THE EFFECT OF FRESHWATER MUSSEL CONSUMPTION ON DENTAL WEAR DURING THE LATE ARCHAIC PERIOD
A thesis submitted to Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
by
Stuart E. Nealis
May, 2011
! Thesis written by Stuart Edmund Nealis B.A., The University of Akron, 2008 M.A., Kent State University, 2011
Approved by
______, Advisor
______, Chair, Department of Anthropology
______, Associate Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ...... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi
Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Research Question ...... 1 Hypothesis...... 2 Study Populations ...... 2 Dietary Implications ...... 5
II. PREVIOUS WORK ...... 8
Wear Rate ...... 8 Wear Pattern ...... 10
III. SAMPLE BACKGROUND...... 12
The Archaic Period ...... 12 Indian Knoll ...... 14 Black Earth...... 18 Libben ...... 21
IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 24
Aging Methodology...... 24 Sample Composition ...... 26 Data Collection...... 27 Data Analysis: Rate of Wear ...... 31 Data Analysis: Pattern of Wear ...... 33 Reliability of Method and Post Hoc Testing...... 34
V. RESULTS ...... 35
Wear Rate ...... 35 Wear Pattern ...... 38 Reliability of Method ...... 43
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VI. DISCUSSION ...... 45
Possible Causes of Archaic Wear...... 45 Difference in Wear at Libben...... 49 Sex Based Differences ...... 50 Wear Pattern ...... 51 Seasonality at Indian Knoll ...... 52
VII. CONCLUSION ...... 55
Settlement and Subsistence Implications...... 55 Shellfish as a Stable Resource ...... 56 Food Processing Implications ...... 57 Future Research ...... 60
REFERENCES ...... 61
APPENDIX A. Summary Dataset ...... 72
APPENDIX B. Aging Data for Indian Knoll Sample ...... 77
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Location of sites used in this study...... 3
Figure 2: Example of Indian Knoll dentition ...... 28
Figure 3: Example of Black Earth dentition ...... 30
Figure 4: Example of Libben dentition ...... 30
Figure 5: Mean percent dentine by population ...... 36
Figure 6: Archaic wear scatter plot ...... 37
Figure 7Archaic and Woodland wear scatter plot ...... 37
Figure 8: Indian Knoll wear patterns ...... 40
Figure 9: Black Earth wear patterns ...... 41
Figure 10: Libben wear patterns ...... 42
Figure 11: Indian Knoll burial 377 classification ...... 44
Figure 12: Indian Knoll burial 446 classification ...... 44
Figure 13: Indian Knoll burial 015 classification ...... 44
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS!
First and foremost my gratitude and appreciation are due to my advisor, Dr. Mark
F. Seeman, who planted the seed for this project and then continuously helped it grow.
Thanks are also in order for Dr. Richard S. Meindl and Dr. Robert P. Mensforth who both contributed valuable insight regarding the topic at hand. The staff at the Webb Museum of Anthropology at the University of Kentucky was essential to this research, and I thank them for all their help and for accommodating my requests. Likewise, I am indebted to the staff at the Center for Archaeological Investigations at Southern Illinois University-
Carbondale for providing access to a comparative Archaic collection, something that was easier said than done. I also need to thank Owen Lovejoy, who helped me understand and utilize the Libben collection.
A special thanks goes out to my friends and family, who were there to let me vent my frustration and encourage me when I needed it. Finally, my most sincere gratitude and thanks are due to my fiancé, Caitlyn. She gladly ventured with me on every roadtrip and helped to collect all of my data, allowing me to finish my collections research sooner and have more fun while doing it. Without her, this project would have seemed insurmountable. Thank you, Cate.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The study of dental attrition has long been a part of the anthropologist’s attempt to delineate and interpret the lifeways of prehistoric peoples. Since no soft tissue is preserved in the majority of archaeological populations, dental and other skeletal materials can be useful indicators of how people lived and died in terms of diet, disease, trauma, and so forth. Depending on taphonomic considerations such as depth, soil pH and bioturbation, the majority of skeletal materials (i.e. bones) are sometimes either not preserved or have been altered structurally through diagenesis to the point of destroying any usable data for most analytical purposes. Tooth enamel on the other hand, with its interlocking hydroxyapatite crystals and 96% inorganic material composition, is the hardest substance in the human body and typically will preserve even when other skeletal material does not (Duray 1987). The rate and pattern of dental wear and tooth loss can provide a glimpse into the dietary and nutritional status of the population at hand.
This thesis in particular is focused on the use of a specific dietary resource, the freshwater mussel, and its correlating impact on dental wear rates in Late Archaic populations in eastern North America. The question I seek to answer is whether or not the consumption of mussels (containing sand particles due to the organism’s filter feeding strategy) as a dietary staple accelerates the rate of dental wear. This has been suggested by several researchers in the past as the reason for the extreme wear seen in Green River Archaic
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populations. Powell, for example, points out that “the gritty nature of the diet has been blamed for this pattern of wear, particularly the freshwater molluscs whose shells gave the Shell Mound culture its archaeological name” (1996:126). Deter (2009:250) similarly suggests that in addition to contamination due to food processing equipment, “other causes of the heavy wear across the dental arch in this group could have been aquatic foods themselves, which are particularly abrasive”. Based on dental microwear results from another Green River shell mound site, Carlston Annis, Ward (2005:501) postulated:
“Unless some attempt were made to flush mud and other particles from the alimentary tract of the mussel before consumption, a considerable volume of abrasives would probably be introduced into the oral cavity, resulting in the observed microdamage consistent with fine-grained siliceous particles.”
I hypothesize that despite the theoretical impact this grit could have on the rate of dental wear, it offers no significant addition to a diet already laden with both grit introduced by the breakdown of the sandstone food processing implements and with the ingestion of tough, hard food byproducts such as nut shell.
To be able to delineate the relative importance of mussel-specific grit, I chose two
Late Archaic populations for comparison, as well as a Late Woodland population to serve as a control. The Indian Knoll (15OH2) site was excavated in Ohio County, Kentucky along the Green River and is affiliated with an archaeological cultural complex often referred to as the “Shell Mound Archaic”. As the name connotes, an abundance of shells were found on this site, to the point that it often has been referred to as a “shell midden”.
This term is better aligned with the true nature of the feature as a depository for refuse and general habitation byproducts, rather than a purposely constructed mound with distinct vertical relief (Jefferies 2009a:216). Indian Knoll is one of almost 50 sites 3
containing varying densities and volumes of mussel shell deposits in this portion of the
Green River drainage (Morey and Crothers 1998:907). The general diet of the Indian
Knoll population was composed primarily of hunted white-tail deer and turkey, and gathered hickory nuts and freshwater mussels, as is typical of Late Archaic populations in the Midwest (Butler 2009:625; Winters 1974:ix). As one of the largest and best preserved collections from the Archaic period, “the Indian Knoll skeletal population has historically been one of the most important sources of odontometric data in North
American archaeology” (Ward 2005:490). Indeed, studies focusing on the dentition at
Indian Knoll are numerous (e.g. Deter 2009; Harris and Nweela 1980; Perzigian 1976;
Scott 1979).
Figure 1: Location of sites used in this study
The other Late Archaic skeletal population utilized in this thesis is from the Black
Earth Site(11SA87), located near the South Fork of the Saline River in Saline County,
Illinois. Subsistence here was focused on broad spectrum hunting and gathering 4
resources, with again the major emphasis on white-tail deer and hickory nuts. The Black
Earth site characteristically has been labeled as a late Middle Archaic occupation due to the radiocarbon date range of 5,905 ± 85 B.P. to 4,860 ± 85 B.P. for the undisturbed midden area (Jefferies 1982:101). The radiocarbon dates from the Late Archaic Indian
Knoll site range from 4,670 ± 70 B.P. to 4,230 ± 80 B.P. (Morey et al. 2002:538) , permitting the assumption that these two populations lived somewhat contemporaneously in archaeological terms. The dentition of the Black Earth population also has been subject to scientific inquiry (Brandon 1986; Forsythe 2009; Larsen 1981;
Pressley 2008). No study to my knowledge has sought to systematically and quantitatively compare the dentitions represented at these two archaeological sites.
In sharp contrast to the temporal placement of Indian Knoll and Black Earth, the
Libben (33OT06) site, the third site studied in this thesis, was excavated in Ottawa
County, Ohio along the Portage River. Libben radiocarbon dates range from 720 ± 150
AD to 960 ± 110 AD (Stothers, et al. 1994). Libben has been categorized as pertaining to the Late Woodland period and differs from the other two sites both in time and in subsistence practices. The Libben population primarily ate fish and small mammals as well as some horticultural plants, including maize (Harrison 1978). The differences evident among Indian Knoll, Black Earth, and Libben allow for a three-way assessment of dental wear and its relationship to diet.
Dental wear offers specific insights into the content and consistency of prehistoric diets. Dental wear is produced in two main ways: attrition (tooth to tooth contact) and abrasion (tooth to food contact) during mastication (Scott and Turner 1988:109). Dental 5
wear is a natural occurrence that increases with age, and is no longer considered to be pathological under normal circumstances. It is, in fact, a product of the normal biological process of tooth use. The removal of hydroxyapatite nano-particles by abrasive materials during chewing may allow for natural tooth repair via biofilm management (Hannig and
Hannig 2010:671). Thus, the habitual removal of small amounts of enamel during mastication acts as a natural maintenance mechanism, allowing these small particles to fill in minor pits and scratches that may have resulted from chewing hard food items. It should be noted, however, that natural wear rates can be accelerated by certain aspects of the diet, and differential wear rates between or among populations over time can provide important information about how diets changed both temporally and spatially in the archaeological past. The loss of teeth or the presence of caries can in some cases cause abnormal wear patterns and wear rates in surrounding teeth, and should be taken into consideration when looking at dental wear on either a populational or individual level.
