which by the farmland end of 2011, afforestation completed was a total 82,430 of 231,230 hm2, barren hm2 under hill afforestation the Grain for was Green 140,533 program, hm2, ofand which closing farmland forest afforestationarea was 8267 was hm 82,4302; furthermore, hm2, barren 9 counties/distric hill afforestationt, was0.27 140,533million hmhouseholds,2, and closing and forest1.1 million area was rural 8267 populations hm2; furthermore, benefitted. 9 counties/district,Our study has observed 0.27 million rural households, livelihood andchange, 1.1 milliondue to ruralGrain populations for Green, as benefitted. follows. Our study has observed rural livelihood change, due to Grain for Green, as follows. 6.1. Changes in Natural Assets: Reduction of Arable Land, Planting Structure Change 6.1. Changes in Natural Assets: Reduction of Arable Land, Planting Structure Change Land is the main farmer-dependent natural capital, in which cultivated land area change could indicateLand land-capital is the main and farmer-dependent land-use patterns natural change. capital, According in which to cultivatedstatistics, landduring area the change period could from indicate1999–2010, land-capital the cultivated and land-useland area patternsdecreased change. 1.1 × 10 According4 hm2, the tosown statistics, area of during grain crop the periodhas reduced from 4 2 1999–2010,more than the7000 cultivated hm2, and landthe proportion area decreased of total 1.1 arable× 10 hmland, reduced the sown by area 12 ofpercentage grain crop points has reduced (Figure more6). Since than the 7000 Grain hm2 ,for and Green the proportion program’s of implementa total arable landtion, reducedwith the by help 12 percentage of Government points payments, (Figure6). Sincefarmers the have Grain increased for Green economic program’s forest implementation, planting areas—including with the help of Governmentpepper, apple, payments, walnut,farmers and so haveon—and increased so the economicproportion forest of sown planting areas areas—including of cash crops has pepper,seen a significant apple, walnut, increase. and Taking so on—and pepper so theas an proportion example, of according sown areas to ofan cash agriculture crops has depar seentment a significant survey, increase. during the Taking period pepper 2001–2011, as an example, pepper accordingplanting areas to an have agriculture increased department by 38,666.7 survey, hm2, during output the has period increased 2001–2011, by nearly pepper 2200 planting × 104 kg, areas and havepepper increased output value by 38,666.7 was worth hm2, 13.5 output billion has yuan increased in 2011. by nearly 2200 × 104 kg, and pepper output value was worth 13.5 billion yuan in 2011.

FigureFigure 6.6. AreaArea ChangesChanges ofof LongnanLongnan CultivatedCultivated LandLand andand GrainGrain Corp.Corp.

6.2.6.2. ChangesChanges inin HumanHuman Assets:Assets: QuantityQuantity ofof LaborLabor ForceForce Reduced,Reduced, BurdenBurden CoefficientCoefficient IncreasedIncreased TheThe reductionreduction of of the the labor labor force force prefigures prefigures farmer–human-capital farmer–human-capital reduction. reduction. Population Population statistics showstatistics that theshow registered that the population registered increased population by 0.17 increased million people,by 0.17 the million resident people, population the reducedresident bypopulation 0.02 million reduced people, by and0.02 the million agricultural people, population and the agricultural decreased bypopulation 0.07 million decreased people by during 0.07 themillion period people 2000–2010 during in the Longnan. period 2000–2010 Based on “Sixthin Longnan. Census” Based data, on the “Sixth rural populationCensus” data, in Longnanthe rural accountedpopulation for in 80.9%Longnan of itsaccounted total population, for 80.9% 16.8 of its percentage total population, points higher 16.8 percentage than the average points higher of the province,than the average and the of rural the province, labor force and (from the rural 15to labo 59)r force accounted (from for15 to 66.4% 59) accounted of the rural for 66.4% population, of the 0.4rural percentage population, points 0.4 lowerpercentage than the points provincial lower average. than the In provincial addition, theaverage. agricultural In addition, population the changeagricultural is a repeating population phenomenon. change is Table a repeating3 shows thatphenomenon. the county’s Table agricultural 3 shows population that the decreased county’s fromagricultural 2002 to 2008,population but, after decreased 2008, showed from 2002 an increasing to 2008, trend,but, after especially 2008, showed Xihe county an increasing and Dangchang trend, county;especially the Xihe agricultural county and population Dangchang in 2010 county; is significantly the agricultural more population than in 2002, in which2010 is suggestssignificantly the repeatabilitymore than in of2002, the policywhich implementationsuggests the repeatability effect. of the policy implementation effect.

