Hell in the Byzantine World Volume 2: a Catalogue of the Cretan Material Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47416-0 — Hell in the Byzantine World Volume 2: A Catalogue of the Cretan Material Frontmatter More Information

Hell in the Byzantine World

The imagery of Hell, the Christian account of the permanent destina- tions of the human soul after death, has fascinated people over the centuries since the emergence of the Christian faith. These landmark volumes provide the first large-scale investigation of this imagery found across the Byzantine and post-Byzantine world. Particular emphasis is placed on images from churches across Venetian Crete, which are comprehensively collected and published for the first time. Crete was at the centre of artistic production in the late Byzantine world and beyond, and its imagery was highly influential on tradi- tions in other regions. The Cretan examples accompany rich com- parative material from the wider Mediterranean – Cappadocia, Macedonia, the Peloponnese and Cyprus. The large amount of data presented in this publication highlights Hell’s emergence in monu- mental painting not as a concrete array of images, but as a diversified mirroring of social perceptions of sin.

angeliki lymberopoulou is Senior Lecturer in Art History at The Open University. She is the author of The Church of the Archangel Michael at Kavalariana: Art and Society on Fourteenth- Century Venetian-Dominated Crete (2006) and the editor of Cross- Cultural Interaction between Byzantium and the West 1204–1669: Whose Mediterranean is it Anyway? (2018) and, with Rembrandt Duits, of Byzantine Art and Renaissance Europe (2013).

rembrandt duits is Deputy Curator of the Photographic Collection at the Warburg Institute and Editor of the Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. He is the editor, with Angeliki Lymberopoulou, of Byzantine Art and Renaissance Europe (2013).

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47416-0 — Hell in the Byzantine World Volume 2: A Catalogue of the Cretan Material Frontmatter More Information

Hell in the Byzantine World

A History of Art and Religion in Venetian Crete and the Eastern Mediterranean

Volume 2 A Catalogue of the Cretan Material angeliki lymberopoulou The Open University rembrandt duits Warburg Institute

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www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108474160 DOI: 10.1017/9781108564694 © Cambridge University Press 2020 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2020 Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN – 2 Volume Set 978-1-108-69070-6 Hardback ISBN – Volume I 978-1-108-47415-3 Hardback ISBN – Volume II 978-1-108-47416-0 Hardback Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9781108690706 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

To Ole Gunnar Solskjær The Ultimate (Red) Devil Apprentice

Contents

List of Maps and Figures [page viii]

Introduction [412] (rembrandt duits)

I Chania (nos 1–47) [443] II Rethymnon (nos 48–73) [608] III Herakleion (nos 74–92) [704] IV Lassithi (nos 93–107) [779] V Chronological Arrangement of the Cretan Churches [828]

Bibliography [835] Index [889]

vii

Maps and Figures

Map 1a and 1b Crete [page 416] 2 Chania Prefecture, west Crete [418] 3 Rethymnon Prefecture, central-west Crete [419] 4 Herakleion Prefecture, central-east Crete [420] 5 Lassithi Prefecture, east Crete [420] 6 The eastern Mediterranean [421]

Figures 1 Church of Saint Zosimas, Individual Sinners, early 14th century (sanctuary) and 1360s (nave), wall painting (west wall), Achladiakes (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [443] 2 Church of the Virgin, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, end of the 14th century (c. 1380s), wall painting (west wall), Anisaraki (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [447] 3 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners (detail), end of the 14th century (c. 1380s), wall painting (west wall), Anisaraki (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [448] 4 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, end of the 14th century (c. 1380s), wall painting (west wall), Anisaraki (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [449] 5 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, second quarter of the 14th century (c. 1330?), wall painting (south wall), Asfentiles (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [453] viii