Dental wear can and has been used to help reconstruct prehistoric diets in many specific circumstances and to independently support other archaeological conclusions relating to artifacts, feature construction, palynology, and paleoethnobotany. The important factor to understand here is that the rate of wear can be informative and useful for comparison, whereas the amount of wear can only offer a myopic view of the population or the individual being studied. Wear rates enable the researcher to compare dental wear based on age, sex, spatial or temporal distribution, as well as other factors to delineate specific sources of variation. Wear rates change with different subsistence strategies, and have been documented most notably with the shift from hunting and 6
gathering to agriculture (Deter 2009; Hillson 1996; Powell 1985; Sciulli 1997; Scott
1979). This transition has been given the most attention because of its drastic and easily recognizable change. The smaller more subtle changes associated with varying dietary resource-use, however, often have been overlooked.
For the analysis of gross dental wear, traditional methods often involve a qualitative and considerably subjective approach to scoring wear. Following the methodology of Deter (2009) and for purposes of this study, I chose to use a more quantitative method that involves the analysis of high resolution photographs of individual teeth. I also used the remote sensing program Geomatica (PCI Geomatics,
Inc.) to automatically discern enamel from dentine on the occlusal surface of the left second mandibular molar and then compared pixel counts to determine gradients of occlusal wear for each population. I then compared wear rates between populations to detect the possible causes of any discernable difference.
In addition to population-based comparisons, I evaluated dental wear rates between males and females to elucidate any possible sex-based dietary differences. The three populations utilized in this study show minimal social stratification beyond personal achievements, and therefore it is suggested that no significant difference in dental wear rates will be seen between the sexes at Indian Knoll, Black Earth, or Libben. I also looked at the pattern of wear in each population, again focusing on the left mandibular second molar, to ascertain whether different food resources would cause not only different rates of wear but patterns of wear as well. To my knowledge, this is the first study of its type to use Geomatica to address the problem of dental wear. As such, a 7
secondary goal of this study was to test the automatic delineation of enamel and dentine afforded by the software at hand. This was done to determine whether it was both accurate and reliable when compared to the same process completed by manually drawing each area. If it is as accurate and reliable as doing the same task by hand, it would offer a substantial reduction in time expended doing dental wear analysis.
The reasoning behind studying rates of dental wear is not limited to simply attempting to discover what people ate in the past and how the foods impacted overall health, although both are goals of this study. The overarching purpose, however, is to use the results of this study to view patterns of long-term adaptation to specific environments in prehistory. Joseph Caldwell’s (1958) early concept of “Primary Forest Efficiency” takes center stage in the Late Archaic of the Midwest, with populations positioned to exploit their available hunted and gathered resources with a more directed and focused strategy than before. Winters’ (1974:x) expanded on this purview by incorporating the idea of the “harvesting economy”, suggesting that these Late Archaic populations were actively managing their resource bases in ways that enabled them to maximize their returns. The implication of this activity is an increase in population size and social complexity. Subsistence models in the Late Archaic period of the Midwest and Midsouth are characterized by the fine tuning of “collecting” strategies (Binford 1980:10), increasing both efficiency and yield over time. It is anticipated that this thesis will contribute directly to the substance of this discussion. CHAPTER II
PREVIOUS WORK
The study of dental wear has been integral in the understanding of prehistoric subsistence strategies, and has been conducted since the late 19th century. Early studies such as those of Leigh (1925), Moodie (1929), Mummery (1870), and Rabkin (1942) established the effects of both dietary resources and food processing technology on dental wear. Research into the functionality of the human masticatory apparatus has shown that the mandibular buccal cusps and maxillary palatal cusps exhibit the earliest signs of dentine exposure and greatest overall wear prior to complete cusp obliteration (Osborn
1982:275). This is due to the fact that during the power stroke when maxillary and mandibular molars are brought into centric occlusion, these cusps are brought into contact while the remaining cusps are used in primarily a guiding capacity.
Wear Rate
The first significant attempt to quantify the rate of dental wear came from the work conducted by Murphy (1959b) on Australian aborigines. In this study, Murphy examined each molar from a collection of skulls housed at the University of Adelaide and the South Australian Museum, and came up with inter-molar gradients for the rate of dental wear. He divided the tooth into quadrants for his study and determined his wear categories based on how many quadrants showed dentine exposure. This provided a
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coarse comparison of the wear between teeth and was the first attempt at quantifying dental wear. Murphy’s conclusions showed that mandibular molars showed a greater amount of wear than the corresponding maxillary molar, and that wear differences between the molars in the same row tended to equalize with increasing tooth attrition.
Parenthetically, it should be noted that this study was prompted by the Piltdown hoax, and represented an attempt to refine methods for determining natural versus fraudulent tooth attrition.
Molnar (1971a) and later Smith (1985) both attempted to refine the methodology of Murphy by redefining the wear categories and including wear angles as well. Wear plane angles can be helpful in understanding the nature of the diet (i.e. level of grit or toughness of food) and determining masticatory loading (Smith 1985). However, these methods were still based on a scoring technique dependent upon subjective observation of specific characteristics, requiring a mastery of the particular technique and allowing for potential interobserver variation and error. This amounted to making quantitative analyses and inferences from qualitative data. The other major problem with these methods was that the class intervals being used were not equivalent (Behrend 1977).
Behrend proposed a method for quantitative analysis by measuring the area of exposed secondary dentine relative to the occlusal surface, thus providing gradients of wear that could be compared cross-culturally. Scott (1979) also introduced a quantitative method involving principal axis analysis, similar to the gradients initially developed by Murphy but involving more precise measurements. Scott’s study incorporated Indian Knoll as a pre-agricultural comparison to later groups. However, these strides towards quantitative 10
examination received little mainstream use by dental anthropologists who continued to use qualitative observation based scoring systems.
The method of Deter (2009) resolved the problem of qualitative scoring because it allowed for the incorporation of quantitative analysis of digital photography. For her study, Deter analyzed dental wear gradients between prehistoric hunter-gatherer (all from the Green River region in Kentucky, including Indian Knoll) and agricultural populations by using computer software to determine pixel counts of enamel and dentine on the occlusal surface. By determining the percentage of dentine exposed on each tooth, she was able to quantitatively compare wear rates between teeth on a ratio scale. Deter examined the entire maxillary dentition to delineate any possible differences in wear between the anterior and posterior teeth. Her conclusion was that hunter-gatherers typically showed a higher degree of attrition when compared to the agriculturalists, with some variation across the dental arcade. Her methodology has greater utility than her conclusions; it allows for the relatively unbiased recording of dental wear on a more precise scale. By using this method and creating ratio scale data, the measurement and comparison of dental wear gradients can be conducted using more powerful statistical tests.
Wear Pattern
Murphy utilized the same study population referenced above to measure wear patterns among the Australian aborigines, and in similar fashion devised categories to document modal forms of occlusal wear (1959a). Subsequent to this work, relatively few studies have been directed at understanding wear patterns, and instead typically have 11
focused on rate of attrition. Lovejoy (1985) detailed the functional wear pattern of over
300 individuals from the Libben population in modal fashion as well. From this sample he determined a specific wear pattern for each of ten population derived age-wear categories for every tooth in the dental arcade. Lovejoy found that the wear pattern at
Libben was similar to that observed by Murphy in Australian aborigines, although it differed in rate of exposure. These differing rates of exposure were attributed to a difference in subsistence practices.
Another study of this type is Kaifu’s (1999) examination of the changing wear pattern of Japanese populations from ancient hunter-gatherers to modern industrial groups, however his scale of analysis excluded patterns of occlusal directionality or cusp obliteration and was limited to differences in anterior and posterior wear ratios. Clement, et al. (2007/2008) documented dental wear using digital images of high resolution casts of Australian aboriginal dentitions, however they chose to focus on wear ratio by dividing all wear gradients by the wear percentage of the first molar. This method shows the pattern of how each tooth wears in comparison to the first molar, allowing the researchers to control for the effect of age on dental wear. This does not show the spatial distribution of dental wear on the occlusal surface, however, and cannot be used to determine the pattern of dental wear on an individual tooth.
In sum, a variety of studies have been directed towards dental wear rates and wear patterns. Studies of dental wear such as these were characterized by increasing rigor and objectivity over time. Those studies provide a foundation for examining the Indian
Knoll, Black Earth and Libben dentitions. CHAPTER III
REGIONAL BACKGROUND
The Archaic period extends from 10,000 to 3,000 B.P., and is one of the least understood time periods of North American prehistoric archaeology. This period was a time of great climatic change, requiring the people who lived during this time to be highly flexible and able to survive on a changing and diverse resource base. This is not to say that the Archaic period environment was wildly fluctuating year to year, but gradual changes had significant impacts on seasonal availability of plants and animals that would have been vital to the survival of human populations. The biggest impact on
Archaic climate was associated with what is often referred to as the Hypsithermal climatic interval, which affected the continent in a west to east fashion from approximately 9,000 to 5,000 B.P. This event is tantamount to the apex of post-
Pleistocene warming that occurred globally after the end of the last Ice Age. On a regional level, a trend towards climate and resource stabilization can be seen during this period. It is likely that river valleys buffered the drying effects of the Hypsithermal, increasing the lacustrine resources available to hunter-gatherer groups during the Archaic period while river regimens themselves became more stable and predictable (Brown
1983:10).
The Archaic period is often split into three segments for analytical purposes:
Early, Middle and Late. Archaeological investigations at Early Archaic (10,000 to 8,000
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B.P.) sites such as components at Longworth-Gick in Kentucky (Collins and Driskell
1979), Koster in Illinois (Brown and Vierra 1983), St. Albans in West Virginia (Broyles
1966) and Dust Cave in Alabama (Driskell 1994) reveal that people lived in small groups and moved frequently, often leaving little evidence of their ephemeral encampments.
The Middle Archaic (8,000 to 5,000 B.P.) has shown a relative dearth of evidence archaeologically throughout much of the Midwest. Sites such as Eva in Tennessee
((Lewis and Lewis 1961) and Black Earth in Illinois (Jefferies and Butler 1982) show the appearance of larger, multi-season occupations at this time. The main trend noted in the material record is an increase in regional similarities among sites regarding projectile point styles, ornamentation, burial practices, subsistence choices, and settlement patterns.
