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c hapter 7 Mark’s Portrait of The Hidden Messiah and Eschatological Judge L For even the Son of Man did notA come to be served but to serve and to give up his life as a ransomW for many. Mark 10:45 S O N Key Topics/Themes Between about 64 CE , when ,was strikingly relevant to the precarious Nero began Rome’s fi rst offi cial persecution circumstances of Mark’s intended readers. of Christians, and 70 CE , when the Romans Mark’s thus portrays a Jesus who faces destroyed (along with its Temple Aattack on three crucial fronts: from Jewish and the original apostolic church), the Christian religious leaders, local ( Herodian ) rulers, and community faced a series of crises that threat- NRoman offi cials. Painting Jesus as a “ hidden ened its survival. Responding to the wars, GMessiah ” who was misunder stood and deval- revolts, and persecutions that affl icted his Eued by his contemporaries, Mark emphasizes group, Mark composed what appears to be that Jesus came to serve, to suffer, and to the earliest narrative account of Jesus’ public Ldie—but also ultimately to triumph by submit- career, presenting Jesus’ story in a way that Ating fully to the divine will.

6 The shortest and probably the earliest of the 8 Mark’s Historical Setting four canonical , the narrative “ According 5 to Mark ” contains relatively few of Jesus’ teach- ings. Instead, the author—who was the fi rst to 3 Several critical methods are helpful in studying call his written account an evangelion (gospel)— B Mark, beginning with historical investigation of presents Jesus as a miracle-working man of ac- Uthe Gospel’s authorship, date, place of compo- tion who is almost constantly on the move, sition, possible sources, and social and religious dashing from village to village in and environment (see Figure 7.1 ). The earliest ref- adjacent regions and, fi nally, journeying to erence to Mark’s Gospel comes from Papias , a Jerusalem for a fatal confrontation with its reli- Christian writer who was bishop of Hierapolis gious and political authorities. Mark’s Jesus an- in Asia Minor about 130–140 ce (see Box 7.1 ). nounces God’s kingdom, exorcizes demons, As quoted by Eusebius, Papias states that Mark heals the sick, and voluntarily sacrifi ces himself had been a disciple of the apostle Peter in Rome for others. and based his account on Peter’s reminiscences 136 har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 137 07/01/14 11:44 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The Gospel According to Mark Provincial aristocracy: Elite Herodian ruling house, (upper-stratum Author: Traditionally John Mark, traveling priestly and lay groups) companion of Paul and “interpreter” for Peter in aristocracy, members Rome. The writer does not identify himself in the of the Sanhedrin Gospel text, and scholars, unable to verify the mid- second century tradition of Markan authorship, regard the work as anonymous. Members of the Sanhedrin, Date: About 66–70 ce, during the Jewish Revolt administrative and military against Rome. retainers, functionaries, priests, scribes, local judges, Place of composition: Rome or Syria-Palestine. tax collectors, foreign Sources: Primarily oral tradition. Many schol- traders, wholesalers ars believe that Mark used a few written sources, such as a collection of Jesus’ parables (ch. 4), a compilation of apocalyptic prophe- L cies (ch. 13), and, perhaps, an older account of A Prosperous craftsmen, Nonelite Jesus’ arrest, trial, and execution (chs. 14–15). traders, peasant (lower- Audience: Gentile Christians suffering per- W farmers, tenants, stratum secution. S service workers groups) O Minimum existence Small farmers, of Jesus. Papias notes that Mark “ had not heard N tenants, , businessmen, the Lord or been one of his followers ” so that day laborers, his Gospel lacked “ a systematic arrangement of fishermen, the Lord’s sayings ” (Eusebius, History 3.39). shepherds, A widows, orphans, Besides his intention to link Mark’s Gospel prostitutes, to apostolic testimony, a consistent trend among N beggars, bandits church leaders during the second century ce , G City Country Papias makes two important historical observa- E figure 7.1 Social Pyramid 2: Social Stratifi cation of tions: The author of Mark was not an eyewitness Jewish Society in the Land of Israel (Without Religious but depended on secondhand oral preaching, L Groups). In Jesus’ day, Jewish society was sharply divided and Mark’s version of Jesus’ activities is “ not in A between two unequal groups: a powerful elite, represent- ing a tiny percentage of the total population, and the non- [proper chronological] order. ” Careful scrutiny of Mark’s Gospel has convinced most New elite masses. Whereas the elite upper stratum, such as the 6 Roman-appointed Herodian kings, aristocratic chief Testament scholars that it does not derive from priests, and large landowners, enjoyed the privileges of po- a single apostolic source, such as Peter, but is 8 litical infl uence, wealth, and prestige, the lower stratum, based on a general body of oral teachings about 5 encompassing the vast majority of the population, lacked Jesus preserved in the author’s community. access to power or social privilege. Nonelite groups ranged Mark’s author offers few hints about where 3 from some relatively prosperous artisans, small farmers, and merchants to large numbers of landless day laborers or for whom he wrote, except for his insistence B whose families existed in utter penury. Many of Jesus’ par- that following Jesus requires a willingness to suf- U ables deal with the social and economic inequities that fer for one’s faith. Mark’s near equation of disci- pervaded his society. See also Figure 5.7 for the pyramidal pleship with suffering suggests that he directed structure of Roman society. (Pyramid fi gure is reprinted his work to a group that was then undergoing se- from The Jesus Movement by Ekkehard W. Stegemann and Wolfgang Stegemann, English translation by O. C. Dean, vere testing and needed encouragement to re- Jr., copyright © 1999 Fortress Press. Used by permission of main steadfast (see Mark 8:34–38; 10:38–40). This Augsburg Fortress.) theme of “ carrying one’s cross ” may derive from the effects of Nero’s persecution (c. 64–65 ce ), when numerous Roman Christians were crucifi ed har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 138 07/01/14 11:44 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.1 Papias on the Origin of Mark’s Gospel

The oldest surviving reference to Mark’s Eusebius also quotes Papias’s declaration that he authorship of the Gospel bearing his name comes preferred to learn Christian traditions from the from Papias, who was a bishop of Hierapolis about testimony of persons who had known Jesus’ com- 130 or 140 ce. An early church historian, Eusebius of panions rather than from written documents, Caesarea, quotes Papias as writing that an unnamed such as the Gospels: presbyter (church elder) was his source: And whenever anyone came who had been a This, too, the presbyter used to say. “Mark, who follower of the presbyters, I inquired into the had been Peter’s interpreter, wrote down carefully, words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter but not in order, all that he remembered of the had said, or Philip or Thomas or James or John or Lord’s sayings and doings. For he had not heard Matthew, or any other disciple of the Lord, and the Lord or been one of his followers, but later, as L what Aristion and the presbyter John, disciples of I said, one of Peter’s. Peter used to adapt his teach- A the Lord, were still saying. For I did not imagine ings to the occasion, without making a systematic that things out of books would help me as much arrangement of the Lord’s sayings, so that Mark W as the utterances of a living and abiding voice. was quite justifi ed in writing down some things just S (Eusebius, The History of the Church 3.39) as he remembered them. For he had one purpose only—to leave out nothing that he had heard, and O Although Papias is a relatively early witness to the to make no misstatement about it.” NChristian tradition, scholars caution that we have no (Eusebius, The History of the Church 3.39) means of verifying the historicity of his claims. ,

or burned alive. Papias and Ir e naeus , another Aembellishment, for second-century churchmen early church leader, agree that Mark wrote tried to connect extant writings about Jesus with shortly after Peter’s martyrdom, which, accord- Napostles or their immediate disciples. The Gospel ing to tradition, occurred during Nero’s attack Gis anonymous; for convenience, we refer to the on Rome’s Christian community. Eauthor as Mark. Although Rome is the traditional place of composition, a growing number of scholars L think it more likely that Mark wrote for an audi- A Mark’s Puzzling Attitude ence in Syria or Palestine. Critics favoring a Toward Jesus’ Close Palestinian origin point to Mark’s emphasis on the Jewish Revolt (66–73 ce ) and concurrent 6 Associates warnings to believers who were affected by the 8 Jesus’ Family uprising (Mark 13; see Box 7.6). In Mark’s view, 5 the “ tribulation ” climaxing in Jerusalem’s de- If scholars are right about assigning the Gospel struction is the sign heralding Jesus’ Parousia , 3to a time when the Jewish War against Rome or return in heavenly glory. The association of Bhad already begun and the Temple was ex- wars and national revolts with persecution of Upected to fall, most of the adult generation that believers and Jesus’ Second Coming gives an had known Jesus was no longer alive. Even forty eschatological urgency to Mark’s account. years after Jesus’ death, however, there must Even though Papias and other second-century have been some persons who had heard the dis- writers ascribe the Gospel to John Mark, a com- ciples preach or who had known members of panion of Peter and Paul (Philem. 24; Col. 4:10; Jesus’ family. James, whom Paul calls “ the Lord’s Acts 12:12–25; 14:36–40), the author does not brother ” (Gal. 1: 1 9), was head of the Jerusalem identify himself in the text. The superscription— church until his martyrdom in about 62 ce “ The Gospel According to Mark ” —is a later church ( Josephus, Antiquities 20.9; Acts 12:17; 15:13–21; har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 139 07/01/14 11:44 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.2 Mark’s Leading Characters*

John the Baptist (1:4–9); executed (6:17–29) A rich young man (10:17–22) Jesus introduced (1:9); fi nal words (15:34) The woman who anoints Jesus at (14:3–9) Simon Peter and his brother Andrew (1:16–18); The High Priest (14:53–64) Peter’s imperfect discipleship (8:27–33; 9:2–6; , prefect of (governed 26–36 ce) 14:26–31, 66–72) (15:1–15, 43–44) James and John, the fi shermen sons of Barabbas, the terrorist released in place of Jesus (1:19–20); wish to be fi rst in the kingdom (15:6–15) (10:35–45) Simon of Cyrene, the man impressed to carry Levi (Matthew), a tax collector (2:13–17) L Jesus’ cross (15:21) The Twelve (3:13–19) A Joseph of Arimathaea, the Sanhedrin member , Jesus’ betrayer (3:19; 14:17–21, 43–46) who buries Jesus (15:42–46) Mary, Jesus’ mother, and other family members W Mary of Magdala (in Galilee) (15:40–41, 47; 16:1) (3:20–21, 31–35; 6:3) S Mary, mother of James and Joseph (15:40, 47; 16:1) The Gerasene demoniac (5:1–20) O , ruler of Galilee (ruled 4 bce– N *Characters are listed in general order of appearance, 39 ce) (6:17–29; 8:15) along with the chief quality or event that distinguishes The Syrophoenician (Canaanite) woman (7:14–30) , them in Mark’s narrative.

A 21:16), making him a contemporary of Mark. N take charge of him, convinced he was out of his Through his surviving associates, James pre- G mind ” (3:21, Jerusalem ). When “ his mother sumably would have been an invaluable source E and his brothers ” send a message asking for him, of information when Mark began compiling apparently demanding that he cease making a data for a biography of Jesus. L public spectacle of himself, Mark has Jesus de- Strangely, Mark does not seem to have re- A clare “ whoever does the will of God is my brother, garded Jesus’ relatives—or any other ordinary my sister, my mother. ” This is a startling repudia- source a modern biographer would consult—as tion of his blood ties and an implication that in worthy informants. One of the author’s prevail- 6 the Markan Jesus’ view, his relatives were not do- ing themes is his negative presentation of virtu- 8 ing the divine will (3:31–35). The force of this ally everyone associated with the historical 5 antifamily episode is intensifi ed because Mark Jesus. ( Box 7.2 lists Mark’s leading characters.) uses it to frame a controversy in which Jesus’ op- From “ his mother and brothers ” (3:31) to his 3 ponents accuse him of expelling demons by the most intimate followers, Mark portrays all of B power of Beelzebub, another name for the devil. Jesus’ companions as oblivious to his real na- U Jesus countercharges that those who oppose his ture and/or as obstacles to his work. Mark’s work are defying the Holy Spirit (God’s presence Gospel consistently renders all Jesus’ Palestinian active in human life), an “ unforgivable sin ” associates as incredibly obtuse, unable to grasp (3:22–30). At this point in the narrative, Mark his teachings, and blind to his value. shows Jesus’ family attempting to interrupt his The Markan picture of Jesus’ family implies ministry, thus subtly associating them with his ad- that they, too, failed to appreciate or support versaries (see also John 7:1–9). him: “ When his relatives heard of this [his draw- Mark also depicts Jesus’ acquaintances ing large crowds around him], they set out to in Nazareth as hostile to a local carpenter’s har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 140 07/01/14 11:44 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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unexpected emergence as prophet and healer, stepbrother and Mary as eternally virgin; see questioning his credentials as sage and teacher. Chapter 20.) “ Where does he get it from? ” his neighbors ask. “ ‘What wisdom is this that has been given him?’ The Disciples and ‘How does he work such miracles? Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary, the brother Mark’s opinion of the Galilean disciples whom of James and Joseph and Judas and Simon? Jesus calls to follow him (3:13–19) is distinctly And are not his sisters here with us?’ So they unsympathetic, although these are the Twelve [turned against] him ” (6:2–3). In this incident Apostles on whose testimony the Christian faith in which Jesus revisits his home turf, Mark ar- is traditionally founded. Almost without excep- gues that those who thought they knew Jesus tion, Mark paints the Twelve as dull-witted, in- best doubted not only his right to be a religious ept, unreliable, cowardly, and, in at least one leader but also his legitimacy—note Mark’s ref- Lcase, treacherous. When Jesus stills a storm, the erence to “ the son of Mary, ” a contrast to the Adisciples are impressed but unaware of the act’s biblical custom of identifying a son through his signifi cance (4:35–41). After his feeding of the male parentage even if his father was dead. The Wmultitudes, the disciples “ had not understood Nazarenes’ refusal to see any merit in him re- Sthe intent of the loaves ” because “ their minds sults in a troubling diminution of Jesus’ power: Owere closed ” (6:52). The harshness of Mark’s “ He could work no miracle there ” except for some judgment is better rendered in the phrase “ their routine healings (6:6; emphasis added). Mark Nhearts were hardened ” (as given in the New thus seems to dismiss both family and hometown ,Revised Standard Version). This is the same citizens as acceptable channels of biographical phrase used to describe the Egyptian pharaoh tradition: They all fail to trust, comprehend, or Awhen he arrogantly “ hardened his heart ” and cooperate with his hero. refused to obey Yahweh’s commands (Exod. Mark’s allusion to Jesus’ “ brothers ” and N7:14–10:27). After listening for months to Jesus’ “sisters ” (see also Matt. 13:54–56) may disturb Gteaching, the disciples are such slow learners some readers. Because his Gospel does not in- Ethat they are still ignorant of “ what [Jesus’ refer- clude a tradition of Jesus’ virginal conception ence to] ‘rising from the dead’ could mean ” or birth, the existence of siblings may not have L(9:9–10). Not only do they fail to grasp the con- been an issue with the Markan community (as Acept of sharing in Jesus’ glory (10:35–41), but it apparently was not for the Pauline churches; even the simplest, most obvious parables escape none of Paul’s letters allude to a virgin birth). their comprehension (4:10–13). As Jesus asks, Matthew, however, explicitly affi rms that Jesus 6 “ You do not understand this parable? How then was virginally conceived (Matt. 1:18–25), and 8will you understand any parable? ” (4:13). Luke strongly implies it (:26–38). Some 5 Although he has “ explained everything ” Protestant Christians believe that, following (4:33–34; see also 8:31–32), and the disciples Jesus’ delivery, his mother may have borne 3have presumably recognized him as the Messiah other children in the ordinary way. According B(8:27–32), they desert him after his arrest to Roman Catholic doctrine, however, Mary re- U(14:30). Peter, who had earlier acknowledged mains perpetually virgin. Jesus’ “ brothers ” Jesus as the Messiah, three times denies know- (translating the Greek adelphoi ) are to be un- ing him (14:66–72). Almost the only character derstood as close male relatives, perhaps cous- in Mark shown as recognizing the signifi cance ins or stepbrothers (sons of Mary’s husband, of Jesus’ death is an unnamed Roman soldier Joseph, by a previous marriage). (An apocry- who perceives that “ truly this man was a son of phal infancy Gospel, the Protevangelium God! ” (15:39). of James, which probably dates from the sec- Mark’s recurring motif that all of Jesus’ origi- ond century ce , depicts James as Jesus’ older nal associates, including family, former neighbors, har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 141 13/01/14 6:01 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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and followers, were almost preternaturally blind to his true identity and purpose carries Mark as a Literary Narrative through to the end of his Gospel. At the empty Organization and Bipolar Structure tomb, an unnamed youth in white directs a handful of women disciples not to linger in Whatever the historicity of Mark’s version of Jerusalem but to seek their Lord in Galilee, but Jesus’ career, it eventually exerted a tremen- they are too frightened to obey (16:1–8). The dous infl uence on the Christian community Gospel thus ends with the only disciples who at large, primarily through the expanded and had followed Jesus to the cross—a few Galilean revised editions of Mark that Matthew and women—inarticulate with terror, unable to Luke produced (see Chapter 6). Because the cope with the news of his resurrection! two other generally follow Mark’s view that the resurrected Jesus will not Mark’s order of events in Jesus’ life, it is im- be found near his burial site—Jerusalem— L portant to understand the signifi cance of contrasts with the Lukan tradition that Jesus in- A Mark’s bipolar organization. Mark arranges structed his followers to remain in Jerusalem his narrative around a geographical north– awaiting the Holy Spirit (:47–53; Acts W south polarity. The fi rst half of his narrative 1–2). Whereas Luke makes Jerusalem the center S takes place in Galilee and adjacent areas of of Christian growth and expansion, the Spirit- O northern Palestine, a largely rural area of peas- empowered mother church led by Peter and ant farmers where Jesus recruits his followers, James, Jesus’ “ brother ” (Acts 1:4–3:34; 15:13–21; N performs numerous miracles, and—despite 21:16), Mark paints it as a hotbed of conniving , some opposition—enjoys considerable suc- hypocrites who scheme to murder the Son of God. cess. The second half (after ch . 8) relates Jesus’ Mark’s antipathy toward the historical Jesus’ A fatal journey southward to Judea and closest associates and the original Jerusalem Jerusalem, where he is rejected and killed (see church is puzzling. Does this apparent hostility N Figure 7.2 ). Besides dividing Jesus’ career ac- mean that the group for which Mark wrote G cording to two distinct geographical areas, wished to distance itself from the Jerusalem E Mark’s Gospel presents two contrasting as- community, whose founders included Jesus’ pects of Jesus’ story. In Galilee, Jesus is a fi gure closest family members, Mary and James (Acts L of power, using his supernatural gifts to expel 1:14; 12:17, etc.)? Does Mark’s negative atti- A demons, heal the sick, control natural forces, tude indicate a power struggle between his and raise the dead. The Galilean Jesus speaks branch of Gentile Christianity and the Jewish and acts with tremendous authority, effort- Christians who (until 70 ce ) headed the origi- 6 lessly refutes his detractors, and affi rms or nal church? Some scholars caution that one 8 invalidates the Mosaic Torah at will. Before should not necessarily postulate a historical 5 leaving Caesarea Philippi, however, Jesus tension between the Markan community and makes the fi rst of three Passion predictions, Palestinian Jewish Christians. Ancient histori- 3 warning his uncomprehending disciples that ans and biographers commonly portray their B he will go to Jerusalem only to suffer humilia- heroes as enormously superior to their peers, U tion and death (8:30–38; 9:31–32; 10:33–34). depicting a subject’s followers or disciples as By using the Passion predictions as a device constitutionally incapable of rising to his level to link the indomitable miracle worker in of thought or achievement. Writing in this liter- Galilee with the helpless fi gure on the cross in ary tradition, Mark may have emphasized the Judea, Mark reconciles the two seemingly irrec- defi ciencies of Jesus’ contemporaries to under- oncilable components in his portrait of Jesus. score his hero’s unique status: By magnifying The powerful Son of God who astonishes vast Jesus’ image, Mark demonstrates that Jesus crowds with his mighty works is also the vulner- alone does God’s work and declares God’s will. able Son of Man who, in weakness and apparent har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 142 07/01/14 11:44 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Palestine During the Ministry of Sidon S CE U Jesus (c. 30 ) N Damascus A B I N L O Sarepta . r M T e R Tetrarchy of Philip iv E M R H s T. te M Under Pontius Pilate n o e

Tetrarchy of Herod Antipas L Areas under special control Tyre Caesarea Philippi P Cities of the Decapolis A AEA N UR U IA IT L S A TH A Lake Semechonitis

G AU B

L . AN A

R T IT E n I A E Chorazin a S N Ptolemais P H O E N LI C I A d I r A L o J Chabulon A -Julius E G Plain of Sea A L Gennesaret M E D I T E R R A N E A N Cana of Gergasa Magdala A Galilee Hippos MT. CARMEL Sepphoris Tiberias Gaba WNazareth S E A K is MT. Gadara ho nR TABOR iv S Nain er D O Caesarea E Ginaea C N Pella A

P

, r O Sebaste e

v Plain of i L Sichem R Sharon MT. GERIZIM P n Sychar I Jacob’s a d E r S A o Well J S A M A R I A R

N A

Joppa E

Lydda G A E Jericho Jamnia L Bethany Beyond Jordan Bethphage Azotus Jerusalem A Bethany Qumran Ascalon Bethlehem

A J U D A E A6 E S

Machaerus Gaza Hebron D 8 non Riv A r A er Jorda E

5 D A E Raphia A Masada3 M U D B I 0 10 20 30 Miles

U 0 10 20 30 Kilometers

figure 7.2 Political divisions of Palestine during the ministry of Jesus (c. 30 ce). Note that Rome directly administered Judea and Samaria through its governor Pontius Pilate; Herod Antipas ruled Galilee (Jesus’ home district) and Peraea; another son of , Philip, ruled an area to the northeast. The Decapolis was a league of ten Greek-speaking cities on the east side of the . har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 143 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.3 Mark’s Order of Events in Jesus’ Life

beginning of jesus’ ministry (c. 27 or 29 ce) (the Passion predictions) (8:31–33; 9:30–32; Jesus is baptized by John at the Jordan River (1:9–11). 10:32–34). Jesus begins preaching in Galilee (1:14–15). events of the last week of jesus’ life Jesus recruits Peter, Andrew, James, and John to On Palm Sunday, Jesus arranges his public entry be his fi rst disciples (1:16–20). into Jerusalem; his followers hail him in terms Jesus performs miraculous cures and exorcisms in of the Davidic kingdom (11:1–11). Capernaum and throughout Galilee (1:21–3:12). Jesus drives the moneychangers out of the Jesus appoints twelve chief disciples from among Temple (11:15–19). his many followers; he explains the meaning L Seated on the Mount of Olives opposite Jerusalem, of parables to this inner circle (3:13–4:34). A Jesus predicts the imminent destruction of the Jesus returns to Nazareth, where his neighbors W Temple (13:1–37). reject him (6:1–6). Jesus’ enemies conspire to kill him; Judas betrays Herod Antipas beheads (6:14–29). S Jesus (14:1–11). Jesus miraculously feeds a Jewish crowd of 5,000 O Jesus holds a fi nal Passover meal with the Twelve (6:30–44). N (14:12–31). end of jesus’ ministry (c. 30 or 33 ce) , After the , Jesus is arrested at Gethsemane Jesus leaves Galilee and travels through non-Jewish on the Mount of Olives outside Jerusalem territories in Phoenicia and the Decapolis A (14:32–52). (7:24–37). Jesus is tried on charges of blasphemy before the Jesus miraculously feeds a second crowd, this N High Priest Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin time of Gentiles (8:1–10, 14–21). G (14:53–65). Jesus cures a blind man, and near the town of E On Good Friday, Jewish leaders accuse Jesus before Caesarea Philippi, Peter’s eyes are opened to Pontius Pilate; Jesus is declared guilty of treason, Jesus’ true identity as the Messiah; Jesus L fl ogged, and condemned to crucifi xion (15:1–20). rebukes Peter for failing to understand that A A group of Galilean women witness the Crucifi x- the Messiah must suffer and die (8:22–9:1). ion; Joseph of Arimathaea provides a tomb for Jesus is gloriously transfi gured before Peter, Jesus (15:40–47). James, and John (9:1–13). 6 On Easter Sunday, Mary of Magdala and other Jesus travels south to Judea, teaching the crowds 8 women discover that Jesus’ tomb is empty; a and debating with (10:1–33). 5 young man instructs them to look for Jesus in On the road to Jerusalem, Jesus for the third time Galilee, but the women are too frightened to predicts his imminent suffering and death 3 tell anyone of their experience (16:1–8). B U defeat, sacrifi ces his life “ as a ransom for many ” John, Jesus repeatedly travels back and forth be- (10:45). Thus, the author balances older Christian tween Galilee and Judea, performing miracles in traditions of his hero’s phenomenal deeds with both regions. As Papias’s remark about the a bleak picture of Jesus’ sufferings, devoting the Gospel’s lack of historical order warned, the last six chap ters to a detailed account of the Markan sequence of events, with its emphasis on Passion. Although Matthew and Luke follow a single, fi nal visit to Jerusalem, appears to Mark in his north–south, power–weakness di- express the writer’s theological vision of Jesus’ chotomy, John’s Gospel shows that there were life rather than a literal reconstruction of his other ways to arrange events in Jesus’ story. In subject’s actual movements (see Box 7.3 ). har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 144 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Mark’s Gospel can be divided into six parts: John predict a “ mightier ” successor, although he does not show the Baptist as explicitly iden- 1. Prelude to Jesus’ public ministry (1:1–13) tifying Jesus as such. 2. The Galilean ministry (1:14–8:26) The biographer’s decision to introduce 3. The journey to Jerusalem (8:27–10:52) Jesus at the Jordan River is signifi cant, for the 4. The Jerusalem ministry (11:1–15:47) Jordan was the gateway by which the Israelite 5. Mark’s Passion narrative: Jesus’ trial and tribes originally entered Palestine, their Promised cruifi xion Land. Mark may also have expected his readers 6. Postlude: the (16:1–8) to remember that “ Jesus ” is the Greek version of “ Joshua, ” the name of Moses’ successor who led Israel across Jordan into its homeland. Mark’s Prelude to Jesus’ brief reference to Jesus’ being tested for forty Public Ministry Ldays in the Judean wilderness also has biblical Aconnotations. As the Israelites wandered for forty years through the Sinai wilderness, undergoing Like the writer of a classical epic, Mark plunges Wtrials and temptations, so Jesus is tempted by into the middle of the action, providing no S Satan in the desert, the untamed haunt of hostile background about his hero but introducing Oentities. Jesus vanquishes Satan, just as Joshua him with apocalyptic suddenness. The opening conquered the Canaanite nations that opposed line, “ Here begins the gospel [good news] of NIsrael (Josh. 1–6). Jesus Christ ” (1:1), simultaneously announces , Mark’s allusion to Jesus’ overcoming the his epic theme and echoes Genesis 1, alerting Evil One introduces another of the author’s readers to see that, in Jesus, God has begun a Aprincipal themes: God’s Son will break the new creative activity. Jesus is the Christ (Greek devil’s hold on humanity. Jesus’ exorcisms — translation of the Hebrew mashiah ) and “ the Nthe casting out of demons who have possessed Son of God, ” titles that Mark seldom uses in his Ghuman beings—are an important part of narrative, for one of his purposes is to demon- EJesus’ ministry and are given proportionately strate that in his lifetime the majority of people greater space in Mark than in any other did not recognize Jesus’ divine Sonship . No LGospel. (In contrast, John’s Gospel does not person calls Jesus “ a son of God ” until almost Acontain a single reference to Jesus’ perform- the very end of Mark’s Gospel (see Box 7.4 ). ing exorcisms.) Signifi cantly, at that point Jesus is already dead, and the speaker is neither a Jew nor a disciple 6 but a Roman centurion (15:39). 8 The Galilean Ministry: By citing, as if from memory, a blend of 5 passages from Isaiah (40:3) and Malachi (3:1)— Inaugurating the Kingdom 3 that a divinely appointed “ herald ” and a “ voice Mark’s Eschatological Urgency crying aloud in the wilderness ” are preparing a B path for the Lord—Mark immediately places U Mark launches Jesus’ career with a startlingly Jesus’ story in the context of the Hebrew Bible. eschatological message: “ The time has come, Mark identifi es the “ herald ” with John the the kingdom of God is upon you; repent and Baptist, a desert ascetic then conducting a reli- believe the Gospel ” (1:15). Mark’s sense of gious campaign at the Jordan River, where eschatological urgency permeates his entire John baptizes converts “ in token of repentance, Gospel, profoundly affecting his portrayal of for the forgiveness of sins ” (1:4). Jesus, implic- Jesus’ life and teaching. With the tradition that itly included among the repentant, appears for Jesus had prophesied the Temple’s fall about to baptism, perhaps as John’s disciple. Mark has be realized, Mark, writing about 70 ce , sees the har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 145 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.4 Mark’s Identifi cation of Jesus as “Son of God”

Although Mark’s preferred designation entities, including “unclean spirits,” know and fear of Jesus is “Son of Man,” he also identifi es Jesus as him. In a typically Markan paradox, human oppo- “Son of God” at strategic places in his narrative. nents accuse Jesus of being an agent of Beelzebub, In most editions of Mark, the fi rst reference to “the prince of demons”—allegedly the source of his Jesus’ divine parentage occurs in the opening supernatural power—while the demons themselves verse and is addressed directly to readers, who testify that Jesus is “the Son of God” (3:11, 22–28). must be aware of Jesus’ supernatural identity if Mark draws further on the questionable testimony Mark’s way of telling his hero’s story—an ironic of evil spirits when describing the Gerasene demo- contrast between who Jesus really is and who peo- niac: The satanic “Legion” boldly announces that ple mistake him for—is to succeed. Because some L Jesus is “son of the Most High God” (5:1–13). early manuscripts omit the phrase “Son of God” in A In contrast, when Peter fi nally perceives that Mark 1:1, however, it is possible that the author Jesus is “the Christ,” he apparently does not also originally intended for readers to learn of Jesus’ W intuit Jesus’ divinity, confi ning his witness to his special relationship to the Father in the same man- S leader’s messianic (political) role. In Mark’s narra- ner that Jesus did, at his baptism, when a heavenly O tive, Jesus’ closest disciples lack the perceptiveness voice privately confi des, “You are my beloved Son; of Beelzebub’s imps! (Compare Mark’s account of in you I take delight” (Mark 1:11). N Peter’s “confession” with Matthew’s version, where The “voice from heaven” paraphrases Psalm 2, , the author has Peter employ a major Christological a poem sung at the coronation of Israel’s mon- title, “Son of the living God,” absent in Mark [Matt. archs, a royal ceremony at which Yahweh is repre- 16:13–16].) Even after Jesus is miraculously trans- sented as adopting the newly consecrated king: A fi gured before their eyes and the celestial voice “You are my son, . . . this day I become your father” N again affi rms that he is God’s son (9:8), the Galilean (Ps. 2:7). Because Mark contains no reference to G disciples remain oblivious. Jesus’ virginal conception, many scholars think At Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin, Mark pre- that the author regards Jesus as becoming God’s E sents a darkly paradoxical glimpse of his hero’s real son by adoption, his baptism and visitation by the L identity. When the High Priest asks if his prisoner Holy Spirit the equivalent of Davidic kings’ being A is indeed the “Son of the Blessed One” (a pious anointed with holy oil. circumlocution for God), Jesus, for the fi rst time in In an ironic counterpoint to God’s voice, Mark Mark’s account, admits that he is—a confession of next uses the speech of a demon to reveal Jesus’ 6 divinity that condemns him to death. Only when hidden identity. When driven from a man he has 8 Jesus hangs lifeless on the cross does a human possessed, the demon angrily declares: “I know who 5 fi gure—a Roman centurion—belatedly speak of you are—the Holy One of God” (1:25). Whereas Jesus as “a son of God,” a Hellenistic Gentile’s rec- Mark’s human characters fail to recognize Jesus’ 3 ognition that Jesus had died a heroic death worthy true nature until after his death, supernatural B of divine honor (see also Box 11.2). U

eschaton —the end of history as we know it— Son of Man who is about to appear in glory about to take place (13:1–4, 7–8, 14–20, 24–27, (13:24–31) is the same as the Son of Man who 30, 35–37). He therefore paints Jesus as an escha- came forty years earlier to die on the cross (8:31, tological fi gure whose words are reinterpreted as 38; 9:9–13, 31). The splendor of the one to come specifi c warnings to Mark’s generation. In the casts its radiance over Mark’s portrait of the thought world Mark creates, the apocalyptic human Jesus (9:1–9). har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 146 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Mark’s style conveys his urgency: He uses scene, Jesus converses with Moses and Elijah the present tense throughout his Gospel and (who represent, respectively, the Torah and the repeatedly connects the brief episodes ( peri- prophets) to demonstrate his continuity with copes ) of his narrative with the transition word Israel’s biblical tradition. Jesus thus embodies immediately. Jesus scarcely fi nishes conducting a God’s ultimate revelation to humanity. Mark’s healing or exorcism in one Galilean village be- declaration that at Jesus’ baptism the heavens fore he “ immediately ” rushes off to the next are “ torn apart, ” suddenly giving access to the town to perform another miracle. In Mark’s spirit realm, anticipates a later apocalyptic vi- breathless presentation, the world faces an sion in the Book of Revelation. Revelation’s unprecedented crisis. Jesus’ activity proclaims author similarly describes “ a door opened in that history has reached its climactic moment. heaven ” and hears a voice inviting him to “ come Hence, Mark measures time in mere days (during up here ” and receive a preview of future history the Galilean ministry) and hours (during the L(Rev. 4:1–2). Jerusalem episodes). Reduced to tiny increments, A At the most important event in his Gospel, time is literally running out. Jesus’ crucifi xion, Mark repeats his image of the Mark represents Jesus as promising his Wheavens being “ torn ” asunder. He states that at original hearers that they will experience the Sthe instant of Jesus’ death “ the curtain of the eschaton — “ the present generation will live to Otemple was torn in two from top to bottom, ” a see it all ” (13:30). The kingdom, God’s active phenomenon that inspires a Gentile soldier to rule, is so close that some of Jesus’ contempo- Nrecognize Jesus’ divinity (15:37–39). In describ- raries “ will not taste death before they have ,ing this incident, Mark apparently assumes that seen the kingdom of God already come in his readers will understand the symbolism power ” (9:1). The long-awaited fi gure of Elijah, Aof the Temple curtain. According to Josephus, the ancient prophet whose reappearance is to the outer room of the Temple was separated from be an infallible sign of the last days (Mal. 4:5), Nthe innermost sanctuary—the Holy of Holies has already materialized in the person of John Gwhere God’s “ glory ” was believed to dwell the Baptist (9:12–13). Such passages indicate E invisibly—by a huge curtain that was embroi- that Mark’s community anticipated the immi- dered with astronomical designs, images of the nent consummation of all things. Lvisible heavens that hid God’s celestial throne Afrom mortal eyes. In Mark’s view, Jesus’ re- Mark as Apocalypse demptive death “ tore apart ” the curtain, open- ing the way to a heavenly reality that the earthly So pervasive is Mark’s eschatology that some 6Temple had symbolized. For Mark, this rending scholars regard the entire Gospel as a modifi ed 8of the sacred veil functions as an apocalypse or apocalypse ( apokalypsis ), a literary work that re- 5revelation of Jesus’ supreme signifi cance. veals unseen realities and discloses events des- tined soon to climax in God’s fi nal intervention 3 Jesus as Son of Man The author presents virtu- in human affairs. Mark’s use of apocalyptic de- Bally all the events during Jesus’ fi nal hours as vices is particularly evident at the beginning and Urevelatory of God’s unfolding purpose. At the ending of his Gospel. God speaks directly as Last Supper, Jesus emphasizes that the eschato- a disembodied voice (a phenomenon Hellenistic logical “Son of Man is going the way appointed Jews called the bath qol ) at Jesus’ baptism for him” and that he will “never again” drink and again at the Transfi guration, an epiphany wine with his disciples until he will “drink it (manifestation of divine presence) in which the new in the kingdom of God” (14:21, 25). At his disciples see Jesus transformed into a luminous trial before the Sanhedrin, the Jewish leaders’ being seated beside the ancient fi gures of Moses highest judicial council, Jesus reveals his true and Elijah (1:11; 9:2–9). In this apocalyptic identity for the fi rst time: He confesses that he har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 147 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.5 The Synoptic Gospels’ Use of the Term “Son of Man”

