38
CHAPTER II KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN AND RISE OF ARABO-PERSIAN LITERATURE WITH ITS LOCAL BACKGROUND IN MAHARASHTRA
INTRODUCTION I.A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND B. ARABIC LITERATURE UNDER THE BAHMANIS C. ARABIC LITERATURE UNDER THE DECCAN KINGDOMS
D. ARABIC LITERATURE UNDER THE MUGHALS.
II.A. PERSIAN LITERATURE UNDER THE BAHMANIS
B. PERSIAN LITERATURE UNDER THE DECCAN KINGDOMS
C, PERSIAN LITERATURE UNDER THE MUGHALS.
III. ARABIC LITTERATEURS AND AUTHORS OF MAHARASHTRA (17th TO 20th CENTURY) 39
INTRODUCTION We have discussed in the first chapter the Indo-Arab relations throughout the earlier centuries with special reference to the west coast and south of India. The Arabs came into contact with India not only in the commercial field but in cultural, economic and political arena also. The south with its long peaceful periods when the north was in turmoil, was more tolerant and receptive to any of the foreign influences that were coming its way. The Christianity had also come to the western coast soon after its inception in Palestine. The Jews had even settled in the area about the same time. The Syrian orthodox church had already taken roots in Kerala about the end of the second century of the Christ. The coming of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula and its phenomenal expansion in a short time, was an event of global importance. And that too brought its influence to bear on the region, at first moral, cultural and economic and thence political. I. A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The capture of the Fort of Deogir in 1296 A.D. by the armies of 'Ala'u'ddin Khalji marks the first inroad of the north into the Deccan . It was soon consolidated by Malik Kafur's expedition to the far south in 1311 A.D. followed by the armies of Muhammad b. Tughluq in 1327 A.D. The establishment of the capital of the empire at Deogiri (Deogir of the Persian Chronicles, changed to its present 4'J name 'Daulatabad' at about 1327 A.D.) was symbolic of the consolidation of Khalji-Tughluq conquest of the Deccan. The capital soon became an important city not only politically but also culturally in southern India. Since 1313 A.D.
Daulatabad remained under Muslim occupation, first of the
Khaljis and Tughluqs and later on of the Bahmanis, the
Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Mughals and the Asafjahi 2 Kingdom of Hyderabad , "7/-/ -^'fS'-:?
On account of the repressive measures adopted by
Muhammad b. Tughluq against the Amiran-i-Sadah, disruption and disintegration of the Tughluq Empire had set in. Sayyed
Ahsan Shah, the Kotwal of the distant Ma'bar with its centre at Madurai declared his independence in 1334 A.D.
Ismail Mukh revolted in 1345-46 and two years later in 1347
A.D., Zafar Khan was proclaimed King of the Deccan by the nobles under the title of 'Abul Muzaffar 'Alau'd-Din Hasan
Bahman Shah'. The Kingdom was known after his name as the 3 Bahmani Kingdom .
With the establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom in the
Deccan, which was in essence the Deccan determination to be
free of the northern domination, there was now a greater
influx of Iranians and Arabs from over the seas, who were
getting more patronage both for political as well as
cultural and commercial reasons. The first capital of the
Bahmanis, Ahsanabad-Gulbarga and their second capital,
Muhammadabad-Bidar were soon teeming with the learned men, who were well-versed both in Arabic and Islamic lore. They 41 were the connecting links with the Kingdoms of west Asia and factors of influences locally as regards the manners of behaviours and use of languages etc. Their intellectual activities affected the literature, language, art and culture of the society at large. This influencial segment of the society slowly introduced the Perso-Arabic and Perso-Turkish cultural elements, which played an important role in the development of Indo-Islaraic culture.
The Bahmani Kingdom although established in the wake of the conquests of the Khaljis and Tughluqs besides retaining the regional Arab influences started welcoming the Persian which was the cultural and administrative media of the northern Tughluq empire. The Persian then slowly
became the language of administration in this southern 4 kxngdom . The preceding Arab influences had its say in fashioning the Persian usage in the kingdom.
As stated before, trade and commerce had existed between Arabia and south India even in the pre-Islamic period and this was more consolidated with the coming of Islam and the establishment of Arab Empire with its unbounded prosperity and wealth brought about not by conquest but by expanding commerce and trade.
We have definite information that in the year of the Hijra 65/684 A.D., there were several settlements of the Arab merchants both in Swarandeep and Malabar . They had established their colonies and erected a number of mosques 42 in the coastal towns of Malabar. The mosques were also used for teaching the Qur'an and for imparting other religious instructions . An account of the first settlement of the Arab merchants in Malabar is described in the Qissat-Shakruwati under the king 'Shakruti' of Cranganore, a contemporary of 7 the Prophet Muhammad, who is said to have embraced Islam . Q He is also said to have visited Mecca after his conversion . This may be a folk-lore, but folk tradition hides within itself several factors. It principally traces the Islamic influences to a very early period. These Arab settlements had considerably increased when the renowned traveller Ibn Battuta visited India 9 during the reign of Muhammad b. Tughluq . The interesting accounts of Ibn Battuta about his visit to these
settlements go to show that Arabic was widely used in this
part of India. He records that all the inhabitants of Honaver were followers of Imam Shafi-i' and hence the Shafi-i' school was predominant in these parts. There he met Shaykh Muhammad Nagori and the Jurist Isma'il. Both were teaching the Qur'an and giving religious instructions. He says that there were twenty-three schools for boys and thirteen schools for girls in this town only. Many of the ladies of this settlement had even memorized the whole of the Qur'a^ n (Hafizat- - ) 10 . Ibn Battuta also found Arab » . • settlements in several other places between Sandabur and 43
Colum . At the city of Faknore he met Husayn al-Saltat, the chief of the Arab community who had built a Jam-i-Masjid (a congragational mosque) 12 . In the town of Hilli, Ibn Battuta found a grand mosque. Here a number of students were acquiring religious^ instructions and they were receiving stipends from the endowments of the mosque.