This suggests that groups were increasingly sharing information about how to adapt to similar environmental situations (Jefferies 1996b:71). Sites were often positioned to take advantage of multiple ecotones, which in turn facilitated the prospect of living in base camps on a long term or year round basis. This pattern can be seen in many places across the Midwest, including the Black Earth and Indian Knoll sites. Excavations at Modoc
Rock Shelter in southern Illinois make clear a pattern that an increase in aquatic resource exploitation correlates with greater occupational longevity (Styles et al. 1983:292).
Similarly, Middle Archaic occupations at the Koster site show a significant increase in occupation longevity, with evidence of substantial shelters being built during the period
(Brown and Vierra 1983:184).
The subsequent Late Archaic period (5,000 to 3,000 B.P.) shows a gradual increase in the number of sites found, although many of them still represent short-term 14
occupations. As was the case for the Middle Archaic, however, some specific locations such as those studied in this thesis, provided a stable and diverse resource set sufficient to allow human groups to become increasingly sedentary, occupying sites multi-seasonally or even perhaps year-round. “Differences between Middle and Late Archaic sites reflect steady population increases, social organization changes, and adaptation to local environmental conditions” (Jefferies 1996b:57). The Late Archaic period also provides evidence of larger cemeteries or burial areas, further supporting an argument of decreasing mobility during this period. The presence of large numbers of human burials allows for a better understanding of the health and disease of these populations that lived four thousand years ago. It is within this cultural context that the Indian Knoll and Black
Earth sites developed as large, multi-season base camps.
Indian Knoll
The actual site of Indian Knoll (15OH2) was located on a natural levee, an accretional creation due to the periodic flooding of the Green River. The area is bounded by the Green River to the southwest and southeast, and Pond Run Creek to the northwest.
This provided “approximately 700 acres of comparatively level plain not subject to floods to any considerable extent, an ideal location for a village of a hunting and fishing group”
(Webb 1974:117). Original sediment analysis suggested the site was most likely positioned on the bank of a slow meandering section of the river or an oxbow lake, making it ideal for fishing. Core samples and paleotopographic analyses at other shell mound sites nearby in the Big Bend area of the Green River have corroborated this conclusion (Stein 2005). Anthropogenic changes due to the 19th century impoundment of 15
the Green River make direct interpretations of the middle Holocene environment and riverine context extremely difficult, however, malacologists note that the “richness and abundance of the molluscan fauna have been characteristic of the Mississippi River watershed throughout the time humans have occupied the continent (Claassen 1996:241).
Based on habitat requirements of the freshwater mussels recovered from excavations spanning most of the 20th century, a great deal of variability in river depth and current was most likely present during prehistoric occupation at Indian Knoll. However, geoarchaeological and malacological data support the existence of mussel shoals immediately accessible from the Green River sites (Morey and Crothers 1998:923).
Indian Knoll’s most distinctive feature is the accumulation of tens of thousands of mussel shells, constituting a distinct portion of the midden. The term “Shell Mound
Archaic” has been coined to connote this property of Indian Knoll and other contemporary sites in this area. More than 50 prehistoric shell mounds have been documented along the Green River and its tributaries (Jefferies 1996b). The exploitation of freshwater mussels as a significant dietary resource is evinced by the sheer quantity of discarded shells, although a great deal of variability can be found among sites in the region. The site of Indian Knoll continued to gain elevation as additional layers of shell and other refuse material were discarded in and around the living area. It should be noted that the majority of the burials (55 percent) were below this shell infused matrix in the underlying sand and hardpan substrates (Claassen 1996:246). At its deepest, the midden itself extended 8 feet down from the top of the mound. Little evidence of extraneous soil being transported to the mound area was found, suggesting that the mound was created in 16
an accretional fashion from the organic materials discarded there. Examples of this material include carbonized wood, floral and faunal remains, and broken tools and food processing equipment such as cooking rocks and pestles (Webb 1974:119).
The settlement strategy and social organization of Indian Knoll and the associated sites along the Green River have been issues of contention and reinterpretation since their initial excavation in the early twentieth century. The basic template for Late Archaic settlement is the use of a semi-sedentary seasonal round schedule. Following this model, a group or band would occupy a base camp settlement site for the majority of the year, and use transitory camps during the periods in between (Winters 1974:xvii). This model has been suggested for the Indian Knoll phase of the Green River shell midden sites, although some researchers have proposed that these sites were occupied more or less continuously based on the abundance and proximity of key resources, notably large shoals of freshwater mussels. For either of these scenarios, small “task groups” probably ventured forth to locate and recover resources that could then be brought back to the base camp for processing, sharing, and communal consumption. This model is consistent with the “pull hypothesis” as put forth by Brown (1985), suggesting a decrease in mobility due to the availability of one or more stable and non-moving resources during the Late
Archaic. The expansion of xeric oak-hickory forests due to the Hypsithermal has been suggested as influencing settlement and subsistence strategy throughout the Middle and
Late Archaic period elsewhere in the Midwest, however, it is unlikely that prairie expansion impacted the Middle Green River region to any appreciable degree (Hensley
1994:57). The abundance of mast producing trees, coupled with the availability of forest- 17
edge microenvironments and mussel shoals, would have been sufficient to produce a pulling effect towards this particular location. It should be noted that white-tail deer account for 97.6 percent of identifiable mammal bones from Indian Knoll, while turkey account for 83.4 percent of bird bones found during excavation (Winters 1974:ix). No attempt was made by the original excavators of Indian Knoll to recover nuts and carbonized seeds, however, the stunning 1,438 pestles (likely under-enumerated due to exclusion of fragmentary pestles) recorded during the WPA excavations, suggest that plant processing was very important for the better part of the 1,000 year occupation of the site.
The skeletal population of Indian Knoll has been extensively studied and has undergone several aging and sexing regimens since it was first unearthed in 1915. The original skeletal analysis was conducted by Charles Snow (1948), with age estimates for this study being made principally on cranial suture closure and dental attrition. Snow later revisited this population with Francis Johnston and employed a more in-depth pubic symphysis aging technique as well as a standardized dental attrition schedule (Johnston and Snow 1961). In addition, studies conducted by Marc Kelley (1980) and Robert
Mensforth (1986) attempted to further refine previous age estimates or reveal their inherent flaws and biases, respectively. The most recent attempt at refining the age distribution of Indian Knoll came from Herrmann and Konigsberg (2002), in which they attempted to correct the “middle-age bulge” age structure of the series by using mathematical hazard modeling along with the pubic symphysis and the auricular surface of the ilium. Although this model proved moderately useful in further illustrating the 18
problematic aging of Indian Knoll, the survivorship curve did not differ significantly from any previous study (Herrmann and Konigsberg 2002).
The Indian Knoll skeletal population also has been sexed on multiple occasions.
The initial sex distribution seems to have been plagued by many of the same problems of mis-identifying individuals that characterized the aging analysis. The original sex ratio for identifiable adult individuals was 1.24:1 males to females (Johnston and Snow 1961).
Subsequent observations of the sex adult sex ratio at Indian Knoll yielded mixed results, with Kelley (1980) reporting 1.10:1. While this would seem to be a considerable disparity and attributable to observer error among early investigations, subsequent analyses have shown that the sex ratio at Indian Knoll is still above 1:1 (Mensforth, pers. comm.). There are several possible explanations for this occurrence. For example, more males could have been buried here than females, there is a bias in individuals curated, or perhaps portions of the site that were excavated had differential distribution of skeletal materials based on sex that may have skewed the data. An analysis of grave goods from
Indian Knoll burials showed patterns typical of egalitarian societies characterized by achieved status. The presence of some complexity in grave good distribution has been suggested as an indication of a progression along the egalitarian-hierarchical continuum
(Rothschild 1979:673).
Black Earth
The Black Earth site (11SA87) was located within the Carrier Mills
Archaeological District and represents the largest as well as the most complex site within the District. The site is comprised of three distinct midden areas that are situated along 19
the crest of a low ridge running east-west (Jefferies and Butler 1982:3). The site was located just north of the South Fork of the Saline River in southern Illinois and consisted of three areas of cultural use. Area A covered some 20,000 square yards and included a midden over five feet deep at its greatest depth and was intensely excavated over two field seasons in 1978-79 (Jefferies 1982:82). The site originally was surrounded by low lying wetlands of residual water resulting from the drainage of Glacial Lake Saline at the end of the Pleistocene. This area was purposely drained in the early twentieth century.
The Saline River now runs only 275 yards from the Carrier Mills Archaeological District in its modern channel, but prior to channelization and straightening the river meandered roughly half a mile south of its present position. At the time of Archaic occupation, the site would have been situated atop a ridge crest overlooking the swampy lowland areas surrounding it, thus affording access to a variety of resources. Sandstone is the most commonly occurring artifactual material at the Black Earth site. Since it does not occur naturally in the local soils, all sandstone on the site was procured purposely and transported prehistorically (Jefferies and Butler 1982). Sandstone was ubiquitous throughout all excavation squares in Area A, suggesting a heavy reliance on this bedrock as a material for stone tools and hot rock cooking.
The Black Earth site gets its name from the dark appearance of the midden stains that contrast with the color of the surrounding soil. Large concentrations of organic matter must have been deposited here in large quantities, notably carbonized seed and plant remains. The chemical composition of the midden also was altered due to the centuries of ash buildup, elevating the levels of calcium, magnesium and potassium to 20
form a more basic soil pH than the acidic soil naturally surrounding it (Jefferies 1987:39).
This had the unintentional benefit of creating an excellent preservation environment for bone when combined with the well-drained nature of the midden soil. The midden soil itself was composed of roughly fifty percent sand; since sand makes up very little of the natural soil, the most likely source is the byproduct of the extensive use of sandstone tools for food processing.