The authors of the Synoptic Gospels use the suffering son of man the expression “Son of Man” in three distinct ways, Mark 8:31 (:22): Must suffer. all of which they place on the lips of Jesus to denote Mark 9:12 (Matt. 17:12): Will suffer. three important aspects of his ministry. The three Mark 10:45 (Matt. 20:28): Came to serve and give categories identify Jesus as the Son of Man who his life. serves on earth, the Son of Man who must suffer and Matthew 12:40 (:30): Will be three days die, and the Son of Man who will be revealed in es- in the earth. chatological judgment. Representative examples of these three categories appear below. the eschatological son of man L Mark 8:38 (Matt. 16:27; Luke 9:26): Comes in A glory of the Father and holy . the earthly son of man Mark 14:26 (Matt. 24:30; :27): Will be seen Mark 2:10 (Matt. 9:6; :24): Has authority W coming with clouds and glory. to forgive sins. S Mark 14:62 (Matt. 26:64; :69): Will be seen Mark 2:27 (Matt. 12:8; :5): Is Lord of the O sitting at the right hand of power. Sabbath. :26 (Matt. 24:27): As it was in days of Noah, Matthew 11:19 (:34): Comes eating and N so in days of Son of Man. drinking. , Matthew 8:20 (Luke 9:58): Has nowhere to lie his For a fuller discussion of the Son of Man concept and its use by the Synoptic authors, see George Eldon Ladd, A head. A Theology of the (Grand Rapids, Mich.: :20: Came to seek and save the lost. Eerdmans, 1974), pp. 145–158. N G E is the Messiah and that the offi ciating High L future-coming fi gure who would vindicate Jesus’ Priest “will see the Son of Man seated at the A own ministry and that the later church, because right hand of God and coming with the clouds of its faith in Jesus’ resurrection, retrojected of heaven” (14:62–63). that title back into the account of Jesus’ life at This disclosure—found only in Mark— 6 points where it originally did not appear. In associates Jesus’ suffering and death with his ul- 8 Mark’s view, however, Jesus himself is clearly the timate revelation as the eschatological Son of 5 eschatological Son of Man. Man. A designation that appears almost exclu- sively in the Gospels and then always on the lips 3 Son of Man in Hellenistic-Jewish Literature The of Jesus, Son of Man is Mark’s favored expres- B Hebrew Bible offers few clues to what Jesus may sion to denote Jesus’ three essential roles: an U have meant if he employed this title. The earthly fi gure who teaches with authority, a ser- phrase appears frequently in the Book of vant who embraces suffering, and a future es- Ezekiel, where “ son of man ” is typically synony- chatological judge (see Box 7.5). Although mous with “ mortal ” or “ human being, ” com- many scholars question whether the historical monly the prophet himself. In the Book of Jesus ever used this title, many others regard it Daniel, however, “ one like a [son of] man ” ap- as Jesus’ preferred means of self-identifi cation. pears as a celestial fi gure who receives divine Still other scholars postulate that Jesus may have authority (Dan. 7:14). Most scholars think that used the title Son of Man to designate another, this human fi gure (contrasting with the mystic har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 148 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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“ beasts ” in Daniel’s vision) originally symbol- day. The Pharisees interpreted the Torah to ized a collective entity, Israel’s faithful. By Jesus’ permit saving a life or dealing with other com- time, Daniel’s Son of Man apparently had as- parable emergencies on the Sabbath, but in sumed another identity, that of a supernatural this case (2:23–28) , Jesus seems to have violated individual who will come to judge the world. the Torah for no compelling reason. The composite Book of 1 Enoch, which be- As Mark describes the situation, it is Jesus’ longs to noncanonical Hellenistic-Jewish writ- fl exible attitude toward Sabbath keeping that ings known as the Pseudepigrapha , contains a incites some Pharisees and supporters of Herod long section (called the Similitudes or Parables) Antipas to hatch a murder plot against him that prominently features the Son of Man as the (3:5–6). To most readers, Jesus’ opponents over- one who, at the consummation of history, react inexplicably. To many law-abiding Jews, passes judgment on humanity (1 Enoch 37–71). however, Jesus’ Sabbath-breaking miracles and Although some scholars dispute this claim, Ldeclaration that the Sabbath was created for many believe that this section of 1 Enoch was Ahumanity’s benefi t (2:27–28) seem to strike at written by the fi rst century ce . Fragments of the heart of Jewish faith. Many devout Jews Enoch (but not yet the Similitudes ) have been W believed that the Torah was infallible and eter- found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the ca- Snal. According to the Book of Jubilees, the nonical Epistle of Jude cites Enoch as if it were OTorah existed before God created the universe, Scripture (Jude 14–15). It seems likely that ideas and people were made to keep the Sabbath. about Enoch’s Son of Man were current in Jesus’ NJesus’ assertion that the Sabbath law is not ab- day and that he—or his immediate followers— ,solute but relative to human needs appears to applied them to his role in history. deny the Torah’s unchanging validity and to The major element that Mark’s Jesus adds Aquestion its status as God’s fi nal and complete to the Son of Man concept is that he is a servant revelation. who must suffer and die before attaining the N kind of heavenly glory that Daniel 7 and 1 G Teaching the Mysteries of the Kingdom Enoch ascribe to him (cf. Mark 8:30–31; 10:45; E 13:26–27; 14:62). Jesus’ Parables Many of Israel’s prophets, and Lvirtually all its apocalyptic writers, use highly “ The Son of Man Has the Right on Earth . . . ” It is Asymbolic language to convey their visions of as the earthly Son of Man that Mark’s Jesus the divine will. In depicting Jesus as the escha- claims the right to wield immense religious tological Son of Man, it is not surprising that power (see Box 7.5). As Son of Man, the Markan 6Mark states categorically that Jesus never taught Jesus assumes the authority to prescribe revolu- 8publicly without using parables (or other fi g- tionary changes in Jewish Law and custom 5ures of speech) (4:34). The root meaning of (2:10). Behaving as if he already reigns as the word parable is “ a comparison, ” the dis- cosmic judge, Jesus forgives a paralytic’s sins 3cernment of similarities between one thing (2:1–12) and permits certain kinds of work on Band another. Jesus’ simplest parables are typi- the Sabbath (3:1–5). In both instances, Jesus’ Ucally similes, comparisons using as or like to pronouncements outrage Jewish leaders. Who express unexpected resemblances between but God can forgive sins? And who has the au- ostensibly unrelated objects, actions, or ideas. dacity to change Moses’ inspired command to Thus, Jesus compares God’s kingdom—which forbid all labor on God’s day of rest (cf. Exod. he never explicitly defi nes—to a number of 20:8–10; Deut. 5:12–15)? items, including a mustard seed. Like the tiny In the eyes of Jews scrupulously observing seed, God’s rule begins in an extremely small Torah regulations, Jesus dishonors the Sabbath way, but eventually, like the mustard plant, it by healing a man’s withered arm on that holy grows to an unexpectedly large size (4:30–32). har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 149 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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(Jesus’ intent in this parable may have been In one of his most controversial passages, ironic, for farmers do not want wild mustard Mark states that Jesus uses parables to prevent plants taking over their fi elds any more than the public from understanding his message most people wanted the kind of divine rule that (4:11–12). To many readers, it seems incredi- Jesus promoted.) Like the parable of the grow- ble that Jesus deliberately teaches in a way in- ing seed (4:26–29), which appears in Mark tended to confuse or alienate his audience. alone, the mustard plant analogy stresses the un- Mark justifi es his hero’s alleged practice by noticed evolution of divine sovereignty rather quoting from Isaiah (6:9–10), which pictures than explaining its nature or form. Most parables Yahweh telling the prophet that his preaching are open-ended: They do not provide a fi xed will be useless because Yahweh has already conclusion but invite the hearer to speculate made it impossible for the Israelites to compre- about many possibilities inherent in the compar- hend Isaiah’s meaning. Mark’s attempt to ex- ison. According to Mark, understanding parables L plain why most people did not follow Jesus involving germination and growth suggests the A seems contrary to the gracious goodwill that “ secret ” of God’s kingdom, a glimpse into the the Gospel writers normally associate with him mysterious principles by which God rules. W and probably does not express the policy of the Other parables take the form of brief sto- S historical Jesus. In the historical experience of ries that exploit familiar situations or customs O Mark’s community, however, it appears that the to illustrate a previously unrecognized truth. In kingdom’s secrets were reserved for a few cho- the parable of the sower , a farmer plants seeds N sen disciples, such as those whom Mark says on different kinds of ground with distinctly dif- , privately received Jesus’ esoteric teaching (4:11). ferent results (4:2–9). The lengthy interpreta- (In Luke’s edition of Mark, he removes Isaiah’s tion that Mark attaches to the image of sowing A pessimistic declaration from Jesus’ lips and trans- seeds (4:13–20) transforms what was originally fers the saying to his sequel, the Book of Acts, a simple parable into an allegory. An allegory is N where he places it in Paul’s mouth to explain a complex literary form in which each element G why the apostle gave up trying to convert fellow of the narrative—persons, places, actions, even E Jews and concentrated instead on the more re- objects—has a symbolic value. Because every ceptive Gentiles; cf. Mark 4:11–12; :10; item in the allegory functions as a symbol of L Acts 28:25–28.) something else, the allegory’s meaning can be A puzzled out only by identifying what each indi- Jesus and the Demons Eschatological beliefs vidual component in the story represents. are concerned not only with the end of the world Almost all scholars believe that Mark’s elab- 6 but also with visions of invisible spirit beings, orate allegorical interpretations, equating dif- 8 both good and evil (see Chapter 19). Apocalyptic ferent kinds of soil with the different responses 5 literature, such as Daniel and 1 Enoch, typically people make when they receive the “ seed ” (gos- presents God’s defeat of spiritual evil as the ulti- pel message), do not represent Jesus’ original 3 mate victory that completes God’s sovereignty meaning. By the time Mark incorporated the B over the entire universe. Given Mark’s strongly sower pericope into his Gospel, the Christian U eschatological point of view, it is not surprising community had already used it to explain peo- that he makes a battle between supernatural ple’s contrasting reactions to their preaching. forces—God’s Son versus Satan’s demons—an Jesus’ pithy tale based on everyday agricultural integral part of his apocalyptic Gospel. After practices was reinterpreted to fi t the later expe- noting Jesus’ resistance to Satan (1:12–13), rience of Christian missionaries. The reference Mark reinforces the theme of cosmic struggle to “ persecution ” (4:17) places the allegorical by making Jesus’ fi rst miracle an exorcism. factor in Mark’s time rather than in the context Remarkably, the demon that Jesus expels from of Jesus’ personal experience in Galilee. a human victim is the fi rst character in the har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 150 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Markan narrative to recognize Jesus as “ the occurs when “ doctors of the law ” (teachers and Holy One of God ” —who has come “ to destroy ” interpreters of the Torah) from Jerusalem ac- the agents of evil (1:23–26). cuse Jesus of using black magic to perform ex- Following his exorcisms at Capernaum, orcisms. Denying that evil can produce good, Jesus performs similar feats in Gentile territory, Jesus countercharges that persons who attri- “ the country of the Gerasenes . ” Driving a whole bute good works to Satan “ slander the Holy army of devils from a Gerasene madman, Jesus Spirit, ” the divine force manifested in Jesus’ casts them into a herd of pigs. The religiously actions. unclean animals become a fi t home for spirits Matthew’s version of the incident explicitly who drive people to commit unclean acts (5:1– links Jesus’ defeat of evil spirits with the arrival 20). The demons’ name— “ legion ” —is an un- of the kingdom of God. The Matthean Jesus fl attering reference to the Roman legions (large declares, “ If it is by the Spirit of God that I drive military units) then occupying Palestine (and Lout the devils, then be sure the kingdom of in Mark’s day assaulting Jerusalem). When in AGod has already come upon you ” (Matt. 12:28). Capernaum, a Galilean Jewish city, Jesus com- To both Evangelists, Jesus’ successful attack on mands the demons to remain silent, whereas in Wdemonic control is a revelation that through the Gerasene region, he orders the dispossessed Shis presence God now rules. Willful refusal to Gentile to tell others about his cure. O accept Jesus’ healings as evidence of divine power Mark arranges his material to show that is to resist the Spirit, an obstinacy that prevents Jesus does not choose to battle evil in isola- Nspiritual insight. tion. At the outset of his campaign through , Galilee, Jesus gathers followers who will form The Existence of Demons Mark, like other New the nucleus of a new society, one presumably ATestament authors, refl ects a common Hellenistic free from demonic infl uence. Recruiting a belief in the existence of unseen entities that band of Galilean fi shermen and peasants, Ninfl uence human lives. Numerous Hellenistic Jesus selects two sets of brothers, Simon Peter Gdocuments record charms to ward off demons (also called Cephas ) and Andrew, and James Eor free one from their control. In Judaism, and John—sons of Zebedee also known as works like the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit “ sons of thunder ( Boanerges ) ” —to form his Lreveal a belief that demons could be driven out inner circle (1:16–20). Later, he adds another Aby the correct use of magical formulas ( Tob . eight disciples to complete the Twelve, a num- 6:1–8; 8:1–3). Josephus, who was Mark’s con- ber probably representing the twelve tribes of temporary, relates a story about Eleazar , who al- Israel: Philip; Bartholomew; Matthew; Thomas; 6legedly exorcised a demon in the presence of James, son of Alphaeus ; Thaddeus; Simon the 8the emperor Vespasian (69–79 ce ), drawing the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot (3:16–19; cf. the 5malign spirit out through its victim’s nose different list in Acts 1). Mark states that, when ( Antiquities 8.46–49). Jesus commissions the Twelve to perform exor- 3 cisms (6:7–13), they fail miserably (9:14–18, B Zoroastrianism A belief in devils and demonic 28–29), a sad contrast to the success enjoyed by Upossession appears in Jewish literature primar- some exorcists who are not Jesus’ followers ily after the period of Persian domination (539– (9:38–41). 330 bce ), when Persian religious ideas seem to have infl uenced Jewish thought. According to Jesus Accused of Sorcery In another incident the Persian religion Zoroastrianism, the whole involving demonic possession (3:22–30), Mark universe, visible and invisible, is divided into dramatizes a head-on collision between Jesus as two contending powers of light and darkness, God’s agent for overthrowing evil and persons good and evil. Only after historical contact with who see Jesus as a tool of the devil. The clash Zoroastrian dualism does the fi gure of Satan har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 151 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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emerge as humanity’s adversary in biblical liter- and Revelation show a keen awareness of evil so ature (Job 1–2; Zech. 3). Angels and demons pervasive and so profound that it cannot be ex- thereafter populate Hellenistic-Jewish writings, plained solely in terms of human acts, individ- such as the books of Daniel and 1 Enoch. ual or collective. Whatever philosophical view we choose to interpret the human predica- Belief in Supernatural Evil Although Hellenistic ment, the Gospel portrayal of Jesus’ struggle to Greek and Judeo-Christian writers may ex- impart wholeness and health to others ex- press their beliefs about supernatural evil in presses the Evangelists’ conviction that human- terms considered naive or irrational to today’s ity cannot save itself without divine aid. scientifi cally disciplined mind, they refl ect a viewpoint with important implications for con- Jesus the Healer Physical cures, as well as exor- temporary society. Surrounded by threats of cisms, characterize Jesus’ assault on evil. In terrorism, lethal diseases such as cancer and L Mark’s portrayal, one of Jesus’ most important AIDS, and frightening disregard for human life, A functions is to bring relief to the affl icted (see people may wonder if the forces of cruelty and Figure 7.3 ). He drives a fever from Simon Peter’s violence are not greater than the sum of their W mother-in-law (1:29–31), cleanses a leper (1:40– human agents. Does evil exist as a power inde- S 42), enables a paralyzed man to walk (2:1–12), pendent of human volition? Such diverse works O restores a man’s withered hand (3:1–6), stops a as the Synoptic Gospels, Ephesians (6:10–17), woman’s chronic hemorrhaging (5:25–34), and N ,

A N G E L A

6 8 5 3 B U

figure 7.3 Christ with the Sick Around Him, Receiving Little Children. In this etching by Rembrandt (1606–1669), healing light radiates from the central fi gure of Jesus and creates a protective circle of illumination around those whom he cures. har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 152 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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resuscitates the comatose daughter of Jairus , a fl ow out when the woman touches him, as if synagogue offi cial (5:21–24, 35–43). To Mark, he were a dynamo being drained of electrical Jesus’ restoration of physical health to suffering energy (5:25–34). The Markan Jesus, more- humanity is an indispensable component of di- over, does not know at fi rst who is tapping vine rule, tangible confi rmation that God’s king- his power. dom is about to dawn. Mark then resumes the Jairus narrative: Al- though a messenger reports that the girl has Mark’s Narrative Techniques already died, Jesus insists that she is only “ asleep. ” Taking his three closest disciples into In assembling from various oral sources a series the girl’s room, he commands her to “ get up ” — of brief anecdotes about Jesus’ ability to cure “ Talitha cum, ” an Aramaic phrase that Mark’s the sick, Mark stitches the miracle stories to- community probably revered for its association gether like pearls on a string. Weaving these Lwith Jesus’ power over death (5:35–43). The au- originally independent pericopes into the fab- Athor links the two stories by a simple numerical ric of his narrative, Mark re-creates them with device—the mature woman had been affl icted vividness and immediacy. Besides using a wealth Wfor a dozen years and the young girl is twelve of concrete detail to help readers visualize the Syears old—and by the assertion that it scene or feel its emotional impact, Mark com- Ois the participants’ faith that cures them. The monly employs the technique of intercalation, woman demonstrates unconditional trust in inserting one story inside another. This sand- NJesus’ power, and Jairus presumably accepts wiching device typically serves to make the story ,Jesus’ advice to replace fear for his daughter’s placed inside another narrative function as in- safety with “ faith. ” terpretative commentary on the framing story. A In telling of Jesus’ family’s attempt to impede Mark’s Ironic Vision In the Nazareth episode, his ministry (3:21, 31–35), for example, Mark Nwhere Jesus appears as a prophet without honor inserts a seemingly unrelated anecdote about G(6:4–6), Mark invites his readers to share Jesus’ Jesus’ opponents accusing him of sorcery Eastonishment that people who should have (3:22–30), implicitly associating his “ mother known better reject a golden opportunity to and brothers ” with his adversaries. Lbenefi t from Jesus’ help. As Mark presents Mark uses the same device of wrapping AJesus’ story—which is largely a tale of humanity’s one story around another when describing the self-defeating rejection of God’s attempt to re- resuscitation of Jairus’s daughter, interrupting deem it—such disparities abound. Demons the Jairus episode to incorporate the anecdote 6steeped in evil instantly recognize who Jesus is, about a hemorrhaging woman into the middle 8but most people —including his peasant neigh- of the narrative. Pushing through the crowds 5bors and the educated religious elite—do not. surrounding him, Jesus is on his way to help The wind and waves obey him during a storm Jairus’s seriously ill daughter (5:22–24) when 3on the (4:35–41) (see Figures 7.4 a woman—who Mark says had suffered for Band 7.5), but his disciples ultimately prove dis- twelve years from unstoppable bleeding (and Uloyal. He miraculously feeds hungry multitudes was therefore ritually unclean)—suddenly (an incident Mark records in two different ver- grabs his cloak and, as if by force of desperate sions [6:30–44; 8:1–10]) and can suspend the need, draws into her ailing body Jesus’ cura- laws of physics by striding across Galilee’s wa- tive energy. This incident is doubly unique: ters (6:30–52; 8:1–10), but Jesus’ closest follow- It is the only Gospel healing to occur without ers are unable to grasp the meaning of his Jesus’ conscious will and the Evangelists’ only control over nature. Among the very few who hint about the physical nature of Jesus’ ability respond positively to him, the majority are so- to heal. Mark states that Jesus can feel his power cial outcasts or nobodies such as lepers, blind har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 153 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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L A W S figure 7.4 Fishing boat returning to Capernaum on theO Sea of Galilee. The village of Capernaum, home to Peter and his brother Andrew, served as a center for Jesus’ early Galilean ministry. N , The Journey to Jerusalem: A Jesus’ Predestined Suffering N Mark’s Central Irony: Jesus’ G Hidden Messiahship E In chapter 8, which forms the central pivot on L which the entire Gospel turns, Mark ties together A several motifs that convey his essential vision of Jesus’ ministry. Besides repeating the theme of the disciples’ obtuseness, chapter 8 also 6 figure 7.5 Excavations at Capernaum. Dated to the sounds Mark’s concurrent themes of the hidden fi rst century ce, the ruins of these small private houses are 8 or unexpected quality of Jesus’ messiahship — located near the shore of the Sea of Galilee, an appropri- 5 especially the necessity of his suffering—and the ate location for the dwellings of fi shermen. Archaeologists requirement that all believers be prepared to have found considerable evidence indicating that one of 3 embrace a comparably painful fate. In contrast these humble structures belonged to Peter. According to Mark, Jesus cured Peter’s mother-in-law of a fever there B to John’s Gospel, in which Jesus’ identity is pub- (Mark 1:29–31; cf. 2:1–12). U licly affi rmed at the outset of his career, Mark has no one even hint that Jesus is Israel’s Messiah until almost the close of the Galilean campaign, mendicants, ritually unclean women, and the when Peter—in a fl ash of insight—recognizes diseased. This irony, or logical incongruity be- him as such (8:29). The Markan Jesus then tween normal expectation and what actually swears the disciples to secrecy, as he had earlier happens in the narrative, determines both ordered other witnesses of his deeds to keep si- Mark’s structuring of his Gospel and his charac- lent (1:23–24, 34; 3:11–12; 5:7; 7:36; 8:30; see terization of Jesus’ messiahship . also 9:9). Jesus’ reluctance to have news of his har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 154 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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miracles spread abroad is known as the messi- anic secret, a term coined by the German scholar William Wrede (1901). Some commentators have suggested that Mark’s picture of Jesus’ forbidding others to discuss him merely refl ects historical fact: that during Jesus’ lifetime most of his contemporar- ies did not regard him as God’s special agent and that he himself made no public claims to be Israel’s Messiah. Most scholars, however, be- lieve that Mark’s theme of the messianic secret represents the author’s theological purpose. For Mark, people could not know Jesus’ iden- L tity until after he had completed his mission. A Jesus had to be unappreciated in order to be rejected and killed—to fulfi ll God’s will that he W “ give up his life as a ransom for many ” (10:45). S A conviction that Jesus must suffer an un- O just death—an atonement offering for others— to confi rm and complete his messiahship is the N heart of Mark’s Christology (concepts about the , nature and function of Christ). Hence, Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi that Jesus is the A Christ (Messiah) is immediately followed by Jesus’ fi rst prediction that he will go to Jerusalem N only to die (8:29–32). When Peter objects to Gfigure 7.6 Christ with the Crown of Thorns. In this wooden carving of Jesus crowned with thorns, an anonymous this notion of a rejected and defeated Messiah, E Jesus calls his chief disciple a “ Satan. ” Derived twentieth-century African sculptor beautifully captures both the sorrow and the mystery of Mark’s suffering Son of Man. from a Hebrew term meaning “ obstacle, ” the L epithet Satan labels Peter’s attitude an obstacle A or roadblock on Jesus’ predestined path to the cross. Peter understands Jesus no better than Jesus, occupying places of honor on his right outsiders, regarding the Messiah as a God- 6and left. As Jesus explains that reigning with empowered hero who conquers his enemies, 8him means imitating his sacrifi ce, Mark’s read- not as a submissive victim of their brutality. For 5ers are intended to remember that when Jesus Mark, however, Jesus’ true identity must remain reaches Jerusalem the positions on his right shrouded in darkness until it is revealed in the 3and left will be taken by the two brigands cruci- painful glare of the cross (see Figure 7.6). Bfi ed next to him (15:27). At the end of chapter 8, Mark introduces a U In reiterating the necessity of suffering, third idea: True disciples must expect to suffer Mark addresses a problem that undoubtedly as Jesus does. In two of the three Passion pre- troubled members of his own community: how dictions, Jesus emphasizes that “ anyone who to explain the contrast between the high expec- wishes to be a follower of mine must leave self tations of reigning with Christ in glory (10:35–37) behind; he must take up his cross, and come and the believers’ actual circumstances. Instead with me ” (8:27–34; 10:32–45). Irony permeates of being vindicated publicly as God’s chosen the third instance when James and John, sons faithful, Christians of the late 60s ce were being of Zebedee, presumptuously ask to rule with treated like outcasts or traitors by Jewish Zealots har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 155 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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and like criminals by the Roman emperor. joyous reception in the holy city with the tragedy Mark offers fellow believers the consolation of his crucifi xion fi ve days later. A crowd, proba- that their hardships are foreshadowed by Jesus’ bly of Galilean supporters, enthusiastically wel- experience; Christians must expect to be comes Jesus to Jerusalem, hailing him as restorer treated no more justly than their Master. of “ the coming kingdom of our father ” Mark’s device of having a delegation of (11:9–10). As Mark reports it, Jesus had carefully Jewish leaders conspire against Jesus in Galilee arranged his entry to fulfi ll Zechariah’s proph- (3:6) and having Jesus repeatedly prophesy his ecy that the Messiah would appear in humble death serves to cast the shadow of the cross guise, riding on a beast of burden (Zech. 9:9). backward in time over the Galilean ministry. Mark thus portrays Jesus suddenly making a These foreshadowing techniques help unify the radical change in policy: Instead of hiding his polar opposites of Mark’s narrative: They not messianic identity, Jesus now seems to “ go only connect the powerful healer of Galilee L public ” —challenging Jerusalem to accept him with the sacrifi cial victim in Jerusalem but also A as God’s Anointed. Jesus’ appearance as a messi- link Jesus’ experience with that of Mark’s anic claimant also challenges Roman authority. implied readers. W Because the Messiah was commonly expected to S reestablish David’s monarchy, the Roman pre- O fect Pontius Pilate was likely to interpret Jesus’ The Jerusalem Ministry: actions as a political claim to Judean kingship N and, hence, to Rome, an act of treason (15:2–3). A Week of Sacred Time , Focus on the Temple In the third section of his Gospel, Mark focuses A exclusively on the last week of Jesus’ life, from Once Jesus is in Jerusalem , his activities center the Sunday on which Jesus enters Jerusalem to N around the Temple : His entrance into the city the following Sunday’s dawn, when some G is not complete until he enters the Temple Galilean women fi nd his tomb empty (11:1– E courts (11:1–10). On the Monday following 16:8). To Mark, this is a sacred period during his arrival, he creates a riot in the sanctuary, which Jesus accomplishes his life’s purpose, sac- L overturning moneychangers’ tables and disrupt- rifi cing himself for humanity’s redemption. A ing the sale of sacrifi cial animals (11:15–19). Mark’s Christian Holy Week also corresponds This assault on the Sadducean administration brands him as a threat to public order and to Passover week, when thousands of Jews from 6 throughout the Greco-Roman world gather in probably seals his fate with the chief priests and Jerusalem to celebrate Israel’s deliverance from 8 Temple police. slavery in Egypt. As he narrates Jesus’ rejection 5 As Mark describes his actions, Jesus visits the Temple, not to worship, but to pronounce by Jewish leaders and execution by Roman offi - 3 cials, Mark celebrates the irony of events: Blind eschatological judgment: Jesus’ last teaching is to Jesus’ value, no one recognizes Jesus as a de- B a prophecy of the sanctuary’s imminent de- liverer greater than Moses and a sacrifi ce that U struction ( ch . 13)—a prediction that may lie epitomizes the essential meaning of Passover. behind later charges that Jesus conspired to de- stroy the center of Jewish religion (14:56). The Triumphal Entry Jesus’ negative verdict on the Temple begins to take effect at his death, when the jeweled cur- If Mark was aware of Jesus’ other visits to tain veiling its inner sanctum is split apart Jerusalem (narrated in John’s Gospel), he dis- (15:38), exposing its interior to public gaze and misses them as unimportant compared with his foreshadowing its imminent desecration by last. In bold strokes, the author contrasts Jesus’ Gentiles (see Figure 7.7 ). har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 156 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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to Rome, a snare he eludes by suggesting that people return government coins to their source while reserving for God the rest of one’s life. The also suffer defeat when they try to force Jesus into an untenable posi- tion they hope will illustrate the illogic of a be- lief in resurrection to future life. When asked to which husband a woman who has been wid- owed six times will be married when all the for- mer spouses are raised, Jesus states that there will be no ethical problem because resurrected persons escape the limits of human sexuality and Lbecome “ like the angels in heaven ” (12:18–25). figure 7.7 Warning inscription from Herod’s Temple. ACiting the Torah, apparently the only part of Illustrating the barrier erected between Jews and Gentiles, the Hebrew Bible that the Sadducees accept, this inscription warned Temple visitors that no Gentile could W enter the inner courtyards except on pain of death. he quotes Yahweh’s words to Moses at the burn- Sing bush—that Yahweh is the God of Abraham, OIsaac, and Jacob (Exod. 3:6)—arguing that, be- Besides condemning the Temple’s sacrifi - cause Yahweh is “ not God of the dead but of the cial system and the Sadducean priests who con- Nliving, ” the ancient patriarchs must still be alive trol it, Mark uses other devices to indicate that ,from the Deity’s perspective (12:26–27). Jesus’ Jerusalem ministry is fundamentally an Interestingly, Mark closes Jesus’ Temple adverse judgment on the city. Jesus’ cursing an Adebates with a friendly encounter in which the unproductive fi g tree—the curse (11:12–14) and Galilean and a Torah expert agree on the es- its fulfi llment (11:20–24) bracketing the story Nsence of true religion. Answering a “ lawyer’s ” of his attack on Temple practices—represents Gquestion about the Bible’s most important re- Mark’s intent to condemn the Jerusalem leaders Equirement, Jesus cites the Shema , or Jewish who, in his opinion, do not bear “ good fruit ” and declaration of monotheism: There is only one are destined to wither and die. LGod, and Israel must love him with all its force The parable of the wicked tenants who kill Aand being (Deut. 6:4–5). To this he adds a their landlord’s son (12:1–11) has the same second Torah command: to love one’s neigh- function: to discredit Jesus’ enemies. In Mark’s bor as oneself (Lev. 19:18). In agreement, the view, the landlord (God) has now given his 6 “ lawyer ” and Jesus exchange compliments. vineyard, traditionally a symbol for Israel, to 8Although not a follower, the Jerusalem leader “ others ” —the author’s Christian community. 5sees that active love is the essence of divine rule, a perception that Jesus says makes him 3 Confrontations at the Temple “ not far from the kingdom of God ” —a more Bfavorable verdict than Jesus ever passes on the In Jerusalem, clashes between Jesus and Jewish UTwelve (12:28–34). leaders intensify, becoming a matter of life or death. Mark pictures Jesus scoring success after Jesus’ Prophecy of the Temple ’s Fall success in a series of hostile encounters with representatives of leading religious parties In chapter 13, Mark underscores his eschato- as he moves through the Temple precincts, logical concerns. In response to the disciples’ thronged with Passover pilgrims. The Pharisees question about when his prediction of Jerusa- and Herod Antipas’s supporters attempt to trap lem’s destruction will take place, Jesus delivers Jesus on the controversial issue of paying taxes his longest speech, associating the Temple’s fall har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 157 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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with an era of catastrophes that culminate in unless this period of testing was “ cut short, ” no the Son of Man appearing as eschatological believers could survive (13:9–13). judge. The author seems to have composed this discourse from a variety of sources, com- The “ Abomination ” Mark incorporates a cryptic bining Jesus’ words with older Jewish apocalyp- passage from the Book of Daniel into his eschato- tic literature and perhaps with prophetic logical discourse. When believers see “ ‘the abom- oracles from his own community as well. A con- ination of desolation’ usurping a place which is siderably expanded version of the speech is not his, ” they are to abandon their homes in preserved in Matthew 24, and a signifi cantly Judea and take refuge in nearby hills (13:14–20; modifi ed version of Mark’s eschatological ex- cf. Daniel 9:27; 11:31; 12:11). Directly addressing pectations appears in Luke 21. John’s Gospel his readers, the author alerts them to the impor- contains no parallel to the Synoptic prophecies tance of understanding this reference (13:14). about the eschaton . L Some scholars believe that Mark here refers to Readers will notice that Mark incorporates A the Zealots’ violent occupation of the Temple in two somewhat contradictory views of the End. 67–68 ce and their pollution of its sacred pre- He states that a swarm of disasters and frighten- W cincts with the blood of their victims, which may ing astronomical phenomena will provide un- S have included some Christians (see Box 7.6 ). mistakable “ signs ” that the Parousia is near, just O This tribulation, which threatens the peo- as the budding fi g tree heralds the arrival of ple of God, will be concluded by the Son of spring (13:8, 14–20, 24–31). Conversely, nei- N Man’s appearing with his angels to gather the ther the Son nor his followers can surmise the , faithful. Mark shows Jesus warning disciples that time of Final Judgment, so one must keep con- all these horrors and wonders will occur in the stant watch, because the End will occur without A lifetime of his hearers, although no one knows previous warning (13:32–37). the precise day or hour (13:24–32). Mark’s es- N chatological fervor, which Matthew and Luke Oracles of Disaster Mark’s strong emphasis on G subsequently mute in their respective versions political and social upheavals as portents of the E of the Markan apocalypse (cf. Matt. 24–25 and End refl ects the turbulent era in which he com- Luke 21), vividly conveys both the fears and posed his “ wartime ” Gospel. If, as historians be- L hopes of the author’s Christian generation. lieve, Mark wrote during the Jewish Revolt, A Mark’s eschatology, in fact, closely resembles when battles and insurrections were daily oc- that of Paul, who—a few years earlier—wrote currences, he seems to have viewed these the church in Corinth that “ the time we live in events as a turning point in history, an unprec- 6 will not last long ” (1 Cor. 7:29). As his fi rst letter edented crisis leading to the fi nal apocalypse. 8 to the Thessalonians makes clear, Paul fully ex- In addition to witnessing the intense suffering 5 pected to be alive at the Parousia (1 Thess. 4:13– of Palestinian Jews, the Markan community was 18; see Chap ters 14 and 15). undoubtedly aware of recent persecutions in 3 B Rome that resulted in numerous deaths, in- The Last Supper and Jesus’ Betrayal cluding the executions of Christianity’s two U chief apostles, Peter and Paul (mid-60s ce ). Following the eschatological discourse, Jesus Between about 67 and 70 ce , Zealots may also withdraws with his disciples to a private “ upper have attacked Palestinian Christians who ac- room ” in Jerusalem. On Thursday evening, he cepted Gentiles into their communities, for presides over a Passover feast of unleavened those extreme revolutionaries regarded virtu- bread, an observance that solemnly recalls ally all Gentiles as enemies of the Jewish nation. Israel’s last night in Egypt, when the of These ordeals may well account for Mark’s ref- Death “ passed over ” Israelites’ houses to slay erences to “ persecutions ” and assertions that the Egyptian fi rstborn (Exod. 11:1–13:16). In a har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 158 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 7.6 The Desecrating “Abomination” and Mark’s Eschatological Community

The longest speech that Mark assigns to Jesus is his Jerusalem’s leadership, acts that outraged Josephus prediction of Jerusalem’s imminent destruction and may have been regarded as a polluting “abomi- (Mark 13), suggesting that for Mark’s intended au- nation” by other Jews. dience this event was of great importance, a warn- The Zealots also held illegal trials for and execu- ing that the Parousia (Jesus’ return in glory) was tions of those they suspected of not sharing their near. Mark’s cryptic reference to the “abomination total commitment to the war against Rome. It is pos- of desolation,” an apocalyptic image borrowed sible that Jerusalem’s Christian community, which from Daniel (Dan. 9:27; 11:31; 12:11), signifi es a by then included Gentiles (an anathema to the Gentile pollution of the Jerusalem Temple. Mark LZealots), suffered Zealot persecution and that the pointedly advises his readers to take careful note of shedding of Christian blood, both Jewish and this profanation of the sanctuary and, when they AGentile, also contaminated the holy place, an see it occurring, abandon their homes in Judea W“abominable” guarantee of its impending fall. and take refuge in the surrounding hills. S The church historian Eusebius records that In Daniel, the “abomination” was Antiochus Oshortly before Jerusalem was obliterated Christians IV’s defi lement of the Temple by sacrifi cing swine there received an “oracle” inciting them to escape on its altar and erecting an altar to Zeus, king of the Nfrom the city and settle in Pella, a mostly Gentile Hellenic gods, in its courtyard. Some scholars sug- ,town in the Decapolis, a territory east of the Jordan gest that the “abomination” to which Mark refers dominated by a league of ten Hellenistic cities (Eccl. was the occupation of the Temple area by brigands Hist. 3.5.3). Scholars still debate the historicity of shortly before the Roman siege began. Athis episode, but Josephus reveals that such “in- According to Josephus, in the winter of 67–68 ce, Nspired” predictions about Jerusalem’s dire fate were a mixed band of Jewish guerrilla fi ghters moved Gcirculating among Jews during the war with Rome. into Jerusalem from the countryside and seized con- He states that some Jews prophesied that the trol of the Temple. Led by Eleazar, son of Simon ETemple would be destroyed “when sedition and na- (see Chapter 3), this revolutionary group formed Ltive hands [the Zealots] should be the fi rst to defi le the Zealot party, which resolved not only to expel AGod’s sacred precincts” (The Jewish War 4.6.3; see the Romans but also to purge the city of any Jewish also 4.3.10 and 4.3.12). In Christian circles, oral tra- leaders who cooperated with them. Adopting a pol- ditions about Jesus’ pronouncement on Jerusalem icy of radical egalitarianism, the Zealots fi ercely at- 6may have been the source of Mark’s declaration to tacked Jerusalem’s wealthy aristocracy and the 8fl ee the city when the “abomination” (Zealot defi le- Temple’s priestly administration, which they con- 5ment of the sanctuary?) occurred. demned as traitors to the Jewish nation for having collaborated with the Romans. The Zealots assassi- 3For a detailed analysis of the Jewish Revolt’s infl uence on Mark 13, see Joel Marcus, “The Jewish War and the Sitz nated many of the Jewish landowners and priests, Bim Leben of Mark,” Journal of Biblical Literature 3(3) staining the Temple pavements with the blood of U(1992): 441–462.