List of Maps and Figures ix

6 Church of All Saints, Individual Sinners, 15th century (1420/ 30s?), wall painting (west wall), Chora Sfakion, Kastelli (Sfakia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [456] 7 Church of Saint John the Baptist (Forerunner), the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1300? wall painting (south wall), Deliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [459] 8 Church of Saint John the Baptist (Forerunner), the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1300? wall painting (south wall), Deliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [460] 9 Church of Saint John the Baptist (Forerunner), Individual Sinners, c. 1300? wall painting (south wall), Deliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [461] 10 Church of Saint John the Baptist (Forerunner), Communal Punishments, c. 1300? wall painting (west wall), Deliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [462] 11 Church of Saint John the Baptist (Forerunner), Communal Punishments and Individual Sinners, c. 1300? wall painting (north wall), Deliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [463] 12 Church of Saint George Methystis, Individual Sinners, 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Fres (Tzitzifies, Apokoronas), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [468] 13 Church of Saints George and John the Baptist, Last Judgement, date unclear, wall painting (north wall), Garipas (Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [471] 14 Church of Christ the Saviour, Those Who Sleep on a Sunday, the Weighing of the Souls and Individual Sinners, 1357/8, wall painting (west wall), Hagia Eirini (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [473] 15 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, detail: rightmost frame of three, end of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Hagia Eirini (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [477]

x List of Maps and Figures

16 Church of Saint John Chrysostom, Individual Sinners, c. 1430, wall painting (west wall), Kadros (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [481] 17 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, first half of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Kadros (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [484] 18 Church of Archangel Michael, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1387, wall painting (west wall), Kakodiki (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [487] 19 Church of Archangel Michael, Individual Sinners, 1387, wall painting (west wall), Kakodiki (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [488] 20 Church of Archangel Michael, Individual Sinners, date unclear, wall painting (west wall), Kakopetros (Papadiana, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [493] 21 Church of Archangel Michael, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1439/40, wall painting (west wall), Kamiliana (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [498] 22 Church of Saint Nicholas, Individual Sinners, first half of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Kandanos (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [502] 23 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners (female), 1270–90, wall painting (north wall), Karydi (Karydaki), Vamos (Apokoronas), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [505] 24 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners (male), 1270–90, wall painting (south wall), Karydi (Karydaki), Vamos (Apokoronas), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [505] 25 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, early 14th century(?), wall painting (west wall), Kato Prines (Selino), Chania, Crete.

List of Maps and Figures xi

Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [509] 26 Church of Saint Paraskevi, Individual Sinners, 1372/3, wall painting (west wall), Kitiros (Voutas, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [512] 27 Church of Saint Paraskevi, Those Who Sleep on Sunday, 1372/ 3, wall painting (west wall), Kitiros (Voutas, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [513] 28 Church of the Holy Apostles, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, late 14th to early 15th century(?), wall painting (west and north walls), Kopetoi (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [517] 29 Church of the Holy Apostles, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, date unclear, wall painting (west wall), Koufalotos (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [519] 30 Church of Saint Prokopios, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, late 14th century (1390s?), wall painting (west wall), L(e)ivada (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [522] 31 Church of Christ the Saviour (Transfiguration), the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1303, wall painting (south wall), Meskla (Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [526] 32 Church of Christ the Saviour (Transfiguration), Communal Punishments, 1303, wall painting (south wall), Meskla (Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [526] 33 Church of Saint Nicholas, Angel pushing Sinners into the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1315 (narthex), wall painting (south wall, narthex), Moni (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [529] 34 Church of Saint Nicholas, Individual Sinners, 1315 (narthex), wall painting (south wall, narthex), Moni (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [530]