The architectural remains found at the Black Earth site cannot be exclusively associated with the Middle Archaic occupation, therefore although clusters of post molds exist that extend into the subsoil beneath the midden, no useful inferences can be made about house form during this particular period (Jefferies and Lynch 1983:321). However, based on the intensive use of the site and the availability of a diverse set of resources on a year-round basis, it can be reasonably suggested that the site was occupied continuously throughout much of the year. As stated previously, the main resource focus at Black
Earth was white-tail deer and hickory nuts. White-tail deer comprised upwards of 90 % of the total identifiable faunal record, and hickory nut shell accounted for 98 % of all identifiable plant remains (Breitburg 1982:901; Lopinot 1982:717).
The undisturbed midden at the Black Earth site yielded a high density of artifacts as well as 154 burials that could be conclusively associated with the late Middle Archaic.
Of these burials, 30 were too fragmentary to be used and were subsequently removed from the original burial analysis. The remaining 124 burials were aged using the summary age method of Lovejoy et al. (1985) which allowed for the exclusion of dental wear as an aging criteria by removing the dental age and recalculating the individual’s 21
summary age (Bassett 1982:1036). Examination of the grave goods and burial position of each individual suggests a predominantly egalitarian society with little social differences beyond those attained by personal abilities (Jefferies and Lynch 1983:319).
Libben
The Libben site (33OT06) was located on a sandy knoll that most likely represents a beach remnant from an earlier manifestation of Lake Erie or its antecedents.
The site itself covers approximately two acres and is bounded by the Portage River to the south, and surrounded on all other sides by what was known historically as the Black
Swamp. Part of the site had been destroyed due to erosion of the bank of the river, initially making the site known to the landowner. Libben was excavated in 1967-68, after test trenches in 1966 yielded significant skeletal and cultural material. The site consisted of a settlement and cemetery, with no clear delineation between the two (Prufer and
Shane 1976). There are post molds on the northern limit of the site that were originally interpreted as a stockade (Romain 1979:53); however, re-analysis of the post molds does not clearly suggest this pattern. The post molds are arranged in linear fashion, but some sections appear far too dense to have served the suggested purpose. These linear segments of post molds are interspersed with large open sections, making the stockade interpretation difficult to support. Perhaps these spaces had topographical advantages serving as choke points for hostile intruders, or equally possible, this was a structure constructed for an entirely different purpose.
The Libben site is the only site used in this study that can be clearly associated with structures (houses). These structures were circular in fashion “roughly 25 feet in 22
diameter, associated with deep circular refuse pits and hearths” (Prufer and Shane
1976:298). Antlerless deer and newborn bobcats and marmots were found at the site; since these are only available during winter and spring months, year round occupation is suggested (Harrison 1978:36). The presence of houses, in combination with faunal and floral materials alludes to the Libben site as being a permanent year-round settlement.
This is also the only site among the three utilized in this study to have ceramics in the material record, both associated with burials and in midden and refuse pit contexts.
The presence of ceramic vessels at Libben suggests that food processing technology was considerably more complex than at either of the Late Archaic sites used in this study. Use of ceramic vessels allows for the more efficient preparation of food with less inclusion of extraneous grit; ceramic vessels can be heated directly instead of requiring the addition of heated stones. They also allow for the storage of surplus food for times when resources are less bountiful. The Libben site shows a focus primarily on riverine and lacustrine resources, with the majority of meat coming from a broad variety of fish species. Many small mammals such as muskrats and raccoons were also utilized.
Larger mammals, such as the white-tail deer, did not show the same prominence as at
Indian Knoll or Black Earth. Deer account for only 12 percent of the total number of mammals identified (Harrison 1978:35). Although a variety of avian species are represented in the faunal record at Libben, their dietary importance was not very significant. Of the birds present, turkey and duck were the most prevalent. The floral assemblage at Libben provides evidence for the use of acorns, hickory nuts, and maize, as well as a variety of less well represented taxa. The presence of small amounts of 23
individual and widely dispersed carbonized corn kernels suggests maize may not have been a very important crop at this time (Harrison 1978:48).
The Libben site excavation was estimated to have recovered approximately 85 percent of the burials present, with the majority of them concentrated at the center of the excavated area. It should be emphasized that the primary goal of the excavation was the recovery of a complete skeletal sample to be used for both physical and demographic analysis. The total number of burials excavated from the Libben site was 1,327, with individuals ranging from prenatal to 70+ years of age (Lovejoy, et al. 1977:291). The majority of burials were in the extended position, with a rich and diverse assemblage of grave goods being found in association with some individuals. Despite being considerably later in time than the Archaic populations used in this study, the Libben population has been characterized as largely egalitarian with little evidence of ascribed status or institutionalized inequalities. CHAPTER IV
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For purposes of this thesis, the rate, magnitude, and distributional pattern of dental wear were assessed using the left mandibular second molar of the adult dentition in three skeletal populations. This tooth in particular was chosen because it is the standard used in most qualitative comparisons where a wear score is produced. A focus on the second molar controls for eruption differences between the molars; the first molar (which erupts first) will have experienced more wear and the third molar will have experienced less wear at any given age after eruption, all other things being equal. Also, the use of a mandibular molar is as a standard general practice, since it has been shown in most if not all research populations that it exhibits slightly higher levels of wear than a corresponding maxillary molar. Finally, the posterior teeth are better suited to wear analysis than anterior teeth because they are more involved in the actual processing of food that is being consumed. In contrast, anterior teeth are used primarily for ingestion of food and are thus characterized by a different pattern and rate of dental wear (Molnar
1972).
Aging Methodology
Dental attrition was one of several criteria employed by earlier investigators to estimate chronological age at death for adults in the Indian Knoll, Black Earth, and
24 25
Libben skeletal samples. Moreover, the Libben and Black Earth adults were aged using a multivariate approach where several skeletal and dental age criteria were used to construct a summary age (average age) for each individual. Some summary ages were based on up to five criteria, the most common being assessments of dental wear, and age progressive metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium and os pubis (Lovejoy et al. 1985). Given that dental attrition is a primary subject of this study, and the circumstance that progressive dental wear was used in establishing earlier summary ages for specimens included in the analyses, a decision was made to remove dental age estimates from the calculation of summary age for individuals included in the sample.
This was done in order to eliminate any age indicator bias that might affect or otherwise influence age group assessments of dental wear magnitude and rate. The new summary ages were generated based on skeletal criteria alone (i.e., primarily age estimates for the auricular surface and os pubis).
For Indian Knoll, the auricular surface was aged using the eight phases outlined by Lovejoy et al. (1985), while the pubic symphysis was scored utilizing the Suchey-
Brooks six phase method (1990). Ectocranial suture closures originally were to be scored using the ten site system described by Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) where possible.
However, due to the fact that original age estimates were derived partially from cranial suture closure and almost all skulls within the sample had been reconstructed, this method was considered to offer little resolution to the systematic under-aging that is typical of archaeological populations. Since the auricular surface was analyzed for this sample, and is considered one of the best indicators of chronological age, suture closures 26
were not included in the summary age. Each individual was aged using each aspect alone and then seriated to minimize error. Current curation restrictions dictated a maximum of approximately 20 individuals out for analysis at one time, thus restricting seriation to each group selected. Despite this limitation, seriating within each group allows for the simultaneous aging of all individuals selected, thus reducing intra-observer error. Inclusion of the auricular surface and seriation of all individuals allows for a more standardized comparison among all three skeletal populations in this study.
Sample Composition
For purposes of this study, the individuals from each of the three study populations were separated into four arbitrary age categories. The first age category begins at age 18, in order to avoid any possible confusion with aging and sexing sub- adult skeletal materials, and ends at 25. The following two categories follow ten year intervals, 26-35 and 36-45, with the final category including individuals age 46 and beyond. The use of only the adult dentition is commonplace in dental wear studies, and is preferable in the sense that it minimizes the pitfalls associated with possible mis-aging and mis-sexing of individuals that are not yet mature. The combination of all adults above age 46 was based partially on the fact that the majority of the population in both the Late Archaic and Late Woodland periods did not live past their fifth decade of life, correspondingly reducing the sample size. Also, the individuals that were still alive at age 46 characteristically either had only a few teeth left that were usable for wear comparison, or they were completely edentulous. These two factors combined called for the consolidation of all the older individuals into one group in order to maximize sample 27
size. These four age categories were used only for the data collection phase of study to ensure that an equal distribution of dental wear was collected from all age ranges for each population. This convention ensured that no inadvertent clustering occurred at any given age, especially where population modes were present. The four categories were not used to analyze potential wear differences between age groups, due to the fact that age estimates generally carry standard deviations of five years, thus rendering ten-year age categories less than useful for analysis.
A target number of 30 individuals were selected for each age category from each population used in the study. This allowed for the elimination of any specimens that subsequently failed to meet usable criteria once digital analysis commenced, and still maintained a large enough sample size to determine distributions and run descriptive and inferential statistics. Individuals were removed from the samples if there was evidence of caries in any of the molar teeth on the left side, or in cases of extreme wear if the pulp chamber had been exposed as well. These cases were omitted due to the fact that active caries or exposure of the pulp chamber would have caused the individual in question to alter normal eating and chewing habits. This could potentially have skewed the wear rate and pattern, and correspondingly would have blurred potential results from this study.
Data Collection
Digital photographs of each molar in the Indian Knoll population were taken using a Nikon D90 SLR camera with a 55-300mm lens. The camera was mounted on a
Mansfrotto tripod and leveled so that the camera lens was perpendicular to the occlusal 28
surface of the tooth. The auto focus function on the camera was used on all photographs.
Lighting was provided using indirect lamp light from three LED table lamps on hand at the Webb Museum of Anthropology curation facility at the University of Kentucky.
Each mandible was placed on a black velvet backdrop with a piece of foam centered directly beneath the mandibular ramus in order to bring the occlusal surface up to level to minimize glare. Next to each mandible a paper label was placed that contained the site number and burial number of each individual specimen. Two photographs were taken of each specimen, adjusting light as necessary. Each photograph was assigned a unique number by the camera, which was then documented for its association with a specific individual. All photographs were then uploaded from the camera to a laptop computer for analysis. Figure 2 shows an example of the Indian Knoll dentition used in this study.