ritual at the close of their meal, Jesus gives the crucifi xion. Mark’s account of this Last Supper, Passover a new signifi cance, stating that the the origin of the Christian celebration of the bread he distributes is his “ body ” and the wine Eucharist, or Holy Communion, closely resem- his “ blood of the [New] Covenant, shed for bles Paul’s earlier description of the ceremony many ” (14:22–25)—liturgical symbols of his (1 Cor. 11:23–26). har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 159 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Mark’s Passion Narrative: Jesus’ Hearing Before Caiaphas Mark’s skill as a storyteller—and interpreter of the events he Jesus’ Trial and Crucifi xion narrates—is demonstrated in the artful way Mark’s Suffering Messiah he organizes his account of Jesus’ Passion. Peter’s testing (14:37–38) and denial that he In describing Jesus’ Passion —his fi nal suffering even knows Jesus (15:65–72) provide the frame and death—Mark’s narrative irony reaches its for and ironic parallel to Jesus’ trial before the height. Although the author emphasizes many Sanhedrin, the Jewish council headed by grim details of Jesus’ excruciatingly painful ex- Caiaphas, the High Priest. When Peter fulfi lls ecution, he means his readers to see the enor- Jesus’ prediction about denying him, the disci- mous disparity between the appearance of Jesus’ ple’s failure serves a double purpose: confi rm- vulnerability to the world’s evil and the actual ing Jesus’ prophetic gifts and strengthening reality of his spiritual triumph. Jesus’ enemies, L readers’ confi dence in Jesus’ ability to fulfi ll who believe they are ridding Judea of a danger- A other prophecies, including those of his resur- ous radical, are in fact making possible his rection (14:28) and reappearance as the glori- saving death—all according to God’s design. W fi ed Son of Man (14:62). S Mark contrasts Peter’s fearful denial with Jesus’ Arrest in Gethsemane Even so, Mark’s O Jesus’ courageous declaration to the Sanhedrin hero is tested fully—treated with vicious cruelty that he is indeed the Messiah and the appointed (14:65; 15:15–20), deserted by all his friends N agent of God’s future judgment (14:62). The (14:50), and even (in human eyes) abandoned , only Gospel writer to show Jesus explicitly ac- by God (15:34). The agony begins in Gethsemane, cepting a messianic identity at his trial, Mark a grove or vineyard on the Mount of Olives op- A may do so to highlight his theme that Jesus’ posite Jerusalem, to which Jesus and the disciples messiahship is revealed primarily through hu- retreat after the Last Supper. In the Gethsemane N mility and service, a denial of self that also episode (14:28–52), Mark places a dual empha- G effects humanity’s salvation (10:45). Like the sis on Jesus’ fulfi lling predictions in the Hebrew E author of Hebrews, Mark sees Jesus’ divine Bible (14:26–31, 39) and on his personal an- Sonship earned and perfected through suffer- guish. By juxtaposing these two elements, Mark L ing and death (Heb. 2:9–11; 5:7–10). demonstrates that, while the Crucifi xion will A take place as God long ago planned (and re- Pilate’s Condemnation of Jesus At daybreak on vealed in Scripture), Jesus’ part in the drama of Friday, the “ whole council held a consultation ” salvation demands heroic effort. While the dis- 6 (15:1)—perhaps implying that the night meet- ciples sleep, Jesus faces the hard reality of his 8 ing had been illegal and therefore lacked au- impending torture, experiencing “ grief ” and 5 thority to condemn Jesus—and sends the “ horror and dismay. ” To Mark, his hero— accused to Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect emotionally ravaged and physically defense- 3 (governor) who was in Jerusalem to maintain less—provides the model for all believers B order during Passover week. Uninterested in whose loyalty is tested. Although Jesus prays U the Sanhedrin’s charge that Jesus is a blas- that God will spare him the humiliation and phemer, Pilate focuses on Jesus’ reputed politi- pain he dreads, he forces his own will into har- cal crime, seditiously claiming to be the Jewish mony with God’s. Mark reports that, even king. After remarking that it is Pilate himself during this cruel testing of the heavenly who has stated the claim, Jesus refuses to an- Father–Son of Man relationship, Jesus ad- swer further questions. Because Mark re-creates dresses the Deity as Abba, an Aramaic term ex- almost the entire Passion story in the context of pressing a child’s trusting intimacy with the Old Testament prophecies, it is diffi cult to know parent (14:32–41). if Jesus’ silence represents his actual behavior har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 160 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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or the author’s reliance on Isaiah 53, where Unlike Luke or John, who show Jesus dying Israel’s suffering servant does not respond to with serene confi dence (see Box 10 . 7 ), Mark his accusers (Isa. 53:7). focuses only on Jesus’ isolation and abandon- As Mark describes the proceedings, Pilate ment, making his last words (in Aramaic) a cry is extremely reluctant to condemn Jesus and of despair: “ Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani ? ” — “ My does so only after the priestly hierarchy pres- God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? ” sures him to act. Whereas the Markan Pilate (15:34). In placing this question—a direct quo- maneuvers to spare Jesus’ life, the historical tation of Psalm 22:1—on Jesus’ lips, the author Pilate (prefect of Judea from 26 to 36 ce ), may echo a memory of Jesus’ last words. Mark’s whom Josephus describes, rarely hesitated to main purpose, however, is probably to create a slaughter troublesome Jews (cf. An tiquities paradigm for Christians facing a similar fate 18.3.1–2; The Jewish War 2.9.4). When a mob and to show that out of human malice the di- demands that not Jesus but a convicted terror- Lvine goal is accomplished. From the author’s ist named Barabbas be freed, Pilate is pictured Aperspective, there is an enormous disparity be- as having no choice but to release Barabbas tween what witnesses to the Crucifi xion think is (the fi rst person to benefi t from Jesus’ sacri- Whappening and the saving work that God actu- fi ce) and order the Galilean’s crucifi xion. Sally achieves through Jesus’ death. In Mark’s Oeschatological vision, the horror of Jesus’ agony Jesus’ Crucifi xion Stripped, fl ogged, mocked, is transformed by God’s intervention to raise and crowned with thorns, Jesus is apparently Nhis son in glory. unable to carry the crossbeam of his cross, so , Roman soldiers impress a bystander, Simon of Jesus’ Burial Cyrene, to carry it for him (15:16–21). Taken to A Golgotha (Place of the Skull) outside Jerusalem, Although some scholars believe that Mark’s Jesus is crucifi ed between two criminals (tradi- Nwealth of concrete detail indicates that he drew tionally called “ thieves ” but probably brigands Gon a well-developed oral form of the Passion similar to those who formed the Zealot party in Estory for his Gospel, others think that the narra- Mark’s day). According to Pilate’s order, his tive of Jesus’ last week is basically a Markan cross bears a statement of the political offense Lcomposition. In contrast to the geographical for which he is executed: aspiring to be the Avagueness of much of his Galilean narrative, Jewish king—a cruelly ironic revelation of his the author’s Passion account is full of the true identity (15:22–32). names of specifi c places and participants, from Mark’s description of the Crucifi xion is al- 6Gethsemane, to Pilate’s courtyard, to Golgotha. most unendurably bleak (see Figure 7.8 ). To 8As in all four Gospels, Mary of Magdala pro- bystanders, who mock him for his assumed pre- 5vides the key human link connecting Jesus’ tensions to kingly authority, Jesus—nailed to death and burial and the subsequent discovery the cross—appears powerless and defeated 3that his grave is empty (15:40–41, 47; 16:1). (15:29–30). As Mark so darkly paints it, the B , a mysterious fi gure intro- scene is a tragic paradox: Despite the seeming Uduced suddenly into the narrative, serves a triumph of religious and political forces allied single function: to transfer Jesus’ body from against him, Jesus is neither guilty nor a failure. Roman control to that of the dead man’s disci- The failure lies in humanity’s collective inability ples. Acquainted with Pilate, a member of the to recognize the sufferer’s inestimable value, to Sanhedrin and yet a covert supporter of Jesus’ see in him God’s hand at work. To emphasize ministry, he bridges the two opposing worlds of the spiritual blindness of Jesus’ tormenters, Jesus’ enemies and friends. Not only does Joseph Mark states that a midday darkness envelops the obtain offi cial permission to remove Jesus’ body earth (15:33). from the cross—otherwise, it would routinely har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 161 07/01/14 11:45 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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L A W S O N ,

A N G E L A

6 8 5 3 B U

figure 7.8 The Small Crucifi xion. Painted on wood by Matthias Grünewald (c. 1470–1528), this small version of Jesus’ tortured death heightens the sense of the sufferer’s physical pain and grief. Although his emphasis on Jesus’ agony refl ects Mark’s account, Grünewald follows John’s Gospel in showing Jesus’ mother and the beloved disciple (as well as another Mary) present at the cross. har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 162 07/01/14 11:46 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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be consigned to an anonymous mass grave— Mark’s Inconclusiveness: but he also provides a secure place of entomb- Resurrection or Parousia ? ment, a rock-hewn sepulcher that he seals by rolling a large, fl at stone across the entrance Other commentators propose that Mark’s be- (15:42–47). lief in the nearness of Jesus’ Parousia may ex- plain why the risen Jesus does not manifest himself in the earliest Gospel. The mysterious youth in white tells the women how to fi nd Postlude: The Empty Tomb Jesus—the risen Lord has already started a post- humous journey “ to Galilee, ” where Peter and the other disciples “ will see him ” (16:6–7). Because the Jewish Sabbath begins at sundown Some scholars think that Mark, convinced that on Friday, the day of Jesus’ execution, the fe- Lthe political and social chaos of the Jewish male disciples cannot prepare the corpse for Revolt will soon climax in Jesus’ return, refers interment until Sunday morning. Arriving at Anot to a resurrection phenomenon but to the dawn, the women fi nd the entrance stone al- W Parousia . Forty years after the Crucifi xion, ready rolled back and the crypt empty except Mark’s community may believe that their wan- for the presence of a young man dressed in S Odering through the wilderness is almost over: white. (Is he the same unidentifi ed youth who They are about to follow Jesus across Jordan fl ed naked from Gethsemane in 14:50–51?) Ninto “ Galilee, ” his promised kingdom. Mark’s scene at the vacant tomb recalls , Mark’s inconclusiveness, his insistence on themes recurring throughout his Gospel. Like leaving his story open-ended, must have seemed the male disciples who could not understand as unsatisfactory to later Christian scribes as it Jesus’ allusion to resurrection (9:9–10), the Adoes to many readers today. For perhaps that women are bewildered, unable to accept the Nreason, Mark’s Gospel has been heavily edited, youth’s revelation that Jesus is “ risen. ” Fleeing Gwith two different conclusions added at differ- in terror, the women say “ nothing to anybody ” ent times. All the oldest manuscripts of Mark about what they have heard (16:8), leaving read- Eend with the line stressing the women’s terri- ers in suspense, wondering how the “ good news ” Lfi ed refusal to obey the young man’s instruction of Jesus’ resurrection was ever proclaimed. The Ato carry the Resurrection message to Peter. In Gospel thus concludes with a frightened silence, time, however, some editors appended post res- eschewing any account of Jesus’ post resurrec- urrection accounts to their copies of Mark, tion appearances (16:8). 6making his Gospel more consistent with 8Matthew and Luke (:8b and 16:9–20). Mark’s Challenge to the Reader 5 3 Some interpreters suggest that the double fail- Summary ure of Jesus’ disciples—the Eleven who desert B him in Gethsemane and the Galilean women U too paralyzed by fear to proclaim the good Christianity’s fi rst attempt to create a sequential news of his resurrection—is intended to chal- account of Jesus’ public ministry, arrest, and exe- cution, Mark’s Gospel includes relatively little lenge the reader. If all Jesus’ closest followers of Jesus’ teaching. Focusing on Jesus’ actions— fail him, who but the readers, who now know exorcisms, healings, and other miracles—the au- conclusively that God has acted through their thor presents his mighty works as evidence that crucifi ed Lord, can testify confi dently that he is God’s kingdom has begun to rule, breaking up both Israel’s Messiah and universal king (see Satan’s control over suffering humanity. Writing Tolbert in “ Recommended Reading ” )? under the shadow of Roman persecution and the har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 163 07/01/14 11:46 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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impending Roman destruction of Jerusalem, Mark must also expect to suffer? Would the wars, in- presents Jesus as an eschatological Son of Man, surrections, and persecutions affl icting Mark’s who will soon reappear to judge all people. community have stimulated the author’s sense Mark’s ironic vision depicts Jesus as an unex- of eschatological urgency? pected and unwanted kind of Messiah who is 2. Why does Mark paint so unfl attering a picture predestined to be misunderstood, rejected, and of Jesus’ Galilean family, neighbors, and disci- crucifi ed—a Messiah revealed only in suffering ples, all of whom fail to understand or support and death. God, however, uses humanity’s blind- him? Do you think that the author is trying to ness and inadequacy to provide a ransom sacrifi ce disassociate Christianity from its Palestinian or- in his Son, saving humankind despite its attempts igins in favor of his Gentile church’s under- to resist him. standing of Jesus’ signifi cance? 3. Do you think that Mark’s emphasis on Jesus’ ex- Questions for Review orcisms—his battle with cosmic evil—is an ex- L pression of the author’s eschatology, his belief 1. According to tradition, who wrote the Gospel ac- that in Jesus’ activities God’s kingdom has be- cording to Mark? Why are modern scholars un- A gun and the End is near? Explain your answer. able to verify that tradition? What themes in the W 4. Discuss Mark’s use of irony in his presentation Gospel suggest that it was composed after the S of Jesus’ story. List and discuss some incongru- Jewish Revolt against Rome had already begun? ities between the spiritual reality that Jesus em- 2. Outline and summarize the major events in O bodies and the way in which most people in the Jesus’ public career, from his baptism by John N Markan narrative perceive him. In the literary and his Galilean ministry through his last week world that Mark creates in his Gospel, how do in Jerusalem. Specify the devices that Mark , appearance and reality confl ict? How does uses to connect the powerful miracle worker in Mark demonstrate that God achieves his pur- Galilee with the seemingly powerless sacrifi cial pose in Jesus even though political and reli- victim in Jerusalem. Why does Mark devote so A gious authorities succeed in destroying him? much space and detail to narrating the Passion N 5. In your view, why does Mark end his Gospel so story? Why does he have Jesus predict his own G abruptly? Are there any clues in the Gospel death three times? that the author expects the Parousia to occur 3. Describe the three different categories Mark E imminently? Are stories of Jesus’ post resurrec- assigns the Son of Man concept. How is this L tion appearances merely precursors of his re- concept related to earlier Jewish writings, such turn as eschatological judge? as the books of Ezekiel, Daniel, and 1 Enoch? A 4. Defi ne parable, and discuss Jesus’ use of this lit- Terms and Concepts to Remember erary form to illustrate his vision of God’s king- 6 dom. Why does Mark state that Jesus used Abba Eucharist parables to prevent people from understanding 8 allegory exorcism his message? 5 Andrew Galilee 5. Explain a possible connection between the apocalypse Gethsemane messianic secret concept and Mark’s picture of 3 baptism Golgotha the disciples as hopelessly inept and Jesus’ op- B Barabbas Holy Spirit ponents as mistakenly seeing him as the devil’s U Bartholomew Jairus agent. What devices does the author employ to Caesarea Philippi James convey his view that Jesus had to be misunder- Caiaphas John the Baptist stood for him to fulfi ll God’s plan? Capernaum Joseph of Arimathea Cephas Judas Iscariot Questions for Discussion and Refl ection Christ kingdom of God Christology Last Supper 1. How does the historical situation when Mark disciples Mark wrote help account for the author’s portrait of epiphany Mary of Magdala Jesus as a suffering Messiah whose disciples eschaton Matthew har19138_ch07_136-164.indd Page 164 13/01/14 3:15 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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messianic secret Sea of Galilee Kelber, W. H. Mark’s Story of Jesus. Philadelphia: Mount of Olives Second Coming Fortress Press, 1979. A penetrating but succinct Nazareth (Parousia) analysis of Mark’s rendition of Jesus’ life. oracles simile ———. The Oral and the Written Gospel: The Hermeneutics parable Simon of Cyrene of Speaking and Writing in the Synoptic Tradition, Mark, Paul, and Q. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, Passion Simon Peter 1983. A major scholarly study of Mark’s place in Passover Son of God the Jesus tradition. Pella Son of Man Ladd, George Eldon. A Theology of the New Testament. Peter Thaddeus Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1974. Philip Thomas Levine, Amy-Jill, ed. A Feminist Companion to Mark . Pontius Pilate Transfi guration Feminist Companion to the New Testament and Sabbath Zebedee [sons of Early Christian Writings Series. Cleveland: Sanhedrin (Great thunder Pilgrim Press, 2004. Essays reexamining the role Council) (Boanerges)] L of women in the earliest Gospel. Satan Zoroastrianism Marcus, Joel. Mark 1–8 (The Anchor Yale Bible A Commentaries). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. An excellent resource, emphasizing W the Jewish context. S . Mark 8–16 (The Anchor Yale Bible Recommended Reading Commentaries). New Haven, CT: Yale University O Press, 2009. Provides historical background and Bryan, Christopher. A Preface to Mark: Notes on the N appropriate theological interpretation. Gospel in Its Literary and Cultural Settings. New Minor, Mitzi. “Mark, Gospel of.” In K. D. Sakenfeld, York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Links Mark , ed., The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, with the oral tradition. Vol. 3, pp. 798–811. Nashville: Abingdon Press, Collins, Adela Yarbro. Mark: A Commentary. 2008. A concise analysis of the earliest narrative Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007. A detailed, A Gospel. verse-by-verse analysis of the Gospel, emphasizing Perkins, Pheme. “The .” In The New the author’s eschatological urgency. N Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. 8, pp. 509–733. Nashville: France, R. T. The Gospel of Mark. New International G Abingdon Press, 1995. Complete Markan text Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids, Mich.: with extensive commentary. Eerdmans, 2002. Analyzes Mark as a literary E Tolbert, Mary Ann. “Mark.” In Carol A. Newsom and whole; for advanced students. L S. H. Ringe, eds., Women’s Bible Commentary, pp. Harrington, Daniel J. What Are They Saying About 350–362. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, Mark ? New York: Paulist Press, 2005. An accessible A 1998. A perceptive essay. survey of contemporary critical interpretations. Wrede, William. The Messianic Secret. Translated Henderson, Suzanne W. “Mark, Gospel According by J. C. G. Greig. Cambridge: Clarke, 1971. A to.” In M.D. Coogan, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia 6 technical but crucial study of Mark’s narrative of the Books of the Bible , Vol. 2, pp. 42–56. New York: methods. Oxford University Press, 2011. Surveys Mark’s ver- 8 sion of Jesus’ story, summarizing different critical 5 interpretations. 3 B U har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 165 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

c hapter 8 Matthew’s Portrait of Jesus A Teacher Greater Than Moses L Do not suppose that I have come Ato abolish the Law and the prophets; I did not come to abolish, butW to complete. Matthew 5:17 S O N Key Topics/Themes Most scholars agree that , or two after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, Matthew’s Gospel is an expanded edition of Matthew somewhat softens Mark’s portrait of Mark, which the author frames with accounts an eschatological Jesus, adding parables that of Jesus’ birth ( chs . 1 and 2) and post resurrec- A imply a delay in the Parousia (Second Coming) tion appearances ( ch . 28). Although retaining ( chs . 24 and 25), an interval of indefi nite length Mark’s general sequence of events, Matthew N devoted to the missionary work of the church adds fi ve blocks of teaching material, emphasiz- G ( ekklesia ). Matthew’s principal discourses ing Jesus as the inaugurator of a New Covenant E include the Sermon on the Mount ( chs . 5–7), (26:26–29) who defi nitively interprets the instructions to the Twelve ( ch . 10), parables of Mosaic Torah and who, by fulfi lling specifi c L the kingdom ( ch . 13), instructions to the church prophecies in the Hebrew Bible, proves his A ( ch . 18), and warnings of Final Judgment identity as Israel’s Messiah. Written a decade ( chs . 23–25). 6 8 Matthew’s Relationship 5 Gospel was particularly important to early to the Hebrew Bible church leaders because it is the Gospel most 3 explicitly concerned with the nature and func- B tion of the church (Greek, ekklesia ). The only If Mark was the fi rst Gospel written, as most U Gospel even to use the term ekklesia , Matthew scholars believe, why does Matthew’s Gospel devotes two full chapters ( chs . 10 and 18) to stand fi rst in the New Testament canon? The providing specifi c guidance to the Christian original compilers of the New Testament prob- community. ably assigned Matthew the premier position for The placement of Matthew’s Gospel at the several reasons. It offers more extensive cover- opening of the New Testament is also themat- age of Jesus’ teaching than any other Gospel, ically appropriate because it forms a strong making it the church’s major resource in in- connecting link with the Hebrew Bible (Old structing its members. In addition, Matthew’s Testament), albeit in a Greek edition. Matthew 165 har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 166 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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initiates his account with a genealogy that asso- of Babylonian captivity to the appearance of ciates Jesus with the most prominent heroes of Jesus, who inherits all the promises made to ancient Israel. Beginning with Abraham, pro- Abraham and David, is also fourteen genera- genitor of the Hebrew people, Matthew lists as tions (Matt. 1:17). As fourteen generations in- Jesus’ ancestors celebrated kings like David, tervened between Yahweh’s vow to Abraham Solomon, and Josiah. The manner in which and the establishment of David’s throne, so an Matthew presents his record of Jesus’ ancestors equal span of time elapsed between the is typical of his use of the Hebrew Bible. His Babylonian overthrow of the Davidic line and purpose is not only to establish Jesus’ messianic the appearance of David’s ultimate heir, the credentials—by right of descent from Abraham Messiah. Although the neatness of Matthew’s and David—but also to present Jesus’ birth as numerical scheme conveys the author’s sense the climax of Israelite history. He therefore ar- of Jesus’ crucial importance to the covenant ranges Jesus’ family tree in three distinct seg- Lpeople—and his view of the mathematically ments, each representing a particular phase of Aprecise way in which God arranges Israel’s the biblical story. From the time of Abraham, history—closer examination of the genealogy bearer of the covenant promises for land, na- Wraises some diffi culties. tionhood, and universal blessing (Gen. 12:1–3; S First, Matthew actually lists thirteen, not 22:18), to that of David, bearer of the covenant Ofourteen, generations between the Babylonian promise of an everlasting line of kings (2 Sam. destruction of Jerusalem and Jesus’ birth. 7:16), is fourteen generations. From the time NSecond, one of Matthew’s sources for the pe- of David, whose prosperous kingdom is the ,riod between David and the exile, 1 Chronicles high point of Israel’s history, to the Babylonian 3:10–12, reveals the names of several Davidic exile, the lowest ebb of Israelite fortunes, is Akings (at least three generations) that he omit- another fourteen generations. From the time ted from the list, presumably to fi t his desired Nsequence of fourteen. Finally, at the end of his Ggenealogy, Matthew unexpectedly states that the line of royal descent directly connects not The Gospel According to Matthew E with Jesus, but with Joseph, who the writer be- Author: Traditionally Matthew (also called Levi), Llieves was not Jesus’ biological father. Somewhat one of the Twelve. Because the writer uses Mark paradoxically, Matthew concludes his list by as his primary source, scholars believe it unlikely A that he was an apostolic witness to the events he noting that Jesus’ paternal grandfather is “Jacob [father] of Joseph, the husband of Mary, describes. The work is anonymous. 6 Date: The 80s ce, at least a decade after the who gave birth to Jesus called Messiah” (Matt. destruction of Jerusalem, when tensions between 81:16). The Evangelist may assume that Joseph is postwar Jewish leaders and early Christians 5Jesus’ legal and social parent, and thus can provoked bitter controversy. The author, a transmit his Davidic legacy to a nonrelative , Greek-speaking Christian Jew, penned the most 3perhaps through adoption, even if he did not violent denunciations of his fellow Jews in the New Testament. Btransmit it genetically. Writing independently of Matthew, Luke Place of composition: Probably Antioch in U Syria, site of a large Jewish and Jewish-Christian compiled a strikingly different genealogy, community. which further clouds the issue of Jesus’ Davidic Sources: Mark, Q, and special Matthean material ancestry (:25–38). Using many names (M). not on Matthew’s list, Luke states that people Audience: Greek-speaking Jewish Christians “thought” that Jesus was Joseph’s son and that and Gentiles who were, at least partly, Torah his paternal grandfather was Heli (not Jacob, as observant. Matthew has it). Almost since the two Gospel har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 167 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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genealogies were fi rst published, Christians spare her public dishonor. He accepts Mary as have sought to resolve their apparent disagree- his wife only after he dreams of an angel inform- ment, but although ingenious solutions have ing him that she had “conceived this child” by been proposed, none yet has been universally the “Holy Spirit” (1:18–25). Although Matthew accepted. Whatever its historical credibility, the connects Jesus with Abraham and David explic- family tree with which Matthew begins his itly through Joseph, he also specifi es that Mary is Gospel (and hence the New Testament itself) the sole human parent (1:16). As Matthew ar- proclaims Jesus as the culminating fi gure in a ranged Jesus’ forebears in groups of fourteen to long biblical tradition. As several scholars have express divine providence at work, so he under- observed, Matthew may have devised his genea- scores the presence of ancestresses (and their logical pattern of fourteen for its messianic sig- male partners) with questionable pasts to illus- nifi cance. Because Hebrew, like Greek and trate God’s unexpected use of fl awed humanity many other ancient languages, uses letters to L to accomplish his purpose. signify numbers, each letter of the alphabet has A Matthew’s wish to connect Jesus with the a numerical value. In Hebrew, the three conso- Hebrew Bible goes far beyond genealogical con- nants making up David’s name (DWD) total W cerns. More than any other Gospel writer, he fourteen, which can function as the symbolic S presents Jesus’ life in the context of biblical law number of David’s promised heir. O and prophecy. Throughout the entire Gospel, Although biblical genealogists uniformly Matthew underscores Jesus’ fulfi llment of an- recorded only the male line, linking fathers to N cient prophecies, repeatedly emphasizing the sons, Matthew includes four female ancestors , continuity between Jesus and the promises of Jesus—Tamar (1:3), Rahab (1:5), Ruth (1:5), made to Israel, particularly to the royal dynasty and Bathsheba, “the wife of Uriah ,” who later A of David. To demonstrate that Jesus’ entire ca- became David’s queen and the mother of King reer, from conception to resurrection, was pre- Solomon (1:6). Matthew’s reasons for depart- N dicted centuries earlier by biblical writers from ing from biblical tradition are unclear, but G Moses to Malachi, Matthew quotes from, para- scholars have found at least two factors that the- E phrases, or alludes to the Hebrew Bible at least matically bind these women together and that 60 times. (Some scholars have detected 140 or may have infl uenced the Evangelist’s decision L more allusions to the Hebrew Scriptures.) to list them as part of Jesus’ heritage. Besides A Nearly a dozen times, Matthew employs a liter- the fact that all four were Gentiles (Ruth was a ary formula that drives home the connection Moabite, Tamar and Rahab Canaanites, and between prophecy and specifi c events in Jesus’ Bathsheba a Hittite), all four were also involved 6 life: “All this happened in order to fulfi ll what in irregular sexual activity. While Tamar posed 8 the Lord declared through the prophet,” as a prostitute to beguile her father-in-law into 5 Matthew writes, then citing a biblical passage to impregnating her (Gen. 38), Rahab actually support his contention (1:22–23; 2:15, 23; see plied the trade of a “harlot” in Canaanite 3 Box 8. 1 ). Jericho ( Josh. 2; 6). A young widow, Ruth se- B Matthew takes great pains to show that duced Boaz into marrying her (Ruth 1–4), and U Jesus both taught and fulfi lled the principles Bathsheba committed adultery with David, be- of the Mosaic Law (5:17–20). For these and coming his wife only after the king had ar- other reasons, Matthew is usually regarded as ranged to have her husband Uriah slain in the “most Jewish” of the Gospels. At the same battle (2 Sam. 11–12; 1 Kings 1–2). time, the author violently attacks the leaders Matthew states that, when Joseph discovered of institutional Judaism, condemning the that his future bride, Mary, was already expect- Pharisees and scribes with extreme bitterness ing a child, he planned to divorce her secretly to ( ch . 23). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 168 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 8.1 Representative Examples of Matthew’s Use of the Septuagint (Greek) Version of the Hebrew Bible to Identify Jesus as the Promised Messiah matthew hebrew bible source

All this happened in order to fulfi ll what the Lord declared through the prophet. (Matt. 1:22)

1. The Virgin will conceive and bear a son, and 1. A young woman is with child, and she will bear he shall be called Emmanuel. (Matt. 1:22) a son and will call him Immanuel. (Isa. 7:14) 2. Bethlehem in the land of Judah, you are far 2. But you, Bethlehem in Ephrathah, small as you from least in the eyes of the rulers of Judah; L are to be among Judah’s clans, out of you shall for out of you shall come a leader to be the A come forth a governor for Israel, one whose roots shepherd of my people Israel. (Matt. 2:5–6) are far back in the past, in days gone by. (Mic. 5:2) 3. So Joseph . . . went away . . . to Egypt, and there W 3. When Israel was a boy, I loved him; he stayed till Herod’s death. This was to fulfi ll S I called my son out of Egypt. (Hos. 11:1) what the Lord had declared through the prophet: O [Hosea refers to the Exodus from Egypt, not a future “I called my son out of Egypt.” (Matt. 2:15) Messiah.] 4. Herod . . . gave orders for the massacre of all N 4. Hark, lamentation is heard in Ramah, and bitter children in Bethlehem and its neighborhood, , weeping, of the age of two years or less. . . . So the words Rachel weeping for her sons. spoken through Jeremiah the prophet were ful- A She refuses to be comforted: they are no more. fi lled: “A voice was heard in Rama, wailing and (Jer. 31:15) loud laments; it was Rachael weeping for her N children, and refusing all consolation, because G they were no more.” (Matt. 2:16–18) E 5. He shall be called a Nazarene. (Matt. 2:23) 5. Then a shoot shall grow from the stock of [This statement does not appear in the Hebrew Bible; L Jesse, and a branch [Hebrew, nezer] shall it may be a misreading of Isaiah 11:1.] A spring from his roots. (Isa. 11:1) 6. When he heard that John had been arrested, 6. For, while the fi rst invader has dealt lightly Jesus withdrew to Galilee; and leaving with the land of Zebulun and the land of Nazareth he went and settled at Capernaum 6 Naphtali, the second has dealt heavily with on the Sea of Galilee, in the district of 8 Galilee of the Nations on the road beyond Zebulun and Naphtali. This was to fulfi ll the 5 Jordan to the sea: passage in the prophet Isaiah which tells of The people who walked in darkness the land of Zebulun, the land of Naphtali, the 3 have seen a great light: Way of the Sea, the land beyond Jordan, B light has dawned upon them, heathen Galilee, and says: U dwellers in a land as dark as death. “The people that lived in darkness saw a (Isa. 9:1–2) great light: light dawned on the dwellers in the land of death’s dark shadow.” (Matt. 4:12–16) 7. And he drove the spirits out with a word and 7. Yet on himself he bore our sufferings, healed all who were sick, to fulfi ll the proph- our torments he endured, ecy of Isaiah: “He took away our illnesses and while we counted him smitten by God, lifted our diseases from us.” (Matt. 8:16–17) struck down by disease and misery. (Isa. 53:4) har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 169 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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matthew hebrew bible source