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Table 3. Rural population Changes of Longnan (104 people). Table 3. Rural population Changes of Longnan (104 people). Area 2002 Year 2004 Year 2006 Year 2008 Year 2010 Year WudouArea 200246.70 Year 2004 44.62 Year 200640.69 Year 200839.36 Year 201044.50 Year Wen 22.08 21.44 20.53 20.38 20.90 Wudou 46.70 44.62 40.69 39.36 44.50 KangWen 18.73 22.08 18.51 21.44 17.69 20.53 17.58 20.38 17.84 20.90 KangLi 48.77 18.73 48.88 18.51 46.58 17.69 46.00 17.58 47.70 17.84 LiangdangLi 3.97 48.77 3.92 48.88 3.98 46.58 3.95 46.00 47.703.96 LiangdangCheng 22.39 3.97 16.98 3.92 16.08 3.98 15.55 3.95 16.19 3.96 Cheng 22.39 16.98 16.08 15.55 16.19 DangchangDangchang 27.35 27.35 27. 27.3434 24.20 24.20 24.15 24.15 28.06 28.06 XiheXihe 34.45 34.45 35.40 35.40 34.21 34.21 33.83 33.83 38.92 38.92 HuiHui 19.28 19.28 19.28 19.28 18 18.91.91 18.73 18.73 18.95 18.95

TheThe reduction reduction of of human capital leads to a heav heavyy labor dependency burden. In In 2010, Longnan’s ruralrural labor burdenburden coefficientcoefficient is is 70.4%, 70.4%, 0.4 0.4 percentage percentage points points higher higher than than in the in province. the province. Among Among them, them,the dependency the dependency ratio of ratio individuals of individuals over 60 over years 60 old years and overold and 65 years over are,65 years respectively, are, respectively, 50.6% and 50.6%40.7%—0.9 and 40.7%—0.9 and 0.6 percentage and 0.6 pointspercentage higher points than inhigher the province.than in the In addition,province. theIn emigrationaddition, the of emigrationa high-quality of alabor high-quality force leads labor to force a low leads culture to a level low inculture the population level in the that population remains. that According remains. to Accordingstatistics, in to 2010 statistics, the illiteracy in 2010 rate the wasilliteracy 26.3% rate in peoplewas 26.3% from in ages people 15 to from 65 years ages old, 15 to 11.8 65 percentageyears old, 11.8points percentage higher than points the provincialhigher than average. the provincial average. AsAs a a result of the implementation of of Grain fo forr Green program, much much of of the the local local labor labor force force couldcould detach detach from from the the land, and thus “go-outside” “go-outside”.. In In other other words, words, migration became became an an important livelihoodlivelihood activity activity of of mountain mountain farmers. farmers. The The reason reason for for the the agricultural agricultural labor labor force force reduction, reduction, on on the the oneone hand,hand, isis peasants peasants working working away away from from home, home, and, onand, the on other, the thatother, they that turned they to turned other industries, to other industries,especially aespecially third industry a third (see industry Figure (see7). AccordingFigure 7). According to employee to employee statistics, statistics, since 1999, since the 1999, number the numberof employees of employees has reduced has reduced by 330 thousand by 330 thousand people, andpeople, those and in those the primary in the primary industry industry has reduced has reducedby 290 thousand by 290 people.thousand Employment–industry people. Employment–industry analysis shows analysis that the shows employee that proportion the employee of the proportionprimary industry of the has primary decreased industry by 2 percentage has decr points;eased thatby in2 thepercentage non-agricultural points; industriesthat in hasthe non-agriculturalbeen increasing, industries mainly in thehas tertiarybeen increasing, industry; themainly employee in the proportion tertiary industry; of the tertiary the employee industry proportionhas increased of bythe 3.8 tertiary percentage industry points; has and increa the employeesed by 3.8 proportion percentage of thepoints; secondary and the industry employee has proportionreduced by of 1.8 the percentage secondary points. industry has reduced by 1.8 percentage points.

