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Radiologic Anatomy of the Frontal Sinus Chapter 2 9 Chapter 2 Radiologic Anatomy 2 of the Frontal Sinus Ramon E. Figueroa, Joseph Sullivan quency of anatomic variations which impact the di- Core Messages rection of drainage, efficiency of mucociliary clear- í ance, and morphology of the frontal recess. Recent The frontal sinus and its drainage pathway significant advances in computed tomography (CT), comprise one of the most complex anatom- especially the introduction of multidetector helical ic areas of the anterior skull base, amplified scanning and the routine availability of computer by significant variability workstations, have made demonstration of this com- í plex anatomy easier and more useful to rhinologic Improvements in radiologic imaging clar- surgical approach. This improvement in imaging ity along with multiplanar demonstration clarity and multiplanar demonstration of frontal si- of frontal sinus complex anatomy have par- nus complex anatomy is now of even more clinical alleled and augmented advances in the sur- relevance in view of the extensive developments in gical management of the frontal sinuses powered instruments, better endoscopic devices, and surgical navigation with CT cross-registration. Embryologic and Functional Concepts Contents Introduction . 7 The sinonasal embryologic development during the Embryologic and Functional Concepts . 7 first trimester is characterized by the emergence of more than six ethmoturbinals, which progressively Frontal Sinus Evaluation . 8 coalesce and differentiate into the final anatomy of Frontal Sinus Drainage Pathway . 9 the lateral nasal wall [6]. Anatomic Variants . 15 Frontal Cells . 15 The ethmoturbinals give rise to the following struc- Supraorbital Ethmoid Cell . 16 tures: Depth of Olfactory Fossa . 16 í Conclusion . 20 The most superior remnant of the first ethmo- turbinal becomes the agger nasi mound References . 20 í The remnant of the descending portion of the first ethmoturbinal becomes the uncinate pro- cess í The basal lamella of the second ethmoturbinal Introduction pneumatizes and gives origin to the bulla eth- moidalis The frontal sinus and its drainage pathway comprise í The basal lamella of the third ethmoturbinal be- one of the most complex anatomic areas of the ante- comes the basal lamella of the middle turbinate. rior skull base. Its complexity is magnified by the fre- 8 Ramon E. Figueroa, Joseph Sullivan The nasal mucosa invaginates at specific points in the of all sinuses, impacted by its anatomic relationships lateral nasal wall, forming nasal pits that develop into with the agger nasi, anterior ethmoid cells, and pat- the anlages of maxillary, frontal sinuses, and ethmoid tern of vertical insertion of the uncinate process [3]. 2 cells [2]. The mesenchyme resorbs around the invag- ination of the nasal pits, allowing progressive devel- opment of the sinus cavity. The embryologic point at Frontal Sinus Evaluation which the initial invagination occurs becomes the fu- ture sinus ostium. Cilia develop and orient towards CT of the paranasal sinuses classically has been per- this ostium, allowing mucus to flow towards and formed with continuous coronal and axial 3-mm slic- through the ostium.The efficiency of the mucociliary es to provide two planes of morphologic depiction of drainage is then dictated and impacted by the paten- sinus anatomy for presurgical mapping and evalua- cy, tortuosity, and/or frank narrowing of the result- tion [5]. Recent advances in CT scanner designs with ing drainage pathways, which are progressively mod- the introduction of multidetector helical designs and ified by the sequential ongoing pneumatization pro- much larger and faster computing processing capac- cess occurring during the patient’s life. Typically the ities now allow for single-plane thin-section high- ethmoid cells and the maxillary antra are pneuma- resolution databases to be acquired and postproc- tized at birth, with the maxillary antra progressively essed to depict the sinus anatomy in any planar pro- expanding into mature sinuses as the maxilla ma- jection with high definition of the underlying anato- tures and the teeth erupt. The frontal sinus develops my. This multiplanar capability has impacted the and expands in late childhood to early adolescence, evaluation of the frontal sinus drainage pathways the and continues to grow into adulthood. The rate of si- most, since depiction of this region in a sagittal plane nus growth is modified by the efficiency of ventila- has become routine. tion and mucociliary drainage, dictated by the sinus Typical high-resolution multidetector scanning is ostium and corresponding drainage pathways. The performed in the axial plane (Fig. 2.1A) following the frontal sinus drainage pathway is the most complex long axis of the hard palate, using a low MA tech- Fig. 2.1A,B. High-resolution sinus navigation CT protocol. A Lateral scout view shows the typical prescription of axial thin section slices. B An axial image at the level of the nasal cavity helps