Figure 2: 15OH2 burial 041, age 39 29
For collecting data on the Libben and Black Earth populations, a Nikon D80 SLR camera with a 55-300mm lens was used since the Nikon D90 SLR was at the time in
Mexico and thus unavailable. The auto focus also was used on this camera following the protocol developed for Indian Knoll. All imaging procedures remained standardized for the remaining two samples except for the lighting used. For lighting of the Libben and
Black Earth samples indirect lighting from two standard lamps with opaque shades and compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL) was used. Those lamps were turned on and then directed away from the specimen at roughly a forty-five degree angle. This allowed the light to diffuse through the shades and fully illuminate the specimen without creating large glare spots, a condition encountered while photographing the first population.
Although this slightly changed the hue of the lighting, this substitution showed no detrimental change to the resulting images when imported into Geomatica for analysis.
Each image was taken utilizing a JPEG format option directly on the camera and was approximately 4.5 megabytes in size. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show examples of dentitions used from Black Earth and Libben, respectively. 30
Figure 3: 11SA87 burial 33, age 35
Figure 4: 33OT06 burial 03-217, age 36 31
Data Analysis: Rate of Wear
Each sample image was opened in Geomatica and clipped to contain only the occlusal surface of the tooth being analyzed. This action also converted the image to a proprietary file extension (.pix) so that the software could process it. Each file was labeled using the burial number of the individual tooth “owner”. Once this process was completed the image was closed and the clipped image then opened for analysis. The trained image classification option was used to delineate the two tooth materials, allowing for auto detection of the dentinoenamel junction. To do so, the software was trained by selecting the class to be used for dentine and then clicking on several areas of the image that are known to be dentine. It was only necessary to train it with four or five points as the program extrapolates to the surrounding matrix. By only using two layers, the software automatically determines what pixels are dentine and then labels everything else as a separate class, here defined as enamel. Once this process was completed, a classification was run to determine the dentine and enamel areas on the occlusal surface.
The results layer was subsequently turned off in order to check for accuracy of classification. If the classification was observed to be grossly in error (i.e. the results were clearly incorrect to the naked eye), the image was redone by re-training the points used to determine the dentine layer and another classification conducted. These results were scrutinized until the final product was an accurate depiction of the tooth surface.
Once each tooth image was satisfactorily processed, the resultant pixel counts for both dentine and enamel were recorded from the data table in Geomatica to SPSS 17 for statistical analysis. 32
Upon inspection, the automatic classification in many cases was deemed either inappropriate or unable to accurately detect the different tooth materials. When this occurred, a manual delineation of both enamel and dentine was conducted by drawing a vector polygon for each category and then manually entering the pixel counts for each in
SPSS. This occurred most often when the image was slightly out of focus or there was some form of exogenous material on the tooth surface. This modification also was used when the occlusal surface of the tooth had dentine and enamel of similar color. If this was the case, the software was again unable to discern with sufficient accuracy where the enamel remained and where the dentine was exposed.
Once all the data were collected and entered into SPSS, summary statistics were run for each population to determine central tendencies. The Indian Knoll and Black
Earth samples exhibited a bimodal distribution of dental wear, with a distinct absence of individuals in the forty percent wear range. Libben was skewed heavily towards the lowest wear range with most individuals scoring under fifteen percent.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Study Samples
Population Number of Mean Dentine Standard Individuals Exposure (%) Deviation
Indian Knoll 55 39.88 34.43
Black Earth 22 40.07 33.12
Libben 41 7.15 12.75
A multiple regression analysis was conducted to test for differences in rate of wear between populations, as well as to determine possible interactions between variables. A 33
Mann-Whitney rank-sum test was conducted to determine differences in the amount of wear between populations and between sexes within populations as well.
Data Analysis: Pattern of Wear
Murphy (1959a) and Smith (1985) developed similar methods for recording occlusal wear patterns in both prehistoric and modern populations. For this study, I followed the methods outlined by Murphy to observe and record wear patterns on the mandibular second molar. Through the natural process of mastication, tooth wear should be distributed predominantly along the buccal cusps of the mandibular molars, as this is the point of contact with the corresponding maxillary molar (Kieser, et al. 2001). Barring any abnormal tooth use or cultural modification, wear patterns should follow this distribution regardless of age, sex, or dietary composition.
For the analysis of the spatial distributions of occlusal wear patterns, each tooth image was viewed in Adobe Illustrator to determine stages of wear and dentine exposure.
Drawings were made using Illustrator for determinant modal wear stages by tracing along the dentine exposure lines and creating a layer file. Each illustration was named according to the age class it represented. Wear patterns were recorded when one or more teeth within an age group displayed similar dentine exposure. Pathological wear, such as in the case of the loss of molars on either side of the tooth being studied, was excluded from this analysis. An exception to this rule was made in the case of Libben, where the majority of dentitions in the third and fourth age group had lost the third molar.
Excluding these cases would have truncated the sample significantly. An illustration was 34
created for each stage of wear of the second mandibular molar for each population to then be compared for interpretation.
Reliability of Analytical Method & Post Hoc Testing
To test the reliability of this new method, SPSS was used to select a random sample representing approximately ten percent of the total dataset for re-evaluation (n =
12). These cases were then each opened individually and the analysis procedure was conducted again. The original results were not consulted until after the cases were analyzed a second time to avoid any data collection bias that would inherently follow from doing so. These numbers were then compared to the original results using a paired t-test to test for significant variation.
Testing the reliability of the automatic detection function of the software program also was necessary to ensure results were accurate enough to continue using this method.
To achieve this, SPSS was again used to choose a random sample approximating ten percent of the total dataset for re-evaluation (n = 10). These cases were then opened individually and analyzed again using the manual vector method. If a case picked at random already had been analyzed manually it was omitted and a new case randomly selected to ensure an unbiased comparison.
CHAPTER V
RESULTS
Wear Rate
After omitting cases where caries or pulp chamber exposure were present, the total study sample size was 118 (Indian Knoll = 55, Black Earth = 22, Libben = 41). The results of the multiple regression analysis showed no statistically significant difference between the occlusal wear rates of the Indian Knoll and Black Earth populations (t =
.389, p = .699). The amount of wear determined by a Mann-Whitney U test was also non-significant between the Archaic populations (z = .338, p = .735). The Archaic populations were combined and compared to the Libben population. The interaction between age and population trends towards significance (t = 1.814, p = .072). The
Libben wear rate by contrast was shown to be very highly significantly different from the
Archaic sample (t = 7.365, p = .000), as was the amount of wear (z = 5.036, p = .000).
Differences in amount of wear between the sexes were statistically non-significant in the Indian Knoll, Black Earth, and Libben study samples. It is possible that sampling bias may have played a role in this result since males are more frequent than females in the Indian Knoll and Black Earth populations. It should be noted, however, that the
Libben sample showed no significant difference between the sexes with an almost equal number of males and females in the sample distribution. The results are shown in Table
2 on the following page.
35
36
Figure 5: Mean dentine exposure by population
Table 2: Sex distribution in study sample
Population Male Female Z Score P Value
Indian Knoll 32 21 1.456 0.145
Black Earth 15 7 1.727 0.084
Libben 15 17 1.196 0.232
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Figure 6: Scatter Plot of Archaic Wear Rank and Age
Figure 7: Scatter Plot of Archaic (Combined) and Woodland Wear Rank and Age 38
Wear Pattern
The distributional patterns of occlusal tooth wear in each population followed the basic wear pattern created by the human masticatory apparatus. Each mandibular second molar examined had undergone cusp height reduction, primarily on the buccal side with secondary reduction in lingual cusp height and definition. In this initial stage of wear, fissures along the medial aspect of the tooth remained well defined. As wear progressed, dentine exposure was seen on the buccal side first, typically with point exposure originating on the mesial cusp of the buccal side of the tooth and then on the distal cusp as well. Despite the exposure of dentine on one or both buccal cusps and general cusp obliteration on the lingual side, medial fissures remained present and well-defined in a number of individuals. As wear progressed, teeth exhibited an expansion of dentine exposure on the buccal cusps to include lunar or semicircular areas, as well as point exposure on the mesial lingual cusp. Increasing wear corresponded to coalescence of exposed dentine on the buccal side of the tooth and expansion of point exposure on both lingual cusps. An enamel island or peninsula was often left originating from the lingual side of the tooth as wear continued to remove tooth material, ultimately leading to complete dentine exposure. The most progressive wear pattern prior to exposing the pulp cavity showed a thin enamel rim outlining the entire tooth, with extreme cases having all enamel removed completely from the buccal side.
Each population followed this pattern of occlusal wear, showing minor variation within each age group. The wear patterns shown on all three populations in this study do not show any direct indications of the use of molar teeth as tools or any other cultural 39
modifications that would affect tooth wear. The Indian Knoll population exhibited the highest rate of wear, affecting in turn the wear patterns displayed within each age group.
The Indian Knoll wear pattern is shown in Figure 8 below. The Black Earth population showed similar high rates of wear, but with somewhat more pitting of the enamel in a large portion of individuals examined. This in turn suggests that hard food items were being eaten, accelerating the exposure of secondary dentine. The Black Earth wear pattern is shown in Figure 9 below. The Libben population, by contrast to Indian Knoll and Black Earth, showed the lowest rate of wear, enabling a more detailed observation of the stages of wear prior to full dentine exposure. The Libben population also exhibited a unique wear pattern in older individuals, with a high occurrence of wear along the distal aspect of the tooth. This was almost always associated with the loss of the third molar immediately distal to the surface showing increased wear. The Libben wear pattern is shown in Figure 10 below.
40
Figure 8: Indian Knoll wear patterns 41
Figure 9: Black Earth wear patterns 42
Figure 10: Libben wear patterns
43
Reliability of Analytical Method
The results of the paired t-test to determine the reliability and precision of the method proposed in this study show no significant difference (t = .071, p = .945) between the original analysis results and the results obtained after re-classifying the random sample (n = 12). The second post hoc test conducted was to determine how accurate the automatic detection function was when compared to selecting areas manually. The results of the paired t-test showed a significant difference between manual and automatic delineation results (t = -2.373, p = .042) for the random sample (n = 10). The difference was greatest among cases that showed minor wear, and trended in the direction of exaggerating the amount of exposed dentine present on the occlusal surface. When individuals exhibiting minor wear were excluded, results showed that differences did not reach statistical significance (t = -1.468, p = .186), but were trending towards significance and potentially negate the automatic delineation method.