100 200

80 180 people) 4

60 160

40 140

20 120 Quantity of emploee (10 Quantity of emploee

0 100 1999 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year

Employee proportion of thrree industries (%) The porption of primary industry (%) The porption of secondary industry (%) The porption of tertiary industry (%) The total employment The quantity of primary employees

FigureFigure 7. 7. StructureStructure Changes Changes of of Employment Employment in in Longnan Longnan Primary Primary Industry. Industry.

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6.3. Changes in Financial Assets: Income Increase, More Capital Source Channels 6.3. Changes in Financial Assets: Income Increase, More Capital Source Channels According to statistics, the per capita net income of farmers in Longnan has increased from 889 yuanAccording in 1999 to to2299 statistics, yuan in the 2010, per a capita2.6-fold net increase. income At of the farmers same in time, Longnan the per has capita increased disposable from 889income yuan of in urban 1999 toresidents 2299 yuan increased in 2010, 3.1-fold a 2.6-fold (Figure increase. 8). AtThe the income same time, of urban the per residents capita disposable increased incomefrom 3.8-times of urban net residents income increasedper capita, 3.1-fold in 1999, (Figure to 4.6-times8). The in income 2010; income of urban range residents increased increased from from 2498 3.8-timesyuan to 8324 net incomeyuan, or per by capita, 3.3-times. in 1999, This to 4.6-timesshows that, in 2010;although income farmers’ range increasedincome is fromincreasing, 2498 yuan the toincome 8324 yuan,gap between or by 3.3-times. farmers Thisand showsurban that,residents although is widening, farmers’ incomewhich undermines is increasing, the the value income of gapthe betweenincrease. farmers and urban residents is widening, which undermines the value of the increase.

Yuan Urban residents disposable income 12000 6 Net income per capita The ratio of city and countryside average per person income 10000 5 8000

6000 4

4000 3 2000

0 2 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year

Figure 8. Income Changes of Longnan Urban and Rural Residents since 1999.1999.

The results of ourour questionnairequestionnaire survey show that householdhousehold income comes from agriculturalagricultural planting, migrantmigrant work, work, livestock-raising, livestock-raising, business, business, various various subsidies subsidies (such as(such subsidy as ofsubsidy the retirement of the ofretirement cultivated of land), cultivated and so land), on. Among and so these, on. Amon for ourg samplethese, for households, our sample migrant households, work and migrant farming work are theand main farming income are sources, the main accounting income for 79%sources, of total ac revenue,counting while for livestock-raising,79% of total revenue, doing business, while andlivestock-raising, other income accountdoing business, for 21%. Loansand other used income in reproduction account investmentfor 21%. Loans mainly used come in fromreproduction banks or creditinvestment unions, mainly or relatives come and from friends, banks respectively or credit accountingunions, or for relatives 64% and and 21% friends, of the total respectively surveyed households.accounting for Moreover, 64% and 3% 21% households of the total hold exorbitantsurveyed households. usuries, and 12%Moreover, have more 3% thanhouseholds two or threehold loans.exorbitant In addition, usuries, 68%and of12% surveyed have more households than two could or raisethree fundsloans. when In addition, they need 68% a loanof surveyed or loans, buthouseholds 32% of surveyed could raise households funds when find they it difficult need a toloan obtain or loans, cash loans.but 32% Examining of surveyed the households use of the loans, find onlyit difficult 23% are to usedobtain for cash agricultural loans. Examining production, the business, use of the and loans, other only investments; 23% are used 63% arefor foragricultural building orproduction, buying household business, equipment,and other investments; as well as 48% 63% for ar childrene for building in school, or buying and 28% household for the doctor. equipment, as well as 48% for children in school, and 28% for the doctor. 6.4. Changes in Physical Assets: Production Tools Are Gradually Reduced, Domestic Luxury Goods Are6.4. IncreasingChanges in Physical Assets: Production Tools Are Gradually Reduced, Domestic Luxury Goods Are Increasing Influenced by terrain and cropland retirement, as well as more opportunity for migrant work,Influenced the number by ofterrain agricultural and cropland machinery retirement, tools beganas well to as decline more opport from theunity middle for migrant of the work, 1990s. Statisticsthe number show of agricultural that, in 2008, machinery all farmers tools only began have to two decline large from and the medium-sized middle of the tractors 1990s. inStatistics Wudu districtshow that, in total, in 2008, as well all farmers as 720 small only tractors.have two Total large tractor and medium-sized ownership was tractors only 61% in inWudu 1990, district in which in large-total, as and well medium-sized as 720 small tractortractors. ownership Total tractor was ownership only 1%. was only 61% in 1990, in which large- and medium-sizedFindings fromtractor our ownership questionnaire was only survey 1%. show that production tools are gradually decreased, and thatFindings housing from and our household questionnaire appliances, survey automobiles,show that production motorcycles, tools and are other gradually consumer decreased, goods haveand that become housing the mainand household fixed assets, appliances, of which automobiles, the change of motorcycles, houses is the and biggest. other Inconsumer Wudu district, goods ruralhave housingbecome areathe main in 2010 fixed is 1.8-times assets, of that which of 1998, the andchan housingge of houses structure is the has biggest. thoroughly In Wudu changed, district, too, rural housing area in 2010 is 1.8-times that of 1998, and housing structure has thoroughly changed, Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 12 of 17 with the proportion of adobe, civil structure-dominated to the reinforced concrete-structure housing areas in all types of housing increasing from 2% in 1998 to 40%, followed by 21% of brick structures.