The mosque, he adds, was under the management of khatib Husyan and Hasan al-Wazzan who were the chiefs of the Muslim community 13 . At Calicut, he met Qadi Fakhruddm •Uthman and also Shaykh Shihabuddin who had established a khanqah in the name of the famous Saint Abu Ishaq Kazaruni
(963-1034)-^^. At Quilon he stayed with Shaykh Fakhruddin, son of Shaykh Shihabuddin Kazaruni. The city of Ponam (Fonan), near Calicut on the Malabar coast had developed into a great centre of Arabic and Islamic studies. It produced the well-known scholars of the family of 'Makhadim-i-Fonaniya' . A khanqah (Sufi hospice) and a madrasa was established for imparting studies in Arabic and other subjects. Shaykh Shihabuddin Ahmad b. Hajar al-Makki (d.975/1567-8) himself used to visit this place and deliver lectures on the Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet.
Zainu'd-din Abu Yahya (873-928/1468-1522 A.D.) son of 'Ali b. Ahmad al-Ma'bari, the founder of the famous family of "Makhadim-i-Fonaniya" had also studied Arabic language and literature. Islamic theology and law at Ponan. 44
He had then gone to Calicut for further studies and completed his courses in Islamic law and its principles under Qadi Fakhru'ddin of Calicut. He also mentions about several Arabic scholars and their works. He says: Abu Yahya was the author of several works in Arabic viz:
1) Murshidu't-Tullab
2) Siraju'l Qutub
3) Sbamsu'l Huda
k) Tubfatu'l Ahibba
5) Irshadu'1 Qasidin
6) Shu'abu'1 Im^n
7) Kifayatu'l Faraid
8) Kitabu's-Safa min-a'sh-Shi fa
9) Tashalu'1-Kafiyah and
10) Qasasu'1 Anbiya. He also composed books in versified language on several topics e.g.
1) Hidayatu'1-Adhkiya ila Tariqati'1 Awliya
2) Urjuza and
3) Tanrldu Ahli'l Iman 'ala Jibad-i 'Abdati 's- Sultan
The titles of the books range from text books for students to studies for scholars. The topics too have a wide range and comprise theology, law, literature, ethics and mysticism. 45
His son, *Abdu'l-^ziz engaged himself in writing commentaries on some of the works of his father. Ibn Battuta mentions that he composed a lengthy commentary • • • entitled Masalaku'l Atqiya-fi sharh i-Hidayatu'1-Adhkiya on his father's work Hidayat'ul-Adhkiya, He also prepared an abridged version of the same and called it Irshadu'l-Alibaita Hidayatu'l Adhkiya 17 Zainud-din son of Abdu'l'Aziz (991-1588) was another well known scholar of Arabic. He wrote two books on Shafi-i
law entitled Qu'rratu'l 'Ayn and Fathu'1-Mu'in. He has
another compilation to his credit entitled Al-Irshad ila Sabili'r-Rishad. He wrote glosses on his own composition "Fathu'1-Mu'in" to facilitate its proper understanding and called it I'anatu't-Talibin fi Hall-i Alfaz-i fathul-Mu'in. • « ' • He also wrote the well known historical composition of Tuhfatu'1-Mujahidin. The book mainly speaks of the coming of the Portugese in Malabar and their depradations. This work was translated into English by Rowlinson in 1833. Muhammad Husayn Nainar also translated it and this was published in 1942-'-^. The brother of Zainuddin Muhammad b. 'Abdu' 1 'Aziz was also a scholar of repute. Amongst his compositions is a long poem in Arabic entitled Al-Fathu'1-Mubin li's-Samiri « Alladhi Yuhibbu'l Muslimin. The poem consists of five
hundred and three verses in rajaz meter, depicting the wars
and struggles of the Zamorin of Calicut against the Portuguese armies in India. 48
A few lines from the text of Tuhfatu'1-Mujahidin are quoted here to show the command of the author over Arabic language. The Persian does not seem to have any effect over the author's knowledge of Arabic. The language is simple and easy to understand. He says 19:
\ J ^ •
^ ^SV -
J ^J--J < J
^ li
jLa_.
^-;
VM, ^ft '. ^ <* *
ci-LiJ I j._..iJ I
v>»
,jSX^ I ^A', ,, I t ,jj
LoJ ->^..::. I I J LiJ
> >_^ ,.>'•-' ' "—* '^ '•^ '"^ o^./^ (—S__^ (_jj '.^^ "Some Jews and Christians staying in a big ship along with their families and children had entered a small town in Malabar 'named Konklur. They requested the king to grant them lands, gardens and houses for settlement there. After many years some poor Muslims came there along with a Shaykh to visit the impression of the foot of Hadhrat Adam (A.S.) at Ceylon. When the king heard about their arrival, he invited them for a feast and asked them to narrate the news from Arabia. The Shaykh told him about Prophet (sw) • • Muhammad and the religion of Islam and the miracle of splitting of the Moon. On hearing this, the king believed the Prophethood of Hadhrat Muhammad and embraced Islam. He then told the Shaykh that after their visit to the site of impression of Hadhrat Adam (a*s *) , he will accompany them to Arabia. He asked the Shaykh to keep this as a secret between them. After their return from Ceylon, the king asked the Shaykh to bring a ship and that no one should know about it. There were many ships of Arab merchants in that port and the Shaykh told one of the owners of the ship that he and his group of poor people desire to sail by this ship. The owner agreed." The Deccan (Maharashtra) was also the scene of successful performance of the Arab traders. From very early times the Arab merchants and travellers had visited almost
all the towns on the west coast. 48
By the 10th century A.D., Arabs had settled down in large numbers in the towns of Konkan (Arabs used to call this region as Kumkam) region of the kingdom of the Rashtrakutas. The rulers, whom the Arabs refer to as Balharas, cordially welcomed them, protected their lives and property and gave them all the facilities for trade and commerce. They had also freedom of religion. The Arabs formed their own groups and communities and some of them had acquired the right of self government. These communities had their own 'Chiefs' who administered their personal and communal affairs. These 'chiefs' were called
•al-hazimat', the hazimat at the time of al-Mas'udi's visit 20 in 916 A.D. was a certain Abu Sa'id Ma'ruf b. Zakariya The Muslims of the Konkan coast are known as 'Nava'its' (those who have come afresh). Their ancestors seem to have come to India from the Euphrates valley and they belong to the same waves of Arabs, who settled at Bharuch, Khambayat and Randhair and they were also called as 'Naw'aits' in Gujarat. The tradition of the people and the account of many Arab historians confirm that the bulk of these migrants, came to India from the Eupherates valley about the year 700 A.D. to escape the tyranny of the then Umayyad Governor, Hajjaj b. Yusuf. These Arabs settled down as peaceful merchant
communities and married with the local women. Even today 4ii many high and respectable families of Konkan, though at present following different professions, are distinguished by Arabic surnames viz. Qadi (Judge), Faqih (Jurist), Muallim (Maulwi-Teacher), Khatib (Preacher), Hafiz
(memorizer of Qur'an), Hani, Da'we and Lule etc. Among the Arab settlers were many Arab scholars and religious men, who were experts in Islamic sciences like exegesis of the Holy Qur'an, Traditions and Islamic
Jurisprudence. All these accounts show that Arabic was widely used in this part of India long before the invasion of the Deccan by the Tughluqs.