xii List of Maps and Figures

35 Church of Saint Nicholas, Rich Man, 1315 (narthex), wall painting (south wall, narthex vault), Moni (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [531] 36 Church of Saint Nicholas, Communal Punishments, 1315 (narthex), wall painting (west wall and western section of north wall, narthex), Moni (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [532] 37 Church of Saint Nicholas, Individual Sinners, c. 1470s?, wall painting (west wall), Niochorio (Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [536] 38 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners, mid-14th century, wall painting (west wall), Pemonia (Vamos, Apokoronas), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [540] 39 Church of Saint George Methystis, Individual Sinners, 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Platanias (Drakiana, Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [543] 40 Church of Saint George Methystis, Communal Punishments, 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Platanias (Drakiana, Kydonia), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [544] 41 Church of Saint George, Angel pushing Sinners into the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1409–10, wall painting (west wall), Plemeniana (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [547] 42 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, 1409–10, wall painting (west wall), Plemeniana (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [548] 43 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners, 1367, wall painting (west wall), Prines (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [552] 44 Church of Saints Peter and Paul, Communal Punishments and Individual Sinners, 15th century(?), wall painting (south wall),

List of Maps and Figures xiii

Prines (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [556] 45 Church of the Virgin, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, end of the 14th to the beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Sklavopoula (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [560] 46 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishment, first half of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Spaniakos (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [565] 47 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Communal Punishments and Individual Sinners, 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Strovles (Kalogero, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [569] 48 Church of Saint Paraskevi, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1362, wall painting (west wall), Trachiniakos (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [572] 49 Church of Saint Paraskevi, Individual Sinners, 1362, wall painting (west wall), Trachiniakos (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [573] 50 Church of Saint Eutychios, Communal Punishments, c. 1400–10, wall painting (west wall), Tsiskiana (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [576] 51 Church of Saint Eutychios, Individual Sinners, c. 1400–10, wall painting (west wall), Tsiskiana (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [576] 52 Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1452–61, wall painting (west wall), Voukolies (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [580] 53 Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, Communal Punishments, 1452–61, wall painting (west wall), Voukolies

xiv List of Maps and Figures

(Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [580] 54 Church of Saint Athanasios, Individual Sinners, 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Voukolies (Vaïraktairiana, Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [584] 55 Church of Saint Athanasios, Communal Punishments, 15th century, wall painting (north wall), Voukolies (Vaïraktairiana, Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [585] 56 Church of Christ the Saviour, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1360s?, wall painting (west wall), Voutas (Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [589] 57 Church of the Virgin, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, late 14th to early 15th century(?), wall painting (top and middle register, west wall), Voutas (Frameno, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [593] 58 Church of the Virgin, Communal Punishments, late 14th to early 15th century(?), wall painting (west wall, bottom register), Voutas (Frameno, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [594] 59 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, late 14th to early 15th century(?), wall painting (west wall), Voutas (Frameno, Selino), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [594] 60 Church of Saint Paraskevi, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, 14th century(?), wall painting (west wall), Vouvas (Chora Sfakion), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [598] 61 Church of Saint Panteleimon, the Rich Man and the Weighing of the Souls, 14th century (c. 1360?), wall painting (north wall), Zymvragou (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [601] 62 Church of Saint Panteleimon, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, 14th century (c. 1360?), wall painting (west wall), Zymvragou (Kissamos), Chania,

List of Maps and Figures xv

Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [602] 63 Church of Saint Panteleimon, Individual Sinners, 14th century (c. 1360?), wall painting (west wall), Zymvragou (Kissamos), Chania, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Chania Ephorate of Antiquities [603] 64 Church of Saint Nicholas, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, end of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Apostoloi (Amari), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [608] 65 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1401, wall painting (west wall), Artos (Hagios Konstantinos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [612] 66 Church of Saint John the Baptist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, late 14th century (1390s), wall painting (west wall), Axos (Mylopotamos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [616] 67 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners and the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1417, wall painting (west wall), Diblochori (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [623] 68 Church of the Virgin, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire (detail), 1417, wall painting (west wall), Diblochori (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [624] 69 Church of Saint Constantine, Individual Sinners and the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Drymiskos (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [628] 70 Church of Saint John the Baptist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 15th century (narthex), wall painting (south wall), Erfoi (Mylopotamos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author