All this happened in order to fulfi ll what the Lord declared through the prophet. (Matt. 1:22) 8. Jesus . . . gave strict injunctions that they were 8. Here is my servant, whom I uphold, not to make him known. This was to fulfi ll my chosen one in whom I delight, Isaiah’s prophecy: I have bestowed my spirit upon him, “Here is my servant, whom I have chosen, and he will make justice shine on the nations. my beloved on whom my favour rests; He will not call out or lift his voice high, I will put my spirit upon him, Or make himself heard in the open street. and he will proclaim judgment among the He will not break a bruised reed, nations. or snuff out a smouldering wick; He will not strive, he will not shout, L he will make justice shine on every race, nor will his voice be heard in the streets. A never faltering, never breaking down, he will plant justice on earth, He will not snap off the broken reed, W nor snuff out the smouldering wick, while coasts and islands wait for his teaching. until he leads justice on to victory. S (Isa. 42:1–4) In him the nations shall place their hope.” O (Matt. 12:16–21) N 9. In all his teaching to the crowds, Jesus spoke in 9. Mark my teaching, O my people, parables; in fact, he never spoke to them without , listen to the words I am to speak. a parable. This was to fulfi ll the prophecy of Isaiah: I will tell you a story with a meaning, I will expound the riddle of things past, “I will open my mouth in parables; A I will utter things kept secret since the things that we have heard and know, N and our fathers have repeated to us. world was made.” (Matt. 13:34–35) G (Ps. 78:2—not in Isaiah) 10. Jesus instructs his disciples to bring him a donkey 10. Rejoice, rejoice, daughter of Zion, and her foal. “If any speaks to you, say ‘Our Master E shout aloud, daughter of Jerusalem; needs them’; and he will let you take them at L for see, your king is coming to you, once.” This was to fulfi ll the prophecy which his cause won, his victory gained, says, “Tell the daughter of Zion, ‘Here is your A humble and mounted on an ass, king, who comes to you riding on an ass, riding on a foal, the young of a she-ass. on the foal of a beast of burden.’” (Matt. 21:2–5) 6 (Zech. 9:9) [Matthew shows Jesus mounted on two beasts—the donkey and her foal. See Luke 19:29–36, where a 8 single mount is mentioned.] 5 11. [Judas returns the bribe—“thirty silver pieces”— 11. [Matthew is wrong in citing Jeremiah as the source given him to betray Jesus.] 3 of this passage, which, in the form he quotes it, does . . . and in this way fulfi llment was given to the B not appear in the Hebrew Bible. It is Zechariah who saying of the prophet Jeremiah: “They took reports being paid “thirty shekels of silver,” which he the thirty silver pieces, the price set on a U then donates to the Temple treasury:] man’s head (for that was his price among the So they weighed out as my wages thirty shekels of Israelites) and gave the money for the potter’s silver. Then the Lord said to me, “Throw it into fi eld, so the Lord directed me.” (Matt. 27:9–10) the treasury—this is the lordly price [the standard price of a slave] at which I was valued by them.” So I took the thirty shekels of silver and threw them into the treasury in the house of the Lord. [Jeremiah does record investing in a fi eld near Jerusalem (Jer. 32:6–15) and refers to visiting a potter’s house (Jer. 18:1–3), but neither he nor Zechariah provides support for Matthew’s claim of prophetic fulfi llment.] har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 170 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Authorship, Purpose, analysis of his work enables us to gain some in- sight into his theological intentions and distinc- Sources, and Organization tive interests. Thoroughly versed in the Hebrew Bible, the writer is remarkably skilled at its exe- Who was the man so deeply interested in Jesus’ gesis (the explanation and critical interpreta- practice of the Jewish religion and simultane- tion of a literary text). Some scholars believe ously so fi erce in his denunciation of Jewish lead- that he may have received scribal training, a ers? As in Mark’s case, the author does not professional discipline he utilizes to demon- identify himself, suggesting to most historians strate to his fellow Jews that Jesus of Nazareth is that the Gospel originated and circulated the predicted Messiah. The author may refer to anonymously. The tradition that the author is himself or to a “school” of early Christian inter- the “publican” or tax collector mentioned in preters of the Hebrew Scriptures when he Matthew 9:9–13 (and called “Levi” in Mark 2:14) Lstates: “When, therefore, a teacher of the law [a dates from the late second century ce and can- Ascribe] has become a learner [a disciple] in the not be verifi ed. The main problem with accept- kingdom of Heaven, he is like a householder ing the apostle Matthew’s authorship is that the Wwho can produce from his store both the new writer relies heavily on Mark as a source. It is ex- Sand the old” (13:52–53). Matthew effectively tremely unlikely that one of the original Twelve Ocombines “the new” (Christian teaching) with “the old” (Judaism). To him, Jesus’ teachings would have depended on the work of Mark, who N was not an eyewitness to the events he describes. are the legitimate outgrowth of Torah study. The oldest apparent reference to the , Recent scholarly investigations have Gospel’s authorship is that of Papias (c. 140 ce ), demonstrated that several varieties of Jewish whom Eusebius quotes: “Matthew compiled the AChristianity existed in the fi rst-century church. Sayings [Greek, logia ] in the Aramaic language, The particular type to which Matthew belongs and everyone translated them as well as he could” Ncan only be inferred from examining relevant ( History 3:39:16). As many commentators have Gaspects of his Gospel. Some Jewish Christians noted, the Sayings, or logia, are not the same as Edemanded that all Gentile converts to the new the “words” (Greek, logoi ) of Jesus, nor are they faith keep the entire Mosaic Law or at least un- the same as the we have to- Ldergo circumcision (Acts 15:1–6; Gal. 6:11–16). day. Whereas scholars once believed that AMatthew does not mention circumcision, but Matthew’s Gospel was fi rst written in Aramaic by he insists that the Mosaic Torah is binding on believers (5:17–20). In his view, Christians are the apostle who was formerly a tax collector, 6 modern analysts point out that there is no evi- to continue such Jewish practices as fasting dence of an earlier Aramaic version of the 8(6:16–18), regular prayer (6:5–6), charitable Gospel. Papias’s use of logia may refer to an early 5giving (6:2), and formal sacrifi ces (5:23). His account also implies that Mosaic purity laws, collection of Jesus’ sayings compiled by someone 3 named Matthew, or it may allude to a list of mes- forbidding certain foods, apply to his commu- sianic prophecies from the Hebrew Bible that a Bnity. Matthew includes Mark’s report of Jesus’ Christian scribe assembled to show that Jesus’ life Ucontroversy with the Pharisees over ritual hand was foretold in Scripture. Most scholars do not washing but omits Mark’s conclusion that Jesus believe that Papias’s description applies to the declares all foods ceremonially clean (cf. 15:1–20 canonical Gospel of Matthew. with Mark 7:1–23, especially 7:19). Matthew depicts Jesus’ personal religion as Matthew and Judaism Torah Judaism, but he has no patience with Jewish leaders who disagree with his conclu- The author remains unknown (we call him sions. He labels them “blind guides” and hypo- Matthew to avoid confusion), but scholarly crites (23:13–28). Despite his contempt for har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 171 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Jewish opponents, however, Matthew retains his Reading”). As we have seen, Matthew freely respect for Pharisaic teachings and urges the employs all four interpretative techniques church to “pay attention to their words” (23:3). when applying texts from his Greek edition of Like the writers at Qumran, the Essene com- the Hebrew Bible to Jesus’ biography. munity of monklike scholars who withdrew from the world to await the fi nal battle between good Date and Place of Composition and evil, Matthew interprets the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible as applying exclusively to his The Gospel gives few clues to its precise time of group of believers, whom he regards as the true origin, but Matthew apparently refers to Israel. He also commonly presents Jesus’ teach- Jerusalem’s destruction as an accomplished ing as a kind of midrash on the Torah. A de- fact (22:7). The author’s hostility to the Jewish tailed exposition of the underlying meaning of a leadership and references to “their” synagogues biblical text, a midrash includes interpretations L (9:35; 10:17; 12:9; 13:54) may suggest that he of Scripture’s legal rules for daily life (called A wrote after the Christians already had been ex- Halakah ) and explanations of nonlegal material pelled from Jewish meeting places, a process (called Haggadah ). At various points in his W that occurred at many different synagogues Gospel, Matthew shows Jesus providing halakic S during the 80s and 90s ce . interpretations of the Torah (5:17–48), particu- O The oldest citations from Matthew’s Gospel larly on such legal matters as Sabbath obser- appear in the letters of Ignatius, who was bishop vance and divorce (12:1–21; 19:3–12). N of Antioch in Syria about 110–115 ce . Ignatius’s , reference and the unusual prominence given Matthew’s Methods of Interpretation Peter in this Gospel (Matt. 16:16–19) suggest A that it originated in Antioch, a city in which Peter Although contemporary scholars may fl inch at had great infl uence (Gal. 2:11–14). Although we the ideological way in which Matthew inter- N lack conclusive evidence, many scholars favor prets ancient Scripture as specifi cally prophetic G Antioch as the place of Matthew’s composition. of Jesus, the Evangelist follows procedures that E Founded by Greek-speaking Jewish most Jewish scholars accepted in the fi rst cen- Christians in the late 30s ce , during the fi rst tury ce . As David H. Stern reminds us, Jewish L generation of Christianity, the Antioch church scribes and rabbis recognized “four basic A was second only to that in Jerusalem (Acts modes” of biblical interpretation. The fi rst 11:19–26; 15:2–35). The Antiochean congrega- mode (Hebrew, P’shat , “simple”) analyzes a tion was also the stage on which two different passage’s literal meaning, taking into account 6 wings of the early Christian community waged a both grammatical construction and historical 8 vigorous battle over the status of Gentile con- context. In the second method ( Remez , “hint”), 5 verts. Whereas Paul advocated total equality for rabbis examined individual words or phrases Gentiles, James (called “the Lord’s brother”) that offer clues to a signifi cance not apparent 3 took a decidedly more conservative stance, in- in a literal reading. The third mode ( Drash or B sisting that Gentiles keep at least some Torah midrash , “search”) involves a particular read- U restrictions. Peter seems to have occupied a er’s interpretation, a commonly fi gurative or middle position between James and Paul, per- allegorical response to the text that illumi- mitting Gentiles into the group but drawing nates an individual’s mind but may have little the line at close association with them, particu- to do with the text’s literal sense. The fourth larly if they did not observe kosher food laws. approach ( Sod, “secret”) allows for a passage’s Matthew’s Gospel refl ects his community’s his- “mystical or hidden meaning,” perhaps sug- torical movement away from exclusively Jewish gested by individual letters or other minute Christianity and toward a ministry that focuses details (see David H. Stern in “Recommended on Gentiles. In chapter 10, the Matthean Jesus har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 172 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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orders his disciples not to enter Gentile territo- and the unforgiving debtor (18:23–35). Other ries and to preach only to “the lost sheep of the parts are similar or virtually identical to material house of Israel” (10:5–6). At the very end of his found in Luke but not in Mark. Scholars believe Gospel, however, Matthew pictures the risen that Matthew and Luke, independently of each Jesus issuing the “great commission” —to “make other, drew much of their shared teaching from all nations my disciples” (28:19; emphasis the now-lost Q (Quelle [source]) document (see added). Mediating between Torah-oriented above). Containing a wide variety of sayings at- traditions and a Hellenistic cosmopolitanism, tributed to Jesus, including kingdom parables, Matthew produced a Gospel appropriate for his instructions to the disciples, and (at least in its transitional generation, perhaps about 85 ce . fi nal edition) prophecies of impending judg- ment, the Q document hypothesis works well in The Author’s Purpose accounting for the source of Jesus’ sayings ab- Lsent in Mark but present in both Matthew and In composing his Gospel, Matthew has several Luke (see Box 6.3). major objectives. Three of the most important A are demonstrating Jesus’ credentials as Israel’s W The In addition to Mark and Q (assum- true Messiah; presenting Jesus as the supreme Sing its historicity), Matthew uses material found teacher and interpreter of the Mosaic Torah, only in his Gospel. Scholars designate this the principles of which provide ethical guid- O material unique to Matthew as M (Matthean). ance for Matthew’s particular Jewish-Christian NM includes numerous sayings and parables, community; and instructing that community— ,such as the stories about the vineyard laborers the church—in the kind of correct belief and (20:1–16) and many of the kingdom pronounce- behavior that will ensure Jesus’ approval when ments in chapter 13 (13:24–30, 44–45, 47–52). he returns. A Finally, Matthew frames his story of Jesus with a Nnarrative of Jesus’ birth and infancy (1:18–2:23) Structure and Use of Sources Gand a concluding account of two post resurrec- Matthew accomplishes his multiple purposes by Etion appearances, the fi rst to women near assembling material from several different Jerusalem and the second to the “eleven disci- sources to construct his Gospel. Using Mark as Lples” in Galilee (28:8–20). his primary source, he incorporates about 90 A percent of the earlier Gospel into his account. Matthew’s Editing of Mark Into the Markan outline, Matthew inserts fi ve 6 large blocks of teaching material. Many ancient Before considering passages found only in Jewish authors, consciously paralleling the Torah 8Matthew, we can learn something of the au- (the “fi ve books of Moses”), arranged their works 5thor’s intent by examining the way in which he edits and revises Markan material (see Box 8. 2 ). into fi vefold divisions, as did the editors of the 3 Psalms. The fi rst of Matthew’s fi ve collections is Although he generally follows Mark’s chronol- the most famous, as well as the most commonly Bogy, Matthew characteristically condenses and quoted—the Sermon on the Mount ( chs . 5–7). Ushortens Mark’s narrative. In fact, Matthew gen- The other four are instructions to the Twelve erally summarizes and abbreviates Mark’s ac- Apostles ( ch . 10), parables on the kingdom count, commonly correcting Mark’s grammar ( ch . 13), instructions to the church (Matthew’s or awkward phrasing. In the story of the epilep- Christian community) ( ch . 18), and warnings of tic boy, Matthew severely abridges Mark’s ver- the Final Judgment ( chs . 23–25). sion, recounting the episode in a mere fi ve verses (17:14–18) compared with Mark’s sixteen The Some of the material in these fi ve (Mark 9:14–29). Matthew is also signifi cantly sections is peculiar to Matthew, such as the par- briefer in his telling of Jesus’ healing of Peter’s ables involving weeds in a grain fi eld (13:24–30) mother-in-law (8:14–15; Mark 1:29–31), the har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 173 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 8.2 Examples of Matthew’s Editing of Markan Material*

jesus’ baptism Mark: It happened at this time that Jesus came Matthew: Then Jesus arrived at the Jordan from from Nazareth in Galilee Galilee, and came to John to be baptized by him. John tried to dissuade him, “Do you come to me?” he said. “I need rather to be baptized by you.” Jesus replied, “Let it be so for the present; we do well to conform in this way with all that God requires.” and was baptized in the Jordan by John. At the John then allowed him to come. After baptism Jesus moment when he came up out of the water, he saw came up out of the water at once, and at that mo- the heavens torn open and the Spirit, like a dove, L ment heaven opened; he saw the Spirit of God de- descending upon him. And a voice spoke from A scending like a dove to alight upon him; and a voice heaven: “Thou art my Son, my Beloved; on thee from heaven was heard saying, “This is my Son, my my favour rests.” (Mark 1:9–11) W Beloved, on whom my favour rests.” (Matt. 3:13–17) S In comparing the two accounts of Jesus’ baptism, the O experience of the “Spirit” after his baptism. In Mark, the reader will note that Matthew inserts a speech by John into N heavenly voice is addressed directly to Jesus and appar- the Markan narrative. Recognizing Jesus as “mightier” , ently represents Jesus’ own private mystical experience of than himself, John is reluctant to baptize him. By giving divine sonship at the event. Matthew changes the “thou John this speech, Matthew is able to stress Jesus’ superiority art,” intended for Jesus’ ears, to “this is,” making the di- to the Baptist. Matthew also changes the nature of Jesus’ A vine voice a public declaration audible to by-standers. N jesus’ reception by his neighborsG in his hometown of nazareth Mark: He left that place and went to his home E Matthew: Jesus left that place, and came to his town accompanied by his disciples. When the home town, where he taught the people in their Sabbath came he began to teach in the synagogue; L synagogue. and the large congregation who heard him were A amazed and said, “Where does he get it from?”, and, “What wisdom is In amazement they asked, this that has been given him?”, and, “How does he 6 “Where does he get this wisdom from, and these work such miracles? Is not this the carpenter, the son 8 miraculous powers? Is he not the carpenter’s son? of Mary, the brother of James and Joseph and Judas 5 Is not his mother called Mary, his brothers James, and Simon? And are not his sisters here with us?” 3 Joseph, Simon, and Judas? And are not all his sis- So they [turned against] him. Jesus said to them, ters here with us? Where then has he got all this “A prophet will always be held in honour except in B from?” So they [turned against] him, and this led his home town, and among his kinsmen and fam- U him to say, “A prophet will always be held in hon- ily.” He could work no miracle there, except that our, except in his home town, and in his own fam- he put his hands on a few sick people and healed ily.” And he did not work many miracles there: them; and he was taken aback by their want of such was their want of faith. (Matt. 13:54–58) faith. (Mark 6:1–6)

*Matthew’s chief editorial changes are printed in bold- face type. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 174 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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In editing Mark’s account of Jesus’ unsatisfactory re- also substitutes the phrase “the carpenter’s son” for union with his former neighbors in Nazareth, Matthew Mark’s “the son of Mary,” with its implication of Jesus’ reproduces most of his source but makes some signifi cant illegitimacy. In both accounts, the Nazareans’ familiar- changes and deletions. He omits Mark’s reference to the ity with Jesus’ background and family (naming four Sabbath, as well as Mark’s brief list of Jesus’ “few” deeds “brothers” and referring to two or more “sisters”) is there and Jesus’ apparent surprise at his fellow towns- enough to make them skeptical of Jesus’ claims to special men’s refusal to recognize or trust in his powers. Matthew wisdom or authority.

jesus’ stilling of a storm Mark: [Immediately after miraculously feeding Matthew: As soon as they had fi nished, he made the the multitudes who had gathered to hear him disciples embark and cross to the other side [of preach, Jesus sends the disciples by boat across the Lthe Sea of Galilee] ahead of him, while he dismissed Sea of Galilee to Bethsaida.] After taking leave of Athe crowd; then he went up the hill by himself to them [the crowds], he went up the hill to pray. Wpray. It had grown late, and he was there alone. The It was now late and the boat was already well out boat was already some distance from the shore, bat- on the water, while he was alone on the land. Stling a head wind and a rough sea. Between three Somewhere between three and six in the morning, Oand six in the morning he came towards them, seeing them laboring at the oars against a head Nwalking across the lake. When the disciples saw him wind, he came toward them, walking on the lake. walking on the lake they were so shaken that they He was going to pass by them; but when they saw ,cried out in terror: “It is a ghost!” But at once Jesus him walking on the lake, they thought it was a spoke to them: “Take heart! It is I; do not be afraid.” ghost and cried out; for they all saw him and were A Peter called to him: “Lord, if it is you, tell me to terrifi ed. come to you over the water.” “Come,” said Jesus. But at once he spoke to them: “Take heart! It is NPeter got down out of the boat and walked over the I; do not be afraid.” Then he climbed into the boat Gwater towards Jesus. But when he saw the strength with them, and the wind dropped. At this they Eof the gale he was afraid; and beginning to sink, he were utterly astonished, for they had not under- Lcried, “Save me, Lord!” Jesus at once reached out stood the incident of the loaves; their minds were and caught hold of him. “Why did you hesitate?” closed. (Mark 6:45–52) Ahe said. “How little faith you have!” Then they climbed into the boat; and the wind dropped. And 6the men in the boat fell at his feet, exclaiming “You must be the Son of God.” (Matt. 14:22–33) 8 Besides adding the episode involving Peter’s impetuous 5says that “their minds were closed”—the Matthean disci- attempt to imitate Jesus’ power over nature, Matthew 3ples immediately recognize Jesus as “Son of God.” radically changes the disciples’ reaction to their Master’s BMatthew’s editorial changes refl ect not only his promo- miraculous control of the sea, symbol of primal chaos. tion of Peter’s importance (see Matt. 16:13–19) but also Whereas the Markan disciples fail to perceive Jesus’ di- Uhis tendency to picture the disciples as better role models vinity in his ability to subdue wind and storm—Mark than Mark had portrayed them. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 175 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Gerasene demoniac (8:28–34; Mark 5:1–20), elsewhere in the New Testament but probably and the resuscitation of Jairus’s daughter and appears here to express Matthew’s conviction the curing of the woman with a hemorrhage that Jesus’ death makes possible the resurrec- (9:18–26; Mark 5:21–43). In abbreviating tion of the faithful.) Matthew introduces yet an- Mark’s version of events, Matthew typically other earthquake into his description of the fi rst omits much physical detail, as well as Jesus’ Easter morning, stating that the women disci- emotional responses to the situation. ples arrive at Jesus’ tomb in time to see a divine being descend and roll away the stone blocking Emphasis on the Miraculous and Supernatural At the tomb entrance. Mark’s linen-clad youth be- the same time that he shortens Mark’s descrip- comes an angel before whom the Roman guards tion of Jesus’ miracles, Matthew heightens quake in terror (28:1–4). What Mark’s account the miraculous element, stressing that Jesus implies, Matthew’s typically makes explicit, en- effected instant cures (9:22; 15:28; 17:18). L suring that the reader will not miss the hand of In recounting Jesus’ unfriendly reception in A God in these happenings. Nor does Matthew Nazareth, Matthew changes Mark’s observation leave the Galilean women wondering and fright- that Jesus “could work no miracle there” (Mark W ened at the empty sepulcher. Instead of being 6:5) to the declaration that “he did not work S too terrifi ed to report what they have seen, in many miracles there,” eliminating the implica- O Matthew’s version the women joyously rush away tion that the human Jesus could be weakened to inform the disciples (28:8; Mark 16:8). In this by others’ unbelief (13:58) (see Box 8.2). He N retelling, the women set the right example by similarly omits Mark’s defi nition of John’s bap- , immediately proclaiming the good news of tism as a rite “in token of repentance, for the Jesus’ triumph over death (28:19). forgiveness of sins” (3:2, 6, 11; Mark 1:4). A Mark’s exact phrase, “for the forgiveness of sins,” does appear in Matthew, but it is trans- N Organization of Matthew’s Gospel ferred to the Matthean Jesus’ explanation of G Because of the complex nature of the Matthean the ceremonial wine at the Last Supper (26:26– E composition and the skill with which the au- 28). The author may have effected this transpo- L thor has interwoven Mark’s narrative with Jesus’ sition to make sure his readers understood that discourses (from Q and M), it is diffi cult to re- “forgiveness of sin” comes not from John’s bap- A duce Matthew to a clear-cut outline. Separating tism but from Jesus’ expiatory death. the book into convenient divisions and subdivi- Matthew’s edition of the Passion narrative 6 sions in conventional outline form tends to dis- also intensifi es the supernatural element. In tort and oversimplify its interlocking themes. Gethsemane, the Matthean Jesus reminds his 8 One can, however, identify some of the major persecutors that he has the power to call up 5 parts that make up the Gospel whole. thousands of angels to help him (26:53), a claim 3 The following gives a rough idea of Matthew’s absent from Mark. Matthew’s Christ allows him- general structure: self to be arrested only to fulfi ll Scripture (26:54). B Matthew also revises Mark’s crucifi xion ac- U 1. Introduction to the Messiah: genealogy and count, inserting several miracles to highlight the infancy narratives (1:1–2:23) event’s cosmic signifi cance. To Mark’s plague of 2. The beginning of Jesus’ proclamation: bap- tism by John; the temptation by Satan; inau- darkness and the rending of the Temple cur- guration of the Galilean ministry (3:1–4:25) tain, Matthew adds a violent earthquake, severe 3. First major discourse: the Sermon on the enough to open graves and permit suddenly re- Mount (5–7) suscitated “saints” (holy persons) to rise and 4. First narrative section: ten miracles (8:1–9:38) walk the streets of Jerusalem (27:50–53). (This 5. Second major discourse: instructions to the mysterious raising of saints is not mentioned Twelve Apostles (10) har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 176 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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6. Second narrative section: the Baptist’s ques- 12. Fifth and fi nal narrative section: the Passion tions about Jesus; controversies with Jewish story and post resurrection appearances authorities (11:1–12:50) (26:1–28:20) 7. Third major discourse: parables on the king- Except for the birth narratives and fi nal post dom (13:1–52) 8. Third narrative section: from the rejection in resurrection apparitions, even a minimal out- Nazareth to the Transfi guration (13:53–17:27) line makes clear that Matthew tells essentially 9. Fourth major discourse: instructions to the the same story that we fi nd in Mark and Luke church (18) (see Box 6.1). Only by carefully scrutinizing 10. Fourth narrative section: the Jerusalem minis- Matthew’s handling of his sources, the Hebrew try (19:1–22:46) Bible, Mark, M, and (presumably) Q can we ap- 11. Fifth major discourse: warnings of Final preciate the ways in which his Gospel is distinc- Judgment (23–25) tive (see Boxes 8. 3 and 8. 4 ). L A box 8.3 Representative ExamplesW of Material Found Only in Matthew S O A “Table of Descent” [genealogy] listing Jesus’ NThe unforgiving debtor (18:23–35) ancestors (1:1–17) , Equal wages for all vineyard laborers (20:1–16) Matthew’s distinctive version of Jesus’ miraculous The two sons and obedience (21:28–32) conception and birth at Bethlehem (1:18–2:23) The improperly dressed wedding guest (22:11–14) Some parables, sayings, and miracles unique to AThe wise and foolish virgins (25:1–13) Matthew: NThe judgment separating sheep from goats The dumb demoniac (9:32–34) (25:31–46) Wheat and darnel [weeds] (13:24–30) GJudas and the chief priests (27:3–10) Buried treasure (13:44) EThe dream of Pilate’s wife (27:19) The pearl of “special value” (13:45) LThe resurrection of saints (27:52–53) Catching fi sh in a net (13:47–50) The Easter morning earthquake (28:2) A learner with treasures old and new (13:51–52) AThe chief priests’ conspiracy to deny Jesus’ Earthly rulers collecting taxes (17:25–26) resurrection (28:11–15) Finding a coin in a fi sh’s mouth to pay Temple 6 taxes (17:27) 8 5 3 box 8.4 New Characters IntroducedB in Matthew U

Joseph, husband of Mary (1:16, 18–25; 2:13–14, Satan, the devil (as a speaking character) (4:1–11) 19–23) Two blind men (9:27–31) Herod the Great, Roman-appointed king of A dumb demoniac (9:32–34) Judea (ruled 40–4 bce) (2:1–8, 16–19) Revised list of the Twelve (10:1–4) The Magi (astrologers or “wise men” from the The mother of James and John, sons of Zebedee east) (2:1–12) (20:20–21) har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 177 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Introduction to the Messiah: “the king of the Jews” to be born. Astrology was extremely popular with all classes of society in The Infancy Narrative Greco-Roman times, and it was commonly be- lieved that the appearance of unusual celestial Except for Matthew and Luke, no New Testament bodies, such as comets or “falling stars,” her- writers refer even briefl y to the circumstances alded the occurrence of major events on earth of Jesus’ birth. Nor do Matthew and Luke al- ( Isa . 14:12–23; Job 38:23; Judg . 5:20). lude to Jesus’ infancy in the main body of their Matthew’s reference to the “star” that guides Gospels. In both cases, the infancy narratives the Magi to Jesus’ birthplace is puzzling. Modern are self-contained units that act as detachable scientists do not know what astronomical phe- prefaces to the central narrative of Jesus’ public nomenon Matthew has in mind, but a conjunc- ministry. tion of the planets Jupiter and Saturn in the Matthew constructs his account (1:18– L constellation Pisces (7 bce ) may have been seen 2:23) with phrases and incidents taken from a A as a divine “sign” or portent. (No other New Greek edition of the Hebrew Bible. To him, the Testament writer or contemporary historian al- infant Messiah’s appearance gives new mean- W ludes to the “star of Bethlehem.”) Noting that ing to ancient biblical texts, fulfi lling prophecy S the star “stops” to hover over Jesus’ birthplace in many unexpected ways. The child is born to O (2:10)—behavior impossible for a genuine ce- a virgin made pregnant by the Holy Spirit lestial body—some commentators suggest that (1:18–19). To the author, this fulfi lls a passage N Matthew invites his readers to believe that an from Isaiah 7:14, which in Hebrew states that “a , angel (traditionally likened to a star [ Isa . 40:26; young woman is with child, and she will bear a Rev. 12:4, 9]) actually directs the Magi. son.” Matthew, however, quotes not the origi- A In the Evangelist’s account, the unnamed nal Hebrew-language version of the text, but an heavenly body leads the traveling astrologers Old Greek translation in which “young woman” N to create a situation in which several biblical is rendered as parthenos , or “virgin.” Historians G prophecies can be fulfi lled. On reaching believe that Isaiah’s words originally referred to E Jerusalem, the astrologers are brought before the birth of an heir to the then-reigning Davidic King Herod, who recognizes that their inquiry king, but Matthew sees them as forecasting the L about a new Jewish king refers to the Messiah’s Messiah’s unique manner of birth. Like other A birth in Bethlehem, King David’s home city, New Testament writers, Matthew reads the foretold in Micah 5:2. Hebrew Bible from an explicitly Christian view- Herod’s jealous attempt to kill the child point, consistently giving the Jewish Scriptures 6 (2:1–18) fulfi lls prophecy ( Jer . 31:15), as does a Christological interpretation. By making al- 8 the holy family’s fl ight into Egypt ( Hos . 11:1). most the entire Hebrew Bible foreshadow the 5 Matthew structures the entire episode to paral- Christ event, Matthew transforms it retroac- lel the biblical story of Moses’ infancy ( Exod . tively into a Christian document. 3 1:8–2:25). As the baby Moses survived the Matthew’s concern to anchor Jesus’ en- B Egyptian pharaoh’s murderous schemes, so the trance into life fi rmly in the context of Scripture U infant Jesus escapes another ruler’s plot to kill fulfi llment is evident in his account of the mys- God’s chosen one. The analogy between the terious Magi, or “wise men” from the east who two fi gures is also intended to apply to Jesus’ come to pay homage to the infant Jesus. adult life. Like Moses, Jesus will be summoned Traditionally three in number (although from Egypt to deliver his people. Moses led Matthew does not say how many they were), the Israel from Egyptian slavery to a covenant rela- Magi were probably Babylonian or Persian as- tionship with God; Jesus will free believers from trologers who had studied the horoscope of sin and establish a New Covenant (2:13–15, Judah and concluded that it was then time for 19–21; 19:27–29). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 178 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The Beginning As Matthew and Luke (4:1–13) present it, the confrontation with Satan serves to clarify of Jesus’ Proclamation Jesus’ concept of his messianic role. Representing false notions of the Messiah, Satan prefaces his Matthew gives no information about Jesus’ life fi rst two challenges with the phrase “If you are from the time of his family’s settling in Nazareth the Son of God,” a mean-spirited attempt to (2:22–23) to the appearance of John the Baptist, capitalize on any doubts that the human Jesus a gap of approximately thirty years (Luke 3:1, may have experienced about his origins or his 23). Although he starts his account of Jesus’ future authority as God’s agent. The fi rst temp- adult career (3:1–4:25) at exactly the same tation involves Jesus’ personal hunger: Satan point as Mark (1:1–13), Matthew edits Mark’s calls for Jesus to test the extent of his miracu- baptism narrative to emphasize Jesus’ superior- lous power by turning stones into bread, a ploy ity to John and to avoid any implication that LJesus refutes by quoting the Torah principle Jesus needed forgiveness of previous sins (3:1– Athat one lives spiritually on the word of God 17). (See Figures 8. 1 and 8. 2 for two distinctly (Deut. 8:3). Some modern commentators have different interpretations of the young Jesus.) Wsuggested that Jesus thereby rejects the tempta- Stion to undertake a messiahship exclusively fo- Ocused on material good works, although he The Temptation makes feeding the hungry and destitute an im- N Mark (1:12–13) briefl y alludes to Satan’s tempting portant part of his ministry. Jesus, but Matthew expands the scene to include , The second temptation is a profound chal- a dramatic dialogue between Jesus and the Evil lenge to Jesus’ consciousness of his own messianic One (4:1–11). Whether he is viewed as an objec- Aidentity. “If you are the Son of God,” Satan de- tive reality or a metaphor signifying human failure mands, show that you can fulfi ll the terms of Psalm to obey God, Matthew’s Satan attempts to defl ect N91, a poem that unconditionally asserts that God Jesus from the true course of his messiahship . Gwill save from all harm the man he has chosen. E L A

