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Home , Noble gas, Noble gas (data page), Relative atomic mass

Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, , bonding . . .

Ram Seshadri MRL 2031, x6129 ses[email protected]; http://www.mrl.ucsb.edu/∼seshadri/teach.html

This class closely follows the second chapter of Callister Atomic structure

Atoms are composed of (positively charged), neutrons (no charge) and (negatively charged). The number of electrons in an (which is equal to the number of protons) is called the . The number of electrons (or protons) + the number of neutrons is called the number. The (which is numerically, a value close to the ) is the weighted average mass of a number of of the element, expressed in a system of units where the common of 12C has an atomic mass of precisely 12.00000. The unit of atomic mass in g is equal to 1.00000/(Avogadro Number) = 1.00000/6.0221367×1023 = 1.66054×10−24 g. This is sometimes called the Lochschmidt number. One atom of 12C weighs 12 times this, 1.99265×1023 g. If instead of counting atom by atom, we count in bunches corresponding to the Avogadro number, we have moles of something, and 1 mole of 12C weights precisely 12.00000 g. One mole of a normal carbon sample (which is a mixture of isotopes with different mass numbers) actually weighs 12.011 g.

Atoms have protons and neutrons in the core, in a nucleus. The electrons whiz around the nucleus according to two models, a simple one called the , and a more complicated one called the model.

In the Bohr model, electrons whiz around in different shells, the K shell, the L, shell, the M shell, the N shell, and so on. The K shell can accommodate 2 electrons, M can accommodate 8, M can accommodate 18 and N 32. The more sophisticated atomic orbital model has four kinds of orbitals, s, p, d and f (and for extremely heavy elements, a g orbital), that arise as of the Schr¨odinger equation for atoms. This equations forms the basis of . One of the outcomes of the solving the Schr¨odinger equation is that every in an atom is associated with a set of 4 numbers called the quantum numbers. The first number, the principle quantum number n takes on values as shown below and these correspond to the different shells of the Bohr atom.

1 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . .

n Shell Subshells States Electrons 1 K s 1 2 2 L s 1 2 p 3 6 3 M s 1 2 p 3 6 d 5 10 4 N s 1 2 p 3 6 d 5 10 f 7 14 In an atom, the electrons will always attempt to go to states with the lowest energy. This is the aufbau (or building-up) principle. However, you cannot fill states beyond a certain point. For example, if you finish filling 3d states with 10 electrons, you have to move on to 4s. This is a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle which states that no two electrons in an atom can share identical sets of the four quantum numbers. The scheme below shows the rules for filling up electrons in an atom. First all the “core” electrons fill up. Towards the end, the “” electrons start filling up. It is the valence electrons that usually decide the properties of the atom, such as its towards other elements.

s p d f g n=1

2 3 4 5 6

The periodic table:

The rules for filling up electrons in an atom result in the periodic table. Note that elements in the periodic table are separated into various categories. You must learn to understand these different categories: Alkali , alkaline earth metals, transition metals,

2 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . . main elements (consisting of and non-metals) and the noble . Also, there are the and elements.

GROUP 1 IA PERIODICTABLEOFTHEELEMENTS18 VIIIA 1 1.0079 http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/ 2 4.0026 1 H RELATIVE ATOMICMASS(1) Semimetal He

PERIOD GROUP IUPAC GROUP CAS Alkalimetal element 2 IIA 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 VA 16 VIA 17 VIIA 13 3 6.941 4 9.0122 Alkalineearthmetal element 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.180 ATOMICNUMBER 5 10.811 2 Transitionmetals Noble Li Be Lanthanide B C N O F Ne SYMBOL B STANDARDSTATE (100°C;101kPa) CARBON BORON Actinide Ne -gas Fe -solid 11 22.990 12 24.305 Ga -liquid Tc -synthetic 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948 3 ELEMENT NAME Na Mg VIIIB Al Si P S Cl Ar 3 IIIB 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 9 10 11 IB 12 IIB SULPHUR 19 39.098 20 40.078 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 28 58.693 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.80 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe MOLYBDENUMTECHNETIUM 55 132.91 56 137.33 57-71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222) 6 Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Lanthanide 87 (223) 88 (226) 89-103 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 110 (281) 111 (272) 112 (285) 114 (289) 7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uuq Actinide RUTHERFORDIUMDUBNIUM UNUNNILIUM UNUNUNIUM UNUNBIUM UNUNQUADIUM

LANTHANIDE Copyright ©1998-2002 EniG.([email protected]) 57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97 (1)Pure Appl.Chem., 73,No.4,667-683(2001) is shown with five significant figures. For elements have no stable La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu , the value enclosed in brackets indicates the mass number of the longest-lived PRASEODYMIUMNEODYMIUM isotope of the element. However three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) ACTINIDE do have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic weight is 89 (227) 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262) tabulated. Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Editor: AdityaVardhan([email protected]) CALIFORNIUMEINSTEINIUM MENDELEVIUMNOBELIUM

Count the electrons in the noble gases. Note that they correspond to filled K shells (He), filled L shells (Ne), filled M shells (Ar) . . . . These are stable configurations and the noble gases are rather unreactive. It is always useful to know how far an element is from the nearest . For instance, Br is just one electron away from Kr, and as a result, will grab an electron whenever it gets the chance. K has just one electron more than Ar and is always trying to get rid of it (the one electron). Another way of stating this is that Br has 7 valence electrons (and tries to get one more to reach 8) while K has 1 and tries to get rid of it to reach zero.