xvi List of Maps and Figures

with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [631] 71 Church of Christ the Saviour, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Hagios Ioannis Kaimenos (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [635] 72 Church of Saint Paraskevi and Saint Basil, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, beginning of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Hagios Vasileios (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [639] 73 Church of Saint Paraskevi and Saint Basil, the Rich Man, beginning of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Hagios Vasileios (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [640] 74 Church of Saint Stephen, Individual Sinners, 1396, wall painting (west wall), Kastri (Koukoum[n]os) (Mylopotamos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [643] 75 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Kato Valsamonero (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [646] 76 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, Individual Sinners, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Kato Valsamonero (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [647] 77 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, Those Who Sleep on Holy Sunday and Communal Punishments, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Kissos (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [651] 78 Church of the Virgin, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, beginning of the 14th century, wall painting (north arm of the cross), Lambini (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [656]

List of Maps and Figures xvii

79 Church of the Virgin, Communal Punishments, beginning of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Lambini (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [657] 80 Church of the Virgin at Sochora and Saints Constantine and Helena, Individual Sinners, beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Meronas (Amari), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [664] 81 Church of the Virgin at Sochora and Saints Constantine and Helena, Communal Punishments, beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Meronas (Amari), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [665] 82 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners, 14th century, wall painting (north side of the vault), Mourne (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [668] 83 Church of Saint George, Communal Punishments and the Rich Man, 14th century, wall painting (north side of the vault), Mourne (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [669] 84 Church of Christ the Saviour, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Myrthios (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [672] 85 Church of Christ the Saviour, Individual Sinners, c. 1400, wall painting (west wall), Myrthios (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [672] 86 Church of Holy Apostles, Last Judgement, 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Petrochori (formerly Aposeti, Amari), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [676] 87 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, c. 1300, wall painting (north side of the vault), Saitoures (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [681]

xviii List of Maps and Figures

88 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, the River of Fire, 1411, wall painting (west wall), Selli (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [685] 89 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1411, wall painting (west wall), Selli (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [686] 90 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, Individual Sinners, 1411, wall painting (west wall), Selli (Rethymnon), Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [686] 91 Church of Christ the Saviour (Transfiguration), Individual Sinners, 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Spili (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [691] 92 Church of Christ the Saviour (Transfiguration), the Sleepless Worm and the Rich Lazarus (Rich Man), 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Spili (Hagios Vasileios), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [692] 93 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1300 to third quarter of the 14th century, wall painting (vault), Vathiako (Amari), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [697] 94 Church of the Virgin, the Usurer, 1313, wall painting (north wall), Veni (Mylopotamos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [700] 95 Church of the Virgin, Individual Sinners, 1313, wall painting (north wall), Veni (Mylopotamos), Rethymnon, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Rethymnon Ephorate of Antiquities [701] 96 Church of Archangel Michael, Individual Sinners, 1315/16, wall painting (west wall), Ano Archanes (Temenos), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [704] 97 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, Communal Punishments and Those Who Sleep on

List of Maps and Figures xix

a Sunday, 1453, wall painting (east wall, narthex), Ano Symi (Viannos), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [708] 98 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, 1453, wall painting (north wall, narthex), Ano Symi (Viannos), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [709] 99 Church of Saint Pelagia, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1360, wall painting (west wall), Ano Viannos (Viannos), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [714] 100 Church of Saint Pelagia, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1360, wall painting (west wall), Ano Viannos (Viannos), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [715] 101 Church of Archangel Michael, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 14th century, wall painting (south wall, transept), Arkalochori (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [720] 102 Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1445, wall painting (west wall), Avdou (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [724] 103 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, end of the 14th to beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Avdou (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [727] 104 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, 1436–7, wall painting (west wall), Embaros (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [730] 105 Church of Saint Paraskevi, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, first half of the 16th century, wall painting (north wall), Episkopi (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [733]