6 8 5 3 B U

figure 8.1 The Holy Family. In depicting Jesus, Mary, and Joseph as indigenous Americans, the twentieth-century painter Fr. John B. Giuliani emphasizes both the archetypal sacredness of the family and the tradition of spirituality attained by pre-Columbian peoples of North America. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 179 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The poem continues to reassure God’s favorite that Yahweh will “lift him beyond danger” and “rescue him and bring him to honour ” (Ps. 91:14–16). In Matthew’s time, many Jews must have pointed out to Christians that Jesus’ death on the cross was entirely contrary to the prom- ises of divine protection given in this well- known psalm. In Matthew 4:6, the devil quotes this Scripture, and Jesus counters this “de- monic” use of the Bible by citing the general Torah principle of not putting God to the test (Deut. 6:16). L In a third and fi nal attempt to subvert A Jesus’ understanding of his messianic role, Satan offers him worldly power on a vastly W grander scale than King David, the Messiah’s S prototype, had enjoyed. All Jesus must do in O return is “pay homage” to Satan, a demand that Jesus recognizes as undermining the essence of N Judaism’s commitment to one God (Deut. , 6:13). A thousand years earlier, David had gained his kingdom through war and blood- A shed, a procedure that Jesus recognizes as un- suitable to the Messiah, who will not impose his N rule by cruelty and violence. Satan is not to be G “worshiped” by imitating his methods. E figure 8.2 The Good Shepherd. This early Christian painting of Christ can be found on the ceiling of a crypt in L First Major Discourse: the catacombs of Saint Priscilla in Rome. Note that the art- A ist portrays Jesus in a pose that would be familiar to a The Sermon on the Mount Greco-Roman audience. Like earlier renditions of Apollo, the Greek god of prophecy, intellect, music, and shep- 6 herds, the youthful Jesus carries a lamb on his shoulders In the temptation scene (4:1–11), Matthew to demonstrate his concern for his human fl ock. Compare 8 shows Jesus repudiating some of the functions John 10:1–18, Matthew 18:12–14, and :4–7. 5 then popularly associated with the Messiah. In the Sermon on the Mount ( chs . 5–7), Matthew 3 demonstrates how radically different Jesus’ B concept of this messiahship is from the popular For you the L ord [Yahweh] is a safe retreat; you have made the Most High your refuge. U expectation of a conquering warrior-king. This No disaster shall befall you, long discourse, in which Jesus takes his seat on no calamity shall come upon your home. a Galilean hill, reminding the reader of Moses For he [Yahweh] has charged his angels seated on Mount Sinai, is the New Testament’s to guard you wherever you go, most extensive collection of Jesus’ teachings. to lift you on their hands Matthew’s “sermon” is not the record of a sin- for fear you should strike your foot gle historical speech by Jesus, but a compilation against a stone. of Jesus’ sayings from several different sources. (Ps. 91:9–12) Some of the same teachings appear in Luke’s har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 180 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Sermon on the Plain, the Third Gospel’s equiv- the Mosaic Law. In a statement probably aimed alent version of the discourse (Luke 6:17–7:1). at Pauline churches that did not observe Torah Matthew collects the sayings in one place (5:1– commandments (see Chapters 15 and 17)—and 8:1); Luke scatters them throughout his Gospel which appears only in Matthew’s Gospel—the narrative (see Chapter 9). Matthean Jesus declares: In Matthew’s opening discourse, Jesus ad- Do not suppose that I have come to abolish dresses both the undifferentiated “crowds” that the Law and the prophets; I did not come to gather to hear him and a much smaller group abolish [as Paul maintains in Galatians], but to of disciples who sit at his feet. Challenging his complete. I tell you this: so long as heaven and audience to practice a “higher righteousness,” earth endure, not a letter, not a stroke, will exceeding even that of the most scrupulous disappear from the Law until all that must Pharisees (5:20), he calls on them to express happen has happened. God-like love, radiating “light for all the world” L (5:17–18) (5:15–16, 43–48). Jesus begins by summoning A Aware that Paul’s churches did not share a con- those who will most benefi t from his teaching— viction that the Torah was eternally binding, the needy, the unsatisfi ed, the grieving, and the W Matthew concedes that nonobservant believers persecuted—many of whom now seem perma- S may still belong to the kingdom (the church), nently excluded from the “good things” God’s Oalthough they will rank signifi cantly below world provides. In the sermon’s fi rst section, Torah loyalists: known as the , Matthew’s Jesus pro- N nounces a blessing on “those who know their , If any man therefore sets aside even the least of need of God,” “those who hunger and thirst to the Law’s demands, and teaches others to do the same, he will have the lowest place in the see right prevail,” and “those who show mercy” A (5:3, 6, 7). Because Luke’s version of the kingdom of Heaven, whereas anyone who Beatitudes applies Jesus’ blessings to the liter- N keeps the Law, and teaches others so, will ally poor and hungry (see Box 9.4), many schol- G stand high in the kingdom of Heaven. (Matt. 5:19) ars think that Matthew has modifi ed the original E import of these sayings by “spiritualizing” them. L For both Matthew and Luke, however, the The Antitheses Beatitudes express a radical reversal of the A world’s social values that will prevail in God’s For Matthew’s Jewish Christian community, kingdom (which, in Matthew, is represented by Jesus’ teachings did not replace the Mosaic the church). Whereas society presently exalts 6Law; they intensifi ed it. Rather than serving as a the rich, the powerful, and the successful, par- 8refutation of Jewish tradition, Jesus’ Torah pro- ticularly military conquerors victorious in war, 5nouncements illustrate how his disciples should Jesus reverses these common value judgments, observe it, emphasizing the essential core of congratulating those who seek divine justice 3ethical meaning that lies behind each com- rather than material acquisitions, “those of a Bmandment. Immediately after his declaration gentle spirit,” and those who are “peacemak- Uof the Law’s unchanging validity, Matthew in- ers.” These are the citizens of God’s dominion, troduces a set of Jesus’ sayings, known as the who will inherit both the earth (5:5) and the antitheses, that are found only in his Gospel. “kingdom of Heaven” (5:3), people whom God Employing a rhetorical formula, Jesus makes calls his children (5:9). an initial statement (the thesis), which he then Immediately after the Beatitudes and his follows with an apparently opposing idea (the designation of Christians as the “salt of the earth” antithesis). In this series, he appears to contrast and “light” to the world, Matthew emphasizes biblical tradition with his own authoritative Jesus’ crucial role as upholder and interpreter of opinion; as scholars have pointed out, however, har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 181 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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he does not contradict Torah rules, but rather Recognizing that the law’s intent was to curb interprets them to reveal the human motiva- violence, Jesus goes beyond its literal applica- tion that often causes them to be broken: tion to demand that his listeners give up their traditional right to retaliate in kind. Is Jesus, You have learned that our forefathers were told, “Do not commit murder: anyone who then, urging people to submit passively to those commits murder must be brought to who wrong them? judgment.” But what I tell you is this: Anyone Although many commentators have inter- who nurses anger against his brother must be preted Jesus’ emphasis on nonviolence as tanta- brought to judgment. If he abuses his brother, mount to accepting injustice, some interpreters, he must answer for it to the court; if he sneers such as Walter Wink, suggest an alternative read- at him he will have to answer for it in the fi res ing. Instead of advocating a “slave morality” that of hell [ Gehenna ]. would make it easier for the strong to abuse the (5:21–22) L weak, Wink argues that Jesus was instructing his audience on how to deal with people who exer- Anger, the emotion triggering murderous ag- A cised power over them. Jesus’ remark on slap- gression, must be rooted out, for if it leads to W ping is directed to classes of people who overt behavior, it will be punished by both hu- S customarily receive demeaning treatment: slaves man courts and divine judgment. who are struck by masters; wives, by their hus- In another antithesis, Jesus looks beyond O bands; children, by their parents; or a conquered the literal application of a Torah command to N people, such as the Jews, by their Roman over- seek a more effective way to obey the principle , lords. According to Wink, Jesus advised a simple it embodies: technique by which mistreated people could re- You have learned that they [the biblical A act without violence and yet retain their human Israelites] were told, “Eye for eye, tooth for dignity. Because it was customary to strike a so- tooth.” But what I tell you is this: Do not set N cial inferior with the back of the right hand, yourself against the man who wrongs you. If G turning the other cheek made it diffi cult for the someone slaps you on the right cheek, turn and aggressor to repeat the blow in the same way. offer him your left. If a man wants to sue you E (Hitting with the fi st was supposedly ruled out, for your shirt, let him have your coat as well. If L a man in authority makes you go one mile, go since it implied that one was striking an equal.) with him two. A Jesus’ advice to a poor person whom a wealthy creditor sues in court similarly offers a (5:38–41) means to shame the exploiter. When a creditor The lex talionis , or law of retaliation, that Jesus 6 demands the outer garment (here translated as quotes before giving his three examples of rec- 8 “shirt”) to pay off a debt, the debtor should strip ommended behavior is central to the Mosaic 5 off the inner tunic (“coat”) as well. Standing concept of justice and appears in three differ- naked before the debt collector in full public ent Torah books ( Exod . 21:23–25; Lev. 24:19– 3 view would, according to social standards of the 20; Deut. 19:21). Although it may seem harsh B era, have been more humiliating to the credi- by today’s standards, in ancient society the lex U tor than to his victim, who had dramatically talionis served to limit excessive revenge: Simply illustrated the other’s excessive avarice. Jesus’ receiving an injury did not entitle one to kill counsel to go an “extra mile” refers to the legal the offending party. In the world inhabited by practice that entitled a Roman soldier to force the (generally poor and powerless) members of a peasant to carry his pack for a mile—but no Jesus’ audience (the “you” whom he addresses), farther. By voluntarily carrying the pack beyond however, retaliatory actions of any kind against the legally stipulated distance, the carrier would those who exploited them automatically led to place his oppressor in an awkward position, severe reprisals, including torture and death. causing the soldier to exceed his legal mandate har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 182 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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and thus blurring the distinction between the Jesus’ Authority “man in authority” and the servant he had con- scripted (see Wink in “Recommended Reading”). The sermon ends with Jesus’ parable about Other commentators suggest that Jesus’ the advantages of building one’s life fi rmly on the main objective was probably to discover and rock of his teachings (7:24–27), after which, apply the essential precepts contained in the Matthew reports, the crowds “were astounded” Mosaic tradition. Matthew’s version of the because “unlike their own teachers he taught with “golden rule” most succinctly expresses this a note of [his personal] authority” (7:28). Matthew’s view: His Jesus states that treating others as one phrase “when Jesus had fi nished this discourse,” would like to be treated by them encapsulates or a variation thereof, marks the conclusion of the biblical message, succinctly embodying “the each of the four other blocks of teaching material Law and the prophets” (7:12; cf. Luke 6:31). in his Gospel (11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1). Similarly, after reciting the Torah injunctions L to love God and neighbor wholeheartedly, A Jesus states, “Everything in the Law and the First Narrative Section: prophets hangs on these two commandments” W Ten Miracles (22:34–40; cf. Mark 12:28–34). S In Matthew’s fi nal antithesis, Jesus expands O on this fundamental perception, contrasting In the fi rst long narrative section of his Gospel the command to love one’s neighbor (Lev. N(8:1–9:38), based largely on Mark, Matthew con- 19:18) with the apparently common assump- ,centrates on depicting Jesus’ miraculous heal- tion that it is permissible to hate an enemy ings and exorcisms. To Mark’s account of the cleansing of a leper (Mark 1:40–45), Matthew (5:43–48). Again, he demands a “higher righ- A teousness” that will imitate God’s own charac- adds the story of a centurion, the highest-ranking ter, revealed in the daily operation of physical Nnoncommissioned Roman army offi cer (8:5–13; nature, where he lavishes his gifts equally on Gsee also Luke 7:1–10). Matthew connects this ep- both deserving and undeserving people: isode with references to the practice of convert- Eing Gentiles that existed in the author’s own day. But what I tell you is this: Love your enemies LAfter expressing Jesus’ astonishment that the and pray for your persecutors; only so can you AGentile soldier reveals a faith stronger than that be children of your heavenly Father, who of any Israelite, the author makes his point: Non- makes his sun rise on good and bad alike, and Jews like the centurion will come to feast with sends the rain on the honest and dishonest. If 6Abraham and the other patriarchs, and Jews, you love only those who love you, what reward once the favored people, will be left outside. can you expect? . . . There must be no limit to 8 Throughout his Gospel, Matthew pictures the your goodness, as your heavenly Father’s 5 goodness knows no bounds. Christian community as the “true Israel,” inheri- 3tors of the divine promise made to the ancient (5:44–48) BIsraelites. “Boundless” in loving generosity, the Father U provides the supreme model for Jesus’ disciples to emulate, refashioning them in his image. In Second Major Discourse: seeking fi rst the kingdom and God’s “justice” Instructions to the Twelve (6:33), they personally “pass no judgment” on Apostles others, for judgmental attitudes blind people to their own defects (7:1–5). Instead, disciples must focus on the infi nite graciousness of the In his second major collection of ethical teach- Father, who endlessly “gives good things to ings, Matthew presents Jesus’ instructions to the those who ask him” (7:9–11). twelve chief disciples (listed by name in 10:2–4). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 183 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The author specifi es that the Twelve are sent the church. If so, this suggests that many of exclusively to Jews and forbidden to preach to Matthew’s other references to “the end of the Gentiles or (10:5–6), an injunction age” and Jesus’ Parousia ( chs . 24 and 25) are found only in Matthew. (In contrast, both Luke also to be understood metaphorically. and John show Jesus leading his disciples on a brief Samaritan campaign [Luke 9:52–56; John 4:3–42].) The Twelve are to preach the king- Second Narrative Section: dom’s imminent appearance, the same apoca- lyptic message that the author attributes to both Questions and the Baptist (3:2) and Jesus at the outset of his Controversies career (4:17). While healing the sick, cleansing lepers, and raising the dead—thus replicating Jesus and John the Baptist Jesus’ spectacular miracles—the disciples are to L expect hostility and persecution. This extended A Matthew opens his second extended narrative warning (10:16–26) seems to apply to condi- (11:1–12:50) by discussing the relationship of tions that existed in the author’s generation, W Jesus to John the Baptist, whose fate foreshadows rather than in the time of Jesus’ Galilean minis- S that of Jesus. Locked in Herod Antipas’s prison try. Matthew’s apparent practice of combining O and doomed to imminent martyrdom, John Jesus’ remembered words with commentary re- writes to inquire if Jesus is really God’s chosen lating them to later experiences of the Christian N one (11:2–3). The Baptist’s question contrasts community is typical of all the Gospel writers. , strangely with his earlier proclamation of Jesus’ A strong eschatological tone pervades the high status (3:11–15) and may refl ect a later entire discourse. Followers are to be loyal at the A competition between the disciples of Jesus and time of testing because destruction in Gehenna John in Matthew’s day. awaits the unfaithful. The New Testament N Matthew uses the incident to place the two name for a geographical location, the “Valley G prophets’ roles in perspective, highlighting of Hinnom ,” Gehenna is commonly rendered E Jesus’ superiority. Without answering John’s as “hell” in English translations, although it is question directly, Jesus summarizes his miracles uncertain that the later Christian notion of a L of healing that suggest God’s presence in his metaphysical place of punishment accurately A work (11:4–6). Matthew then contrasts the func- expresses the original meaning of Gehenna tion and style of the two men, emphasizing (see Box 8. 5 ). A site of human sacrifi ce in Old Jesus’ far greater role. Although John is the “des- Testament times ( Jer . 7:32; 1 Kings 11:7, etc.), 6 tined Elijah” whose return to earth was to inau- the Valley of Hinnom later housed a garbage 8 gurate the time of Final Judgment, he does not dump that was kept permanently burning, a lit- 5 share in the “kingdom.” Perhaps because eral place of annihilation for “both soul and Matthew sees John operating independently of body” (Matt. 10:28; 18:8; 25:30, 46, etc.). 3 Jesus, he does not consider him a Christian. Equally arresting is the statement that be- B (Box 8. 6 indicates the four Gospel authors’ fore the Twelve have completed their circuit of U strikingly different views of John’s role.) Palestine “the Son of Man will have come” John is a wild and solitary fi gure; Jesus is (10:23). Writing more than half a century after gregarious, friendly with Israel’s outcasts, pros- the events he describes, Matthew surprisingly titutes, and “sinners.” Enjoying food and wine retains a prophecy that was not fulfi lled, at least with socially unrespectable people, Jesus pro- not in historical fact. The author’s inclusion of vokes critics who accuse him of gluttony and this apocalyptic prediction indicates that he overdrinking (11:7–19). In Matthew’s evalua- may not have understood it literally. Matthew tion, neither John nor Jesus, representing two may have regarded the “Son of Man” as already very different approaches to the religious life, spiritually present in the missionary activity of can win the fi ckle public’s approval. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 184 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 8.5 Matthew’s Use of Hell: Some Biblical Concepts of the Afterlife

The term that many English-language Hades, named after the gloomy deity who ruled translate as “hell” is Gehenna (ge– hinno–m) (Matt. over it, was originally similar to the Hebrew 5:22, 29–30; 10:28; 23:15, 33), which originally re- Sheol—a dark place underground in which all the ferred not to a place of posthumous torment but dead, regardless of individual merit, were indis- to a specifi c geographical location, a ravine near criminately housed (see Homer’s Odyssey, book Jerusalem. A valley bordering Israel’s capital city 11). By the Hellenistic period, however, Hades on the southwest, Gehenna was named for the had become compartmentalized into separate re- “sons of Hinnom (ge– ben(e) hinno–m),” the biblical gions: These included Elysium, a paradise for the designation of an ancient Canaanite group that Lvirtuous, and Tartarus, a place of punishment for occupied the site before King David captured it Athe wicked. Infl uenced by philosophers such as about 1000 bce. Gehenna had an evil reputation Pythagoras and Plato and by the Orphic mystery as the place where humans were sacrifi ced and Wreligions (see Chapter 4), Greek religious thought burned as offerings to false gods, a practice that Seventually posited a direct connection between Israelite prophets vehemently condemned ( Jer. Opeople’s behavior in this life and their destiny in 7:31; 19:11; 32:35; cf. 2 Kings 23:10; 2 Chron. the next: Good actions earned them bliss, whereas 28:3; 33:5). Ninjustices brought fearful penalties. In time, perhaps infl uenced by Persian ideas ,hell about afterlife punishments in fi re, some Jewish writers made Hinnom’s valley (Gehenna) the sym- Popular concepts of hell derive from a variety of bol of God’s eschatological judgment, where the Asources extending back in time to the earliest wicked would suffer after death (1 Enoch 26:4; NMesopotamian and Egyptian speculations about 27:2–3). A potent image of alienation from God, Gthe terrors of the next world. Although the con- cept is absent from the Hebrew Bible and most of the earthly Gehenna was eventually associated E with mythical concepts of an Underworld “lake of the New Testament, a few scattered references to fi re,” the future abode of unrepentant sinners Lit (primarily involving Gehenna or a fi ery lake) (2 Esd. 7:36; Rev. 20). Aappear in the Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Revelation, as well as some noncanonical Jewish sheol and hades and Christian books, such as 1 and 2 Enoch and The concept of eternal punishment does not oc- 6the Apocalypse of Peter. In general, pre-Christian cur in the Hebrew Bible, which uses the term 8mythologies and other extrabiblical sources sup- Sheol to designate a bleak subterranean region ply most of the frightening imagery for such cele- where the dead, good and bad alike, subsist only 5brated literary works as Dante’s Inferno and as impotent shadows. When Hellenistic Jewish 3Milton’s Paradise Lost, as well as the “hellfi re” ser- scribes rendered the Bible into Greek, they used Bmons of many Puritan divines and their modern the word Hades to translate Sheol, bringing a successors. The word itself, not found in the Bible, whole new mythological association to the idea of Ucommemorates Hel, the fi erce Norse goddess who posthumous existence. In ancient Greek myth, reigned over the netherworld.

Harsh Sayings Matthew also includes harsh sayings very simi- lar to the denunciations and threats of divine At the same time that he shows Jesus perform- judgment uttered by the Baptist. When the ing works of mercy and forgiveness (11:28–30), towns of Chorazin and Bethsaida fail to repent har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 185 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 8.6 John the Baptist as the Eschatological Elijah Figure

matthew mark

He is the man of whom Scripture says, “Here is my [Popular speculations about John’s return to life after his herald, whom I send on ahead of you, and he will beheading by Herod Antipas:] prepare your way before you.” I tell you this: never Now King Herod heard of it [Jesus’ miracles], for has there appeared on earth a mother’s son the fame of Jesus had spread; and people were say- greater than John the Baptist, and yet the least in ing, “John the Baptist has been raised to life, and the kingdom of Heaven is greater than he. that is why these miraculous powers are at work in Ever since the coming of John the Baptist the L him.” Others said, “It is Elijah.” (Mark 6:14–15) kingdom of Heaven has been subject to violence A and violent men are seizing it. For all the prophets W and the Law foretold things to come until John appeared, and John is the destined Elijah, if you S will but accept it. If you have ears, then hear. O (Matt. 11:10–14) N , luke john A He is the man of whom Scripture says, “Here is my N This is the testimony which John gave when the herald, whom I send on ahead of you, and he will G Jews of Jerusalem sent a deputation of priests prepare your way before you.” I tell you, there is and Levites to ask him who he was. He confessed not a mother’s son greater than John, and yet the E without reserve and avowed, “I am not the least in the kingdom of God is greater than he. L Messiah.” “What then? are you Elijah?” “No,” he (Luke 7:27–28) A replied. “Are you the prophet whom we await?” He answered “No.”* “Then who are you?” they asked. “We must give an answer to those who sent 6 us. What account do you give of yourself?” He Until John, it was the Law and the prophets; since 8 answered in the words of the prophet Isaiah: “I then, there is the good news of the kingdom of am a voice crying aloud in the wilderness, ‘Make God, and everyone forces his way in. (:16) 5 the Lord’s highway straight.’” (:19–23) 3 B *Note that John’s Gospel denies the Baptist the roles of prophet and latter-day Elijah that the Synoptics U accorded him.

after witnessing Jesus’ miracles there, Jesus Castigating his opponents as poisonous snakes makes a sweeping statement that Sodom, (12:33–37), Jesus seems to echo the ferocity which Yahweh destroyed by fi re, would fare of John’s earlier diatribes (3:7–13; cf. Luke better on Judgment Day than they (11:20–24). 3:7–9). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 186 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Third Major Discourse: Gospel. Recounting Jesus’ rejection by his fellow citizens of Nazareth, Matthew subtly Parables on the Kingdom modifi es Mark’s older account, calling Jesus “the carpenter’s son” rather than the Markan Matthew frames Jesus’ third discourse with his “son of Mary” (Mark 6:3) and changing Mark’s version of Jesus’ alienation from his family statement that Jesus “could work no miracle (12:46–50; Mark 3:31–35) and Jesus’ rejection there” (Mark 6:5) to “did not work many mira- by the citizens of Nazareth (13:54–58; Mark cles there” (13:54–58) (see Box 8. 2 ). 6:1–6). The author divides Jesus’ parable teach- With minor changes, Matthew generally ings into two distinct episodes, the fi rst public follows Mark’s account of the Baptist’s execu- and the second private (13:10–23). Although tion, the miraculous feeding of 5,000 people, only the Twelve are initiated into the secrets of and the stilling of the Galilean storm (14:1–27; God’s rule, Matthew softens Mark’s explana- LMark 6:14–52). Matthew’s editing of this part tion of Jesus’ reasons for using parables in pub- Aof the Markan narrative, however, entails a ma- lic. Instead of employing fi gures of speech jor change in Mark’s order of events. The epi- to prevent understanding (Mark 4:11–12), Wsode in which Jesus sends the Twelve on a Matthew states that Jesus speaks metaphorically Smissionary journey (Mark 6:7–13) does not because most people have the wrong attitude O appear in Matthew’s third narrative section because he has already incorporated it into and unconsciously shut their mental eyes and N ears (13:11–15; Isa . 6:9–10). Matthew’s version his version of Jesus’ instructions to the Twelve of the parable lesson explicitly states that the ,( ch . 10). Matthew also revises other Markan Twelve do understand and appreciate Jesus’ passages dealing with the disciples. He embel- teaching (13:16–17, 51–52), thus eliminating Alishes Mark’s account of Jesus’ striding across Mark’s view of the disciples’ chronic stupidity. the Sea of Galilee by adding that Peter also at- To Mark’s original collection of kingdom Ntempted to walk on water. More signifi cantly, parables, Matthew adds several comparisons in GMatthew deletes Mark’s reference to the disci- which the kingdom is likened to a buried trea- Eples’ “closed” minds, or “hard-heartedness,” sure, a priceless pearl, a harvest of fi sh, and a and replaces it with their positive recognition fi eld in which both grain and “darnel” (weeds) Lof Jesus as “Son of God” (14:28–33; Mark 6:52). grow (13:24–30, 36–50). The last two introduce AHe further modifi es Mark’s theme of the a distinctly Matthean concept: The kingdom disciples’ obtuseness by insisting that the Twelve fully comprehend the miracle of loaves (church) consists of a mixture of good and bad 6 elements that will not be separated completely and fi shes (15:5–12; Mark 8:1–21). Most of until the last day. The same theme reappears in 8these revisions to Mark’s account—especially Matthew’s version of the parable about un- 5Matthew’s deletion of Mark’s criticisms of the grateful guests (22:1–13; cf. :16–23). Twelve—serve to enhance the disciples’ role 3and reputation. B Describing Jesus’ dispute with the Pharisees Third Narrative Section: Uover ritual hand washing (taken from Mark 7:1–23), Matthew gives the debate a meaning From the Rejection in signifi cantly different from that in his Markan Nazareth to the source. In Mark, the episode’s climax is Transfi guration reached when the author interprets Jesus’ words to mean that all foods are clean, includ- Revisions of Mark’s Narrative ing those the Torah forbids Jews to eat (7:19). Believing that dietary laws remain in effect, Matthew’s third narrative section (13:53–17:27) Matthew drops Mark’s climactic interpretation slightly revises many incidents related in Mark’s (15:1–11). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 187 06/01/14 8:12 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Peter and the Church (18:15–17), prophetic promises (18:10, 18–20), and direct commands (18:22). In Matthew’s One of Matthew’s most celebrated additions to view of the church, service, humility, and end- Mark’s narrative appears in his version of less forgiveness are the measure of leadership. Peter’s recognition of Jesus’ identity (16:13– Practicing the spirit of Torah mercy, the church 29). Matthew’s Peter not only acknowledges is the earthly expression of divine rule (18:23– Jesus as the Messiah but also identifi es him as 35), a visible manifestation of the kingdom. the Son of God (an element absent in Mark). In regulating the community, Matthew Jesus’ declaration that Peter is the rock upon gives the individual “congregation” the right to which Jesus will build his church appears only exclude or ostracize disobedient members in Matthew, as does the promise to award Peter (18:15–17). During later centuries, this power spiritual powers that are honored in heaven of excommunication was to become a formida- and on earth. Matthew’s Jesus, however, makes L ble weapon in controlling both belief and be- no provision for the transmission of ecclesiasti- A havior. The same authority accorded Peter in cal authority to Peter’s successors. Jesus’ famous “keys of the kingdom” speech Despite his singling Peter out as foremost W (16:16–20) is also given to individual congrega- among the apostles (“ones sent out [by Jesus]”), S tion leaders (18:18). Matthew retains Mark’s tradition that Peter fundamentally misunderstands the nature of O Jesus’ messiahship . When Peter attempts to dis- N suade Jesus from a decision that will lead to his , Fourth Narrative Section: death in Jerusalem, Jesus again ironically ad- The Jerusalem Ministry dresses the apostle as “Satan” (16:21–23). A N In this long narrative sequence (19:1–22:46), Matthew arranges several dialogues between Fourth Major Discourse: G Jesus and his opponents, interspersed with inci- Instructions to the Church E dents on the journey south from Galilee to L Jerusalem. The section opens with “some Pharisees” challenging Jesus on the matter of In chapter 18, Matthew assembles disparate say- A divorce. In Mark’s version of the encounter, ings of Jesus and applies them to the Christian Jesus revokes the Torah provisions for divorce community of the writer’s generation. Taken 6 and forbids remarriage (Mark 10:1–12). together, chapters 10 and 18 form a rudimen- Matthew modifi es the prohibition, stating that tary instruction manual for the early church. 8 “ unchastity ” or sexual unfaithfulness provides The author skillfully combines numerous small 5 grounds for lawful divorce (19:3–9). He also literary units to achieve his intended effect. A 3 adds a discussion with the disciples in which brief glimpse of the disciples’ squabbling for Jesus mentions several reasons for not marry- power (18:1–2) introduces opposing images of B ing, including a commitment to remain single a powerless child and a drowning man (18:2– U for “the kingdom” (19:10–12). 7), which are quickly followed by pictures of self-blinding and the fl ames of Gehenna (18:8– Discipleship and Suffering 9). The variety of literary forms gathered here makes the author’s prescription for an ideal After the third prediction of Jesus’ impending Christian community intensely vivid. The writ- death in Jerusalem (20:17–19), Matthew again er’s devices include hyperbole (exaggeration emphasizes that suffering must precede the dis- for rhetorical effect), parable (the lost sheep ciples’ heavenly reward, as it does Jesus’. In Mark, and the unforgiving debtor [18:12–14, 23–35]), the sons of Zebedee , James and John, directly ask advice on supervising troublesome people Jesus for positions of honor in his kingdom, har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 188 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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presumably to satisfy personal ambition (Mark “Son of David,” one of Matthew’s chief designa- 10:35–40). In Matthew’s version of the episode, tions for his hero (1:1; 20:30; 21:9, 16). Matthew it is the apostles’ mother who makes the request reproduces many of the Markan debates between on their behalf (20:20–21). (Jesus had already Jesus and Jewish Torah experts on matters such promised his followers that he would share his as payment of taxes to Rome (22:16–22), the res- heavenly rule with them [19:27–29].) The pre- urrection (22:23–33), and the law of love (22:34– diction that the two sons of Zebedee will follow 40). However, he signifi cantly edits Mark’s report their leader to a martyr’s death indicates that on Jesus’ encounter with a friendly Torah in- Matthew wrote after both apostles had died structor (Mark 12:28–34). Whereas Mark states (20:23). According to Acts (12:1–2), James was that this congenial exchange prevented further beheaded by Herod Agrippa I, who reigned attacks on Jesus, Matthew transfers Mark’s com- as king of Judea 41–44 ce . It may be that John ment to the conclusion of Jesus’ remarks about was also executed at about that time. Lthe Messiah as David’s “son” (22:46; Mark 12:35). AMatthew has only harsh words for the Jerusalem Entrance into Jerusalem authorities and declines to show Jesus on good Wterms with rival Jewish teachers. Matthew prepares his readers for the signifi - S cance of Jesus’ Jerusalem experience by prefac- O The Church as the True Israel ing his account with a miracle found only in his Gospel. After Jesus restores sight to two blind N While studying Matthew’s account of Jesus’ last men, they immediately become his followers— ,days, readers will discover that most of the au- in contrast to the “blind” guides of Jerusalem thor’s changes and additions to Mark serve to (20:29–34). The author’s determination to Aexpress his extreme hostility toward Jewish show that Jesus’ actions match biblical prophecy leaders. In the author’s bitter view, prostitutes in every detail causes him to create a somewhat Nand criminals stand a better chance of winning bizarre picture of his hero’s entrance into the Gdivine approval than do the Temple priests, holy city. Matthew quotes Zechariah’s prophecy EPharisees, or their associates (21:31). about the Messiah’s arrival in full and inserts an The three parables that Matthew inserts into additional phrase from Isaiah. However, he ap- Lthe Markan narrative serve to condemn the parently misunderstands Zechariah’s poetic use AJewish establishment. In the parable of the two of parallelism. In Zechariah’s poetic structure, sons, the disobedient youth represents Jewish “the foal of a beast of burden” on which the leaders (21:28–32). In a second parable, the Messiah rides is parallel to and synonymous 6“wicked tenants” who kill a landlord’s son are the with the prophet’s reference to “an ass” (Zech. 8Jerusalem offi cials who reject Jesus (21:42–46). 9:9; Isa . 62:11). To make Jesus’ action precisely 5To Matthew, the vineyard owner’s transfer of his fi t his concept of the prophecy, Matthew has estate to more deserving tenants means that God Jesus mount not one but two animals simultane- 3now regards the church as his covenant people. ously, “the donkey and her foal,” for his trium- B Matthew replays the same theme in the phant ride into Jerusalem (21:1–11). Uparable featuring guests who ungratefully ig- In his account of Jesus’ Jerusalem ministry, nore their invitations to a wedding party (the Matthew generally adheres to Mark’s narrative, messianic banquet). Matthew’s statement that although he adds some new material and edits the outraged host then burns down the in- Mark, usually to enhance his portrait of Jesus. grates’ city probably refers to the Romans’ After driving the moneychangers from the burning Jerusalem in 70 ce . As in the wicked Temple, Jesus heals some blind men and crip- tenant parable, newcomers replace the for- ples (21:14), miracles absent in Mark. During merly chosen group—the Jewish Christian this brief period, Jesus is repeatedly hailed as church becomes the true Israel (22:1–10). har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 189 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Fifth Major Discourse: infi nite forgiveness (6:12, 14–16; 18:21–35) and exercising mercy (5:7). In dealing with his Warnings of Final church’s opponents, however, Matthew judges Judgment without compassion, apparently regarding Jewish rejection of his Messiah as falling beyond Hostility Toward the the tolerable limits of charity. The author, in ef- Jewish Establishment fect, reintroduces the old law of retaliation that Jesus himself rejected. Historically, the conse- This fi fth and fi nal block of teaching material quences of New Testament writers attributing summarizes the Matthean Jesus’ adverse judg- collective guilt to the Jewish people helped fuel ment on Jerusalem, particularly its Temple and the waves of anti-Semitism that repeatedly swept religious hierarchy ( chs . 23–25). It opens with a through the Western world for centuries after- blistering denunciation of the scribes and L ward. Throughout Europe, Jews were indiscrimi- Pharisees —professional transmitters and inter- A nately persecuted as “Christ-killers,” often with preters of the law—upon whom Jesus is pic- the blessing of ecclesiastical authorities. tured as heaping “seven woes,” perhaps W Since the Holocaust of World War II, when corresponding to the curses on a disobedient S Nazi Germany led a campaign of genocide Israel listed in Deuteronomy 28. According to O against European Jews, killing approximately Matthew, Jesus blames the Pharisees and their 6 million men, women, and children, a number associates for every guilty act—every drop of in- N of church leaders—Catholic, Protestant, and nocent blood poured out—in Israel’s entire , Greek Orthodox—have publicly condemned history. He condemns the religious leadership the practice of anti-Semitism. In 1974, the to suffer for their generation’s collective wrong- A Roman Catholic Church offi cially reminded doing, as well as that of their distant ancestors. Christendom that modern Jews are not respon- Matthew implies that the Roman devastation N sible for Jesus’ crucifi xion. of Jerusalem in 70 ce , an event that occurred G To place Matthew’s negative verdict on the during the author’s lifetime, is tangible proof of E fi rst-century Jewish establishment in historical God’s wrath toward Israel (23:35–36). Matthew perspective, we must remember that he con- intensifi es this theme in his version of Jesus’ trial L demns only the Jerusalem leadership, not before Pilate ( ch . 27); only in Matthew does a A Judaism itself. Despite his dislike of Pharisaic Jerusalem crowd, demanding the Messiah’s cru- customs, the author agrees with Pharisaic cifi xion, hysterically invite the Deity to avenge teaching. He reminds his readers to “pay atten- Jesus’ blood upon them and their children 6 tion to their words” and “do what they tell you,” (27:25). Matthew further revises Mark’s Passion 8 for they occupy “the seat of Moses” and their narrative by adding that Pilate, symbol of impe- 5 teachings are authoritative (23:1–3). rial Rome, washed his hands of responsibility for 3 Jesus’ death—even while ordering Jesus’ execu- The Fall of Jerusalem and the Parousia tion (27:24). All four Gospel writers shift the B blame from the Roman government to the Jewish U Signs of the Times The second part of Jesus’ fi fth leadership, but only Matthew extends responsi- discourse is based largely on Mark 13, the pre- bility to the Jews’ as-yet-unborn descendants. diction of Jerusalem ’s impending destruction. Many commentators fi nd an ethical paradox Whereas Mark states that the disciples asked in Matthew’s vindictive attitude toward his fellow only about when the Temple would fall (Mark Jews who did not accept Jesus as the national 13:1–4), Matthew expands the disciples’ ques- Messiah. Earlier in his Gospel, Matthew presents tion to include an eschatological inquiry into Jesus as repudiating the lex talionis (5:38–40), Jesus’ Second Coming (the Parousia ) and the stressing instead the necessity of practicing “end of the age,” the close of human history as har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 190 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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we know it (24:1–3). Jesus’ reply is a good illus- the Parousia (Mark 13:32; Matt. 24:36). tration of how fi rst-century Jewish eschatology Matthew adds that when the Son does return, was incorporated into the Christian tradition. his coming will be unmistakable in its universal- Matthew’s presentation of the “signal” or ity, “like lightning from the east, fl ashing as far “signs” leading to Jesus’ return is a complex as the west” (24:27). mixture of fi rst-century historical events, such Matthew preserves the “double vision” na- as the Jewish War, and prophetic images from ture of the Parousia found in Mark. Jesus’ super- the Hebrew Bible, particularly Daniel, Joel, natural coming will be preceded by unmistakable Zechariah, and the pseudepigraphical 1 Enoch. “signs” that it is near (24:21–22, 29–35); at the All three Synoptic writers link the Jewish Revolt same time, he will come without warning and against Rome (66–73 ce ) with supernatural when least expected (24:42–44). Although con- portents of End time and Jesus’ reappearance. tradictory, both concepts apparently existed Mark, the fi rst to make this association of Lconcurrently in the early church, which was events, seems to have written at a time when the Adeeply infl uenced by eschatological thinking. revolt had already begun (note the “battles” Although the author of Revelation connects and “wars” in 13:7–8) and Jerusalem was about WEnd time with cosmic catastrophe, other New to fall. These cataclysmic events he called “the STestament writers (perhaps aware of the re- birth pangs of the new age.” Both Matthew and Opeated failure of attempts to calculate the date of Luke follow Mark’s lead and connect these po- the Parousia ) state that the Son’s return is essen- litical upheavals with persecution of believers, Ntially unheralded (1 Thess . 5:1–5; 2 Peter 3:10). perhaps allusions to Nero’s cruel treatment of , Matthew probably wrote almost two decades Roman Christians (c. 64–65 ce ) or Zealot vio- after Mark’s Gospel was composed, but he re- lence against Jewish Christians who refused to Atains the Markan tradition that persons who support the revolt. The Synoptic authors con- knew Jesus would live to see his predictions come cur that attacks on the church, then a tiny mi- Ntrue (24:34; Mark 13:30). To Matthew, the nority of the Greco-Roman population, are of GRoman annihilation of the Jewish state, which critical importance. The sufferings of the Ecoincided with the emergence of the Christian Christian community will bring God’s ven- church as an entity distinct from Judaism, may geance on all humanity. Lessentially have fulfi lled Jesus’ words, or at least Matthew follows Mark in referring to the Aan important part of his prophecy. From the writ- mysterious “abomination of desolation” as a er’s perspective, the “New Age” had already warning to fl ee Judea (24:15), perhaps echoing dawned with Jerusalem’s fall and the church’s a tradition that Jewish Christians had escaped 6new role in future human history (28:19–20). destruction by leaving the holy city and seeking 8 refuge in Pella, east of Jordan (see Box 7.6). In 5 ’ Return Chapters 24 and 25 con- his version of Mark’s eschatological prediction, tain three parables and a prophetic vision of however, Luke omits the “abomination” sign 3Jesus’ unannounced Parousia . Whatever their and substitutes an allusion to Roman armies be- Boriginal meaning to Jesus, in Matthew they serve sieging Jerusalem (Luke 21:20–24). Uto illustrate believers’ obligation to await faith- Both Mark and Matthew are aware that in fully and patiently their absent Lord’s return. The the white heat of eschatological expectation fi rst parable contrasts two servants, one of whom there were “many” false reports of the Messiah’s abuses his fellow employees until the master sud- return (Mark 13:21–23; Matt. 24:23–27). Some denly reappears to execute him (24:45–51)—a Christians must have experienced crushing dis- clear warning to church members to treat others appointment when their prophets’ “inspired” honorably. The parable about a delayed bride- predictions of Jesus’ reappearance failed to ma- groom similarly contrasts two kinds of believers: terialize. Thus, both Evangelists caution that those who are alert and prepared for the wed- even “the Son” does not know the exact date of ding event and those who are not. Because the har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 191 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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“bridegroom” is “late in coming,” Matthew im- exploitation translates into a reminder that the plies that Christians must reconcile themselves to master’s servants (transformed into Christian a delay in the Parousia (25:1–13). workers) must be productive while awaiting the The parable of the talents, in which a mas- Parousia , increasing Jesus’ treasure (recruiting ter’s servants invest huge sums of money for new members for the church) (25:14–30). him, probably had a quite different meaning be- The fourth and fi nal judgment parable con- fore Matthew used it as a warning illustration of cerns not only the church but also “the nations.” Jesus’ delayed return. The master in the parable The term nations refers primarily to Gentiles liv- is a “hard man” who reaps what he does not sow ing without the Mosaic Law, but it may be in- and who inspires terror in his servants. In the tended to include all humanity—Jews, Christians, context of Jesus’ original telling, he was most and those belonging to other world religions as likely an absentee landowner who amassed enor- well. In the parable about separating worthy mous profi ts from his slaves’ labor and who pun- L “sheep” and unworthy “goats,” all are judged ex- ished them severely if they failed to make him A clusively on their behavior toward Jesus’ “little enough money. For Matthew, Jesus’ parable dra- ones,” Matthew’s favored term for Christian dis- matizing the Palestinian aristocracy’s economic W ciples (25:31–46) (see Figure 8. 3 ). S O N ,