Figure 11, Figure 12, and Figure 13 on the following page shows three examples of second molars and their respective classified results. Individuals with the most dentine exposure and clearly visible dentinoenamel junction showed the best results. Individuals with fissures still intact or cracks along the occlusal surface were typically classified with greater dentine exposure than was actually present, as shown in Figure 13.
44
Figure 11: 15OH2 burial 377
Figure 12: 15OH2 burial 446
Figure 13: 15OH2 burial 015 CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION
Previous researchers (Deter 2009:250; Powell 1996:126; Ward 2005:501) have attributed the extreme level of dental wear seen in Archaic period Green River populations to the consumption of copious amounts of shellfish. The results of this study confirm my hypothesis that the inclusion of freshwater mussels in the diet of the Late
Archaic population of Indian Knoll did not significantly accelerate the rate of dental wear when compared to the Black Earth population.
Results of a dental microwear analysis conducted on the Carlston-Annis (15Bt5) population, a shell mound site roughly 15 miles upriver from Indian Knoll, showed that striations were caused by angular particles with sharp edge characteristics (Ward
2005:496). Although Ward concluded that mussel consumption was most likely the cause of this microwear pattern, the results of the present study suggest that inclusion of angular sand particles from food processing implements is a more likely alternative. The mean of exposed dentine for the Indian Knoll sample was virtually identical to that of the
Black Earth sample. It should be noted, however, that there is a great deal of variability in dental wear within and among populations. These findings would suggest that the extreme dental wear often seen in Late Archaic populations from the Eastern Woodlands is most likely a result of the inclusion of extraneous grit from food processing techniques such as hot rock cooking or from the use of grinding stones to prepare nut meat and other
45 46
plant material. The use of sandstone and limestone food processing tools is common at both Indian Knoll and Black Earth. As noted in Chapter 3, gritty silicates are common in the middens at Black Earth and are best explained as the byproduct of food processing and hot rock cooking, either for stone baking in earth ovens or stone boiling. When given a choice, sandstone and limestone are preferred to igneous rocks for hot rock cooking because of their tendency to crumble when exposed to extreme temperature variations.
Igneous rocks, however, are prone to explosion and shattering when subjected to the same cooking temperatures. The breakdown of limestone and sandstone rocks during food processing would introduce hard grit particles into the food that could not effectively be removed. Reports of the detrimental side effects of hot rock cooking can be seen in the ethnohistorical record, with the following quote from Samuel Hearne, a traveler in the mid-18th century:
This method of cooking, though very expeditious, is attended with one great evil; the victuals which are thus prepared are full of sand; for the stones thus heated, and then immerged in water, are not only liable to shiver to pieces, but many of them being of a course gritty nature, fall to a mass of gravel in the kettle, which cannot be prevented from mixing with the victuals which are boiled in it. (Hearne 1974:97)
Evidence for hot rock cooking also was found at Indian Knoll during the WPA excavations, with the midden containing “much broken sandstone and many fractured river pebbles. These showed the effect of heat and immediately suggest their use in hot rock cooking” (Webb 1974:119). The presence of over 1,400 pestles made predominantly of limestone and sandstone, along with almost 100 nutstones and lapstones made of sandstone shows the relative importance of food grinding at Indian
Knoll. Nutstones characteristically have multiple small, shallow depressions on the 47
surface that have been interpreted as use-wear from breaking open nut shells to access the nutrient rich contents. Lapstones are also large portions of stone that have a large, shallow concave basin in the center, oftentimes on both sides, that were used to grind food using a pestle. These large sandstone slabs typically referred to as “site furniture” were almost ubiquitously found in association with hearths and charred nut hulls during excavation (Webb 1974).
The data contained in the detailed site reports of Webb on the Green River
Archaic are limited by the dominant theoretical perspective of the time period and emphasized trait lists over processual interpretations. This in turn limits the evaluation possible by the modern researcher to basic descriptions of tool materials used and overall counts. Limitations notwithstanding, the majority of groundstone tools recovered from
Indian Knoll were of sandstone and limestone composition. The use of both these rock types in food processing would introduce extraneous grit into the food that most likely could not be separated out without a significant loss of edible material. The combination of crushing and grinding foods such as various mast nuts and seeds with hot rock cooking would have resulted in the addition of grit in two steps of food preparation. This would have made eating cooked food that was devoid of any undesirable materials almost impossible, creating a highly abrasive environment for the dentition that in large part was unavoidable.
The Black Earth site yielded similar results regarding groundstone tool materials, with the majority of tools such as grinding stones and pitted or nutting stones being made from sandstone that was available along the riverbank approximately two kilometers 48
south of the Area A midden (Jefferies 1982:77). In fact, upwards of 70 percent of all groundstone tools recovered from the Middle Archaic occupation at Black Earth were either grinding stones, grinding slabs, or pitted stones. This would suggest that the processing of botanicals such as nuts and seeds was an extremely important aspect of their overall adaptive strategy, much as it was at Indian Knoll and other large Archaic habitation sites. Sandstone showing evidence of burning from earth ovens and other features was discovered at site Sa-86, an associated site also in the Carrier Mills
Archaeological District and located approximately 500 meters southeast of Black Earth.
Although there wasn’t any direct evidence at Area A of the Black Earth site for sandstone in direct association with hearths or other cooking related features, it has been suggested that sandstone was undoubtedly associated with the cooking process (Jefferies and Butler
1982).
Much like the diet of Indian Knoll, the population living at Black Earth would have been consuming a great deal of grit along with their food as a consequence of their groundstone tool and hot rock cooking technology. This would have subjected them to the same high abrasion environment that would accelerate occlusal dental wear as seen at
Indian Knoll. As such, by the fourth decade of life, most individuals had significant dentine exposure over large portions of all their mandibular molars, as well as apical and alveolar abscesses along the gum line. The interesting difference between Black Earth and Indian Knoll is that the former exhibited more pitting of the enamel prior to dentine exposure, as shown by the wear pattern illustrations. This could suggest that the people at Black Earth were consuming coarser grit or possibly more hard nutshells that damaged 49
the enamel. This pattern is largely absent at Indian Knoll, with virtually no pitting of the enamel represented in the study sample. Experiments have shown that processing hickory nuts by first smashing the nuts and then boiling them to separate the shells from the meat allowed for the efficient collection of nut meat for consumption or nut oil for storage (Talalay et al. 1984:351-352). Paleofecal analysis of samples from Salts Cave,
Kentucky show that hickory nut shell comprised 17% of fecal material, suggesting that ingestion of shell fragments was likely a common occurrence (Yarnell 1969:41). It is not known if consumption of hickory nut shell could pit the enamel surface and accelerate the rate of occlusal wear, but is a possibility that should be explored further.
The significant difference of the dental wear rate of the Late Woodland Libben population from both the Late Archaic samples comes as no surprise when dietary resources and food processing technology are considered. The addition of ceramic containers enabled the people living at this site to boil more efficiently, thus reducing the amount of extraneous grit included into the foods eaten. The other important difference can be seen in the addition of carbohydrate rich foods such as maize, which when combined with reduced attrition from the diet caused a significant rise in dental caries.
This subject, however, is outside the scope of the current study.
The Late Woodland population from Libben was chosen as a temporally distinct sample for comparison, in part, to highlight the extreme reduction in dental wear rates seen in the periods following the Archaic based on the results of previous work. It should be noted, however, that the Libben sample is not an even representation of all ages.
Despite using all available individuals from the collection, the majority of individuals 50
beyond 35 years of age were excluded due to excessive caries or other dental pathology.
Thus, dental wear in older individuals is less well represented, further underlining the difference in wear between Archaic and Woodland populations. In some of the oldest individuals (excluded from this study typically due to carious involvement) from Libben, dentine exposure could be seen across the majority of the occlusal surface. This amount of dental wear, as exhibited by burial 03-252 in Figure 5, suggests that there still was a significant amount of wear associated with the Late Woodland diet. It has been suggested that the dental attrition seen at Libben could have been caused by sand adhering to dried fish, a resource the Libben population focused on heavily (Lovejoy, et al. 1977). This is possibly an accurate conclusion, but it must be kept in mind that the mechanism of mastication causes tooth wear naturally in all populations. All individuals that live long enough will attain a high level of dental wear. The rate at which this extreme wear is achieved, however, is important in assessing dietary differences.
It should be noted that an examination of sex based differences in wear amount among these three groups indicated that no significant disparity existed between male and female diets. This result, however, could be a result of sampling for Indian Knoll and
Black Earth. As a result of only accounting for an even age distribution from each population, sex distributions were somewhat skewed in the Indian Knoll and Black Earth samples. The Indian Knoll sample utilized here consisted of 32 males and 21 females, resulting in a M:F ratio of 1.52:1. This exceeds the highly skewed original population ratio of 1.24:1 considerably. Not only was the sex ratio of the entire Indian Knoll population skewed towards males, it has also been shown to be the case at the Read site, 51
although to a lesser degree of 1.10:1 (Haskins and Herrmann 1996:117). The Black Earth sample is further evidence for sampling bias regarding sex, as over 60 percent of the sample was male (M = 16, F = 7). This however would have been difficult to avoid, even if sex had been taken into consideration during sample selection since there was a limited number of individuals in the entire skeletal series. The Libben sample was the only one that showed relatively no bias, and in fact was almost equal (M = 17, F = 18).
The fact that each study sample showed a slightly higher wear amount in males than in females is intriguing. Sex-based wear differences are typically regarded as resulting from the sexual division of labor, specifically pertaining to food preparation, food access, or craft production. The implications thus are that females exhibited higher wear amounts because they were preparing food and making items that would require the use of teeth as tools (Molnar 1972). Molnar (1971b) studied several populations from prehistoric California and concluded that females had significantly greater dental wear in both maxillary and mandibular teeth. This is of interest because all three populations utilized in the present study exhibited the exact opposite pattern, with higher wear appearing in males.