xx List of Maps and Figures

106 Church of Saint Paraskevi, Communal Punishments, first half of the 16th century, wall painting (north wall), Episkopi (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [734] 107 Church of Saint Paul, Individual Sinners, 1303–4, wall painting (west wall, lunette), Hagios Ioannis (Pyrgiotissa), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [738] 108 Church of Saint John the Baptist, Individual Sinners, 1291, wall painting (west wall), Hagios Vasileios (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [742] 109 Church of Saint John the Baptist, Communal Punishments, 1291, wall painting (west wall), Hagios Vasileios (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [743] 110 Church of Archangel Michael, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, c. 1430(?), wall painting (west wall), Kapetaniana (Perichora, Monofatsi), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [748] 111 Church of Archangel Michael, Communal Punishments, c. 1430(?), wall painting (west wall), Kapetaniana (Perichora, Monofatsi), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [749] 112 Church of Christ the Saviour, Individual Sinners, end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Kassanoi (Monofatsi), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [752] 113 Church of the Virgin Kera, Individual Sinners and the Parable of the Wise and the Foolish Virgins, first half of the 14th century, wall painting (south wall), Kardiotissa (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [755] 114 Church of the Virgin (Dormition) and Saint John the Baptist, the Rich Man and Individual Sinners, 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Mathia (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [760]

List of Maps and Figures xxi

115 Church of Christ the Saviour, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, last quarter of the 14th century, wall painting (west and north walls), Potamies (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [764] 116 Church of Christ the Saviour, Individual Sinners, last quarter of the 14th century, wall painting (north wall), Potamies (Pediada), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [765] 117 Church of Saint Phanourios, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1431, wall painting (west wall), Valsamonero (Vorizia, Kainourgio), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [769] 118 Church of Saint Phanourios, Communal Punishments, 1431, wall painting (west wall, north door reveal), Valsamonero (Vorizia, Kainourgio), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [770] 119 Church of the Virgin Kardiotissa, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, beginning of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Voroi (Pyrgiotissa), Herakleion, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Herakleion Ephorate of Antiquities [775] 120 Church of the Transfiguration (Christos Afentis), the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, first half of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Chandras (Panteli, Siteia), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [779] 121 Church of the Holy Apostles, Last Judgement, first decade of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [784] 122 Church of the Holy Apostles, Individual Sinners, first decade of the 15th century, wall painting (west wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [785] 123 Church of Saint George, Last Judgement, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (west wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra),

xxii List of Maps and Figures

Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [788] 124 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Individual Sinners, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (north wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [789] 125 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (west and south walls), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [790] 126 Church of Saint George, The female Gossiper, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (north wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [791] 127 Church of Saint George, The Woman Who Does Not Give Offerings to the Church, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (north wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [792] 128 Church of Saint George, Individual Sinners, mid-14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (south wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [793] 129 Church of Saint George, Those Who Sleep on Sunday, mid- 14th century or 1410–20, wall painting (north wall), Kavousi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [794] 130 Church of Christ the Lord (Afentis), Last Judgement, late 14th century, wall painting (west end of the church), Kritsa (Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [800] 131 Church of Christ the Lord (Afentis), Last Judgement (detail with the Rich Man, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and the Weighing of the Souls), late 14th century, wall painting (north wall), Kritsa (Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [801] 132 Church of Saint John the Baptist, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire, 1389/90, wall painting (west wall), Kritsa

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(Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [805] 133 Church of Saint John the Baptist, Individual Sinners, 1389/90, wall painting (west wall), Kritsa (Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [806] 134 Church of Saint John the Evangelist, Individual Sinners and Communal Punishments, 1347/8, wall painting (west wall), Kroustas (Lakkoi, Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [813] 135 Church of the Virgin, Last Judgement, 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Lithines (Siteia), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [817] 136 Church of Saint George, the Place of Hell Formed by the River of Fire and Communal Punishments, 15th century(?), wall painting (north wall), Meseleroi (Ierapetra), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [821] 137 Church of the Virgin, Hell, last quarter of the 13th century to first half of the 14th century, wall painting (west wall), Voulismeni (Vigli, Merambello), Lassithi, Crete. Photo: author with the permission of the Lassithi Ephorate of Antiquities [825]