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figure 8.3 Christ Separating Sheep from Goats. This early-sixth-century mosaic illustrates Matthew’s para- ble of eschatological judgment (Matt. 25:31–46). At his Parousia (Second Coming), an enthroned Jesus, fl anked by two angels, divides all humanity into two mutually exclusive groups. The sheep are gathered in the favored position at Jesus’ right hand, whereas the goats, at Jesus’ left, are condemned to outer darkness for their failure to help others. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 192 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Matthew’s eschatological vision makes passage in Jeremiah, although the relevant text charitable acts, rather than “correct” religious actually appears in Zechariah (Matt. 26:14–15, doctrines, the standard in distinguishing good 20–25, 47–50; 27:3–10; Jer . 32:6–13; Zech. people from bad. In such passages, Matthew 11:12–13). The theme of a warning dream, refl ects the ancient Israelite prophets, who re- used frequently in the birth story, is reintro- garded service to the poor and unfortunate as duced when Pilate’s wife, frightened by a dream acts of worship to God. The Book of James, about Jesus, urges her husband to “have noth- which defi nes true religion as essentially hu- ing to do with that innocent man” (27:19). manitarian service to others ( James 1:27), es- pouses a similar view. Miraculous Signs The Author’s Purpose in the Judgment Parables To emphasize that the very foundations of the By adding the four parables of judgment to his Lworld are shaken by the supreme crime of cru- expansion of Mark 13 and by linking them to Acifying God’s son, Matthew reports that an “the kingdom” (25:1, 14), Matthew shifts the earthquake accompanies Jesus’ last moment apocalyptic emphasis from expectations about Wand triggers a resurrection of the dead (27:50– the Parousia to the function and duties of the S53), an eschatological phenomenon usually as- church. Matthew links the parables of the alert Osociated with the Final Judgment. Although the householder, the trustworthy servant, and the author presumably includes the incident to talents with Jesus’ predictions of the eschaton . In Nshow that Jesus’ death opens the way for hu- contrast, Luke, who uses the same parables, ,manity’s rebirth, neither he nor any other New places them among the general teachings of Testament writer explains what eventually hap- Jesus’ pre-Jerusalem ministry (cf. Matt. 24:43– Apens to the reanimated corpses that leave their 44 with :39–40; Matt. 24:45–51 with graves and parade through Jerusalem. Luke 12:42–46; and Matt. 25:14–30 with Luke N 19:12–27). G The Centurion’s Reaction E Whereas Mark reports that only one Roman Lsoldier recognizes Jesus as God’s son, Matthew Fifth and Final Narrative Astates that both the centurion and his men con- Section: The Passion Story fess Jesus’ divinity (27:54). Perhaps Matthew’s and Resurrection change of a single man’s exclamation to that of 6a whole group expresses his belief that numer- 8ous Gentiles will acknowledge Jesus as Lord. Matthew retells the story of Jesus’ last two days 5 on earth (Thursday and Friday of Holy Week) The Empty Tomb with the same grave and solemn tone we fi nd in 3 Mark. To the Gospel writers, Jesus of Nazareth’s B Despite some signifi cant differences, all three suffering, death, and resurrection are not only USynoptic Gospels agree fairly closely in their ac- the most important events in world history but count of Jesus’ burial and the women’s discov- also the crucial turning point in humanity’s re- ery of the empty tomb. Matthew, however, adds lation to God. Although Matthew’s Passion nar- details about some Pharisees persuading Pilate rative (26:1–28:20) closely follows Mark’s to dispatch Roman soldiers to guard Jesus’ sequence of events, he adds a few new details, tomb. According to Matthew, the Pharisees are probably drawn from the oral tradition of his aware of Jesus’ promise to rise from the grave community. The treachery of Judas Iscariot is “on the third day” and so arrange for a Roman emphasized and linked to the fulfi llment of a guard to prevent the disciples from stealing the har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 193 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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body and creating the false impression that Galilee. Matthew observes that some disciples Jesus still lives. In Matthew’s account, the had doubts about their seeing Jesus, as if mis- Romans guarding the tomb on Sunday morn- trusting the evidence of their own senses. The ing actually see an angel descend from heaven, author seems to imply that absolute proof of an a sight that paralyzes them with terror. (See event so contrary to ordinary human experi- Chapter 20 for a discussion of the noncanoni- ence is impossible. cal Gospel of Peter, which describes Jesus’ ac- Even though some disciples doubt, all pre- tual resurrection.) sumably accept the fi nal command of the One whose teachings are vindicated by his resurrec- The Plot to Discredit the Resurrection tion to life: They, and the community of faith they represent, are to make new disciples After the women discover the empty gravesite throughout the Gentile world (28:16–20). This and then encounter Jesus himself, some guards L commission to recruit followers from “all na- report what has happened to the Jerusalem A tions” further expresses Matthew’s theme that priests. According to Matthew, the Sadducean the church has much work to do before Jesus priests then plot to undermine Christian claims W returns. It implies that the author’s tiny com- that Jesus has risen by bribing the soldiers to say S munity had only begun what was to be a vast that the disciples secretly removed and hid O undertaking—a labor extending into the far- Jesus’ corpse (27:62–66; 28:11–15). distant future. Matthew implies that the Jews of his day N used the soldiers’ false testimony to refute , Christian preaching about the Resurrection. Summary However, his counterargument that the Roman A soldiers had admitted falling asleep while on duty is not convincing. Severe punishment, in- N In composing a new edition of Jesus’ life, Matthew cluding torture and death, awaited any Roman G provides his community with a comprehensive survey of Jesus’ teaching. The unknown author, soldier found thus derelict. In 79 ce , only a few E years before Matthew wrote, soldiers guarding who may have lived in Antioch or some other part the gates of Pompeii preferred being buried L of Syria in the 80s ce , was a Jewish Christian who alive during the cataclysmic eruption of Mount used scribal techniques to place Jesus’ life and A death in the context of ancient Jewish prophecy. Vesuvius to facing the consequences of leaving Writing to demonstrate that Jesus of Nazareth is their posts without permission. Some commen- 6 the expected Messiah foretold in the Hebrew tators believe that a rumor about the possible Bible, Matthew repeatedly quotes or alludes to theft of Jesus’ body may have circulated, but 8 specifi c biblical passages that he interprets as be- probably not for the reasons that Mat thew 5 ing fulfi lled in Jesus’ career. gives. (For a different view, see Wright in The author’s concurrent emphasis on scrip- “Recommended Reading.”) 3 tural fulfi llment and on Jesus’ authoritative rein- B terpretation of the Mosaic Torah (Matt. 5–7) U suggests that his work is directed primarily to an Post Resurrection Appearances and the audience that sees itself, at least in part, still Great Commission bound by Torah regulations. Jesus’ comments on such matters as Sabbath observance (12:1–14) In Mark’s Gospel, Jesus promises that after his and divorce (19:3–12) can be seen as examples of death he will reappear to the disciples in Galilee Halakah characteristic of fi rst-century Palestinian (Mark 14:28; 16:7). After recording the wom- rabbinic teaching. en’s dawn encounter with the risen Lord, By incorporating a large body of teaching ma- Matthew then reports that Jesus also appeared terial into Mark’s narrative framework, Matthew bal- to the Eleven at a prearranged mountain site in ances Mark’s emphasis on Jesus’ deeds—miracles har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 194 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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of healing and exorcism—with a counterstress on themes, what kinds of changes does he make the ethical content of Jesus’ preaching. Instructions in editing Mark’s account? to the original disciples ( chs . 10 and 18) are applied 4. In adding fi ve blocks of teaching material to to conditions in the Christian community of Mark’s framework, how does Matthew empha- Matthew’s day. size Jesus’ role as an interpreter of the Mosaic Matthew retains the apocalyptic themes Torah? How does Matthew present Jesus’ found in Mark, but he signifi cantly modifi es them. teachings as the standard and guide of the He links the eschatological “kingdom” to mission- Christian community? ary activities of the early church, a visible manifes- 5. In what ways does Matthew follow standards of tation of divine rule. Matthew’s Gospel typically his day in interpreting the Hebrew Bible? How shifts the burden of meaning from speculations does the author’s emphasis on the supernatu- about the eschaton to necessary activities of the ral affect his portrait of Jesus? church during the interim between Jesus’ resur- 6. Although he emphasizes that Jesus’ personal re- rection and the Parousia . Thus, Matthew expands L ligion is Torah Judaism, Matthew also presents Mark’s prediction of Jerusalem’s destruction to his hero as founder of the church ( ekklesia ). include parables illustrating the duties and obli- A How “Jewish” and Torah abiding did Matthew gations of Jesus’ “servant,” the church (cf. Mark W intend the church to be? 13 and Matt. 24–25). The shift from eschatologi- S 7. In editing and expanding Mark’s prophecy of cal speculation to concern for the indefi nitely ex- Jerusalem’s fall and the eschaton , Matthew in- tended work of the church will be even more O terpolates several parables of judgment. How evident in Luke-Acts. N do these parables function to stretch the time By framing Mark’s account of Jesus’ ministry of the End into the far-distant future? and Passion with narratives of the Savior’s birth , and resurrection, Matthew emphasizes the di- vinely directed, supernatural character of Jesus’ Questions for Discussion and Refl ection life. In Matthew, Jesus becomes the Son of God at A conception and is the inheritor of all the ancient N 1. Highlighting Jesus’ kingdom message, Matthew promises to Israel. He is the “son” of Abraham, G devotes long sections to presenting a “kingdom heir to the Davidic throne, successor to the au- ethic,” which involves ending the cycle of retal- thoritative seat of Moses, and the embodiment of E iation and returning good for evil. If practiced divine Wisdom. A guidebook providing instruc- L fully today, would Jesus’ teaching about giving tion and discipline for the community of faith, up all possessions and peacefully submitting to Matthew’s Gospel became the church’s premier A unfair treatment change modern society for source of wise counsel to the faithful. the better? 6 Can Jesus’ policy of turning the other cheek Questions for Review be applied to relations among nations, or does 8 it apply to individual relationships only? Did 1. Even if Mark’s Gospel is an older work, what 5 Jesus intend his ethic for a future ideal time, features of Matthew’s Gospel can account for for dedicated members of the church, or for its standing fi rst in the New Testament canon? 3 this imperfect world? Do you think that he ex- How does Matthew connect his account with B pected everyone eventually to follow the prin- the Hebrew Bible? U ciples in the Sermon on the Mount and thus 2. Why do scholars believe it unlikely that one of bring about God’s rule on earth? the Twelve wrote Matthew’s Gospel? From the 2. With his frequent allusions to Gehenna’s fi res content of the Gospel, what can we infer and a place of “outer darkness” where there is about its author and the time and place of its “wailing and grinding of teeth,” Matthew makes composition? more references to sinners’ punishment in the 3. In his apparent use of Mark, Q, and other afterlife than any other Gospel writer. As shown sources unique to his account, how does in chapters 10 and 18, he also seems more in- Matthew reveal some of his special interests terested in maintaining church order and exer- and purposes? To underscore his individual cising control over church members than do har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 195 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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the other Evangelists. Do you see any connec- Carter, Warren. Matthew: Storyteller, Interpreter, tion between these two concerns? Historically, Evangelist, 2nd ed. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, does a religious institution attain greater power 2004. Analyzes Matthew’s implied original audi- if it promotes the belief that it alone offers the ence in Antioch to explain the Jewish-Christian means of escaping eternal torment? How large tensions in his Gospel. Clarke, Howard. The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers: a role does fear of damnation play in eliciting A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloom- obedience to ecclesiastical authority? ington: Indiana University Press, 2003. A com- mentary focusing on Christian ethics. Kingsbury, J. D. Matthew as Story. Philadelphia: Terms and Concepts to Remember Fortress Press, 1986. A more advanced analysis of the Gospel. antitheses M (Matthew’s special Meier, John P. “Matthew, Gospel of.” In D. N. apostle source) Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 4, pp. 622–641. New York: Doubleday, 1992. A lucid Beatitudes Magi L survey of important scholarship on the origin and Bethlehem midrash A purpose of Matthew’s Gospel. centurion Parousia Miller, Robert J. Born Divine: The Births of Jesus and church Peter W Other Sons of God. Santa Rosa, Calif.: Polebridge ekklesia saints S Press, 2003. Places the Gospel infancy stories Gehenna scribes and Pharisees fi rmly in the context of other Greco-Roman tales great commission Sermon on the Mount O of miraculous births. Haggadah seven woes N Overman, J. A. Matthew’s Gospel and Formative Judaism: Halakah Sheol The Social World of the Matthean Community. Herod Agrippa I Sodom , Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991. Examines the lex talionis (the law of Valley of Hinnom social and religious milieu of the Jewish-Christian group that produced Matthew. retaliation) A Peabody, David; Cope, Lama; and McNicol, Allan J. One Gospel from Two: Mark’s Use of Matthew and Luke: N A Demonstration of the Research Team of the International Recommended Reading G Institute for Gospel Studies. Harrisburg, Penn.: Trinity Press International, 2002. Argues that Mark is an Boring, M. Engene. “The Gospel of Matthew.” In The E abridgment of the two other Synoptics. New Interpreter’s Bible , Vol. 8, pp. 89–105. Nashville: L Runesson, Anders. “Matthew, Gospel According to.” Abingdon Press, 1995. Extensive scholarly com- In M. D. Coogan, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the mentary on the origin, purpose, and text of A Boo k s of the Bible , Vol. 2, pp. 59–78. New York: Matthew. Oxford University Press, 2011. Examines the Brown, Michael J. “Matthew, Gospel of.” In K. D. Gospel’s structure and theological purpose. Sakenfeld, ed., The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the 6 Senior, D. P. What Are They Saying About Matthew? Bible, Vol. 3, pp. 839–852. Nashville: Abington 8 Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Paulist Press, 2008. A scholarly analysis of the Gospel’s Press, 1995. A survey of critical approaches to in- probable origins, structure, and theological 5 terpreting Matthew. content. Sim, David. The Gospel of Matthew and Christian Brown, R. E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on 3 Judaism: The History and Social Setting of the Matthean the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke, 2nd ed. B Community. Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 1998. New York: Doubleday, 1993. A thorough analysis Argues for an exclusively Christian Jewish envi- of traditions surrounding Jesus’ birth. U ronment as the Gospel’s source. ———. The Death of the Messiah, Vols. 1 and 2. New Stern, David H. Jewish New Testament Commentary . York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1994. An exhaustive Clarksville, Md.: Jewish New Testament Publica- analysis of the Gospel accounts of Jesus’ arrest, tions, Inc., 1992. An important contribution to rec- trial, and execution by a leading Roman Catholic ognizing the Jewish cultural context of the early scholar. Christian writings. Bryan, Christopher. The Resurrection of the Messiah . Talbert, Charles H. Matthew . Grand Rapids, Mich.: New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Baker Academic, 2010. Examines the Gospel’s Examines earliest recoverable beliefs about the cultural environment and the author’s theologi- nature of Jesus’ resurrection. cal concerns. har19138_ch08_165-196.indd Page 196 06/01/14 8:13 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Wink, Walter. The Powers That Be: Theology for a New Wright, N. T. The Resurrection of the Son of God Millennium. New York: Galilee/Doubleday, 1998. (Christian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. Includes a chapter, “Jesus’ Third Way” (between 3). Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2003. the extremes of violence and passivity), that percep- Probably the most cogently argued work defend- tively interprets Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount. ing the historicity of Jesus’ physical resurrection.

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c hapter 9 Luke’s Portrait of Jesus A Savior for “All Nations” L But [Jesus] said, “In the world kings lord it overA their subjects; and those in authority are called ‘Benefactors.’ Not so with you: on the contrary,W the highest among you must bear himself like the youngest, the chief of you like a servant. . . . HereS I am among you like a servant.” Luke 22:25–27 O N , Key Topics/Themes The fi rst part of a two-volume approaching kingdom overturns the normal social work (Luke-Acts), Luke’s Gospel presents Jesus’ order and reverses conventional beliefs. After a career not only as history’s most crucial event but A formal preface and extended nativity account also as the opening stage of an indefi nitely N ( chs . 1 and 2), Luke generally follows Mark’s extended historical process that continues in the order in narrating the Galilean ministry ( chs . 3–9); life of the church (Acts 1–28). Writing for a Greco- G he then inserts a large body of teaching material, Roman audience, Luke emphasizes that Jesus E the “greater interpolation” (9:51–18:14), suppos- and his disciples, working under the Holy Spirit, edly given on the journey to Jerusalem, returning are innocent of any crime against Rome and that L to Mark for his narration of the Jerusalem minis- their religion is a universal faith intended for all A try and Passion story (18:31–23:56). Luke’s fi nal people. The parables unique to Luke’s Gospel chapter reports post resurrection appearances in depict the unexpected ways in which God’s or near Jerusalem ( ch . 24). 6 8 The author of Luke-Acts is unique among New 5 Babylon in Revelation) had obliterated its succes- Testament writers, manifesting a breadth of histor- 3 sor in 70 ce . In both of these national disasters, ical vision comparable to that shown in the sweep- the people of Israel lost their sanctuary, priest- ing narrative of Israel’s history from the conquest B hood, and homeland. Both catastrophes raised of Canaan to the fi rst destruction of the Jewish U similar questions about God’s loyalty to his cove- state (the Hebrew Bible books of Joshua through nant people. In the bleak decades after 587 bce , 2 Kings). Like the fi nal editors of Israel’s histori- the authors of Psalm 89 and of Lamentations cal books (sixth century bce ), the writer of Luke- questioned their God’s faithfulness to his prom- Acts lived at a time when Jerusalem and its ises, while the author of Job demanded that Temple lay in ruins and Jews were enslaved to Yahweh, the Lord of history, justify his permitting Gentiles. Babylon had demolished Solomon’s the righteous and innocent to suffer as if they Temple in 587 bce , and Rome (labeled the new were guilty of unpardonable crimes.

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Israel and the Church: The Gospel According to Luke Luke’s Theology of History Author: Traditionally Luke, a traveling compan- ion of Paul, not an eyewitness to Jesus’ ministry. Because the writer, who also composed the About thirty years before Luke compiled his ac- Book of Acts, rarely shows Paul promoting his counts of Jesus and the early church, Paul had distinctive ideas and never mentions Paul’s let- ters, scholars think it unlikely that he was an inti- insisted that his fellow Jews were still God’s cove- mate of the apostle. Luke-Acts is anonymous. nant people: “They are Israelites: they were made Date: About 85–90 ce , signifi cantly after the God’s sons; theirs is the splendour of the divine destruction of Jerusalem and the church’s presence, theirs the covenants, the law, the tem- transformation into a primarily Gentile movement. ple worship, and the promises” (Rom. 9:4). Paul Place of composition: Unknown. Suggestions was executed several years before the cataclysm range from Antioch to Ephesus. of 70 ce ; we do not know how he would have in- L Sources: Mark, Q, and special Lukan material (L). terpreted the event to other Jews. Luke, however, A Audience: Gentile Christians dispersed through- who was thoroughly acquainted with God’s out the Roman Empire. The person to whom both promises to Israel, attempted to place the Jews’ W Luke and Acts are dedicated, , may seemingly inexplicable fate in historical and S have been a Greco-Roman government offi cial, or, because his name means “beloved [or lover] of theological perspective. As L. T. Johnson notes in O God,” he may be a symbol for the Gentile church. his essay on Luke-Acts (see “Recommended N Reading”), Luke’s two-volume narrative func- tions in part as a theodicy, a literary work that ,and Sarah in Genesis: Like their biblical pro- tries to reconcile beliefs about divine goodness totypes, the Baptist’s parents, Zechariah and with the irrefutable fact that evil and undeserved A Elizabeth, are aged and childless—until an angel suffering permeate human experience. appears to announce that the hitherto barren As he indicates in his formal preface to the Nwife will conceive a son destined to be an agent of Gospel, Luke has pondered long over “the whole GGod’s plan for humanity. As the son of Abraham course of these events” and is determined to Eand Sarah— Isaac —is the precious “seed” through provide “a connected narrative” that will give whom the promised benefi ts to Israel will fl ow, so readers “authentic knowledge” (1:3–4) about the LJohn is the connecting link between Israel’s past interlocking stories of Judaism and nascent Aand the future blessings bestowed by Jesus. John Christianity. Luke’s wish to convey “authentic” in- will fi ll the prophesied role of a returned Elijah, formation (a reliable meaning) through kathexes messenger of a New Covenant and precursor of (proper sequential order) in writing his ac- 6Jesus (1:5–21). Because John’s father, Zechariah, count suggests his moral purpose: Luke-Acts will 8is a priest who devotedly offi ciates at the Temple— demonstrate that God did indeed fulfi ll his 5the location of Zechariah’s angelic visitation— promises to Israel before giving his new revela- 3the Baptist’s heritage is fi rmly planted at the exact tion to the Gentiles. Assured that God has been center of Israel’s religious tradition. faithful to Israel, Gentiles can now rely on his B Midway through his Gospel, Luke makes promises made through the church, a renewed UJohn’s transitional function explicit: “Until Israel that includes both Jews and Greeks. John, it was the Law and the prophets; since Luke thus begins his double volume—in then there is the good news of the kingdom of length Luke-Acts makes up a full third of the New God, and everyone forces his way in” (16:16). Testament—with a narrative about the concep- As the last of Israel’s long line of prophets, tion of John the Baptist. As Luke presents John’s John represents the First Covenant (Torah and nativity, the future baptizer of Jesus is the culmi- prophets). As the fi gure who introduces the nating prophetic fi gure in Israel’s history. The new era of God’s kingdom, John’s successor— author makes John’s parents resemble Abraham Jesus of Nazareth—stands at the precise center har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 199 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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of time, the pivot on which world history turns. (24:44–53; Acts 1:1–8). In revising Mark’s Beginning his ministry with John’s baptism, the Gospel (Luke’s principal source), the author Lukan Jesus completes it with extensive post creatively modifi es the Markan expectation of resurrection appearances in which he interprets an immediate End to show that Jesus’ essential the Hebrew Bible as a christological prophecy, work is continued by the believing community. declaring that “everything written about me in Acts portrays the disciples entering a new his- the Law of Moses and in the prophets and torical epoch, the age of the church, and psalms . . . [is now] fulfi lled” (Luke 24:36–53). thereby extends the new faith’s operations in- Jesus then commands his disciples to recruit defi nitely into the future. Acts concludes, not followers from “all nations,” creating a multi- by drawing attention to the Parousia , but by cultural Gentile community (24:47; Acts 1:8). recounting Paul’s resolve to concentrate on In Luke’s view, God has kept his biblical ministering to Gentiles (28:27–28). promises to Israel; the divine advantages that for- L merly were Israel’s exclusive privilege can now be A extended to others as well. Accordingly, Luke The Author and His Sources ends his account of the early church with Paul’s W declaration that “this salvation of God has been S Dedication to Theophilus sent to the Gentiles; the Gentiles will listen ” (Acts O 28:28; emphasis added). It is signifi cant that Paul Luke addresses his Gospel to Theophilus , the oth- is in Rome, the Gentile center of imperial power, N erwise unknown person to whom he also dedi- when he asserts that henceforth he and his fellow , cates his sequel, the Book of Acts (1:1; Acts 1:1). missionaries will focus their efforts on Gentiles. Bearing a Greek name meaning “lover of God,” Theophilus —whom Luke calls “your After showing Paul preaching “without [legal] A restraint” in Rome, Luke abruptly ends his ac- Excellency”—may have been a Greek or Roman count. He does not continue the story with Paul’s N offi cial, perhaps an affl uent patron who under- execution for sedition or Jerusalem’s destruc- G wrote Luke’s composition and publication. tion, twin blows to the church that effectively E eliminated both the chief missionary to the Authorship and Date Gentiles and the original Jewish nerve center of L Christianity. For Luke’s purpose, it is enough to A The most important early reference to the imply that Christianity metaphorically has out- author of Luke-Acts confi rms that, like Mark, he grown its Jewish roots and has been transplanted was not an eyewitness to the events he narrates. abroad in order to thrive on Gentile soil. 6 In the Muratorian list of New Testament books Luke-Acts thus traces the course of a new 8 (usually dated at about 200 ce , although some world religion from its inception in a Bethlehem 5 recent scholarly studies place it in the fourth stable to its (hoped-for) status as a legitimate century), a note identifi es the author of this faith of the Roman Empire. By making Jesus’ 3 Gospel as Luke, “the beloved” physician who ac- life the central act of a three-part drama that B companied Paul on some of the apostle’s mis- begins with Israel and continues with the U sionary journeys. The note also states that Luke Christian church, Luke offers a philosophy of did not know Jesus. In the late second century history vital to Christianity’s later understand- ce , Irenaeus , a bishop of Lyon in Gaul (modern ing of its mission. Instead of bringing the world France), also referred to the author as a com- to an apocalyptic end, Jesus’ career is a new be- panion of Paul’s, presumably the same Luke ginning that establishes a heightened aware- named in several Pauline letters (Col. 4:14; ness of God’s intentions for all humanity. The Philem . 24; 2 Tim. 4:11). If the author of Luke- Lukan Jesus’ triumph over death is closely tied Acts is Paul’s friend, it explains the “we” pas- to the disciples’ job of evangelizing the world sages in Acts in which the narration changes har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 200 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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from the third to the fi rst person in describing and Matt. 24), Luke reveals detailed knowledge certain episodes; presumably, he was a partici- of the Roman siege: pant in these events (Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–15; But when you see Jerusalem encircled by armies, 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). Some commentators also then you may be sure that her destruction is near. argue for Lukan authorship on the basis of the Then you who are in Judea must take to the hills; writer’s vocabulary, which includes a number of those that are in the city itself must leave it . . . be- medical terms appropriate for a physician. cause this is the time of retribution. . . . For there Other scholars, however, point out that the will be great distress in the land and a terrible writer uses medical terms no more expertly judgment upon this people. They will fall at the than he employs legal or maritime terminology. sword’s point; they will be carried captive into all The author nowhere identifi es himself, countries; and Jerusalem will be trampled down either in the Gospel or in Acts. His depiction of by foreigners until their day has run its course. Paul’s character and teaching, moreover, does L (21:20–24) not always coincide with what Paul reveals of him- A In this passage, Luke substitutes a description self in his letters. To many contemporary schol- Wof Jerusalem’s siege for the cryptic “sign” (the ars, these facts indicate that the author could not “abomination of desolation”) that Mark and have known the apostle well. Perhaps the most SMatthew allude to at this point in their accounts telling argument against Luke’s authorship is that O(see Mark 13:13–19; Matt. 24:15–22). Luke also the writer shows no knowledge of Paul’s letters. refers specifi cally to the Roman method of en- Not only does he never refer to Paul’s writing, but N ,circling a besieged town, a military technique he alludes to none of Paul’s characteristic teach- used in the 70 ce assault on Jerusalem: ings in any of the Pauline speeches contained in Your enemies will set up siege-works against Acts. At the same time, critics who uphold Lukan A authorship point out that the physician associ- you; they will encircle you and hem you in at ated with Paul for only brief periods and wrote N every point; they will bring you to the ground, long after Paul’s death, when the theological is- you and your children within your walls, and G not leave you one stone standing on another. sues argued in Paul’s letters were no longer as E immediate or controversial as they had been. (19:43–44) L Luke’s concern in Acts is not to reopen theologi- It would appear, then, that the Gospel was written cal disputes but to smooth over differences that Aat some point after the Jewish War of 66–73 ce divided the early church and depict apostles and and before about 90 ce , when publication made missionaries united in spreading the faith. Al- 6Paul’s letters accessible to Christian readers. though many experts regard the writer of Luke- Many scholars place Luke-Acts in the mid-to-late Acts as anonymous, others retain the traditional 880s ce and favor Ephesus, a Greek-speaking city assumption that the historical Luke is the author. 5in Asia Minor with a relatively large Christian Although the author’s identity is not con- population, as the place of composition. clusively established, for convenience we refer 3 B to him as Luke. Based on his interest in a Luke’s Use of Sources Gentile audience and his facility with the Greek U language (he has the largest vocabulary and As a Christian living two or three generations af- most polished style of any Evangelist), the ter Jesus’ time, Luke must rely on other persons’ writer may have been a Gentile, perhaps the information, including orally transmitted recol- only non-Jewish biblical writer. lections about Jesus and traditional Christian According to most scholars, Luke-Acts was preaching. Besides using memories of “eyewit- written after 70 ce , when Jerusalem was destroyed nesses” and later missionary accounts, the author by the Roman armies under General (and later, depends on his own research skills—the labor he Emperor) Titus. In his version of Jesus’ predic- expends going “over the whole course of these tion of the holy city’s fall (paralleling Mark 13 events in detail” (1:1–4). har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 201 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Luke is aware that “many” others before him Like the other Synoptic writers, Luke pre- produced Gospels (1:1). His resolve to create yet sents Jesus’ life in terms of images and themes another suggests that he was not satisfi ed with his from the Hebrew Bible, which thus constitutes predecessors’ efforts. As Matthew did, he chooses another of the author’s sources. In Luke’s pre- Mark as his primary source, but he omits several sentation, some of Jesus’ miracles, such as his large units of Markan material (such as Mark resuscitating a widow’s dead son, are told in such 6:45–8:26 and 9:41–10:12), perhaps to make a way that they closely resemble similar miracles room for his own special additions. Adapting in the Hebrew Scriptures. Jesus’ deeds clearly Mark to his creative purpose, Luke sometimes echo those of the prophets Elijah and Elisha (1 rearranges the sequence of individual incidents Kings 17–19; 2 Kings 1–6). Luke introduces the to emphasize his particular themes. Whereas Elijah– Elisha theme early in the Gospel (4:23–28), Mark placed Jesus’ rejection at Nazareth midway indicating that for him these ancient men of through the Galilean campaign, Luke sets it at L God were prototypes of the Messiah. the beginning (4:16–30). Adding that the A Although he shares material from Mark, Q, Nazarenes attempted to kill Jesus to Mark’s ac- and the Hebrew Bible with Matthew, Luke gives count, he uses the incident to foreshadow his he- W his “connected narrative” a special quality by ro’s later death in Jerusalem (see Box 9.1 ). S including many of Jesus’ words that occur only In addition, Luke frames Mark’s central ac- O in his Gospel (the L source). Only in Luke do count of Jesus’ adult career with his own unique we fi nd such celebrated parables as those of the stories of Jesus’ infancy ( chs . 1 and 2) and resur- N prodigal son (15:11–32), the lost coin (15:8–10), rection ( ch . 24). Luke further modifi es the ear- , the persistent widow, the good Samaritan lier Gospel by adding two extensive sequences of (10:29–32), and Lazarus and the rich man teaching material to Mark’s narrative. The fi rst A (16:19–31) (see Box 9.2 ). These and other par- section inserted into the Markan framework— ables embody consistent themes, typically high- called the “lesser interpolation” (6:20–8:3)—in- N lighting life’s unexpected reversals and/or cludes Luke’s version of the Sermon on the G God’s gracious forgiveness of wrongdoers. Mount, which the author transfers to level E Despite the inclusion of some of Jesus’ “hard ground. Known as the sayings” about the rigors of discipleship, Luke’s (6:20–49), this collection of Jesus’ sayings is ap- L special material tends to picture a gentle and lov- parently drawn from the same source that A ing Jesus, a concerned shepherd who tenderly Matthew used, the hypothetical Q ( Quelle , cares for his fl ock (the community of believers). “source”) document. Instead of assembling Q Luke has been accused of “sentimentalizing” material into long speeches as Matthew does, 6 Jesus’ message; however, the author’s concern however, Luke scatters these sayings throughout 8 for oppressed people—the poor, social outcasts, his Gospel. Scholars believe that he observes Q’s 5 women—is genuine and lends his Gospel a original order more closely than Matthew. distinctively humane and gracious ambience. Luke’s second major insertion into the Markan 3 B narrative, called the “greater interpolation,” Some Typical Lukan Themes is nearly ten chapters long (9:51–18:14). A miscella- U neous compilation of Jesus’ parables and pro- Luke makes his Gospel a distinctive creation by no uncements, this collection supposedly rep- sounding many themes important to the resents Jesus’ teaching on the road from Galilee to self-identity and purpose of the Christian com- Jerusalem. It is composed almost exclusively of Q munity for which he writes. Many readers fi nd material and Luke’s special source, which scholars Luke’s account especially appealing because it call L ( Lukan ) . After this interpolation section, portrays Jesus taking a personal interest in during which all narrative action stops, Luke re- women, the poor, social outcasts, and other pow- turns to Mark’s account at 18:15 and then repro- erless persons. In general, Luke portrays Jesus as duces an edited version of the Passion story. a model of compassion who willingly forgives har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 202 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 9.1 Luke’s Editing and Restructuring of Mark

Luke generally follows Mark’s narrative omits Mark’s story of Jesus’ “mother and brothers” sequence, though he uses less of Mark’s Gospel trying to interfere in his ministry (Mark 3:21, 33, 34) (about 35 percent) than Matthew. Besides omit- and rewrites the Markan Jesus’ statement about ting large sections of Mark (Mark 6:45 – 8:26 and not being respected by his “family and kinsmen” 9:41 – 10:12), Luke also typically deletes Markan (cf. Mark 6:4; :22, 24). Several of Luke’s passages that might refl ect unfavorably on Jesus’ representative changes to his Markan source— family or disciples. Consistent with his exaltation apparently made for thematic or theological of Mary in the birth stories (1:26, 56; 2:1, 39), he reasons—are given below.

jesus’ baptismL Mark: It happened at this time that Jesus came A Luke: During a general baptism of the people, from Nazareth in Galilee and was baptized in the Wwhen Jesus too had been baptized, heaven opened Jordan by John. (1:9) Sand the Holy Spirit descended. (Luke 3:21) O [Luke deletes Mark’s statement that John baptized Jesus, perhaps to avoid any implication that the Baptist was N Jesus’ superior.] ,

j esus as servantA Mark: “You know that in the world the recognized N Luke: “In the world, kings lord it over their sub- rulers lord it over their subjects, and their great jects; and those in authority are called their men make them feel the weight of authority. That Gcountry’s ‘Benefactors.’ Not so with you: on the is not the way with you; among you, whoever wants Econtrary, the highest among you must bear him- to be great must be your servant, and whoever Lself like the youngest, the chief of you like a ser- wants to be fi rst must be the willing slave of all. For vant. For who is greater—the one who sits at table even the Son of Man did not come to be served Aor the servant who waits on him? Surely the one but to serve, and to give up his life as a ransom for who sits at table. Yet here am I among you like a many.” (Mark 10:42–45) 6servant.” (Luke 22:25 – 27) 8 [Luke changes the setting of Jesus’ words from the road to humanity. In Acts, where Luke consistently depicts Jerusalem to the scene of the Last Supper and omits the 5Jesus’ followers as imitating his example of service, the Markan declaration that Jesus’ death is a “ransom for 3author briefl y cites Isaiah’s “suffering servant” passage many,” perhaps suggesting that he viewed Jesus’ death as B( Isa . 53:7–8), but excludes any reference to vicarious an act of heroic service rather as a sacrifi ce that “ransoms” Uatonement (Acts 8:30–35).] at the cross Mark: Then Jesus gave a loud cry and died . . . And Luke: Then Jesus gave a loud cry and said, “Father, when the centurion who was standing opposite into thy hands I commit my spirit”; and with these him saw how he died, he said, “Truly this man was words he died. The centurion saw it all, and gave a son of God.” (Mark 15:37, 39) praise to God. “Beyond all doubt,” he said, “this man was innocent.” (:46–47) har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 203 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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[Instead of perceiving Jesus as worthy of divine honor, as innocent of treason against Rome, a theme prominent in in Mark, the Lukan centurion declares that Jesus is legally Acts’ description of the disciples’ trials before Roman law courts.]

seeking the risen jesus Mark: “Nevertheless, after I am raised again I will Luke: The risen Jesus instructs the disciples: “I am go on before you into Galilee.” (14:28) sending upon you my Father’s promised gift [the Holy Spirit], so stay here in this city [Jerusalem] until you are armed with the power from above.” (24:49)

[At the empty tomb, a youth “wearing a white robe” [Whereas Mark directs the disciples to fi nd their risen instructs the frightened women disciples to “give this L Lord in Galilee (as does Matthew 28:7, 10, 16–17), message to his disciples and Peter: ‘He is going on before A Luke insists that they remain in Jerusalem, where all the you into Galilee, and there you will see him, as he told W Lukan post resurrection appearances take place and where you’ ” (16:7).] S the Holy Spirit anoints the early church (Acts 1:8–2:47).] O N box 9.2 Representative Examples, of Material Found Only in Luke

A A formal preface and statement of purpose (1:1–4) N Sat an falling like lightning from heaven A narrative about the parents of John the Baptist (10:18) (1:5–25, 57–80) G The good Samaritan (10:29–37) Luke’s distinctive story of Jesus’ conception and E The rich and foolish materialist (12:13–21) birth (1:26–56; 2:1–40) L The unproductive fi g tree (13:6–9) Jesus’ childhood visit to the Jerusalem Temple A He aling a crippled woman on the Sabbath (2:41–52) (13:10–17) A distinctive Lukan genealogy (3:23–38) A d istinctive version of the kingdom banquet The Scripture reading in the Nazareth synagogue 6 (14:12–24) and subsequent attempt to kill Jesus (4:16–30) 8 The parable of the lost coin (15:8–10) Jesus’ hearing before Herod Antipas (23:6–12) The prodigal (spendthrift) son (15:11–32) The sympathetic criminal (23:39–43) 5 The dishonest manager (16:1–13) Jesus’ post resurrection appearances on the road to 3 Lazarus and the rich man (16:19–31) Emmaus (24:13–35) B The Pharisee and the tax collector (18:9–14) Some parables, sayings, and miracles unique to Luke: Raising the son of a Nain widow (7:11–17) U Two forgiven debtors (7:41–43)

sinners, comforts the downtrodden, and heals the that Jesus’ kingdom ethic demands a radical affl icted. Luke’s Jesus is particularly attentive to change in society’s present social and religious issues of social and economic justice. In numerous values. Some major themes that strongly color parables unique to his Gospel, Luke demonstrates Luke’s portrait of Jesus are described next. har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 204 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The Holy Spirit Luke is convinced that Jesus’ ca- reer and the growth of Christianity are not his- torical accidents, but the direct result of God’s will, which is expressed through the Holy Spirit. Luke uses this term more than Mark and Matthew combined (fourteen times). It is by the Spirit that Jesus is conceived and by which he is anointed after baptism. The Spirit leads him into the wilderness (4:1) and empowers his min- istry in Galilee (4:14). The Spirit is conferred through prayer (11:13), and at death, the Lukan Jesus commits his “spirit” to God (23:46). The Holy Spirit reappears with overwhelm- L ing power in Acts 2 when, like a “strong driving A wind,” it rushes upon the 120 disciples gath- ered in Jerusalem to observe Pentecost. W Possession by the Spirit confi rms God’s accep- S tance of Gentiles into the church (Acts 11:15–18). O To Luke, it is the Spirit that is responsible for the faith’s rapid expansion throughout the N Roman Empire. Like Paul, Luke sees the , Christian community as charismatic, Spirit led, and Spirit empowered. A Prayer Another of Luke’s principal interests is N Jesus’ and the disciples’ use of prayer. Luke’s in- G fancy narrative is full of prayers and hymns of E praise by virtually all the adult participants. In his account of John’s baptizing campaign, the Holy L Spirit descends upon Jesus not at his baptism, as A figure 9.1 Virgin and Child. This wooden sculpture in Mark, but afterward while Jesus is at prayer from Africa shows the infant Jesus with Mary, a rendition (3:21). Similarly, Jesus chooses the disciples after 6illustrating the archetypal image of mother and child, prayer (6:12) and prays before he asks them who nurturer and bearer of new life, as well as an image of he is (9:18). The Transfi guration occurs “while 8black holiness. he is praying” (9:29). Jesus’ instructions on 5 prayer are also more extensive than in other 3 Gospels (11:1–13; 18:1–14). The Lukan emphasis Mary responds affi rmatively to the Holy Spirit, on prayer carries over into Acts, in which the Bconceiving and nurturing the world-savior (see heroes of the early church are frequently shown U Figure 9.1 ). During his adult ministry, Jesus ac- praying (Acts 1:14, 24–26; 8:15; 10:1–16). cepts many female disciples, praising those who, like Mary, the sister of , abandon Jesus’ Concern for Women From the beginning domestic chores to take their places among the of his account, Luke makes it clear that women male followers—a privilege Jesus declares “will play an indispensable part in fulfi lling the di- not be taken from [them]” (10:38–42) (see vine plan. Elizabeth, Zechariah’s wife, is chosen Figure 9.2 ). Galilean women not only follow to produce and raise Israel’s fi nal prophet, the Jesus on the path to Jerusalem but also fi nancially one who prepares the way for Jesus. Her cousin support him and his male companions (8:2–3). har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 205 07/01/14 3:02 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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L A W S O N ,

A N G figure 9.2 The Holy Family. The unknown years of Jesus’ boyhood are given a Japanese setting in this twentieth-century painting on silk. Shouldering his share ofE the family’s work, the young Jesus carries wood to help Joseph, his carpenter father, while Mary, his mother, is busy at her spinning wheel. The themes of productive labor, mutual assistance, and familial harmony dominate theL domestic scene in Nazareth, providing a contrast to the adult Jesus’ later rejection of family ties and obligationsA (Mark 3).