B, ARABIC LITERATURE UNDER THE BAHMANIS (1347-1527 A.D. ) Though the Bahmanis were Indians in origin, they had great interest in every aspect of the cultural life. Arabic and Persian being the religious and cultural languages of
west Asia and north India, the Bahmanis also gave encouragement and support to the learning and fostering of these languages. Arabic, being at the source of the Muslim religion naturally received sufficient patronage from the royal court. And so we come across many scholars of Arabic during this period e.g. Shaykh 'Alimu'd-din Ganj- e-'Ulum Junaidi (706-95/1306-92), the author of Atwaru'1 Abrar in Arabic, Shaykh Ibrahim Sangani (d.753/1351),
Shaykh Siraj'ud-din Junaidi (d.781/1379-80) and Shaykh Burhanad-din of Daulatabad, the disciple of the famous 5 U
Shaykh Nizamu'd-din Awliya of Delhi. Bahman Shah had a great r^ect for this scholar of Arabic and Mystic of
IslaT 1 m 21 Mahmud Shah I, the youngest son of Hasan Shah
Bahmani was himself proficient in Arabic and Islamic sciences and spoke both Arabic and Persian fluently 22 Because of his liberal patronage of learning, many poets and literatures from Arabia were inducted in the court by the Sadr of the State Mir Fazlu'llah Inju, a versatile
scholar. Mahmud Shah founded many schools and colleges in Gulbarga, Bidar, Qandhar, Daulatabad, Chaul and Dabul. The salaries of the teachers and the stipends of the students
were paid from the endowments established and granted by the king^-^. Firoz Shah and Ahmad Shah I were instructed and 24 tutored by Mir Fazlu'1-lah Inju himself . Like his
predecessors, Feroz Shah was also a great scholar of Arabic
and was fond of the company of the learned and took keen interest m the welfare of the students and scholars 25 . He invited men of letters to come and settle down in his 26 kingdom . He was fully conversant with all the main
exegesis of the Qur'an, principles of Muslim Jurisprudence,
philosophy and natural sciences. He had allotted three days
in a week viz., Saturday, Monday and Wednesday for teaching
these sciences to the students. He used to deliver lectures 51 on Zahidi (treatises on logic), Sharh-e-Tadhkira (mathematics)/ Sharh-e-Maqasid (scholasticism), Tahrir-e- Uqlaidis (Geometry), Taftazani's Mutawwal (Rhetoric), et al It was at the request of Feroz Shah Bahmani that Hadhrat Sayed Muhammad JIusayni entitled 'Abu'l Fath Sadruddin Wali-ul-Akbar-us-Sadiq, later popularly known as Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesu Daraz came to Gulbarga in the year 803/1401-2 A.D. from Delhi. He remained here for twenty-two years till he breathed his last in 825 A.H./1422 A.D. Khwaja Banda Nawaz was not only a renowned sufi but was also $n erudite scholar. He wrote in Arabic, Persian and Deccani Urdu with equal perfection. Besides Arabic and Persian, he was also well versed in Sanskrit. He used to give lessons in his khanqah on subjects like Arabic grammar, Qur'an and Qur'anic exegesis, prophetic traditions, theology. Islamic law and sufism. He has been attributed with over a hundred books to his credit. Majority of the works of Gesu Daraz are written in Persian, a few in Arabic and some are in Dakhni Urdu. The best examples of his Persian and Arabic style are Asmar al-Asrar, Haza'iral Quds and Ummu'l Ma'ni respectively. As far as his commentaries are concerned they are precise and lucid. His language is eloquent and rhetorical. Some of the important treatises of Banda Nawaz are as follows: 52
1) Asmar al-Asrar \ These works are his 2) Haza'ir al-Quds \ independent contributions 3) Khatimah \ to the field of Sufism. U) Majmu'ah-i-Yazdah It is a collection of eleven Rasa'il treatises. 5) Sharh-i 'Awarif al- \ It is a commentary on the Ma'Trif \ famous ''Awari fu' 1 Ma'arif of 6) 5harh-i-Risalah-i- \ Shaykh Shihab ad-din Qushayriyab. | Subrawardi. 7) Sharh-i-Tahmidat A commentary on Tamhidat of 'Ayn al-Quddat al-Hamadani, 8) Tarjamah-i Adab al-Muridin. 9) 5harh~al-Fiqh al-Akbar 10) Jawami'al-Kalim (These are his discourses (Maifuzat) collected by his son and Khalifa Syed Akbar Husayni)
11) Anis al-'Ushshag (It is a collection of his Persian poetry). 12) Maktubat It is a collection of his letters.
Other important works are a commentary of the Qur' an 28 in Arabic entitled Ummu'l Ma'ani , glosses on
Zamakhshari's Tafsir Kashshaf and Hasan Saghani's
Mashariqu'1-Anwar; two works on Mysticism; and a a short
treatise entitled Risalah fi ru'yat Bari Ta'la. Some of his
mystical pronouncements have become popular and scholars quote:
«_L^ 4JLJ ) vr-rf I^ i) I tL*^ c;^ I^ L. (\)
«JU I C-- f^ ill li--l C-- 1^ U ( V )
.JLJlo^l_^i)l U-„.^ v::- I^ U (r) 58
As he said: 1) "I have never seen anything except Allah before that"
2) "I have nev.er seen anything except Allah with it"
3) "I have never seen anything except the greatness of
Allah in that thing".