6.5. Changes in Social Assets: Infrastructure Is Rapidly Increasing, Outreach Opportunity Is Increasing The opportunity for farmers to obtain social capital depends on the degree of the social network. A network of social relations is the main way for farmers to understand and grasp market sales, experience, and technology information. In the face of difficulties, the overall resources that farmers can obtain from a social relations network can be divided into three types: financial (capital) help, such as cash loans or other loan; human (labor) help, such as friends and relatives to help with agricultural production or technical guidance in busy farming seasons; material help, such as tools, seeds, and other support from friends in the production process. When transportation and communications infrastructures are relatively backward, the establishment of a rural social relations network basically depends on blood relationships, the village committee, and neighborhood relations. Statistics show that, in 2010, highway mileage, internet users, and mobile phone subscription numbers increased by 435%, 313.7%, and 583.2% respectively. Compared with 2004, this is 2- to 2.6-times higher than the provincial average levels. With the improvement of infrastructure, the ways that farmers access information have been extended. According to the results of our household survey, in the acquisition of agricultural production/sales information channels, 67% is obtained by neighbors and friends, 18% through the village, and 15% through cooperatives/agricultural associations, the network, or other channels.

7. Substantial Livelihood Outcomes Given the significant poverty pressures and the fact that economic and social development remains relatively backward, and the implementation of Grain for Green has not been perfect, while there is evidence of a continuous improvement of household livelihoods and other positive regional effects, there have also been some problems in Longnan.

7.1. Agricultural Production Space Is Ecological and Intensive In Longnan, pepper, walnuts, and so on are brought into the “forest species” category under the Grain for Green program, and the implementation of the policy has reduced the agricultural production space for food crops, but increased the agricultural production space for ecological use. Ecology and diversity of cultivated land use patterns occur simultaneously, leading to the rising proportion of particular crops. According to Department of Agriculture statistics, the total area of suitable, characteristically agricultural, industry development zone has reached 756,666.7 hm2 in Longnan. It reached 524,633.3 hm2 of characteristic agricultural planting base by the end of 2009, an area equivalent to 90% of the total arable land and garden area, with the main characteristic industries, including walnuts, pepper, olive, herbs, vegetables, and so on. Intensification of agricultural production space, primarily due to rural migrant labor reduction, provides an opportunity for the peasant household production factors agglomeration and land-scale management to promote the development of characteristic agriculture industrialization. According to the Land Department statistics, by the end of 2012, in Wudou, the cumulated area of land circulation is 7200 hm2. In 2013, there are new, 3200 hm2 transfers of land, including arable (2133.3 hm2) and barren hills and slopes (1066.7 hm2). From a circulation point of view, there are rental (2533.3 hm2) and swap (666.7 hm2), involving 43,000 farmers. Evidence of intensive land management and high agricultural production efficiency includes a grain yield per hectare increase from less than 750 kg, in 2001, to 982.5 kg in 2010, or yields increased by 232.5 kg per hectare.