As in Mark, it is these Galilean women who pro- 6 dinner party and seats herself next to Jesus, vide the human link between Jesus’ death and 8 bathing his feet with her tears, much to his resurrection, witnessing the Crucifi xion and re- 5 host’s indignation (7:37–50). Luke alone pre- ceiving fi rst the news that he is risen (23:49; serves one of Jesus’ most provocative stories, in 23:55–24:11). 3 which the central character is an ungrateful son B who consorts with prostitutes and sinks to grov- Jesus’ Affi nity with the Unrespectable Closely U eling with swine—but whom his father loves un- linked to Jesus’ concern for women, who were conditionally (15:11–32). In Luke, Jesus not largely powerless in both Jewish and Greco- only conducts a brief ministry in Samaria (tradi- Roman society, is his affi nity for many similarly tionally viewed as a center of religious impurity vulnerable people on the margins of society. “A [9:52–56]) but also makes a Samaritan the friend of tax-gatherers and sinners” (7:34), the embodiment of neighborly love (10:30–37). Lukan Jesus openly accepts social outcasts, in- Accused of being “a glutton and a drinker,” cluding “immoral” women, such as an appar- Jesus personally welcomes “tax-gatherers and ently notorious woman who crashes a Pharisee’s other bad characters” to dine with him, refusing har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 206 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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to distinguish between deserving and undeserv- hearings before various other Roman offi cials, ing guests (7:29–34; 15:1–2). In Luke’s version Luke is careful to mention that in each case the of the great banquet, the host’s doors are thrown accused is innocent of any real crime. Although open indiscriminately to “the poor, the crippled, Pilate condemns Jesus for claiming to be “king of the lame, and the blind,” people incapable of the Jews,” an act of sedition against Rome, in reciprocating hospitality (14:12–24). To Luke, it Luke’s Gospel, Pilate also affi rms Jesus’ inno- is not the “poor in spirit” who gain divine bless- cence, explicitly stating that he fi nds the prisoner ing, but simply “the poor,” the economically de- “guilty of no capital offence” (23:22). In Acts, prived for whom productive citizens typically Luke creates parallels to Jesus’ trial in which the show little sympathy (cf. 6:20–21 and 6:24–25). apostles and others are similarly declared inno- cent of subversion. Convinced that Christianity is Christianity as a Universal Faith The author de- destined to spread throughout the empire, Luke signs Luke-Acts to show that, through Jesus and Lwishes to demonstrate that it is no threat to the his successors, God directs human history to Apeace or stability of the Roman government. achieve humanity’s redemption. Luke’s theory of salvation history has a universalist aspect: From its W The Importance of Jerusalem More than any inception, Christianity is a religion intended for Sother Gospel author, Luke links crucial events “all nations,” especially those peoples who have Oin Jesus’ life with Jerusalem and the Temple. He hitherto lived without Israel’s Law and prophets. is the only Evangelist to associate Jesus’ infancy As prophesies over the infant Jesus, the Nand childhood with visits to the Temple and the child is destined to become “a revelation to the ,only one to place all of Jesus’ post resurrection heathen [Gentiles]” (2:32). Luke’s emphasis on appearances in or near Jerusalem. Jerusalem Jesus’ universality also appears in his genealogy, Ais the place where his Gospel account begins which, like that in Matthew, traces Jesus’ descent (1:8–22), where Jesus’ parents take their eight- through Joseph (Luke 3:23). Unlike Matthew, Nday-old son for circumcision (2:31–39), and however, who lists Jesus’ ancestors back to Gwhere the twelve-year-old Jesus astonishes Abraham, “father of the Jews,” Luke takes Jesus’ E“teachers” in the Temple with the profundity of family tree all the way back to the fi rst human, his questions (2:41–51). Adam, whom he calls “son of God” (Luke 3:23–38). L Near the conclusion of his ministry, the By linking Jesus with Adam, the one created in Aadult Jesus “set his face to go to Jerusalem,” the God’s “image” and “likeness,” Luke presents Jesus city where he would endure a fatal confronta- as savior of the whole human race. Whereas tion with priestly and Roman authorities (9:51). Matthew emphasizes Jesus’ heritage as Jewish 6As the Lukan Jesus insists, “It is impossible for a Messiah, Luke shows him as the heir of Adam, 8prophet to be killed outside of Jerusalem”—a from whom all of humanity is descended. In Acts, 5statement that occurs only in Luke (13:33). therefore, the risen Christ’s fi nal words commis- In Mark, the youth at Jesus’ empty tomb di- sion his followers to bear witness about him from 3rects the bewildered female disciples to seek Jerusalem “to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8), Btheir risen Lord “in Galilee” (Mark 16:7), an or- conveying his message to all of Adam’s children. Uder that Matthew says the male disciples eventu- ally obeyed (Matt. 28:16–20). In contrast, the Christianity as a Lawful Religion Besides present- Lukan Jesus commands his followers to remain ing Christianity as a universal faith, Luke works to in Jerusalem (24:49), where they will receive the show that it is a peaceful and lawful religion. Holy Spirit. Luke’s insistence that Jerusalem Both the Gospel and its sequel, the Book of Acts, and its environs—not Galilee—were the sites of function as an apology ( apologia ), a form of liter- all Jesus’ appearances after his resurrection ex- ature written to defend or explain a particular presses his view that Jerusalem and the Temple viewpoint or way of life. In reporting Jesus’ trial were central to God’s plan. For Luke, not only is before the Roman magistrate and Paul’s similar Jerusalem the place where Jesus dies, is buried, har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 207 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 9.3 New Characters Introduced in Luke

Elizabeth and the priest Zechariah, parents of the The unidentifi ed sinful woman whom Jesus Baptist (1:5–25, 39–79) forgives (7:36–50) , the angel who announces Jesus’ virginal The sisters Mary and Martha (10:38–39) conception (1:26–38) Zacchaeus , the wealthy tax collector (19:1–10) Augustus, emperor of Rome (2:1–2) Herod Antipas, as one of Jesus’ judges (22:7–12; also Simeon, who foretells Jesus’ messiahship (2:25–35) 9:7–9) Anna, an aged prophetess (2:36–38) Cleopas and an unidentifi ed disciple (24:13–35) The widow of Nain (7:11–16) L A rises from the tomb, appears to his followers, W judges of ancient Israel “saved” or delivered their and ascends to heaven, it is also the sacred S people from military oppressors. (The NEB trans- ground on which the Christian church is O lators therefore use the English noun deliverer for founded. In Luke’s theology of history, God so–ter in Luke [1:24, 69; 2:11].) thus fulfi lls his ancient promises to Israel, focus- N , ing his divine power on the holy city where King Organization of Luke’s Gospel David once reigned and where David’s ultimate heir inaugurates an everlasting kingdom. A A simple outline of Luke’s structure follows: 1. Formal preface (1:1–4) Jesus as Savior Finally, Luke also presents Jesus N 2. Infancy narratives of the Baptist and Jesus in a guise that his Greek and Roman readers will G (1:5–2:52) understand. Matthew had labored to prove from E 3. Prelude to Jesus’ ministry: baptism, geneal- the Hebrew Bible that Jesus was the Davidic ogy, and temptation (3:1–4:13) Messiah. In the account of Jesus’ infancy, Luke L 4. Jesus’ Galilean ministry (4:14–9:50) also sounds the theme of prophetic fulfi llment. A 5. Luke’s travel narrative: Jesus’ teachings on But he is aware as well that his Gentile audience the journey to Jerusalem (the “greater inter- is not primarily interested in a Jewish Messiah, a polation” [9:51–18:14]) fi gure traditionally associated with Jewish nation- 6 6. The Jerusalem ministry: Jesus’ challenge to alism. Although Mark and Matthew had declared 8 the holy city (18:31–21:38) their hero “Son of God,” Luke further universal- 5 7. The fi nal confl ict and Passion story (22:1 – izes Jesus’ appeal by declaring him “Savior” (1:69; 23:56) 2:11; Acts 3:13–15). He is the only Synoptic writer 3 8. Epilogue: post resurrection appearances in to do so. Luke’s term (the Greek so–ter) was used B the vicinity of Jerusalem (24:1–53) widely in the Greco-Roman world and was ap- U plied to gods, demigods, and human rulers alike. In examining Luke’s work, we focus primarily Hellenistic peoples commonly worshiped savior on material found only in his Gospel, especially deities in numerous mystery cults and hailed em- the narrative sections and parables that illus- perors by the title “god and savior” for the mate- trate distinctively Lukan themes (see Box 9.3 rial benefi ts, such as health, peace, and prosperity, for new characters introduced in Luke). that they conferred (see the discussion of the em- Because we have already discussed the preface, peror cult in Chapter 5). For Luke, Jesus is the we begin with one of the most familiar and best- Savior of repentant humanity, one who delivers loved stories in the entire Bible—the account believers from the consequences of sin, as the of Jesus’ conception and birth. har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 208 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Infancy Narratives of the Bible. The effect is akin to that of reading the birth stories in the archaic language of the King Baptist and Jesus James Version and most of the rest of the Gospel in more contemporary English. Luke’s purpose We do not know Luke’s source for his infancy here, however, is more than merely stylistic: He is narratives (1:5–2:52), but he apparently drew on echoing the ancient Scriptures, both by his style a tradition that differed in many details from and by extensive quotations from the Hebrew Matthew’s account. The two writers agree that prophets, because what he relates in these pas- Jesus was born in Bethlehem to Mary, a virgin, and sages is the climactic turn of history: “Until John, Joseph, a descendant of David (see Figure 9.3). it was the Law and the prophets, since then there Apart from that, however, the two Evangelists is the good news of the kingdom” (16:16). relate events in strikingly different manners. Whereas the Baptist will serve as the capstone of In composing his parallel infancy narratives, LIsrael’s ancient prophetic tradition, in Jesus, God Luke adopts a consciously biblical style, writing Awill both fulfi ll his promises to Israel and begin in the old-fashioned Greek of the Septuagint the climactic process of human salvation. W S

figure 9.3 Our Lady of Colombia. O In this conception of Mary and the N infant Jesus, the artist pictures the Madonna as an archetypal image , of abundance and fertility, giving her a crown to depict her queenly status and surrounding her with fl ow- A ers to suggest her association with N natural fecundity. This twentieth- century rendition of the Virgin by F. G Botero of Colombia effectively demonstrates her thematic connec- E tion with nurturing goddesses of L pre-Christian antiquity. A

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The Birth of John the Baptist Jesus’ signifi cance and the babe’s ultimate des- tiny to rule all humanity. In depicting John’s aged parents, Elizabeth and For Luke, Jesus’ humble arrival on earth Zechariah, Luke highlights their exemplary pi- shows that God is henceforth actively intervening ety and devotion to the letter of Israel’s religion. in Roman society. A Lukan angel proclaims “good Described as “upright and devout, blamelessly news” that contrasts markedly with Rome’s impe- observing all the commandments and ordi- rial propaganda. Although Augustus, divine “son” nances of the [Torah]” (1:6), Zechariah and of the deifi ed Caesar, reigned “throughout the Elizabeth represent the best in Judaism. Roman world,” the real “deliverer [savior]” is the Luke is the only New Testament writer to infant lying “in a manger” (2:1–14). (For a discus- state that the respective mothers of John and Jesus sion of the Roman emperor cult, see Chapter 5.) are blood relatives (1:36). The later adult associa- In telling of Jesus’ circumcision and Mary’s tion between John and Jesus is thus foreshadowed L ritual purifi cation (2:21–24), Luke emphasizes by their physical kinship, their mothers’ friend- A another theme important to his picture of ship, and the similar circumstances of their births. Jesus’ Jewish background: Not only relatives W like Elizabeth and Zechariah but also Jesus’ im- The Role of Mary S mediate family observe the Mosaic Law scrupu- O lously. His parents obey every Torah command Luke interweaves the two nativity accounts, jux- (2:39), including making a yearly pilgrimage to taposing Gabriel ’s visit to Mary (1:26–38) (the N the Jerusalem Temple for Passover (2:41–43). ) with Mary’s visit to her cousin , The author’s own view is that most of the Torah’s Elizabeth, a meeting that causes the unborn provisions no longer bind Christians (Acts 15), John to stir in his mother’s womb at the ap- A but he wishes to emphasize that from birth proach of the newly conceived Jesus. As Mary Jesus fulfi lled all Torah requirements. had been made pregnant by the Holy Spirit, so N Elizabeth at their encounter is empowered by G Luke’s Use of Hymns the Spirit to prophesy concerning the superior- E ity of Mary’s child. This emphasis on women’s Throughout the infancy stories of Jesus and the role in the divine purpose (note also the proph- L Baptist, Luke follows the Greco-Roman biogra- etess Anna in 2:36–38) is a typical Lukan con- A pher’s practice of inserting speeches that illus- cern. Also signifi cant is Luke’s hint about trate themes vital to the writer’s view of his Mary’s family background. Because Elizabeth is subject. The long poem uttered by Zechariah— “of priestly descent,” which means that she be- 6 known by its Latin name, the Benedictus longs to the tribe of Levi, it seems probable that 8 (1:67–79)—combines scriptural quotations Mary also belongs to the Levitical clan rather 5 with typically Lukan views about Jesus’ signifi - than the Davidic tribe of Judah. Like that of cance. The same is true of the priest Simeon’s Matthew, Luke’s genealogy traces Jesus’ Davidic 3 prayer, the (2:29–32), and ensu- ancestry through Joseph (1:5; 3:23–24). B ing prophecy (2:23–25). Some of the speeches In relating the two infancy stories, Luke U ascribed to characters in the nativity accounts subtly indicates the relative importance of the may be rewritten songs and prayers fi rst used in two children. He dates John’s birth in King Christian worship services. These liturgical Herod’s reign (1:5). In contrast, when introduc- pieces include the angel Gabriel’s announce- ing Jesus’ nativity, the author relates the event ment to Mary that she will bear a son, the Ave not to a Judean king, but to a Roman emperor, Maria (1:28–33), and Mary’s exulting prayer, Augustus Caesar (2:1). Luke thus places Jesus the Magnifi cat (1:46–55). Mary’s hymn closely in a worldwide (as opposed to a local Jewish) resembles a passage from the Hebrew Bible, context, suggesting both the universal scope of the prayer Hannah recites when an angel har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 210 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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foretells the birth of her son, Samuel (1 Sam. beginning of his career: He wants his readers to 2:1–10). In its present form, this hymn may be understand the event’s thematic or theological as much a composition of the early church, meaning. (See Chapter 1 0 for a discussion of conceived as an appropriate biblical response John’s probable motives in repositioning the to the angel’s visit, as a memory of Mary’s literal Temple incident.) words. Nonetheless, Luke implies that Jesus’ In this highly dramatic scene of confl ict be- mother may have been a source of this tradi- tween Jesus and the residents of his hometown, tion, noting that she refl ected deeply on the Luke extensively rewrites Mark’s account. unusual circumstances surrounding her son’s Besides eliminating Mark’s implication that birth (2:19; see also 2:51). Jesus’ family failed to recognize his worth and Luke includes the only tradition about inserting a quotation from Isaiah that expresses Jesus’ boyhood contained in the New Testament, Luke’s view of Jesus’ prophetic role, the author an anecdote about the twelve-year-old boy’s visit Lcreates a speech for Jesus that outrages the peo- to the Temple in which he impresses some Aple of Nazareth. Taking full authorial advan- learned scribes with the acuteness of his ques- tage of his fi rst opportunity to show the adult tions and understanding (2:41–52). The state- WJesus interacting with his contemporaries, Luke ment that Jesus “advanced in wisdom and in Suses the occasion of Jesus’ visit to the Nazareth favor with God and men” (2:52) almost exactly Osynagogue to give readers a thematic preview of reproduces the Old Testament description of his entire two-volume work. By adding that young Samuel (1 Sam. 2:26) and is probably a NJesus’ former neighbors try to kill him (an ele- conventional observation rather than a histori- ,ment absent in Mark and Matthew, who merely cally precise evaluation of Jesus’ youthful char- report that Nazareth’s residents showed him acter. For Luke, this Temple episode serves Alittle respect), Luke foreshadows Jesus’ later re- primarily to anticipate Jesus’ later ministry at jection and death in Jerusalem. By having Jesus the Jerusalem sanctuary. Ndeliver a sermon in which two of Israel’s great- Gest prophets, Elijah and Elisha , perform their Emost spectacular miracles to benefi t Gentiles, not native Israelites, Luke anticipates the Jesus’ Galilean Ministry Lchurch’s future mission to Gentile nations, de- Jesus’ Rejection in Nazareth Avelopments he will narrate in the Book of Acts. Even more important to Luke is his vision of After describing John’s baptism campaign and Jesus’ essential calling, which he evokes in the Jesus’ temptation by Satan (3–4:13), Luke in- 6quotation from Isaiah: Jesus is empowered by troduces Jesus’ public career in a way that 8the same divine Spirit that motivated Israel’s signifi cantly revises Mark’s order of events. 5prophets, and he will pursue the same kind of Whereas Matthew closely follows Mark in plac- work they did, offering aid and comfort to peo- ing Jesus’ rejection in Nazareth after the 3ple suffering the harsh realities of economic and Galilean campaign is already well under way Bpolitical oppression, explicitly “the poor” and (cf. Mark 6:1–6; Matt. 13:53–58), Luke transfers Udowntrodden. Restoring vision to persons meta- this episode almost to the beginning of Jesus’ phorically imprisoned or blind and helping “bro- ministry (4:16–30). The Evangelist makes this ken victims go free,” Jesus proclaims God’s favor change in his source not to provide a more fac- to those whom society typically ignores or ex- tually accurate biography, but probably for the ploits. Characteristically, Luke omits Isaiah’s ref- same reason that the author of John’s Gospel erence to divine “vengeance” ( Isa . 61:1–2; 58:6). switches his account of Jesus’ assault on the Luke’s implicit critique of the Roman status quo, Temple from the time of Jesus’ fi nal entry into then, includes neither the threat of armed rebel- Jerusalem (as all three Synoptics have it) to the lion nor a promise of divine retribution. har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 211 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Luke’s Version of Jesus’ Teaching does not specify his objections to the wealthy as a class, but in material exclusive to his Gospel, For the next two chapters (4:31–6:11), Luke re- he repeatedly attacks the rich, predicting that produces much of the Markan narrative deal- their present affl uence and luxury will be ex- ing with Jesus’ miracles of healing and exorcism. changed for misery. Despite violent opposition in Nazareth, Jesus draws large crowds, healing many and preach- Reversals of Status for Rich and Poor In plead- ing in numerous Galilean synagogues. Luke ing the cause of the poor against the rich, Luke transposes the Markan order, however, placing also includes his special rendering of Jesus’ Jesus’ calling of the Twelve after the Nazareth command to love one’s enemies (6:32–36; cf. episode (6:12–19). This transposition serves as Matt. 5:43–48). One must practice giving unself- an introduction to Jesus’ fi rst public discourse, ishly because such behavior refl ects the nature the Sermon on the Plain (6:20–49). The L and purpose of God, who treats even the wicked Sermon begins a long section (called the “lesser A with kindness (6:32–36). As the Lukan parables interpolation”) in which the author interweaves typically illustrate unexpected reversals of status material shared with Matthew (presumably W between the rich and poor, so do they teach from Q) with material that appears only in his S generosity and compassion— qualities that to own Gospel (6:20–8:3). O Luke are literally divine (6:35–36). To Luke, Jesus provides the model of com- Luke’s Sermon on the Plain Resembling an ab- N passionate behavior. When Christ raises a wid- breviated version of Matthew’s Sermon on the , ow’s son from the dead (7:11–17), the miracle Mount (see Box 9.4 and Figure 9.4 ), the Lukan expresses the twin Lukan themes of God’s special discourse begins with briefer forms of four A love for the poor and unfortunate (especially Beatitudes, all of which are in the second per- women) and Jesus’ role as Lord of the resurrec- son and hence directed at “you” (the audience/ N tion. (Luke imparts a particularly awe-inspiring reader). Matthew had phrased the Beatitudes G quality to this scene, highlighting Jesus’ empathy in the third person (“they”) and presented E for the grieving mother.) By including this epi- them as blessings on people who possessed the sode (unique to his Gospel), the author reminds right spiritual nature, such as “those who hun- L his readers of the joy they will experience when ger and thirst to see right prevail” (Matt. 5:6). A Jesus appears again to restore life to all. In contrast, Luke “materializes” the Beatitudes, bluntly referring to physical hunger: “How The Importance of Women Luke commonly uses blest are you who now go hungry; your hunger 6 Jesus’ interaction with women to reveal his con- shall be satisfi ed” (6:21). His “poor” are the 8 cept of Jesus’ character, emphasizing his hero’s fi nancially destitute, the powerless who are to 5 combination of authority and tenderness. After receive the “kingdom of God.” providing ultimate comfort to the grieving Luke follows the Beatitudes with a list of 3 widow at Nain , Jesus reveals similar compassion “woes” (“alas for you”) in which the “rich” and B for a prostitute, to whom he imparts another “well-fed” are cursed with future loss and hun- U form of new life. All four Gospels contain an ger. Persons happy with the present Roman so- incident in which a woman anoints Jesus with cial order are destined to regret their former oil or some other costly ointment (Mark 14:3–9; complacency (6:24–26). This harsh judgment Matt. 26:6–13; John 12:1–8). In Luke (7:36–50), on people whom society generally considers however, the anointing does not anticipate fortunate occurs only in Luke and represents preparation for Jesus’ burial, as it does in the one of Luke’s special convictions: The king- other Gospels, but is an act of intense love on dom will bring a radical reversal of presently the unnamed woman’s part. Set in the house accepted values and expectations. The author of a Pharisee where Jesus is dining, the Lukan har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 212 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 9.4 Comparison of the Beatitudes in Matthew and Luke

matthew luke

How blest are these who know their How blest are you who are in need [“you poor”]; need of God [the “poor in spirit”]; the kingdom of God is yours. the kingdom of Heaven is theirs. How blest are those of a gentle spirit; they shall have the earth for their possession. How blest are those who hunger and How blest are you who now go hungry; thirst to see right prevail; L your hunger shall be satisfi ed. they shall be satisfi ed. How blest are those who show mercy; A mercy shall be shown to them. W How blest are those whose hearts are pure; S they shall see God. How blest are the peacemakers; O How blest you are when men hate you, when God shall call them his [children]. Nthey outlaw you and insult you, and ban your very How blest are those who have suffered name as infamous, because of the Son of Man. persecution for the cause of right; ,On that day be glad and dance for joy; for assur- the kingdom of Heaven is theirs. edly you have a rich reward in heaven; in just the same way did their fathers treat the prophets. How blest you are, when you suffer insults and A persecution and every kind of calumny for my sake. Accept it with gladness and exultation, for N you have a rich reward in heaven; in the same G way they persecuted the prophets before you. (Matt. 5:3–12) E [The “Woes”] L But alas for you who are rich; you have had your time of happiness. A Alas for you who are well-fed now; you shall go hungry. Alas for you who laugh now; you shall mourn and 6 weep. Alas for you when all speak well of you; just so 8 did their fathers treat the false prophets. 5 (Luke 6:20–26) 3 version focuses on the woman’s overwhelming Bhim impressed onlookers enough to remember emotion and on the typically Lukan theme of Uand transmit it orally to the early Christian compassion and forgiveness. To Luke, the “im- community, but—as in the case of many other moral” woman’s love proves that “her many sins of Jesus’ actions and sayings—the precise con- have been forgiven.” text of the event was forgotten. Each Gospel In John, the woman is identifi ed as Mary, writer provides his own explanatory frame for sister of Martha and Lazarus, but there is no the incident (cf. Luke 7:36–50; Mark 14:3–9; hint of her possessing a lurid past. It would ap- Matt. 26:6–13; John 12:1–8). pear that Jesus’ emotional encounter with a Fittingly, the fi rst extensive interpolation of woman who lavished expensive unguents upon Lukan material concludes with a summary of the har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 213 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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L A W S O N ,

A N figure 9.4 Traditional site of the Sermon on the Mount.G According to tradition, it was on this hill overlooking the Sea of Galilee that Jesus delivered his most famous discourse, the teachings compiled in Matthew 5–7. The , however, states that JesusE spoke to his Galilean audience on “level ground” (Luke 6:17). L part women play in Jesus’ ministry. Accompany- A journey from Galilee to Judea, this part of the ing him are numerous female disciples, Galilean Gospel (traditionally known as the “greater women whom he had healed and who now sup- interpolation”) contains little action or sense of port him and the male disciples “out of their 6 forward movement. Emphasizing Jesus’ teach- own resources” (8:1–3). 8 ing, it is largely a miscellaneous collection of 5 brief anecdotes, sayings, and parables. Here the author intermixes Q material with that of 3 his individual source (L), including most of the Luke’s Travel Narrative: B parables unique to his Gospel. Jesus’ Teachings on the U At the beginning of this section, Luke re- Journey to Jerusalem cords two incidents that preview later develop- ments in Acts. On his way south to Jerusalem, Jesus passes through Samaria, carrying his mes- Luke begins this long section (9:51–18:14) with sage to several villages. In Matthew (10:5–6), Jesus’ fi rm resolution to head toward Jerusalem, Jesus expressly forbids a mission to the a distance of about sixty miles, and the fi nal Samaritans, bitterly hated by Jews for their in- confl ict that will culminate in his death and res- terpretation of the Mosaic Law. Luke, however, urrection. Although ostensibly the record of a shows Jesus forbidding the disciples to punish har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 214 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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an inhospitable Samaritan town and conduct- Temple and emphasizes Jesus’ approval of the ing a short campaign there (9:52–56). speaker’s view that the “law of love” is the epitome Along with the celebrated story of the “good of Judaism (Mark 12:28–31). Luke changes the Samaritan,” this episode anticipates the later site of this encounter from the Temple to an un- Christian mission to Samaria described in Acts 8. identifi ed place on the road to Jerusalem and Jesus’ sending forth seventy-two disciples to uses it to introduce his parable of the good evangelize the countryside (10:1–16) similarly Samaritan. The author creates a transition to the prefi gures the future recruiting of Gentiles. parable by having the instructor ask Jesus to ex- In Jewish terminology, the number seventy or plain what the Torah means by “neighbor.” seventy-two represented the sum total of Instead of answering directly, Jesus re- non-Jewish nations. As the Twelve sent to prose- sponds in typical rabbinic fashion: He tells a lytize Israel probably symbolize the traditional story. The questioner must discover his neigh- twelve Israelite tribes (9:1–6), so the activity of Lbor’s identity in Jesus’ depiction of a specifi c the seventy-two foreshadows Christian expan- Ahuman situation. In analyzing the tale of the sion among Gentiles of the Roman Empire. good Samaritan (10:29–35), most students will Luke’s Jesus experiences a moment of Wfi nd that it not only follows Luke’s customary ecstatic triumph when the seventy-two return Stheme of the unexpected but also introduces from conducting a series of successful exor- Oseveral rather thorny problems. cisms. Possessed by the Spirit, he perceives the reality behind his disciples’ victory over evil. In a N Ethical Complexities Jesus’ original audience mystical vision, Jesus sees Satan, like a bolt of ,would have seen enormous ethical complexi- lightning, hurled from heaven. Through the ties in this parable. The priest and Levite face a disciples’ actions, Satan’s infl uence is in decline Areal dilemma: When they fi nd the robbers’ vic- (although he returns to corrupt Judas in 22:23). tim, they do not know whether the man is alive In this context of defeating evil through Nor dead. If they so much as touch a corpse, the good works, Jesus thanks God that his unedu- GTorah declares them ritually unclean, and they cated followers understand God’s purpose Ewill be unable to fulfi ll their Temple duties. In better than the intellectual elite. In this pas- this case, keeping the Law means ignoring the sage, Luke expresses ideas that are more com- Lclaim of a person in need. The priest’s decision mon in John’s Gospel: Only Christ knows the Ato remain faithful to Torah requirements ne- divine nature, and only he can reveal it to those cessitates his failure to help. whom he chooses (10:17–24; cf. Matthew’s By making a Samaritan the moral hero of version of this prayer in Matt. 11:25–27). 6his story, Jesus further complicates the issue. In 8Jewish eyes, the Samaritans, who claimed guard- The Parable of the Good Samaritan 5ianship of the Mosaic Law, were corrupters of the Torah from whom nothing good could be Luke is aware, however, that “the learned and 3expected. (Note that a Samaritan village had wise” are not always incapable of religious insight. Brefused Jesus hospitality because he was making In 10:25–28, a Torah expert defi nes the essence Ua pilgrimage to Jerusalem, site of the Temple of the Mosaic Law in the twin commands to love cult that the Samaritans despised [9:52–56].) God (Deut. 6:5) and neighbor (Lev. 19:18). Finally, Jesus’ tale underscores a typical Lukan Confi rming the expert’s perception, Jesus replies reversal: The religious outsider, whom the righ- that, in loving thus, the man “will live.” In this teous hold in contempt, is the person who episode, Luke provides a good example of the obeys the Torah’s essential meaning—to act as way in which he adapts Markan material to his God’s agent by giving help to persons in need. theological purpose. Mark places this dialogue When Jesus asks the Torah expert which with the Torah instructor in the Jerusalem person in the tale behaves as a neighbor, the har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 215 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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expert apparently cannot bring himself to utter to pestering a friend until he grants what is the hated term Samaritan. Instead, he vaguely asked (11:5–10). The same theme reappears in identifi es the hero as “the one who showed [the the parable of the importunate or “pushy” victim] kindness.” Jesus’ directive to behave as widow (18:1–8) who seeks justice from a cynical the Samaritan does—in contrast to the priest and corrupt judge. An unworthy representative and the Levite—contains a distinctly subversive of his profession, the judge cares nothing about element. When the Samaritan helps a Jew (the God or public opinion—but he fi nally grants victim had been traveling from Jerusalem), he the widow’s petition because she refuses to give boldly overlooks ethnic and sectarian differ- him any peace until he acts. If even an unre- ences in order to aid a religious “enemy.” sponsive friend and unscrupulous judge can be By constructing this particular scenario, hounded into helping someone, how much Jesus forces the Torah instructor (and Luke, more is God likely to reward people who do not his reader) to recognize that a “neighbor” does L give up talking to him (18:7–8)? not necessarily belong to one’s own racial or A Luke contrasts two different kinds of religious group but can be any person who prayers in his parable of the Pharisee and a demonstrates generosity and human kindness. W “publican” (offi cially licensed tax-gatherer for (From the orthodox view, the Samaritan be- S Rome) (18:9–14). In Jesus’ day, the term tax- longs to a “false” religion; he is not only a for- O gatherer was a synonym for sinner, one who be- eigner but a “heretic” as well.) An even more trayed his Jewish countrymen by hiring himself subversive note is sounded when the parable N out to the Romans and making a living by ex- implies that the priest’s and Levite’s faithful ad- , torting money and goods from an already-op- herence to biblical rules is the barrier that pre- pressed people. The parable contrasts the vents them from observing religion’s essential A Pharisee’s consciousness of religious worth with component, which the Torah expert had cor- the tax collector’s confession of his failings. In rectly defi ned as the love of God and neighbor. N Luke’s reversal of ordinary expectations, it is G the honest outcast—not necessarily the conven- Mary and Martha E tionally good person—who wins God’s approval. L Luke follows the Samaritan parable with a brief Luke’s Views on Riches and Poverty anecdote about Jesus’ visit at the house of two A sisters, Mary and Martha (10:38–42). In its own More than any other Gospel writer, Luke em- way, this episode draws a similar distinction be- phasizes forsaking worldly ambition for the tween strict adherence to duty and a sensitivity 6 spiritual riches of the kingdom. The Lukan to “higher” opportunities. The Lukan Jesus 8 Jesus assures his followers that, if God provides commends Mary for abandoning her tradi- 5 for nature’s birds and fl owers, he will care for tional woman’s role and joining the men to Christians. He urges his disciples to sell their hear his teaching. The learning experience will 3 possessions, give to the poor, and thus earn be hers to possess forever. B “heavenly treasures” (12:22–34). U Luke’s strong antimaterialism and apparent Instructions on Prayer bias against the rich is partly the result of his con- viction that God’s judgment may occur at any Luke places a greater emphasis on prayer than time. The rich fool dies before he can enjoy his any other Synoptic author. Although his ver- life’s work (12:13–21), but Christians may face sion of the Lord’s Prayer is much shorter than judgment even before death. The Master may re- Matthew’s, he heightens its signifi cance by add- turn without warning at any time (12:35–40). ing several parables that extol the value of per- Rather than accumulating wealth, believers must sistence. Petitioning God is implicitly compared share with the poor and with social outcasts har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 216 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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(14:12–14). Luke also emphasizes that the de- Luke modifi es his severe criticism of great formed and unattractive, rejects and have-nots of wealth, however, by including Mark’s story of society, must be the Christian’s primary concern Jesus’ advice to a rich man. (He returns to the in attaining Jesus’ favorable verdict (14:15–24). Markan narrative again in 18:15.) If wealth dis- qualifi es one from the kingdom, who can hope Lazarus and the Rich Man to please God? Jesus’ enigmatic reply—all things are possible with God (18:18–27)—leads to the Reversals in the Afterlife The Lukan Jesus makes concept of divine compensation. Persons who absolute demands upon his disciples: None can sacrifi ce family or home to seek the kingdom will belong to him without giving away everything he be repaid both now (presumably referring to the owns (14:33). In his parable of Lazarus and the spiritual riches they enjoy in church fellowship) rich man, Luke dramatizes the danger of hanging and in the future with eternal life (18:28–30). onto great wealth until death parts the owner L from his possessions (16:19–31). Appearing only A Jesus’ Love of the Unhappy in Luke’s Gospel, this metaphor of the afterlife and the Outcast embodies typically Lukan concepts. It shows a W rich man experiencing all the posthumous misery S All the Gospel authors agree that Jesus sought the that Jesus had predicted for the world’s comfort- Ocompany of “tax-gatherers and sinners,” a catchall able and satisfi ed people (6:24–26) and a poor phrase referring to the great mass of people in beggar enjoying all the rewards that Jesus had Nancient Palestine who were socially and religiously promised to the hungry and outcast (6:20–21). ,unacceptable because they did not or could not Demonstrating Luke’s usual theme of reversal, keep the Torah’s requirements. This “unrespect- able” group stood in contrast to the Sadducees, the parable shows the two men exchanging their A relative positions in the next world. the Pharisees, the scribes, and others who consci- In recounting Jesus’ only parable that deals Nentiously observed all Torah regulations in their with the contrasting fates of individuals after Gdaily lives. In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus ignores death, Luke employs ideas typical of fi rst-cen- Ethe principle of contamination by association. He tury Hellenistic Judaism. The author’s picture eats, drinks, and otherwise intimately mixes with a of Lazarus in paradise and the rich man in fi ery Lwide variety of persons commonly viewed as both torment is duplicated in Josephus’s contempo- Amorally and ritually “unclean.” At one moment we rary description of Hades (the Underworld). fi nd him dining in the homes of socially honored Signifi cantly, Luke charges the rich man with Pharisees (7:36–50) and at the next enjoying the no crime and assigns the beggar no virtue. To the 6hospitality of social pariahs like Simon the leper author, current social conditions—the existence 8(Matt. 26:6–13) and Zacchaeus the tax collector of hopeless poverty and sickness alongside the 5(19:1–10). Jesus’ habitual associations lead some “magnifi cence” and luxury of the affl uent—ap- of his contemporaries to regard him as a plea- parently will undergo a radical change when God 3sure-loving drunkard (7:34). According to Luke, rules the world completely. The only fault of BJesus answers such criticism by creating parables which the rich man is implicitly guilty is his toler- Uthat illustrate God’s unfailing concern for persons ation of the extreme contrast between his own the “righteous” dismiss as worthless (see Box 9.5 ). abundance and the miserable state of the poor. For Luke, it seems to be enough. The author’s Parables of Joy at Finding ideal social order is the commune that the disci- What Was Lost ples establish following Pentecost, an economic arrangement in which the well-to-do sell their One of the ethical highlights of the entire New possessions, share them with the poor, and hold Testament, Luke 15 contains three parables “everything in common” (Acts 2:42–47). dramatizing the joy humans experience when har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 217 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 9.5 The Parable of the Great Banquet: Three Authorial Interpretations