3 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . .

In general, atoms that can adopt the configuration of the nearest noble gas by gaining electrons, have a tendency to grab electrons from other atoms. This tendency is called , and Pauling introduced a scale to describe this tendency. The scale runs to 4 (corresponding to F) which is an atom that always tries very hard to grab electrons. Atoms that have can gain a noble gas configuration by giving up electrons are electropositive, and their electronegativity values are small (usually below 1.5).

Bonding:

• There are four forces in . The strong and the weak interactions act between electrons, protons, neutrons and other elementary particles and do not concern us. We do not know of any normal material whose properties (, for example) depend on the magnitude of these forces. The two other forces are gravitational and electromagnetic.

• Gravitational forces account for large scale phenomena such as tides, and seasons, and together with intermolecular forces, decide the length of a giraffe’s neck. We shall not discuss gravitation.

• All interactions that are important for solids, should in principle, come out as solutions of the Schr¨odinger equation (SE). Unfortunately, solutions of the SE are hard to come by for many real systems, and even if they were available, their utility would not be assured. We therefore continue to propagate the useful fiction that cohesive interactions in materials can be classified as belonging to one of four categories – van der Waals, ionic, covalent or metallic.1 We keep in mind that these are not very easily distinguished from one-another in many solids. For a delightfully readable text on the nature of cohesion between , and between molecules and surfaces, look at J. N. Israelachvili, Intermolecular and Surface Forces.

van der Waals

• The simplest solids are perhaps those obtained on cooling down a noble gas – He, Ne, Ar, Kr or Xe. He does not form a solid at ambient pressure. All the other noble gases do.

• The interactions between noble gas atoms (which have closed shells of electrons) is of the van der Waals type (note: van der Waals, not van der Waal’s !) which means that the interaction is between instantaneous dipoles formed because the atoms “breathe” and this breathing causes the centers of positive and negative charges to, from time to time, not coincide. The forces are therefore also referred to as induced dipole-induced dipole interactions, or dispersion forces (after F. W. London).

1Hydrogen bonds are somewhere between being ionic and covalent and we do not see a good reason to place them in a class by themselves.

4 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . .

nucleus electron cloud

• If we were to believe the above scheme, it should come as no surprise that the largest noble gas atom should be the most polar- isable and therefore the most cohesive. The boiling points (often better indicators of cohesion than melting points) testify to this:

Atom TM (K) TB (K) Ne 24 27 Ar 84 87 Kr 116 120 Xe 161 165

• Other columns of elements in the periodic table don’t follow this simple trend. For example:

Atom TM (K) TB (K) Cu 1353 2833 Ag 1235 2433 Au 1333 3133

Ionic

• As a good thumb rule, atoms at the two ends of the electronegativity scale either give up their valence electrons very easily to form stable cations ( with small values of electronegativity) or take up electrons very easily to form anions (ions with large ).

5 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . .

H ... 2.2 ... Li Be ... B C N O F 1.0 1.6 ... 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0 Na Mg ... Al Si P S Cl 0.9 1.3 ... 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2 K Ca ... Ga Ge As Se Br 0.8 1.0 ... 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0 Rb Sr ... In Sn Sb Te I 0.8 0.9 ... 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.7 Cs Ba ... Tl Pb Bi Po At 0.8 0.9 ... 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.2

• The process of giving up electrons (in the case of cations) and of taking electrons (anions) permits the to achieve a stable electronic configuration such as that of

– a noble gas: For example, Na+ and F− have the Ne configuration – the d10 configuration: Ga3+ takes this up – the s2 configuration: Pb2+ and Bi3+ take this up

• Once they have done this, they can pair up suitably to form ionic solids that are held together by Coulombic interactions

• For any ionic crystal, the attractive Coulombic part (per mole) is:

2 ! LA|z+||z−|e ∆UAtt. = − 4π0r

L is the Avogadro number.

• The repulsive part arises because atoms and ions behave nearly like hard spheres. This is a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle which says that no two electrons in a system can have all four quantum numbers the same.

• The repulsion can be approximated by the expression:

LB ∆U = Rep. rn

6 Materials 100A, Class 2, atomic stucture, periodic table, bonding . . .

where B is called the repulsion coefficient and n is the Born exponent. n is normally around 8 or 9. The two terms add:

2 LA|z+||z−|e LB ∆U(0 K) = − + n 4π0r r

Covalent bonding

• Covalent bonds are formed between non-metallic (usually) atoms of similar electronegativity. s or p orbitals are used. For example, the 1s orbitals on two hydrogen atoms combine to form the molecular orbitals σ(1s) which is bonding and σ∗(1s), which is antibonding. The two electrons occupy the bonding level and leave the antibonding level empty. In the following depiction, the circles are the 1s orbitals:

antibonding

atomic orbital Energy

bonding molecular orbital

• Why is covalent bonding strongly directional ? The example of sp3 hybrids in diamond and Si:

s

px py pz

Hybrid orbitals are obtained from linear combinations of atomic orbitals on the same atom. These hybrid orbitals can then overlap with similar hybrid orbitals on neighboring atoms, just as the 1s orbitals do in the hydrogen chain.

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Metallic bonding

This is a special case of covalent bonding where all the states are not filled up, and the electrons float around fixed nuclei in the solid.

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