Ahmad Shah (1422-35 A.D.) brother of Firoz Shah Bahraani and his successor was a great patron of learning. Khalf-e-Hasan al-Basari, Shaykh Azari, Mulla Naziri were some of the learned men of his days. He built a magnificent college near Gulbarga in memory of his beloved Saint Khwaja
Banda Nawaz Gesu Daraz and made extensive land grants for
Its maintenance 29 Shaykh 'Alau'ddin 'Ali-al-Mahai'mi, son of Shaykh
Ahmad Makhdum (d.835/1431) was another Arabic Scholar of this period. He belonged to the Naway'it family of Konkan. He wrote several books in Arabic. The most important of 30 them are:
1) Fiqh makhdumi
2) Tabsir al-Rabman wa taisir al-mannan, popularly known as Tafsir-e-Rahmani.
3) Adllat al tawhid. 4) Ajllat al-ta'id fi Sharh-i adllat al-tawhid. 5) Al nur al-azbar fi Kasbf Sirr al-gda'wal qadr. 4 6) Aldaw'al-azhar, fi 5barb-i-al-nur al-azbar.
7) Khusus al-nam fi Sbarh i-fusus al-bikam. 54
8) Al-rutbat al-rafia* fi 'l-jama^wal tawfiq bain Asrar
al Haqiqa wa Anwar al-5hariya. a. 9) Amhad al-nasibt.
10) Musbra' al-Khusus fi 5barh-i-al~fusus.
11) Zawarif al-latai'f fi Sharh-i 'awari f al-ma'rif
12) Tarjuma wa 5harb-i-lam'at Iraqi
13) Mirat'ul Haqaiq 14j Irat al-dagaig be Sharh-i-mira't al-haqaiq
15) Asija la al-basar fi '1 rud 'ala Istaqsa al-nazar 16) Al-wajud fi 5harh-i-asma ' al-ma^bud
17) In'am al-Mulk al 'a*lam be Ihkam hukm al~abkam 18) Fatawa-e-Makhdumiyab
19) Risal-i-'Ajiba Another scholar of this period was Badru'd-din Muhammad b. Abi Bakr b. 'Umar al-Mukhdhumi a'd-Damamini. He was a traditionist and an authority on Arabic lexicography and grammar. He left his teaching job at Zabid 31 and came to Gujarat in 820/1417 A.D. during the reign of Ahmad Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat (814-843/1411-1439 A.D.) Here he compiled a book on grammar entitled Ta'liqu'1-Faraid 'ala Tashili'1-Fawaid and dedicated it to his patron Sultan Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. He started writing a detailed commentary here on Al-Wafi fin-Nahw by Muhammad b.'Uthman b.'Umar of Balkh; but the generous patronage of the learned
shown by Ahmad Shah Bahmani atracted a'd-Damamini to
Gulbarga. Here he completed his monumental work on Arabic 55 granunar under the title Al-Manhal U's-Safi fi Sharhi'1-Wafi 32 and dedicated it to his Bahmani patron Ahmad Shah . He says in the colophon of this book:
K^j»- j^ ,^<^ *j>^ tP « *>>i o-J «> *^ « ^ UJ- I J . J,-** JS^ u-» \jJ «
O* V '^^ J »»-J ' cr» 'V"' •• ' J fJ^J Li JoJ 1 J. Li* «J ,>Ai. v>* «^-* •»-> "
Ji«— o- *v ^ ^ ->*>''^ d-^*^ c^*-- 'j^J^ J oi" (J-" c-^ ci-^ *-• »,^»J^
"In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful. His help and gifts. His Bounties are for those who follow His right path. After Praising Allah he says "The poor person before our Master Allah, is Mohammad Ibn-Abu Bakr Ibn Omer Al-Makhdhumi Al-Damamini. When he came to Gujarat (India) from Egypt, he found many students interested in studying 'Al-Mukhtasir Al-Nahv' (concise grammar) called Al-Wafi. The students requested him to read and explain to them what they have not understood till
then, as they did not find a person, who could understand
this art and explain it to them". 5G
Another well-known name of this period in the literary history of the Deccan was Khwaja Mahmud al-Gilani, well-known in history as Mahmud Gawan, after his natal town Gawan on the Caspian Sea. He arrived in Deccan from Iran in 1455 A.D. As the minister of Muhammad Shah II (1463-82 A.D.), he invited scholars from Iran and Arabia and employed them in the court service. He himself was a great scholar of Arabic, and patronised eminent scholars of his times.
The scholar-cum-administrator founded a magnificent madrasa for Islamic studies at Bidar in 876/1471-2 A.D. in which he appointed learned men as teachers whom he had invited from Arabia, Iran and other countries. He also
established a big library containing 35,000 books collected from different parts of the world 33 . Being a poet, he
himself composed Arabic verses. His letters and other
persin works are full of his own verses and quotations from famous Arabic poets. Among the Arabic poets he seems to be much impressed by the poetry of Mutanabbi. Besides, we also find in his letters quotations from the verses of Arabic poets like Abu'l Fawaris, Abu'1 Fath al-Basti, Abu Tammam etc. His letters and Persian works have also profuse quotations from the Holy Qur'an, the Prophet's traditions and sayings of Hadrat 'Ali. F) {
A few lines from his letters having 'Arabic' quotations are given below:
U-j \ ^y. .JU w ^j i*-J » f UiJi j^.„u:J » o-J^-J ' o-i
The letter is addressed to Al-Shaykh Al-Khwaja
Ubaidullah/ who is a scholar of Islam, Shariat and Taqwa:
"If my eyes do not get light from you and if I am unable to achieve what I want by meeting you".
"The one who is aware of the secrets, knows that you
are in my eyes and in my heart".
Mahmud Gawan was fond of composing verses both in
Arabic and Persian. It is reported that he had compiled an 34 Arabic Diwan but this seems to have been lost . It is also
mentioned that his Arabic and Persian compositions were 35 edited by Mulla Sama'i
Mulla Jalalu'd-din Dawwani dedicated his work
entitled Shawakilu'l Hur a commentary of Shihabuddin
Suhrawardi's Hayakili 'n-nur to Mahmud Gawan . 58
ARABIC LITERATURE IN THE DECCAN STATES
The disintegration of the Bahmani Empire was followed by the rise of five Deccan Kingdoms of which the three - The *Adil Shahi Kingdom of Bijapur, the Nizam Shahi of Ahmadnagar and the Qutub Shahi of Golkunda - are worthy of mention here. The other two e.g. ' Imad Shahis' and 'Barid Shahis' were minor and short lived kingdoms. For the sake of brevity they are being omitted.