Three Gospels—the canonical Matthew party fail to respond and are unexpectedly replaced and Luke and the apocryphal Thomas—preserve by strangers recruited from the streets. Each of the three strikingly different versions of a parable in three versions is distinguished by the distinctive which guests who are fi rst invited to a great dinner concerns of the individual Gospel writer.

matthew luke thomas

Then Jesus spoke to them again in One of the company, after hearing Jesus said, “A person was receiving parables: “The kingdom of Heaven all this, said to him, “Happy the guests. When he had prepared the is like this. There was a king who pre- man who shall sit at the feast in the dinner, he sent his slave to invite pared a feast for his son’s wedding; kingdom of God!”L Jesus answered, the guests. The slave went to the but when he sent his servants to “A man was givingA a big dinner fi rst and said to that one, ‘My mas- summon the guests he had invited, party and had sent out many invita- ter invites you.’ That one said, they would not come. He sent others tions. At dinner-timeW he sent his ‘Some merchants owe me money; again, telling them to say to the servant with a messageS for his they are coming to me tonight. I guests, ‘See now! I have prepared guests, ‘Please come, everything is have to go and give them instruc- this feast for you. I have had my bull- now ready.’ TheyO began one and tions. Please excuse me from din- ocks and fatted beasts slaughtered; all to excuse themselves. The fi rst ner.’ The slave went to another everything is ready; come to the said, ‘I have boughtN a piece of land and said to that one, ‘My master wedding at once.’ But they took no and I must go and, look over it; has invited you.’ That one said to notice; one went off to his farm, an- please accept my apologies.’ The the slave, ‘I have bought a house, other to his business, and the others second said, ‘I have bought fi ve and I have been called away for a seized the servants, attacked them yoke of oxen, andA I am on my way day. I shall have no time.’ The brutally, and killed them. The king to try them out; please accept my slave went to another and said to was furious; he sent troops to kill apologies.’ The Nnext said,‘I have that one, ‘My master invites you.’ those murderers and set their town just got marriedG and for that rea- That one said to the slave, ‘My on fi re. Then he said to his servants, son I cannot come.’ When the ser- friend is to be married, and I am ‘The wedding-feast is ready; but the vant came back Ehe reported this to to arrange the banquet. I shall not guests I invited did not deserve the his master. The master of the be able to come. Please excuse me honour . Go out to the main thor- house was angryL and said to him, from dinner.’ The slave went to an- oughfares, and invite everyone you ‘Go out quickly Ainto the streets other and said to that one, ‘My can fi nd to the wedding.’ The ser- and alleys of the town, and bring master invites you.’ That one said vants went out into the streets, and me in the poor, the crippled, the to the slave, ‘I have bought an collected all they could fi nd, good blind, and the lame.’6 The servant estate, and I am going to collect and bad alike. So the hall was said, ‘Sir, your orders have been the rent. I shall not be able to packed with guests. carried out and 8there is still room.’ come. Please excuse me.’ The slave “When the king came in to see The master replied,5 ‘Go out on to returned and said to his master, the company at the table, he observed the highways and along the hedge- ‘Those whom you invited to din- one man who was not dressed for a rows and make them3 come in; ner have asked to be excused.’ The wedding. ‘My friend,’ said the I want my house to be full. I tell master said to his slave, ‘Go out on king,‘how do you come to be here you that not oneB of those who were the streets and bring back whom- without your wedding clothes?’ He invited shall tasteU my banquet.’” ever you fi nd to have dinner.’ had nothing to say. The king then (Luke 14:15–24) “Buyers and merchants [will] said to his attendants, ‘Bind him not enter the places of my Father.” hand and foot; turn him out into the (G. Thom. 64) dark, the place of wailing and grind- ing of teeth.’ For though many are invited, few are chosen.” (Matt. 22:1–14) (continued) har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 218 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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box 9.5 continued

In Matthew’s version of the parable, a king is- and blind, precisely the kind of commonly devalued sues invitations to a sumptuous wedding feast for people that Jesus had already instructed his follow- his son. Not only are the ruler’s supposed friends ers to include in their feasts (cf. Luke 14:12–14). As indifferent to his hospitality, but some kill the ser- Matthew had turned a parable involving ungrateful vants who invited them. Furious, the ruler then dis- guests into a polemic against the Jerusalem estab- patches armies to destroy those who murdered his lishment and a justifi cation for Jerusalem’s destruc- emissaries and “burn their city.” The king’s overreac- tion, so Luke makes it into a plea for the social tion to his spurned generosity is even more extreme outcasts—those who can’t repay one’s hospitality— when one of the rabble brought in to replace the whose cause he espouses throughout his Gospel. ungrateful guests shows up without the proper fes- L Whereas most traditional folk narratives feature tal garments, a social faux pas for which he is tied a set of three actions, as does Luke’s story of three up and thrown into a frighteningly “dark” prison. Arejected invitations in his version of the parable, Setting the parable in the narrative context of Wthat contained in Thomas breaks the usual pattern Jesus’ rejection by the Jerusalem authorities, Sby including four guests and their reasons for not Matthew transforms it into a historical allegory of attending. All four invited guests are people of God’s relationship with Israel. When the covenant Oproperty, homeowners, landlords, and fi nanciers— people reject the invitation to his son’s (Jesus’) Nmembers of the economically successful class of messianic banquet, God’s anger results in the ,whom most early Christian writers are profoundly Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the replace- suspicious. Thomas’s bias is clearly apparent in the ment of his former people by a new crowd that in- parable’s fi nal line: The commercial class—“buyers cludes “good and bad alike,” the Matthean Aand merchants”—are not God’s kind of people. religious community. The divine host’s arbitrary N In its three variations, the banquet parable has rejection of the improperly dressed guest—who Gone consistent theme: The host has everything could not reasonably have been expected to be car- ready and, without warning his chosen guests in rying a set of formal attire when he was suddenly Eadvance, suddenly demands that they drop every- dragged to a stranger’s wedding—may derive from Lthing and come to enjoy his good things. When, another (otherwise lost) parable. The supernatu- Abusily employed elsewhere, they fail to appreciate ral darkness to which the fashion felon is con- his offer, the disappointed host unexpectedly signed is one of Matthew’s characteristic images. opens his house to people who could not previ- Luke introduces the parable as simply a “big din- 6ously consider themselves eligible—loiterers in the ner party” given by an ordinary (but presumably 8marketplace, social pariahs, and anybody else who rich) host whose prospective guests all turn down had no better place to go. Despite the Gospel writ- his last-minute invitation. The three guests’ stated 5ers’ editorial revisions, themes characteristic of excuses for not attending are entirely reasonable: 3Jesus’ authentic parables, including God’s incalcu- All are busily engaged in life’s ordinary pursuits, Blable ways of intervening in human lives and the tending to their farms, their animals, and their mar- Ureversals of normal expectations his appeals cre- riages. The spurned host then invites a typically ate, are embedded in the “sweet unreasonable- Lukan category of guests—the poor, crippled, lame, ness” of this tale.

they recover something precious they had delight in fi nding a stray animal. In Luke’s thought forever lost. version, the focus is on the celebration that fol- lows the shepherd’s fi nd: “friends and neigh- The Lost Sheep The parable of the lost sheep bors” are called together to rejoice with him (also in Matt. 18:10–14) recounts a shepherd’s (15:1–7). har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 219 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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The Lost Coin A second parable (15:8–10) in- punishment. Ignoring the youth’s contrite re- vites us to observe the behavior of a woman quest to be hired as a servant, the parent instead who loses one of her ten silver coins. She lights orders a lavish celebration in his honor. her lamp (an extravagant gesture for the poor) The conversation between the father and and sweeps out her entire house, looking in his older son, who understandably complains every corner, until she fi nds the coin. Then, about the partiality shown to his sibling, makes like the shepherd, she summons “friends and the parable’s theme even clearer. Acknowledging neighbors” to celebrate her fi nd. Although the older child’s superior claim to his favor, the Luke sees these two parables as allegories sym- father attempts to explain the unlimited quality bolizing heavenly joy over a “lost” sinner’s re- of his affection (15:11–32). The father’s nature pentance (15:7, 10), they also reveal Jesus’ is to love unconditionally, making no distinc- characteristic tendency to observe and de- tion between the deserving and the undeserv- scribe unusual human behavior. Both the L ing recipients of his care. The parable expresses shepherd and the woman exhibit the intense A the same view of the divine Parent, who “is kind concentration on a single action—searching to the ungrateful and wicked,” that Luke pic- for lost property—that exemplifi es Jesus’ de- W tured in his Sermon on the Plain (6:35–36). mand to seek God’s rule fi rst, to the exclusion S Like many of Jesus’ authentic parables, this of all else (6:22; Matt. 6:33). For the Lukan O tale ends with an essential question unan- Jesus, they also demonstrate the appropriate swered: How will the older brother, smarting response to recovering a valued object—a N with natural resentment at the prodigal’s un- spontaneous celebration in which others are , merited reward, respond to his father’s implied invited to participate. invitation to join the family revel? As Luke views A the issue, Jesus’ call to sinners was remarkably The Prodigal Son One of the most emotionally successful; it is the conventionally religious who moving passages in the Bible, the parable of N too often fail to value an invitation to the messi- the prodigal son might better be called the G anic banquet. story of the forgiving father, for the climax of E the narrative focuses on the latter’s attitude to- The Parable of the Dishonest Steward ward his two very different sons. Besides squan- L dering his inheritance “with his women” A Not only do Luke’s parables surprise us by (15:30), the younger son violates the most ba- turning accepted values upside down, consign- sic standards of Judaism, reducing himself to ing the fortunate rich to torment and celebrat- the level of an animal groveling in a Gentile’s 6 ing the good fortune of the undeserving, but pigpen. Listing the young man’s progressively 8 they can also puzzle us. Luke follows the para- degrading actions, Jesus describes a person 5 ble of the prodigal son with a mind-boggling story of a dishonest and conniving business- who is utterly insensitive to his religious heri- 3 tage and as “undeserving” as a human being man who cheats his employer and is com- can be. Even his decision to return to his fa- B mended for it (16:1–9). ther’s estate is based on an unworthy desire to U Teaching none of the conventional princi- improve his diet. ples of honesty or decent behavior, this parable Yet the parable’s main focus is not on the makes most readers distinctly uncomfortable. youth’s unworthiness, but on the father’s love. Like the prodigal son, the steward violates the Notice that when the prodigal (spendthrift) is trust placed in him and defrauds his benefac- still “a long way off,” his father sees him and, tor. Yet, like the prodigal, he is rewarded by the forgetting his dignity, rushes to meet the return- very person whom he has wronged. This unex- ing son. Note, too, that the father expresses no pected twist upsets our basic notions of justice anger at his son’s shameful behavior, demands and fair play, just as the prodigal’s elder brother no admission of wrongdoing, and infl icts no was upset by having no distinction drawn between har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 220 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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his own moral propriety and his younger broth- er’s outrageous misbehavior. The meaning Luke attaches to this strange parable—worldly people like the steward are more clever than the unworldly—does not explain the moral paradox. We must ask: In what context, in re- sponse to what situation, did Jesus fi rst tell this story? Is it simply another example of the unex- pected, or is it a paradigm of the bewilderingly unacceptable that must happen when the king- dom breaks into our familiar and conven- tion-ridden lives? Clearly, Luke’s readers are asked to rethink ideas and assumptions previ- L ously taken for granted. A W S The Jerusalem Ministry: O Jesus’ Challenge to N the Holy City ,

In revising Mark’s account of the Jerusalem A ministry (see Figure 9.5 ), Luke subtly mutes Mark’s apocalyptic urgency and reinterprets N Jesus’ kingdom teaching to indicate that many figure 9.5 Bust of the emperor G(ruled 14–37 ce ). According to Luke, Jesus was “about thirty eschatological hopes have already been real- Eyears old” when he began his Galilean campaign during the ized (18:31–21:38). While he preserves ele- fi fteenth year of Tiberius’s reign (c. 27–29 ce ) (Luke 3:1, ments of traditional apocalypticism —urging L23). In Acts, Luke notes that Jesus is “a rival king” (Acts 17:8). believers to be constantly alert and prepared A for the eschaton —Luke also distances the fi nal consummation, placing it at some unknown 6 Luke’s Modifi cations time in the future. Aware that many of Jesus’ of Apocalyptic Expectation original followers assumed that his ministry 8 would culminate in God’s government being 5 Luke deftly intermingles Markan prophecies established on earth, Luke reports that “be- about the appearance of the Son of Man with cause he [Jesus] was now close to Jerusalem . . . 3passages from Q and his own special material, they thought the reign of God might dawn at Bsuggesting that the kingdom is, in some sense, any moment” (19:11), an expectation that per- Ua present reality in the presence and miracu- sisted in the early church (Acts 1:6–7). Luke lous deeds of Jesus. When the Pharisees ac- counters this belief with a parable explaining cuse Jesus of exorcising demons by the power that their Master must go away “on a long jour- of “Beelzebub [Satan],” he answers, “If it is by ney” before he returns as “king” (19:12–27). the fi nger of God that I drive out the devils, (Matthew also uses this parable of the “talents,” then be sure the kingdom of God has already in which slaves invest money for their absent come upon you” (11:20; cf. Matt. 12:28). The owner, for the same purpose of explaining the Lukan Jesus equates his disciples’ success in delayed Parousia .) expelling demons with Satan’s fall from har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 221 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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heaven (10:18–20), a sign that evil has been church to grow and expand throughout the overthrown and that God’s rule has begun. In Roman Empire, the subject of his Book of another saying unique to Luke, Jesus tells the Acts (see Chapter 1 2 ). Pharisees: “You cannot tell by observation Luke’s editing of Mark 13 indicates that when the kingdom of God comes. There will the author divides apocalyptic time into two be no saying, ‘Look, here it is!’ or ‘there it is!’; distinct stages. The fi rst stage involves the for in fact the kingdom of God is among you Jewish Revolt and Jerusalem’s fall; the second [or in your midst]” (17:20–21). involves the Parousia . To describe the second While Luke implies that in Jesus’ healing phase, Luke invokes mythic and astronomical work the kingdom now reigns, the author language to characterize events: Cosmic phe- also includes statements that emphasize the nomena, such as “portents in sun, moon and unexpectedness and unpredictability of the stars,” will herald the Son of Man’s reappear- End. Readers are told not to believe prema- L ance. Although he had previously stated that ture reports of Jesus’ return, for the world A there will be no convincing “sign” of the End will continue its ordinary way until the (17:21), Luke nonetheless cites Mark’s simile Parousia suddenly occurs. Although (in this W of the fi g tree. As the budding tree shows sum- tradition) arriving without signs, it is as un- S mer is near, so the occurrence of prophesied mistakable as “the lightning fl ash that lights O events proves that the “kingdom” is imminent. up the earth from end to end” (17:30). While Luke also reproduces Mark’s confi dent asser- retaining the Markan Jesus’ promise that N tion that “the present generation will live to see some of his contemporaries “will not taste , it all” (21:32). In its revised context, however, death before they have seen the kingdom of the promise that a single generation would wit- God,” Luke omits the phrase “already come A ness the death throes of history probably ap- in power” (9:27; cf. Mark 9:1). For Luke, the plies only to those who observe the celestial mystical glory of Jesus’ Transfi guration, N “portents” that immediately precede the Son’s which immediately follows this declaration, G arrival. Luke’s muted eschatology does not re- reveals his divine kingship. E quire that Jesus’ contemporaries who heard his teaching and/or witnessed Jerusalem’s destruc- L The Fall of Jerusalem and the Parousia tion be the same group living when the Parousia A takes place. In his edited version of Mark 13, the proph- Luke does suggest, however, that the astro- ecy of Jerusalem’s destruction, Luke distin- nomical phenomena he predicts may have al- guishes between the historical event, which 6 ready occurred. In Acts 2, the author describes he knows took place in the recent past, and 8 the Holy Spirit’s descent on Jesus’ disciples the Parousia , which belongs to an indefinite 5 gathered in Jerusalem, a descent symbolized by future (21:5–36). The author replaces Mark’s rushing winds and tongues of fi re. Interpreting cryptic allusion to the “abomination of deso- 3 this spiritual baptism of the church at Pentecost lation” (cf. Mark 13:14; Matt. 24:15) with B as a fulfi llment of apocalyptic prophecy, Peter practical advice that warned Christians to fl ee U is represented as quoting from the Book of the city when Roman armies begin their siege Joel, the source of many of the cosmic images (21:20–24). In Luke’s modifi ed apocalypse, a Luke employed (Luke 21:25–28): period of unknown length will intervene be- No, this [the Pentecost event] is what the tween Jerusalem’s fall in 70 ce and the prophet spoke of: God says, “This will happen Parousia . The holy city “will be trampled in the last days: I will pour out my spirit upon down by foreigners until their day has run its everyone. . . . And I will show portents in the course” (21:24). In Luke’s view, this interim sky above, and signs on the earth below— of “foreign” domination allows the Christian blood and fi re and drifting smoke. The sun har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 222 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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shall be turned to darkness and the moon to Only when pressured by a Jerusalem mob does blood, before that great, resplendent day, the Pilate consent to Jesus’ crucifi xion. day of the Lord shall come. And then every Besides insisting on Jesus’ innocence, Luke one who invokes the name of the Lord shall edits the Markan narrative (or another tradition be saved.” parallel to that contained in Mark) to present (Acts 2:16–21) his own theology of the cross. Mark had stated that Jesus’ death was sacrifi cial: His life is given For the Lukan Peter, Joel’s metaphors of divine “as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). In the action were fulfi lled when the same Spirit that Lukan equivalent of this passage (placed in the had guided Jesus infused his church, opening setting of the Last Supper), Jesus merely says the way to salvation for Jew and Gentile alike. that he comes to serve (cf. Mark 10:42–45; Luke After describing Peter’s speech, Luke rarely 22:24–27). Unlike some other New Testament again mentions apocalyptic images or expecta- Lwriters, Luke does not see Jesus’ Passion as a tions, nor does he show Peter, James, Stephen, Amystical atonement for human sin. Instead, Paul (contrary to Paul’s own letters), or any Jesus appears “like a servant,” providing an ex- other Christian leader preaching Jesus’ immi- Wample for others to imitate, the fi rst in a line of nent return. Did he believe that the fi gurative SChristian models that includes Peter, Stephen, language of apocalypse is fulfi lled primarily in Paul, and their companions in the Book of Acts. symbolic events of great spiritual signifi cance, O such as the birth of the church and the estab- N lishment of a community that lived by Jesus’ , The Last Supper kingdom ethic? (For a discussion of the “real- Mark’s report of the Last Supper (Mark 14: ized eschatology”—a belief that events usually A17–25) closely parallels that found in Paul’s associated with the End have already been fi rst letter to the Corinthians (1 Cor . 11:23–26). fulfi lled in Jesus’ spiritual presence among his NLuke’s version introduces several variations: In followers—that Luke at times seems to antici- the Lukan ceremony, the wine cup is passed pate, see Chapter 1 0 , “John’s Reinterpretation G Efi rst and then the unleavened bread. The au- of Jesus.”) thor may present this different order in the rit- Lual because he wants to avoid giving Jesus’ Astatement about drinking wine again in the kingdom the apocalyptic meaning that Mark The Final Confl ict gives it. Luke also omits the words interpreting and Passion Story 6the wine as Jesus’ blood, avoiding any sugges- 8tion that Jesus sheds his blood to ransom hu- Luke’s Interpretation of the Passion 5manity from sin or that he gives his blood to establish a New Covenant. In Luke, Jesus’ only Although Luke’s account of Jesus’ last days in 3interpretative comment relates the bread Jerusalem roughly parallels that of Mark (14:1– B(Eucharist) to his “body” (22:17–20). The au- 16:8), it differs in enough details to suggest that Uthor also inverts Mark’s order by having Jesus Luke may have used another source as well. In announce Judas’s betrayal after the ritual meal, this section (22:1–23:56), Luke underscores a implying that the traitor was present and par- theme that will also dominate Acts: Jesus, like ticipated in the communion ceremony. his followers after him, is innocent of any sedi- tion against Rome. More than any other Gospel Jesus’ Final Ordeal writer, Luke represents Pilate as testifying to Jesus’ political innocence, repeatedly declaring In his report of Jesus’ arrest, trials, and crucifi x- that the accused is not guilty of a “capital offence.” ion, Luke makes several more inversions of the har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 223 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Markan order and adds new material to empha- anything in Jesus’ case to support the Jews’ size his characteristic themes. Softening Mark’s charge of “subversion” (23:13–15). harsh view of the disciples’ collective failure, Twice Luke’s Pilate declares that the pris- Luke states that they fell asleep in Gethsemane oner “has done nothing to deserve death” because they were “worn out by grief” (22:45– (23:15) and is legally “guilty of [no] capital of- 46). In this scene, the author contrasts Jesus’ fence” (23:22). The Roman prefect, whom physical anguish with the spiritual help he re- other contemporary historians depict as a ruth- ceives from prayer. (The assertion that Jesus less tyrant contemptuous of Jewish public opin- “sweats blood” may be a later scribal interpola- ion, is here only a weak pawn manipulated by a tion.) After asking the Father to spare him, fanatical group of his Jewish subjects. Jesus perceives “an angel from heaven bringing him strength,” after which he prays even more Last Words on the Cross In recounting Jesus’ fervently. In this crisis, Jesus demonstrates the L crucifi xion, Luke provides several “last words” function of prayer for those among the Lukan A that illustrate important Lukan themes. Only community who suffer similar testing and per- in this Gospel do we fi nd Jesus’ prayer to for- secution (22:39–44). W give his executioners because they do not un- In describing Jesus’ hearing before the S derstand the meaning of their actions (23:34). San hedrin , Luke makes several changes in O Because Luke regards both Jews and Romans the Markan sequence of events. In Mark, the as acting in “ignorance” (see Acts 2:17), this High Priest questions Jesus, Jesus is then phys- N request to pardon his tormentors encompasses ically abused, and Peter denies knowing him , all parties involved in Jesus’ death. Besides il- (Mark 14:55–72). Luke places Peter’s denial lustrating Jesus’ heroic capacity to forgive, this fi rst, the beating second, and the priest’s in- A prayer shows Luke’s hero vindicating his terrogation third (22:63–71). Instead of an- teaching that a victim must love his enemy nouncing his identity as Messiah, as in Mark, N (6:27–38) and end the cycle of hatred and re- the Lukan Jesus makes only an ambiguous G taliation that perpetuates evil in the world. To statement that may or may not be an admis- E Luke, the manner of Jesus’ death represents sion. Luke also rephrases Jesus’ allusion to the supreme parable of reversal, forgiveness, the “Son of Man” to show that with Jesus’ min- L and completion. istry the Son’s reign has already begun A Even in personal suffering, the Lukan Jesus (22:67–71). thinks not of himself, but of others. Carrying his cross on the road to Calvary, he comforts Herod Antipas In Luke, the Sanhedrin can pro- 6 the women who weep for him (23:26–31). He duce no witnesses and cannot support charges 8 similarly consoles the man crucifi ed next to of blasphemy. Its members bring Jesus to Pilate 5 him, promising him an immediate reward in strictly on political terms: The accused “sub- paradise (23:43), perhaps because this fellow verts” the Jewish nation, opposes paying taxes 3 sufferer has recognized Jesus’ political inno- to the Roman government, and claims to be B cence (23:41). The Messiah’s fi nal words are to the Messiah, a political role. When Pilate, eager U the Father whose Spirit he had received follow- to rid himself of this troublesome case, learns ing baptism (3:21; 4:1, 14) and to whom in that Jesus is a Galilean, and therefore under the death he commits his own spirit (23:46–47). jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, he sends the Except for the symbolic darkness accompa- prisoner to be tried by Herod, who is in nying the Crucifi xion (23:44–45), Luke men- Jerusalem for the Passover (23:6–12). Found tions no natural phenomenon comparable to only in Luke, the Herod episode serves to rein- the great earthquake that Matthew describes. force Luke’s picture of an innocent Jesus. Pilate Consequently, the Roman centurion does not remarks that neither he nor Herod can fi nd recognize in Jesus a supernatural being, “a son har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 224 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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of God,” as in Mark and Matthew (Mark 15:39; fi nal farewell, but a preparation for what fol- Matt. 27:54). The centurion’s remark refers not lows in Luke’s second volume, the Book of to Jesus’ divinity, but to the political injustice of Acts. Because Luke wishes to show that Jesus’ his execution. “Beyond all doubt,” he says, “this presence and power continue unabated in the man was innocent” (23:47). This account of work of the early church, he describes Jesus’ Jesus’ death dramatizes two major Lukan last instructions in terms that directly relate to themes: Jesus, rather than being a sacrifi ce for the ongoing practices of the church. For Luke, sin, is an example of compassion and forgive- the disciples’ original experience of their risen ness for all to emulate; he is also, like his follow- Lord is qualitatively the same spiritually renew- ers, innocent of any crime against Rome. ing experience that believers continue to enjoy Like Matthew, Luke generally follows in their charismatic community. Even after as- Mark’s order through Jesus’ burial and the cending to heaven, Jesus remains present in women’s discovery of the empty tomb. Lthe church’s characteristic activities: sharing Omitting any Matthean reference to supernat- Asacramental meals, studying Scripture, and ural phenomena such as an Easter morning feeding the poor. earthquake or the appearance of an angel that W In narrating Jesus’ fi rst appearance, on the blinds the Roman guards, Luke diverges from Sroad to Emmaus (a few miles from Jerusalem), Mark only in that the women report what they OLuke emphasizes the glorifi ed Lord’s relation- have seen to the Eleven, who do not believe ship to followers left behind on earth. The two them (23:49–24:11). (No Gospel writer except Ndisciples, Cleopas and an unnamed companion Mark has the women keep silent about their , (perhaps a woman), who encounter Jesus do observation.) not recognize him until they dine together. AOnly in breaking bread—symbolic of the Christian communion ritual—is Jesus’ living Npresence discerned. Epilogue: Post Resurrection G In Luke’s second post resurrection account, Appearances in the Vicinity Ethe disciples are discussing Jesus when he sud- of Jerusalem denly appears in their midst, asking to be fed— Lit has been more than three days since the Last ASupper, and he is hungry. The Lukan disciples’ Because early editions of Mark contain no offering Jesus a piece of cooked fi sh makes sev- resurrection narrative, it is not surprising eral points: Their job is to care for the poor and that Matthew and Luke, who generally ad- 6hungry whom Jesus had also served; they have here to Mark’s order through the discovery 8fellowship with Jesus in communal dining; and of the empty sepulcher, differ widely in their 5they are assured that the fi gure standing before reports of Jesus’ post resurrection appear- them is real—he eats material food—and not a ances. Consistent with his emphasis on 3hallucination. By insisting on Jesus’ physicality, Jerusalem, Luke omits the Markan tradition BLuke also fi rmly links the heavenly Christ and that Jesus would reappear in Galilee (Mark Uthe human Jesus—they are one and the same. 16:7; Matt. 28:7, 16–20) and places all the dis- Perhaps most important for Luke’s under- ciples’ experiences of the risen Jesus in or standing of the way in which Jesus remains near Jerusalem. alive and present is the author’s emphasis on In concluding his Gospel, the author cre- studying the Hebrew Bible in order to discover ates two detailed accounts of Jesus’ posthumous the true signifi cance of Jesus’ career. At teaching that serve to connect Jesus’ story with Emmaus, Jesus explains “the passages which that of the community of believers for whom referred to himself in every part of the scrip- Luke writes. The risen Jesus’ words are not a tures” (24:27), thus setting his listeners’ har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 225 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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“hearts on fi re” (24:32). In Jerusalem, he re- Questions for Review peats these lessons in biblical exegesis, inter- preting the Torah, Prophets, and Writings as 1. Describe some of Luke’s major themes and C hristological prophecies (24:44), an innova- concerns. How do parables that appear only in Luke’s Gospel, such as Lazarus and the rich tive practice that enabled Christians to recog- man and the prodigal son, illustrate typically nize Jesus in the Mosaic revelation. Luke also Lukan ideas? connects these post resurrection teachings 2. Describe the roles that women play in Luke’s with the church’s task: Jesus’ death and resur- account. Which women, absent in Mark and rection, foretold in Scripture, are not history’s Matthew, appear in Luke’s version of Jesus’ fi nal act but the beginning of a worldwide ministry? What qualities of Jesus does their movement. The disciples are to remain to- presence elicit? gether in Jerusalem until Jesus sends the 3. Evaluate the evidence for and against the tradi- Holy Spirit, which will empower them to pro- L tion that Luke, Paul’s traveling companion, wrote the Gospel bearing his name. Because claim God’s new dispensation to “all nations” A (24:46–49; fulfi lled in Acts 1–2). the author was aware that “many” other ac- W counts of Jesus’ life and work had already been S composed, why did he—who was not an eyewit- Summary ness to the events he describes—decide to write O a new Gospel? Does the fact that the writer N added the Book of Acts as a sequel to his Gospel The author of the Gospel traditionally ascribed narrative suggest something about his purpose? to Luke, traveling companion of the apostle , 4. In the Greco-Roman world, historians and Paul, wrote primarily for a Gentile audience. biographers often composed long speeches to – illustrate their characters’ ideas, ethical quali- His portrait of Jesus reveals a world s o ter (savior A or deliverer), conceived by the Holy Spirit, who ties, and responses to critical events. Do you launches a new era in God’s plan for human N fi nd any evidence that Luke uses this method in salvation. As John the Baptist represents the the Gospel and/or Acts? G 5. Show some of the specifi c ways that Luke’s ver- culmination of Israel’s role in the divine plan, E sion of Jesus’ arrest, trial, and execution refl ects so Jesus—healing, teaching, and banishing L an awareness of the political realities with which evil—inaugurates the reign of God, the “king- the Christian community had to deal. How dom,” among humanity. A does Luke take pains to show that Jesus is inno- Emphasizing God’s compassion and will- cent of sedition against Rome? ingness to forgive all, the Lukan Jesus provides 6 a powerful example for his followers to imitate Questions for Discussion and Refl ection in service, charity, and good works. An ethical 8 model for Jews and Gentiles alike, Jesus estab- 5 1. Much of the material that appears only in lishes a Spirit-led movement that provides a Luke’s Gospel highlights Jesus’ concern for religion of salvation for all people. The 3 women, the poor, and social outcasts. The par- eschatological belief that the Son of Man would B ables unique to his account—such as the prod- return “soon” after his resurrection from the U igal son, the good Samaritan, and Lazarus and dead is replaced with Luke’s concept of the dis- the rich man—emphasize unexpected rever- ciples’ role in carrying on Jesus’ work “to the sals of society’s accepted norms. What view of Jesus’ character and teaching do you think ends of the earth,” a commission that extends Luke wishes to promote? the time of the End indefi nitely into the future. 2. Compare Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount In the meantime, a law-abiding and peaceful (Matt. 5–7) with Luke’s similar Sermon on the church will convey its message of a Savior for all Plain (6:20–49). When Luke’s version of a say- nations throughout the Roman Empire—and ing differs from Matthew’s, which of the two beyond. do you think is probably closer to Jesus’ own har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 226 12/01/14 11:18 AM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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words? Do the different versions of the same Simeon theodicy saying—such as Jesus’ blessing of the poor— Simon Theophilus also illustrate the individual Gospel writer’s distinctive viewpoint? 3. Luke’s Gospel emphasizes such themes as Recommended Reading prayer, the activity of the Holy Spirit, the king- dom’s reversal of normal expectations, the Borgman, Paul C. The Way According to Luke: Hearing rejection of wealth and other material ambi- the Whole Story of Luke-Acts. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2006. Offers a competent literary analysis tions, Jesus’ compassion, and the divine joy in of the two-volume work. human redemption. How do these themes Carroll, John T. “Luke, Gospel of.” In K. D. Sakenfeld, relate to the author’s belief that Jesus’ ministry ed., The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 3, completes the purpose of Israel’s revelation and pp. 720–734. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2008. begins a “new age” leading to the kingdom? Surveys questions of authorship, circumstances of 4. Luke consistently shows Jesus gravitating toward L composition, theological issues, and recent history economically and politically powerless persons, of critical interpretation. including women, social outcasts, and the poor. A Fitzmyer, J. A., ed. The Gospel According to Luke, Vols. Do you think that the Lukan Jesus’ concern for W 1 and 2 of the Anchor Bible. Garden City, N.Y.: socially marginal and “unrespectable” people— Doubleday, 1981, 1985. SJohnson, Luke Timothy. “Luke-Acts, Book of.” In such as prostitutes, notorious sinners, and tax D. N. Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, collectors who collaborated with the “evil em- O Vol. 4, pp. 403–420. New York: Doubleday, 1992. pire” of Rome—is suffi ciently recognized or N A lucid analysis of Luke’s concept of divine justice honored by today’s political and religious lead- both to Israel and to the church. ers? Can someone be a Christian and not follow , Johnson, Luke Timothy, and Harrington, Daniel J. Jesus’ example of siding with the poor and The Gospel of Luke. Sacra Pagina Series. Collegeville, oppressed? Explain your answer. Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2006. A scholarly com- 5. In editing Mark’s prophecy of Jerusalem’s fall A mentary. and Jesus’ Second Coming, how does Luke N Karris, Robert J. “The Gospel According to Luke.” In modify his predecessor’s emphasis on the near- R. E. Brown et al., eds., The New Jerome Biblical G Commentary, pp. 675–721. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: ness of End time? Are Luke’s changes to Mark’s Prentice-Hall, 1990. Provides detailed commen- apocalyptic viewpoint consistent with his writing E tary on Lukan accounts. a second book about the purpose and goals of L Patterson, Stephen. “Luke, Gospel According to.” the early Christian church (the Book of Acts)? In M. D. Coogan, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia A of the Books of the Bible , Vol. 1, pp. 587–600. New York: Oxford University, Press, 2011. Offers clear discussion of the Gospel’s compo- Terms and Concepts to Remember 6 sitional history, sources, and current critical 8 interpretation. Abraham Levite Powell, M. A. What Are They Saying About Luke? New Annunciation L (Lukan) source 5 York: Paulist Press, 1989. A good place to begin a apocalypticisim Luke study of current scholarship on Luke’s Gospel. apology Magnifi cat 3 Schaberg, Jane. “Luke.” In Carol Newsom and Benedictus Martha B Sharon Ringe, eds., Women’s Bible Commentary, pp. Calvary Mary U 363–380. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, Elijah Nunc Dimittis 1998. A thoughtful analysis of Luke’s treatment Elizabeth and paradise of his women characters, concluding that despite Zechariah Pentecost his sensitivity to their condition, he espouses typi- cally Greco-Roman male attitudes. Emmaus publican Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. In Memory of Her: A Gabriel Samaria Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian “greater interpolation” Samaritan Origins. New York: Crossroads/Herder & Herder, Issac Sarah 1983 (reprint 1994). An important contribution Joseph Savior ( s o– ter ) to understanding women’s roles in the formation “lesser interpolation” Sermon on the Plain of early Christianity. har19138_ch09_197-227.indd Page 227 07/01/14 3:03 PM user /204/MH02032/har19138_disk1of1/0078119138/har19138_pagefiles

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Shillington, V. George. An Introduction to the Study of Smyth & Helwys, 2002. An informative study of Luke-Acts. Edinburgh: T and T Clark International, Luke’s historical sweep. 2007. A concise survey of different critical ap- Tannehill, Robert. Abingdon New Testament Commen- proaches to studying Luke’s narratives. tary: Luke. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996. Offers Talbert, Charles H. Reading Luke: A Literary and helpful historical/cultural context for Luke’s Theological Commentary, rev. ed. Macon, Ga.: writings.

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