The same arbitrary age categories used to ensure an even adult age at death distribution for dental wear rate assessment also were used to determine wear patterns.
This was done to maintain uniformity across the board. It should be kept in mind, however, that these wear patterns exhibited cannot be regarded as categorical in the strictest sense. Dental wear is a progressive process, with no distinct breaks between each level of wear shown. The resultant wear patterns illustrated in Chapter 5 show 52
where an individual of given age will be in the dental wear progression. The wear patterns recorded for each population studied show that occlusal wear typically conformed to the standard wear pattern developed during normal masticatory function.
Exceptions to be noted include the presence of noticeable pitting on the surface of many of the teeth from the Black Earth population, as well as the unique wear pattern exhibited by the oldest members of the Libben population. This wear pattern, focusing principally on the distal portion of the tooth, is almost certainly due to the antemortem loss of the third molar and the additional mastication requirements subsequently taken on by the second molar. These exceptions not withstanding, the wear patterns of all three populations in this study do not deviate from the pattern formed by normal use and wear, suggesting that no cultural modifications of any sort played a significant role in the overall dental wear rate or pattern produced that can be seen archaeologically.
A brief discussion is merited of the seasonality and occupational longevity at
Indian Knoll during the Late Archaic period, as it has been the source of much debate.
Seasonal data for mussel collection in the Green River has shown that the largest percentages were gathered during the late summer and fall (Claassen 2005; Hensley
1994; Marquardt and Watson 2005). Evidence for collection during the winter and spring is present, but in smaller quantities, thus suggesting that collection during cold weather months and high water level months would have been difficult and unlikely. The presence of a record number of auditory exostoses in five Late Archaic Green River populations (Indian Knoll, Carlston Annis, Kirkland, Barrett, Ward) could be interpreted as evidence to the contrary; these bony outgrowths are a result of repeated exposure of 53
the auditory canal to cold water, suggestive of repeated immersion of the head perhaps from diving (Mensforth 2005:466;Pedde 1998:62). This pattern is consistent with winter shellfish extraction, suggesting that the occupation of the Green River sites could have been year-round, even if by a reduced subset of people. This has been in fact argued by a host of other researchers, based in part on the dearth of bundle burials or cremations found at any of the Green River shell middens (Hensley 1994; Pedde 1998; Pedde and
Prufer 2001). If these sites were occupied only during part of the year, then the burial record should include individuals that died away from the site and were brought back and interred later. No evidence showing the presence of bundle burials was found during the
WPA excavations (Webb 1974) or more recent analyses (Hensley 1994). It should be noted, however, that original WPA documentation regarding “disturbed” burials could be a source of confusion. It is not known whether “disturbed” included bundle burials, or only those that had been affected by later intrusions and bioturbation. Given the fact that disturbed burials accounted for eleven percent of the burials excavated by Webb, the inclusion of bundle burials in this category would severely limit our ability to interpret seasonality.
The fact that architectural features such as post molds, permanent houses, formal hearths and storage pits, are largely absent from Green River Archaic sites would suggest that occupation was not long-term, however further investigations into this area are required before making a final decision. In sum, the data provides for something of a mixed bag of evidence, and it has led researchers in several interpretive directions.
Although the results of this study do not contribute directly to the debate over level of 54
Archaic sedentism in the Green River area, previous research would lead me to conclude that these sites were occupied for months at a time by entire groups, with small groups possibly staying behind during winter months. The populations living at Indian Knoll and Black Earth exhibited relative congruency with regard to settlement habits. This, however, is only a tentative interpretation and in need of further examination.
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION
The dietary choices during the Late Archaic period in the Eastern Woodlands suggest an increasing focus on key resources that were abundantly available. “A concomitant shift is recognized in the duration and intensity of settlement patterns as part of the narrowing focus on riverine-oriented resources” (Dye 1996:140). This in turn lends support to a “pull hypothesis” for the appearance of large, semi-sedentary occupation sites in river valleys of the Midwest and Midsouth. The true causality of settlement shifts of this type may lie in the increase in abundance and change in patchiness of resources at this time (Stafford et al. 2000:320). Research on hafted biface distribution in the dissected uplands of southern Indiana makes especially clear the distinct shift towards major river valleys occurred during the late Middle Archaic period
(Stafford 1994:232). That is not to say that the uplands were completely abandoned, and base camps are in fact sometimes encountered in such situations (Jefferies et al. 2005:10;
Stafford et al. 2000:325).
The Middle to Late Archaic settlement shift is associated with the transition from residential mobility to logistical mobility (Jefferies 1996a:225), which has the effect of increasing resource yield while decreasing risk associated with a high mobility lifestyle.
Based on modern faunal and floral analyses, Archaic populations living in the Midwest were increasingly focusing on a restricted set of important resources, primarily white-tail
55 56
deer and hickory nuts, in addition to the plethora of smaller game and wild plants available near important riverine and aquatic environments that supplemented the diet.
The concept of a harvesting economy, as originally proposed by Winters (1974:x), would still appear to be applicable to the Archaic populations that lived at Indian Knoll and
Black Earth. The greatest qualifier, however, would be that the complexity of this pattern is greater than previously thought (Stafford and Cantin 2009:307). Support for this position can be seen at Middle Archaic occupations at both Koster and Modoc Rock
Shelter in Illinois (Styles et al. 1983:290).
There can be no question that freshwater mussels were consumed in great numbers by the people at Indian Knoll and it must have represented a key resource in their economy. Although the nutritional value of shellfish has been suggested as a causal factor in their consumption (Claassen 1986:33; Erlandson 1988:107), the caloric yield would have been far less than that obtained from larger fauna such as white-tail deer.
Further, Butler asserts that the value of mussels was not based strictly on their contributions to dietary bulk, but rather that “aquatic and riparian resources played a crucial role in providing a dependable dietary increment that helped underwrite long-term economic and residential stability against the vagaries of mast production and hunting success” (2009:627). Other resources, such as tubers, fish, waterfowl, and small game could have filled a similar role at Black Earth.
The fact that dental wear at Indian Knoll and Black Earth is some of the highest recorded in the world is indicative of a generally grit-laden diet prior to the appearance of ceramic technology and horticulture. The extreme dental wear endured by Archaic 57
populations was a consequence of the technological advantages of groundstone tool technology and hot rock cooking used at the time to process key resources such as nuts and seeds. The use of groundstone tools for food processing has been shown to increase dental wear in populations from the Natufian in Israel (Mahoney 2006:315), the
Chalcolithic in the Southern Levant (Chattah and Smith 2006:477), and the Early
Agricultural period in Northwest Mexico (Watson 2008:96). In the Midcontinent, the use of sandstone as the bedrock of choice for making food processing tools would appear to be counter-intuitive, considering the typically soft nature of carbonate based sandstone and easy exfoliation of sand particles during use. However, the presence of sandstone outcrops near the surface made it a convenient tool resource. That fact, coupled with the limited availability of harder igneous or metamorphic rocks, sandstone made an expedient raw material that could be replenished as needed. Also, as noted in Chapter 6, sandstone and limestone are less likely to catastrophically explode when subjected to direct heat, and therefore were preferential to their igneous alternatives.
I would speculate that the gritty nature of the diet and resultant rapid dental wear the Archaic populations examined in this thesis endured most likely would have been accepted as part of normal daily life during Late Archaic times in mid-continental North
America. Dental conditions at the Archaic Eva site in Tennessee were described in similar fashion, with most molar crowns worn off after 25 years of age (Lewis and Lewis
1961:155). Ward (2005:495) points out that Native American attrition studies “make it clear that tooth wear was a natural concomitant of oral biology and life history in these populations.” Without delving into any attempts at archaeological psychology, it can be 58
stated with relative certainty that the people living at Indian Knoll, Black Earth, and other
Archaic sites would have been quite conscious of the negative effects of a high attrition diet on their teeth. These consequences were endured because of the considerable processing advantages offered by applying ground stone tools to available plant foodstuffs. Prior to the introduction of ceramic technology, the available food processing techniques that were efficient in extracting nutrients from resources such as nuts necessarily added extraneous grit to the diet. Why didn’t these populations “invent” ceramic containers? The advantages seem obvious. In fact, it has been shown elsewhere that dental wear is reduced when ceramics are introduced for food processing (Bernal et al. 2007; Molleson et al. 1993). Ceramics, however, are often not compatible with lifestyles featuring even seasonal mobility. Pots break, they are heavy to carry, and they can only be replaced during the warm season. Considering the general interpretation of both Indian Knoll and Black Earth as multi-season camps utilized by semi-sedentary groups, ceramics would not have been part of the practical technological base.
The silver lining of the generally deplorable dental health situation of both the
Indian Knoll and Black Earth populations is that extremely high wear diets have extremely low caries rates. This is due to the fact that caries typically form in the deep fissures of posterior teeth, but in Late Archaic populations these fissures were worn away so rapidly that caries did not have time to develop. Also, the grit within the food acts as a cleansing agent while these fissures are still intact. It is important to note, however, that caries rates are generally very low prior to the adoption of maize agriculture in the
Midwest and independent of the excessive wear observed at Indian Knoll. Despite the 59
relative lack of caries, individuals at Indian Knoll and Black Earth did suffer from severe alveolar and apical abscessing, resulting from infection of the pulp chamber or along the gum line. These events often led to necrosis of the tooth and subsequent exfoliation, as well as infections that could have easily spread systemically. Ward (2005:490) concludes that this process likely had a significant impact on survivorship, and avoiding death from infection would have been more important to an individual than the corresponding tooth loss.
The trend during Middle and Late Archaic times towards increased sedentism and proto-food production can be seen at both Indian Knoll and Black Earth through both the material and skeletal records. The sites along the Green River certainly have been subjected to a broad range of settlement interpretations, ranging from relative mobility to complete sedentism. Claassen (1996:245) even has suggested that these sites were ritual loci, and that based on her extensive studies of mussel species, habitat requirements, and in situ distribution, that these sites were used for mortuary rituals rather than as settlements per se. It should be noted, however, that several other Green River sites such as Ward and Barrett show little or no shell present despite a high burial density, thus weakening Claassen’s interpretation (Hensley 1994:250). While Claassen’s theory raises some interesting questions regarding shell distribution and acquisition, my own interpretation is that these sites were seasonal base camp settlements inhabited by small groups and it seems well in line with the majority.