1. Under the'Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1489-1686 A.D.) This kingdom was noted for its patronage of learning and literature. The founder of the kingdom Yusuf 'Adil Shah (1489-1510 A.D.) and his successor Isma'il 'Adil Shah (1510-1534 A.D.) continued the literary traditions of its predecessor and provided full patronage. The State attracted scholars and poets from Arabia to its courts. They established mosques and madrasas for spreading Islamic 37 and Arabic learning . Among the scholars who visited Bijapur was one Hasan b. 'Ali Shadqam (d.l636 A.D.) the author of Zahru'1-Riyad way-Zulal-ul Hiyad. He was attached to the court. He was an author and a poet. Another scholar of repute was Zaynu'd-din al-Ma'bari who dedicated his work .- . r - 38 Tuhfatu'l-Mujahidm to 'All 'Adil Shah . 5^^
During the reign of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah I,
Shihabuddin Ahmad b. Muhammad entitled Nizam Jilani composed his al-Fatawa'1-Hanafiyah and dedicated it to the Sultan Ibrahim Shah 39 . It is an important juridical work consisting of legal opinions. Even Haji Khalifa in his Kashf u' z-Zunun takes note of it and compares it to the monumental work of Qadi Khan and says: 40
"It is a large book like the Fatawa of Qadi Khan. It has been compiled from 160 books". Sultan 'Adil Shah constructed a magnificent building known as 'Athar Mahal' wherein he established several madrasas, in two of which were taught Hadith and Fiqh and in other two Arabic language and literature. The students were provided free lodging and boarding. It also housed a magnificent library containing a large and valuable collection of books on Arabic, Persian and Islamic 41 subjects . Later, books from Mahmud Gawans Library at Bidar were also added to it. Some of the manuscripts belonging to this library are now found in the India Office 42 Library, London
During the reign of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II, Shah
Sibghatu'1-lah came to Bijapur in 1591-1592 A.D. and GO engaged himself as a teacher and a religious guide. He was a saintly person interested in mysticism. He went back to Medina in 1596-97 A.D. and died there in 1606-07 A.D. He has to his credit a few books like Kitabu' 1-Wahdan and Iraatu'd-Daqaiq-fi-Sharh-i Mirati'1 Haqaiq. He also translated into Arabic the Persian work Jawahir-i-Khamsa of Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior under the title of Zamairu's , . - _ 43 Sarairi'1 Ilahiya f i Bawahir-i-Ayati'1 Jawahir'1 Ghauthiya Mulla Ahmad of Bijapur and his son Habibu'1-lah (d.1631-32 A.D.) were both great scholars of Arabic and lived during the reign of Sultan Ibrahim 'Adil Shah. Mulla Habibu'1-lah was sent as an Ambassador to the Court of Emperor Jehangir at Delhi. Mulla Habibu'1-lah was well versed in Muslim theology and excelled himself in his discussions with Mulla Shukru'1-lah Shirazi (d.1638-39 A.D.) when the latter came to Bijapur court as an emissary from Emperor Jehangir 44 . Mulla Habibu'1-lah was interested in mysticism and has composed verses in Arabic. A few verses are given below. The Persian and Arabic are blended to create a new Indian style which has its own impact on the local spoken languages 45
^' J tj-^li^U ^^LiJI l:.j
%y^ * U„.„,.,,. \jLi. i t .iUt JJJU 61
Till the Sun and the Moon lasts in the heavens,
its rays shall illuminate the earth,
I have turned to Him with all the praises - endowing with them the person who in reality deserves them.
Maulana Habibu'1-lah was not only a great Sufi but was also a great scholar and he wrote both prose and poetry in Arabic and Persian.
Ja'far al-Sadiq al-'Aidrus (997-1064 A.H.) also came to Bijapur and translated Dara Shikoh's Safinatu'l Awliya into Arabic under the title of 'Tuhfat-ul Asafia'.
2. Under the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar (1490-1595 A.D.) The kingdom attracted several Arab scholars who dedicated their works to various rulers of the dynasty. Ahmadnagar also produced some scholars. Name of Mulla Abdu'n-Nabi b. Qadi Abdu'r Rasul al-U'thmani may be mentioned as one such scholar, who had several works in philology e.g. Dasturu'1-Ulama', philosophy - Hashiya
'ala'1-Sharhit-Tahdhib li'1-Yazadi and Law (Fiqh) - Hashiya .. 46 'ala'1-Fara'i dis-Sirajiyyah (a commentary on the famous as-Sirajiyyah dealing with laws of inheritance). 6:>
Amir Isma'il known as Sayyid Khan wrote Tafsir-i- Rahimi, the exegesis of the Qur'an for Malik 'Ambar, the 47 famous Vazir of Ahmadnagar . A copy of the Tafsir is available in the library of Daru'1-'Ulum, Deoband (No.13144).
Burhan Nizam Shah I, the third ruler of the dynasty studied Arabic and Persian under scholars like Mulla Pir
Muhammad Shirwani. On a political mission to the Governor of Parenda, Mulla Pir Muhammad came in contact with Shah Tahir, who had recently arrived from Iran. On his return to the capital Mulla Pir Muhammad praised Shah Tahir so much that the king invited Shah Tahir to Ahmadnagar. Shah Tahir was received by the king in 928/1522 A.D. at Ahmadnagar. The king was so much impressed by his scholarship that he was appointed as his guide and adviser. On Shah Tahir's advice, Burhan Nizam Shah built a magnificent madrasa in front of the Ahmadnagar Fort in 956 A.H. To meet its expenses, the king donated a few villages to the madrasa. There were more than two hundred students and fourteen teachers in this Institute. Shah Tahir himself used to teach in this madrasa. He was a very good teacher and an orator. The king also used to visit the fnadrasa often. A boarding house was attached to the madrasa in 929/1523 A.D. The site of the madrasa still survives in
Ahmadnagar and is known as 'Kotla'. But both the madrasa
and the boarding house are m rums. 48 G'S
It was due to Shah Tahir' s influence that Burhan Nizam Shah was converted to Shiiism. Shah Tahir died at Ahmadnagar in 956/1549 A.D. Later his remains were taken to
Karbala 49 Qadi Abdu'n Nabi has mentioned in his Jami'ul-'Ulum that he was a student of this famous madrasa.