7.2. High Density of Living Space in Center City Urbanization, as one of the main measures to ease population pressure in ecologically fragile areas, has attracted a large number of the rural populations since the reform. In Longnan, the urbanization Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 13 of 17 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17 rateurbanization in 2010 wasrate 22.6%;in 2010 from was 2005 22.6%; to 2011,from the2005 urban to 2011, population the urban density population domain density reduced domain from 2 2 145.8reduced people/km from 145.82 to 143.1people/km people/km to 143.12. While people/km the national. While economic the national system economic is still predominantly system is still basedpredominantly in agriculture, based in in 2010, agriculture, the proportion in 2010, of employeesthe proportion in the of three employees industries in werethe three 76.38:7.31:16.31, industries thewere proportion 76.38:7.31:16.31, of the secondthe proportion industrial of the output second value indu isstrial just overoutput that value of the is just first over industrial that of the output, first andindustrial three industries’output, and output three industries’ value structure output was value 26.27:28.63:45.10. structure was Therefore,26.27:28.63:45.10. in the urbanizationTherefore, in process,the urbanization there is onlyprocess, population there is concentration, only population but concentration, also a lack of but supporting also a lack economic of supporting entities, whicheconomic leads entities, to surges which in urbanleads to population surges in urban density. population Figure9 showsdensity. an Figure increase 9 shows in the an population increase in 2 2 densitythe population of Longnan density from of 97.6 Longnan people/km from 97.62, in people/km 2005, to 3855, in people/km 2005, to 38552 in people/km 2011. in 2011.

FigureFigure 9.9. UrbanUrban PopulationPopulation DensityDensity ChangesChanges ofof LongnanLongnan (2005–2011).(2005–2011).

7.3.7.3. “Hollows”“Hollows” inin RuralRural ProductionProduction andand LivingLiving SpaceSpace OneOne “hollow”“hollow” isis thethe declinedecline inin quantityquantity andand qualityquality ofof thethe laborlabor forceforce engagedengaged inin agriculturalagricultural production,production, resultingresulting inin wastedwasted cultivationcultivation andand productionproduction degradation.degradation. AA secondsecond isis thethe emergenceemergence ofof “hollow villages”, the the phenomenon phenomenon of of a ahigh high “floating” “floating” rural rural residential residential population, population, resulting resulting in a inwaste a waste of land of land resources. resources. Commonly, Commonly, “hollows” “hollows” are are associated associated with with the the diversification diversification of thethe productionproduction modemode andand economiceconomic incomeincome ofof farmers,farmers, andand meanmean thatthat inin manymany situationssituations therethere areare stillstill cropscrops cultivated,cultivated, but but labor labor is perennialis perennial work work outside outside of the of area, the leavingarea, leaving the older the people older andpeople children and inchildren the villages, in the and villages, the “empty and nest”the “empty phenomenon nest” becomesphenomenon widespread. becomes Then, widespread. the population Then, keeps the declining,population households keeps declining, reduce, andhouseholds the houses reduce, and infrastructure and the houses become and older infrastructure (Ma et al., 2008).become A resultolder of(Ma these et al., “hollows” 2008). A is result the overall of these decline “hollows” of the ruralis the regionaloverall decline economy, of infrastructure,the rural regional social economy, service system,infrastructure, and so on.social service system, and so on. InIn Longnan,Longnan, a hollowa hollow appears appears mainly mainly in terms in of ruralterms living of space.rural Amongliving space. the nine Among counties/districts the nine (Figurecounties/districts 10), there are(Figure three 10), counties there are in whichthree counties the per capitain which rural the residential per capita landrural isresidential higher than land the is provincialhigher than average the provincial level. And, average in five level. counties, And, it in is higherfive counties, than the it nationalis higher average than the level. national According average to relatedlevel. According research and to related the land research use planning and the of everyland use county planning [33], four of every counties county will [33], have four more counties village constructionwill have more land village use per construction capital more land than use the per recent capital nation more average than the level, recent which nation means average the “rural level, hollow”which means efficiency the “rural will remain hollow” for efficiency a long time. will remain for a long time. SustainabilitySustainability 20182018,,10 10,, 1738x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 14 ofof 1717