This thesis has shown that the teeth at Indian Knoll and Black Earth are more similar than different. This is clear. As for the determination of dental wear by remote 60
sensing programs such as Geomatica, further refinement in automatic detection functions is required. My results suggest that the manual delineation method worked sufficiently in this study; the use of Geomatica does not afford any further improvements over other pixel counting software such as that used by Deter (2009) in her research. Dental wear gradients are of considerable utility when comparing archaeological human populations to describe and analyze dietary differences.
Further research of the sort presented in this thesis is necessary in order that a more fine-grained understanding may be developed regarding Archaic subsistence patterns and changes. Late Archaic groups positioned near abundant resources were poised to make the shift to truly sedentary communities. The freshwater shellfish included in the Late Archaic diet at Indian Knoll as a source of reliable and available nutrition has been shown to not impact the already high attrition diet in detrimental fashion. Additional studies involving other Archaic populations, from base camps with and without a high proportion of shell refuse, are needed to refine the conclusions stated herein. Sites such as Eva and Anderson in Tennessee, Bluegrass in Indiana, Rosenberger in Kentucky, and Riverton and Swan Island in Illinois would have the potential to further expand the main conclusions of this thesis.
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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY DATASET
Indian Knoll
Burial Enamel Dentine Occlusal Percent Age Sex No. Pixel Pixel Pixel Dentine Category (M=1, F=2) 55 158857 0 158857 0 3 1 69 155809 0 155809 0 3 1 87 121550 0 121550 0 1 3 121 135287 0 135287 0 1 3 131 186092 0 186092 0 2 1 233 123832 0 123832 0 1 2 283 155323 0 155323 0 1 1 5 170906 0 170906 0 1 1 68 127901 0 127901 0 2 2 146 153838 1361 155199 0.88 2 2 217 151742 2617 154359 1.7 1 1 15 166836 2903 169739 1.71 2 2 220 137661 4222 141883 2.98 1 2 285 153521 5318 158839 3.35 2 2 56 160747 6988 167735 4.17 2 2 263 130478 6510 136988 4.75 1 1 168 125559 6388 131947 4.84 1 2 75 124458 8876 133334 6.66 1 2 10 153578 14165 167743 8.44 1 2 183 148844 13752 162596 8.46 3 2 191 133774 13583 149357 10.43 1 2 134 136622 21860 158482 13.79 2 1 288 130629 22413 153042 14.64 1 1 42 138882 30011 168893 17.77 2 1 81 127384 33401 160785 20.77 2 1 205 129009 42476 171485 24.77 2 2
72 73
79 119675 63986 183661 34.84 2 1 34 80401 62641 143042 43.79 2 1 71 83359 65096 148455 43.85 2 1 256 66883 68304 135187 50.53 2 1 109 71022 99290 170312 58.3 3 1 543 47560 77248 124808 61.89 4 1 70 57572 103414 160986 64.24 2 2 595 52111 95355 147466 64.66 1 2 52 50164 108786 158950 68.44 2 2 141 47173 107246 154419 69.45 3 1 50 52610 122412 175022 69.94 2 1 140 41678 98686 140364 70.31 2 2 73 52785 127878 180663 70.78 2 1 446 43510 107576 151086 71.2 2 1 96 45186 113837 159023 71.59 3 1 180 41394 110604 151998 72.77 3 2 179 41257 118237 159494 74.13 3 1 272 39772 120875 160647 75.24 3 1 111 38347 118584 156931 75.56 2 1 66 35191 118073 154256 77.19 2 1 28 29226 103428 132654 77.97 4 1 377 32977 117418 150395 78.07 3 1 376 32454 124248 156702 79.29 3 2 670 24228 102498 126726 80.88 2 2 404 25709 116865 142574 81.97 3 2 105 27988 133745 161733 82.69 3 1 578 13160 106471 119631 89 3 1 32 12510 117900 130410 90.41 3 1 41 7560 123145 130705 94.22 3 1
74
Black Earth
Burial Enamel Dentine Occlusal Percent Age Sex No. Pixel Pixel Pixel Dentine Category (M=1, F=2) 83 120363 0 120363 0 1 2 221 102790 874 103664 0.84 2 2 19A 128888 3925 132813 2.96 2 2 35 132425 4566 136991 3.33 1 1 86 120979 6413 127392 5.03 2 1 111 95127 6169 101296 6.09 1 2 66 137586 9590 147176 6.52 1 1 99 112478 22522 135000 16.68 2 2 141A 101295 27067 128362 21.09 2 1 110 87394 30621 118015 25.95 2 1 176 84062 30223 114285 26.45 2 1 156 86339 34757 121096 28.7 3 1 124 62078 83722 145800 57.42 3 1 33 55519 94174 149693 62.91 2 1 69 51307 88757 140064 63.37 2 1 7 27456 67242 94698 71.01 4 2 183 30879 97707 128586 75.99 3 1 142 32676 111811 144487 77.38 2 1 45 27006 96197 123203 78.08 2 1 188A 20200 89922 110122 81.66 3 2 129 16428 80130 96558 82.99 4 1 194 13387 90459 103846 87.11 3 1
75
Libben
Burial Enamel Dentine Occlusal Percent Age Sex No. Pixel Pixel Pixel Dentine Category (M=1, F=2) 03-295 131009 0 131009 0 1 3 04-049 142718 0 142718 0 1 2 08-005 14397 0 14397 0 1 3 10-053 131942 0 131942 0 1 3 11-048 115525 0 115525 0 1 3 04-095 112800 0 112800 0 2 2 00-201 150491 0 150491 0 2 1 03-204 141694 0 141694 0 1 2 07-022 128117 0 128117 0 2 2 10-012 122089 0 122089 0 2 2 06-038 120933 0 120933 0 2 2 09-011 153573 953 154526 0.62 2 3 02-049 125187 926 126113 0.73 3 2 04-045 118341 960 119301 0.8 2 2 02-247 150379 1355 151734 0.89 1 1 02-223 140885 1577 142462 1.11 2 1 25-210 125476 1615 127091 1.27 2 3 05-086 133651 1861 135512 1.37 1 1 02-003 145908 2298 148206 1.55 2 1 01-232 151936 2674 154610 1.73 2 1 11-235 121527 2601 124128 2.1 2 3 01-256 159424 4262 163686 2.6 2 1 04-040 124283 3542 127825 2.77 3 2 06-070 116082 3590 119672 3 2 2 03-223 110112 3767 113879 3.31 1 2 03-283 109118 3737 112855 3.31 3 2 04-053 149325 5976 155301 3.85 3 1 02-228 127353 6952 134305 5.18 4 1 00-246 150935 11235 162170 6.93 2 1 00-217 128549 9978 138527 7.2 4 2 26-228 113500 8924 122424 7.29 1 1 02-219 124853 9821 134674 7.29 3 1 07-200 121208 12757 133965 9.52 3 2 05-081 136494 16546 153040 10.81 2 1 07-029 134310 18261 152571 11.97 4 3 76
25-514 105834 15176 121010 12.54 4 2 10-009 93058 26233 119291 21.99 2 3 01-243 116509 42800 159309 26.87 4 1 26-203 96939 40435 137374 29.43 3 2 00-233 70337 52963 123300 42.95 3 2 06-205 53517 87922 141439 62.16 3 1
APPENDIX B
AGING DATA FOR INDIAN KNOLL SAMPLE*
*includes some individuals that were excluded from final analysis
Burial Listed Auricular Pubis Summary No. Age Age Age Age 5 18-19 19 18 18.5 9 24-25 27 22 24.5 10 20-22 25 25 12 45+ 13 30-35 31 31 15 30-35 28 33-35 55 60 57.5 32 35-40 34 25-30 35 35 39 18-19 22 19 20.5 41 35-40 42 36 39 42 25-30 33 33 44 25-30 43 43 45 40-45 30 30 46 16-18 32 21 26.5 50 22-28 34 27 30.5 52 23-25 33 33 55 35-40 45 45 56 25-30 64 20-22 36 36 66 28-35 33 25 29 68 20-22 30 24 27 69 19-20 40 40 70 25-28 32 32 71 30-35 73 27-32 37 31 34 75 18-20 20 20 20 79 23-28 35 28 31.5
77 78
81 25-30 36 30 33 83 30-35 87 19-20 26 23 24.5 90 30-40 37 37 96 35-40 38 38 103 25-32 41 36 38.5 105 24-27 42 32 37 107 25-28 22 19 20.5 108 30-35 109 30-35 40 32 36 111 28-30 34 30 32 115 35-40 44 40 42 117 25-28 121 18-19 20 18 19 122 23-28 35 30 32.5 124 25-32 38 38 131 17-19 26 26 134 27-29 37 32 34.5 135 22-25 30 30 140 25-28 41 31 36 141 35-40 146 22-25 27 25 26 150 25-28 27 27 160 28-30 33 33 179 33-39 180 30-35 39 39 183 25-27 40 40 190 28-33 191 19-20 25 21 23 197 35-40 39 39 205 25-28 35 31 33 215 17-18 20 18 19 217 20-22 21 19 20 220 20-22 22 20 21 233 23-24 28 22 25 256 25 30 26 28 263 24-5 25 25 79
272 35-40 36 36 283 22-5 284 37-42 31 31 285 20-2 30 30 288 25-8 32 28 30 291 21-3 29 23 26 298 35-40 34 42 38 357 35-40 376 35-40 41 41 377 35-40 40 40 404 35-45 45 45 446 40-5 30 30 461 35-40 475 35-40 36 38 37 543 40-5 55 60 57.5 562 45+ 578 35-40 37 37 595 35-40 25 25 640 35-40 26 30 28 670 45+ 35 35