3. Under the Qutub Shahis of Golcunda (1518-1687 A.D.)
The monarchs of the Qutub Shahi dynasty also had great leaning towards Arabic learning. Though the language of the court of the Qutub Shahi kings was Persian yet we find that they gave lot of importance to Arabic and Qur'anic studies. This is obvious from the fact that eminent scholars of Arabic and Persian were appointed as tutors for the princess to teach the Qur'an and allied Qur'anic sciences. Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah and 'Abdu'llah Qutub Shah both from their childhood were placed under the guidance of eminent Arabic scholars . Muhammad Qutub Shah recited the Qur'an daily. Three sons of Ibrahim Qutub Shah are known to be men of learning. His second son Mirza Husain Quli was well versed in philosophy and logic while 'Abdul Fattah, his fourth son, it is state.d/ had mastered the science of reciting the Qur'an ('Ilmu'1-Tajwid) 64
It was only during the reign of 'Abdu'1-lah Qutub Shah that Arabic was given greater emphasis. Sultan
''Abdu'l-lah constructed mosques and madrasas. Eminent 52 teachers were appointed to impart education . Shaykh Muhammad Ibn Khatun 'Amili, one of the eminent scholars of 53 the kingdom was appointed as a Peshwa . He was m constant correspondence with Iran and countries of Arabia.
•"Abdu'l-lah invited Amir Nizam'al-din b. Ma'sum, who came to Golkonda in 1055/1645 A.D. from Mecca. The kingdom attracted other Arab scholars who were received with honour. Amir Nizam'al-din was an eminent writer and a poet.
He composed several poems in priase of Sultan 'Abdu'1-lah. He was married to the second daughter of the Sultan. He
later moved to Hyderabad where he was the central figure in the literary circles. Eminent Arab scholars, writers and
poets like Shaykh Muhammad b. Ahmad, Hakim'ul Mulk, Sayyad Hasan b. Shadqam, Sayyad Muhammad b. 'Abdu'1-lah Musawi
known as al-Kibritu'l Madani, Al-Khatib 'Abdu'1-lah al-Basari al-Munafi, Sibtu'sh-Shaykh Zainu'd-din al-'Amili,
Sayyad 'Abdul-Ghana "im Muhammad al-Hilli of Iraq and Jamalud-din b. Muhammad b. 'Awwad al-Haikali were in correspondence with him and some of them visited Hyderabad and were patronised by hi.m 54
Nizam -al-din himself was a poet of renown, as is
evident from the extracts and quotations mentioned by his 65
son Sayyad Sadruddin 'Ali in Salawatu'1-Gharib Fi Uswati'l- 'Arib and also in Ghulam 'Ali Azad's Subhatu' 1 Mar j an and in 'Abbas b. 'Ali Al-Makki's Nuzhatu'1-Jalis 55 . He composed several poems in Arabic in praise of Sultan 'Abdu'1-lah Qutub Shah. But the poet in him, evaluates his father-in-Law, the Sultan in one of his qasidas:
"And when calamity strikes, his statesmanship takes the place of armies clad in armour".
And the qasida is continued with the prayer:
'i^ I JJ Lc ^SJ JL^ ^J-yt ' "So, be lenient towards your slave, who is faithful, isolated, a stranger, who has alighted on the Indian threshold"^^. The following Arabic works of great value and scholarship were written in the Qutub Shahi period and dedicated to the Qutub Shahi kings 57: Muhammad 'Ali Karbala-i compiled an index of the Qur'an HadaTq-i-Qutub Shahi. Muhadhdhibu'd-din Ahmad b. 'Abdir Rida al-Hilli wal- Basari (d.l084) compiled an Arabic commentary of the Qur'an "Tafsiru'1-Qur'an" and twenty valuable treatises on different topics. 68 Muhadhdhibu'd-din Ahmad visited Mecca, Medina, Meshhad and Herat. He was a great scholar and wrote epistles on various topics wherever he went. A collection of his Arabic epistles contains different monographs on the following topics: a; Usul-al-Hadith, b) Usul-i-Fiqh, Jurisprudence. c) Usul-i-Din, Theology (Ilabiyat Theology), Logic. d) 'Ilme-Nahv (Syntax) Ma'ani and Bayan (Rhetoric) Tasawwuf, collection of Hadith (Traditions) on 58 permissibility of music etc. Shaykh Bahauddin-al-Amili wrote (d.l031 A.H.) Tashrih-al-Af lak a well known work on astronomy. It is preserved in the Salar Jung Museum Library (Folio No.7-1). The manuscript was written in the year 1298 A.H. which indicates that it was used in teaching and was well-known to scholars a hundred years ago. Its colophon says: tr** 'j ,^ V* "^ •»-l*-.' "Tahdib-i-Navh being one of the the compilations of Shaykh Baha al-din 'Amili written in the year 1298 A.H. by Saheb Mirza, may Allah forgive him. With thy name O' Lord begins the work and it ends with your praise. The inner soul of this despondent, because of his incapability to describe him, his intelligence and his eyes fall short in comprehending him. We implore you O'Lord to send your benediction on your beloved Muhammad, who brought your ordinances and prohibitions and instituted the essentials of your prayers and blessings be on the progeny of the Prophet, the source and essence of the wisodm and the foundation and the pillars of the Prophethood. After seeking help from God I must say that I took the sources and essentials of the science of grammar and fashioned them into chapters and explained the complexities and emphasised the singularities. I have tried to be precise and brief in its wording so that it will be easy to commit to memory and I have called it 'Al-Tahdib' so that its words may correspond popularly to its meaning and its literal expression may properly be founded on its inner significance. And towards it I seek the help of Allah." Nizamu'd-din Ahmad Gilani, entitled Hakim'ul Mulk (d.1059/1649 A.D.) compiled vAl-Muntakhab min Qabasat-i-Mir Muhammad Baqir-e-Javed. It is a work on philosophy and is 6h preserved in Salar Jung Museum Library. Nizam'ud-din Ahmad was a man of varied interests and wide knowledge. His collected works entitled 'Shajaratu'd-Danish' contains more than hundred epistles on subjects like medicine, jurisprudence, philosophy, logic, literature and scholasticism (Kalam) 59 Sayyad Sadru'd-din 'Ali b. Amir Nizamuddin b. M^sum was also a great scholar and a poet who wrote freely in Arabic. He was born at Mecca in 1052/1642 A.D. and came to Golkunda in 1068/1657-58 A.D. He is reported to have composed verses extempore on any