260 2006Year 2015Year 2020Year

220

180

140

100 Wudou Cheng Liangdang Hui Xihe Li Kang Wen Dangchang

Figure 10. Rural Residential Area Planning of Longnan Counties. Figure 10. Rural Residential Area Planning of Longnan Counties.

7.4.7.4. ResourceResource UtilizationUtilization DiversificationDiversification WithWith thethe increaseincrease inin urbanurban population,population, resourceresource consumptionconsumption intensityintensity isis increasing,increasing, andand thethe originaloriginal approachapproach toto coexistencecoexistence withwith thethe naturalnatural ecologicalecological resourcesresources isis graduallygradually disappearing,disappearing, withwith industrializationindustrialization andand modernizationmodernization greatlygreatly changingchanging thethe wayway resourcesresources areare consumed,consumed, suchsuch asas waterwater andand energyenergy useuse inin ruralrural contexts.contexts. OurOur surveysurvey showsshows that,that, withwith thethe implementationimplementation ofof thethe ruralrural waterwater projects,projects, mostmost peasantpeasant familiesfamilies useuse tap-watertap-water (nearly(nearly 72%72% inin allall samples),samples), whilewhile 18%18% useuse pumppump water,water, andand 10%10% useuse itit inin traditionaltraditional ways,ways, suchsuch asas carrying carrying water water from from rivers. rivers. RegardingRegarding thethe use use of of land land resources, resources, such such as orchard, as orchard, woodland, woodland, and grassland and grassland use, in 19use, villages in 19 invillages Wudu, in more Wudu, than more one-third than one-third of land is of used land as is grassland, used as grassland, 26.7% is farmland, 26.7% is 19%farmland, is forestland, 19% is andforestland, 18.3% isand gardens. 18.3% is Among gardens. these Among 19villages, these 19 thevillages, highest the ratehighest of farmland rate of farmland use is about use is 46.2%, about and46.2%, only and 4 only villages 4 villages use more use more than than 40%. 40%. The The number number of of villages villages with with more more than than 50% 50% ofof garden, woodland,woodland, andand grasslandgrassland are,are, respectively,respectively, 3,3, 4,4, andand 55 villages.villages. TheseThese figuresfigures suggestsuggest that,that, sincesince thethe startstart ofof thethe GrainGrain forfor GreenGreen program,program, useuse ofof cultivated land as household’s main assets is weakening, andand aa trendtrend ofof diversificationdiversification hashas appeared.appeared. 7.5. The Overall Environment Is Ecologically Benign, Local Environment Is Malignant 7.5. The Overall Environment Is Ecologically Benign, Local Environment Is Malignant Through the implementation of the project of returning farmland to forestland, ecological Through the implementation of the project of returning farmland to forestland, ecological conditions have been improved in Longnan, and soil erosion has been effectively curbed. According conditions have been improved in Longnan, and soil erosion has been effectively curbed. According to the forestry statistics, since 1999, through the implementation of returning farmland to forest—as to the forestry statistics, since 1999, through the implementation of returning farmland to forest—as well as natural forest protection, and protected forest, ecological forest, nature reserve, and green well as natural forest protection, and protected forest, ecological forest, nature reserve, and green corridor demonstration zones, environmental protection, and ecological restoration engineering corridor demonstration zones, environmental protection, and ecological restoration engineering construction—the forest coverage rate has increased from 38.9%, at the end of the last century, to 42.5%. construction—the forest coverage rate has increased from 38.9%, at the end of the last century, to However, compared to ecological restoration overall [34,35], the local, regional, ecological 42.5%. environment remains problematic. One issue is the mining areas causing ecological damage, with some However, compared to ecological restoration overall [34,35], the local, regional, ecological disorderly exploitation of mines leading to a large area of vegetation stripping, waste residue, and mine environment remains problematic. One issue is the mining areas causing ecological damage, with tailings discharge, which is, in turn, causing soil erosion, destruction of farmland, water sources drying some disorderly exploitation of mines leading to a large area of vegetation stripping, waste residue, up, or even a reduction in biodiversity. A second problem is the use of fertilizers, pesticides, mulch, and mine tailings discharge, which is, in turn, causing soil erosion, destruction of farmland, water and livestock and poultry breeding, leading to the contamination of surface water and groundwater; sources drying up, or even a reduction in biodiversity. A second problem is the use of fertilizers, pesticides, mulch, and livestock and poultry breeding, leading to the contamination of surface water and groundwater; a third is the fact that, with the development of resources and economic Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 15 of 17 a third is the fact that, with the development of resources and economic development in rural areas, the rural non-point source pollution problems gradually increased, and continue to spread.