pre- scribe the sagittal reformatted images Radiologic Anatomy of the Frontal Sinus Chapter 2 9 Fig. 2.1B. nique, a small field of view (18–20 cm), and 1.25 mm dictated by its ventilation, drainage, and the corre- collimation, with data back-processed in 0.65-mm sponding growth (or lack of it) of the competing sur- thickness in bone algorithm and displayed in muco- rounding sinuses and skull base. sal (window of 2000, level of –200) and bone (3500/ The frontal sinus narrows down inferiorly and me- 800) detail. Most centers use this pattern of data ac- dially into a funnel-shaped transition point, which is quisition for 3D computer-assisted surgical naviga- defined as the frontal sinus ostium (Fig. 2.2A,B), ex- tion. Interactive evaluation of the data is then per- tending between the anterior and posterior frontal formed on the CT workstation to define a sagittal sinus walls at the skull base level. This point is typi- plane perpendicular to the hard palate, prescribing a cally demarcated along its anterior wall by the vari- set of sequential sagittal sections to encompass both ably shaped bone ridge of the nasofrontal buttress, frontal sinuses and their corresponding drainage frequently called the “nasal beak” (Fig. 2.2C). The pathways (Fig. 2.1B). frontal sinus ostium is oriented nearly perpendicular to the posterior wall of the sinus at the level of the an- terior skull base [3]. Frontal Sinus Drainage Pathway The Anatomic Terminology Group defined the frontal recess as “the most anterior and superior part The frontal sinus grows and expands within the di- of the anterior ethmoid complex from where the fron- ploic space of the frontal bone from the frontal sinus tal bone becomes pneumatized, resulting in a frontal ostium medial and superior to the orbital plates, en- sinus” [7]. In sagittal plane, the frontal recess fre- closed anteriorly by the cortical bone of the anterior quently looks like an inverted funnel (Fig. 2.2C) that frontal sinus wall and posteriorly by the cortical bone opens superiorly to the frontal sinus ostium. The ana- of the skull base and posterior frontal sinus wall (- tomic walls of surrounding structures dictate its walls which is also the anterior wall of the anterior cranial and floor. The lateral wall of the frontal recess is de- fossa). Each frontal sinus grows independently, with fined by the lamina papyracea of the orbit (Fig. 2.3). its rate of growth, final volume, and configuration The medial wall is defined by the vertical attachment 10 Ramon E. Figueroa, Joseph Sullivan Fig. 2.2A–C. The frontal sinus ostium. Axial (A), coronal (B), and sagittal (C) images at the level of the frontal sinus illustrate 2 the frontal sinus ostium (arrows), the frontal recess (*), the nasal beak (NB), and the agger nasi (AN) cells Radiologic Anatomy of the Frontal Sinus Chapter 2 11 of the middle turbinate (its most anterior and superi- laterally into the lamina papyracea of the orbit or part). Its posterior wall is variable, depending on (Fig. 2.4B), the frontal recess opens directly into the the basal lamella of the bulla ethmoidalis reaching (or superior aspect of the middle meatus, and the eth- not) the skull base, if it is dehiscent allowing a com- moidal infundibulum ends blindly into a “terminal munication with the suprabullar recess, or if it is hyp- recess”. er-pneumatized producing a secondary narrowing of The ethmoidal infundibulum is a true three-di- the frontal recess from it posterior wall [2]. mensional space defined laterally by the lamina pap- The agger nasi cells and the uncinate process dic- yracea, anteromedially by the uncinate process, and tate the floor and the pattern of drainage of the fron- posteriorly by the bulla ethmoidalis (Fig. 2.5A). It tal recess. The frontal recess can be narrowed from opens medially into the middle meatus across the the anterior-inferior direction by hyper-pneuma- hiatus semilunaris inferior, a cleft-like opening tized agger nasi cells (Fig. 2.3). Its inferior drainage is between the free posterior margin of the uncinate dictated by the insertion of the vertical attachment of process and the corresponding anterior face of the the uncinate process, a sagittally oriented hook-like bulla ethmoidalis (Fig. 2.5B). It is the functional com- bony leaflet (Fig. 2.4).Whenever the uncinate process mon pathway of mucociliary drainage for the anteri- attaches to the skull base or the superior-anterior or ethmoid, agger nasi, and maxillary sinus mucus. portion of the middle turbinate, the frontal recess The frontal sinus drainage can also drain through the drains into the superior end of the ethmoidal infun- ethmoidal infundibulum if the uncinate process does dibulum (Fig. 2.4A). If the uncinate process attaches not attach to the lamina papyracea of the orbit. 12 Ramon E. Figueroa, Joseph Sullivan Fig. 2.3A–C. The frontal recess. A large right agger nasi cell (AN) is stenosing the right frontal recess (***), which is opacified by congested mucosa and can be followed on coronal and 2 sequential axial images.
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