given meter and rhyme. He was a prolific writer in Arabic. Besides his Al-Kalimatu't- Tayyiba, which is a collection of prayers some of his « important works are as follows: Salwatu'1-Gharib Fi Uswati'1-Arib In this work the author gives a vivid account of his journey from Mecca to Golkunda in the year 1066/1655-56 A.D. which he undertook in compliance with the instructions of his father Sayyad Ahmad Nizamu'd-din who was a prominent figure in the Golkunda Court of Sultan 'Abdu'1-lah Qutub Shah. This manuscript is available in Salar Jung Museum Library and classified under Arabic history No.4. The book begins with the following passage: Gii ^i-^V. ) » J,j-a- *vi U^ ^J-» ' i-r-^ -^- -^ \ f, itu:. A*> « ,j^ Or^-i-J '^-^ J • - I I » \^ ^_^M «JJ < LoJb IJA I ^j.:—>J I ,j_^—.JO I "All the praise for Allah who levelled the earth anc created the pathways in it. He has created many wonder::^ which a person who is used to travel will see what he hac: never seen before. Glory be to Allah 1 How wonderful 1.-: what he has determined of the affairs of His worshippers... Now says 'Ali the suppliant of his Lord, the self sufficient. 'Ali Sadrud-din b. Ahmad Nizam ad-din Al-Husaini al-Hasani. May Allah guide both of them on the levelled path and grant them the best of what is possible." Sulafatu'1-'Asr fi Mahasin 'A'yani'l 'Asr be Kulli Misr It is a biography of the poets of the llthcentur\ writing in Arabic. It is preserved in A.S. Library a: Sawaneh No.4. It also contains an account of Arabic scholars whc were attached to the Golkunda Court. When Sadru'd-dii. Sayyad 'Ali reached Golkunda he met all the dignitaries anc; 7U Arabic scholars of the time who had gathered at his father's place. He describes some of the Arab scholars in his work: (i) One of them he says was a "Unique scholar....perfect master of prose and poetry - Mawlana al-Shaykh Muhammad b. 'Ali b. Mahmud b. Yusuf b. Ibrahim al-Shami". Under him the author had studied Arabic grammar, rhetoric jurisprudence and arithmatic. He was a poet also and some of his qasaids are found in Sulafat-al-'Asr. (ii) Another Arab scholar with whom Sayyad 'Ali came into contact was Al-Sayyad al-Shaykh 'Ammar b. Barakat b. Ja'far b. Burd b. 'Ali Nu'aymi who is also noticed in Sulafat-al- 'Asr. (iii) When Sayyad 'Ali reached Hyderabad in 1069/1658 A.D. he was attached to Shaykh ul-Islara Ja'far b. Kamal-ad-din b.Muhammad b. Sulayman b. 'Isa al-Bahraini. Sayyad Sadr ad-din also wrote Al-Darajatu'1 Rafi 'ah-fi Tabaqati'1-Imamiya min al-Shi'ah, Riyadus Salikin, a commentary of As-Sahif atus-Sa j jadiyah, Sharh u'1-Fawai'di ' s Samadiyyah on grammar and Anwaru'r-Rabi' f i anwa' il-Badi' on rhetoric. He has a diwan and an anthology of poems to his credit. Thus in one of his poems he addresses the Prophet: Zr^ J v-^ •-''^ o<.>* ^jj-^ J>rf (*-'*>•'* *-^ ' J,r*^ ^ " 71 "O Messenger of Allah, thou whose Grace is always a source of gain and profit. Bring him in Thy nearness, for even the wide fi n stretches of India will be crammed for him." On the death of the Sultan 'Abdu'1-lah he left for Burhanpur and after serving for sometime under the Emperor Aurangzeb he went to Hijaz in 1114/1701 A.D. and then migrated to Shiraz where he died in the year 1117/1705 A.D. He was burried in the grave yard attached to the tomb of Shah Chiragh of Shiraz. Before leaving Hyderabad, he was in correspondence with those learned in Arabic lore outside India. For example Abu'1 Hasan of Shiraz, Jamaluddin of Najaf, Sayyad Anwar al-Brakat of Mecca. He was always in touch with his own learned brother Yahya who was at Mecca and with whom he carried on a long correspondence in verse. One of his correspondents the eminent scholar Husain b. Shihabu'd-din a Sh-Shami actually came to Hyderabad in the year 1074/1663 A.D. 'Ali Husaini of Kokhla was another scholar. He wrote a short treatise in Arabic on the art of recitation of the Holy Qur'an entitled Hilyatu'l Qari in 1089/1678 A.D. Sayyad 'All's Mu'ashirattu'1 Ikhwan has a special importance because here he has tried to use Persian meters for his Arabic compositions. The inscriptions on the tombs "Id of Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah and his brother Muhammad Amin also show this innovation. The inscriptions consists not only of the verses of the Qur' an and the name of the person hurried but also of some well-constructed beautiful Arabic poem with mixture of Arabic and Persian meters on both the graves. The couplets indicate the amalgam of the meters of two languages. The beautiful Arabic inscription on the tomb stone of Muhammad Amin is as follows: "Controller of the death of the mighty and the powerful ! Save me from the (eternal) fire through the light of Thy Countenance. To thee I have been entrusted by my friends companions and supporters; In a dark pit, desolate, dreadful, I lie, stranger and solitary, under a load of stones." 73 One finds that this innovation of the amalgam of the Persian and Arabic meters are also tried for the Deccani and other local languages. In the foregoing pages we have briefly considered the Arabic literature in the three Deccan Kingdoms. We will now discuss in brief the Arabic literature in the Mughal period. ARABIC LITERATURE UNDER THE MUGHALS Compared to the Deccan States e.g. 'Adil Shahis, the Nizam Shahis and the Qutub Shahis; the Mughals seemed to have attracted a smaller number of Arab scholars, yet theirs was the most important period from the point of the output of the Arabic language. This period has been rightly termed by Zubaid Ahmad as the "Golden Age of Muslim India" as far as the Arabic scholarship is concerned. Among the Mughal rulers. Emperor Aurangzeb was the most enthusiastic patron of Islamic studies in the period under review. The most important work produced on the Hanafi Law was the Fatawa 'Alamqiri . It was compiled by a group of eminent Jurists directly under the Emperor's supervision. Aurangzeb's teacher Mulla Jiwan wrote a commentary entitled Al-Tafsir al-Ahmadiyyah fi Bayan al-Ayat al-Qur'an containing explanations of those Qur'anic verses which deal 74 with cormnandments and prohibitions. The other work of Mulla Jiwan 'Nur'al-Anwar' is a well annotated conunentary on Nasafi's famous Mannar al-Anwar. Mir Muhammad Zahid (d.l689) b. Qadi Muhammad Aslam, who was first attached to the Court of Shah Jehan and then of Aurangzeb was known for his highly philosophical writings. He is known for his collection of three glosses which he compiled under the title Hawashi Thalatha al- Zahidiyyah.6 4 Emperor Aurangzeb occasionally used to write personal letters in Arabic. Two such letters written to his teacher Maulvi Sayyad Muhammad Qanuji and to his beloved daughter Zaibunnissa are available in Fayyadu'1 Qawanm. 