8. Conclusions The research shows that positive institutional constraints and policy guidance will improve the livelihood capacity of rural households, as well as significantly promote living standards. Since the implementation of the Grain for Green program from 1999, it has proven to be beneficial to the ecological restoration and the poverty alleviation of local households from the present perspective. From the results of empirical research in Longnan, an increase in household livelihood ability plays an important role in improving land space utilization efficiency, resource conservation and use, and the ecological environment. An effective system, with constraints and policy guidance, and the increasement of farmers’ ability, provides an appropriate adjustment of the land use model, improvement of human assets quality and more liquidity, more and suitable physical assets, broadened financial capital source channels, and more abundant social assets. In particular, the enhancement of household livelihood ability promotes optimal utilization of land space, the establishment of a saving resource utilization system, and the benign cycle of the ecological environment, which, together, lay a solid foundation for regional sustainable development. From the results of Longnan, the implementation of the Grain for Green program changed the average household’s livelihood capital significantly, which shows through the reduction of cultivated land making the methods of land use more scientific, and then the planting of cash crops being beneficial to improve the income of local households. The labor force detached from the land can gradually participate in secondary and tertiary industries. The change of local population age structures caused by the youth “go-outside” leads to an increase of the labor dependency coefficient. Planting of economic crops and going out to work become the primary channels for the household to increase income, which also changes the income structure based on cultivated activities. Household livelihood becomes more diverse. The consumption of households’ physical assets tends to increase more in the purchase of high-end consumer goods, and reduce for that of production tools. It also makes a positive contribution to infrastructure improvement and has helped households accumulate social assets. For the whole region of Longnan, the adjustment of the suitable planting structure promotes the ecologicalization of land utilization, which also diversifies the use of land resources. The reduction of the rural labor force provides excellent opportunities for the agglomeration of production factors and scale of land management, and has positive influences on the improvement of the land and space utilization efficiency. However, with the rapid increase in numbers of migrant workers, the partial region shows typical characteristics of “hollows”, which includes the decline in population, the decrease in households, and the collapse of infrastructure. Also, the population of the central city has increased dramatically in the short-term, far exceeding the expectations of urban planning and urban construction, a phenomenon from which emerges high-density megacities. Regarding the ecology and the environment, the forest area expands, and the forest coverage rate has significantly increased, but new environmental problems begin to appear in some local areas. The utilization of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, plastic film, as well as livestock and poultry breeding, cause the pollution of surface water and groundwater, resulting in the problem of non-point source pollution in rural areas to gradually intensify.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41171109) and the Key Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZZDEW0603). Thanks to the relevant departments of the Longnan city for their help in the field investigation. Especially thanks to Shanshan Zhu, Guiyan Sun, Hang Chen, and Qiuqiu Li, for their strong assistance in the investigation and collation of the questionnaire. And more, anyway, we must thank the editor and reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions for improving this paper. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 16 of 17

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