65 There is a good index to the Qur'an compiled during the reign of Aurangzeb by Mustafa b. Muhammad Said. The author dedicated his work Nujum al-Furqan to the Emperor. 75 A. Persian literature We are taking note of Persian literature in the kingdoms of the Deccan because Persian itself was much influenced by the Arabic language. Baring the basic construction of Persian language, the Persian that was spoken and written had nearly seventy-five percent of Arabic content. The Persian had also adopted the Arabic grammetrical construct in several matters. All this makes it necessary to review in short the development of Persian literature during the period under study. B. Persian literature under the Bahmanis (1347-1527 A.D.) The influences and the relationships with the northern India which at all times were present grew stronger with the rapid conquest of Khalji armies in the south. This conquest of the Deccan was a beginning of a mutual impact of culture and literature on both the regions. It was the establishment of the second capital of the Tughluq Empire at Daulatabad and the foundation of the 7G Bahmani Kingdom which was destined to make a Persian imprint on the region. 'Ala'ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah was the first ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom, who claimed to be a descendent of the King of Persia. The word Bahman has a very much Indo-Persian i.e. an Aryan origin. The word may have facilitted the claims to the Persian ancestry. The commercial sea-contacts which existed between the western coast of India and the countries of the Persian Gulf now gave a fillip to the cultural and social impact between Persia and the Kingdoms of the south. The north was more under the central Asian contacts whereas the south now developed the Arabo-Persian relationship. With the establishment of the Kingdom there was a constant diplomatic relationship between south Arabia, Persia and Bahmanis. With the result that there was a constant flow of poets, scholars, artists, artisans, sufis, traders and commercial people from south Arabia and Persia to the Deccan. There were quite a few significant scholars of repute. Abdu'l Malik Isami, for example, was the author of the Futuhu' s-Salatin, which is a source book on the foundation of the Bahmani Kingdom and its antecedents. Shaykh 'Ainu'd-din Bijapuri added a supplement to Minhaju's- Siraj's Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. Many renowned scholars such as Mufti Ahmad Haravi, Hakim Nasiru'd-din Shirazi, Hakim Alimu'd-din Tabrizi, Mulla Mu'inu'd-din Haravi, 77 Lutful-lah Sabzwari, Mir Muhammad Badakhshi, Sharif Samarqandi, Saifu'd-din Ghori and Mir Fadlu'1-lah Inju were attached to the court. The establishment of madrasas at Elichipur, Gulbarga, Daulatabad and other places in the Kingdom gave fillip to the cause of Persian language and literature during Hasan Bahman Shah's reign. The Bahmanis introduced Persian as the administrative languages as well as the local languages. Arabic being the language of the religion always enjoyed a supremacy of its own. Persian literature was further enriched by the royal patronage from Sultan Mahmud Shah I (1378-97) and Sultan Taju'd-din Firoz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422). Sultan Taj'ud-din was himself a scholar and was conversant with many languages. Sultan Mahmud I was educated and trained by the Persian savant and philosopher Mir Fadlu'llah Inju whose c 7 company made him a learned man of a refined taste. He was at home both in Arabic and Persian. Because of his special attention to Persian poetry, poets and learned men began to pour into his court from Persia and Iraq where his fame as a patron of art and literature had reached. He wanted to make Gulbarga, his capital and a meeting place of Arabic and Persian scholars. He invited Hafiz, the renowned poet of Shiraz to his Kingdom. But Hafiz could not sail for 78 India due to bad weather and sent his famous ghazal to the Sultan. A few verses are quoted here: The Sultan himself was a poet but since his Diwan is lost/ one cannot assess his poetry. fift However, Ferishta has quoted a few of his verses as a specimen of his poetry: .I'.^ini» A- li i^_^ ^ IS o'.,,^ ^^ f> ^S^,:iiJ. ^j. UJ « J » «S Jo ts « 7,^^ Sultan Taj'ud-din Firoz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422) was a learned man and loved the company of men of scholarship, learning and piety. He is said to have begun composig Persian poetry before he was crowned as a Sultan in Gulbarga in the year 800/1397. His pen name was 'Uruji' which he later change to 'Firuzi'. Ferishta has quoted two of his ghazals and one quartrain: t He renewed contacts with Iran and Khurasan and invited a number of scholars and men of letters to his Kingdom. There were even men of different sciences. Muhammad Kazruni and Hasan Gilani were famous astronomers. With the result that Gulbarga became a famous centre of culture and Arabo-Persian scholarship. 80 The baton of Persian learning was taken up later by Sultan Shihabu'd-din Ahmad I (1422-36). Though he was strictly a religious person he also loved poetry and music. He shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Muhammadabad Bidar. Though there were poets in his court, it lacked the enthusiasm of the former ruler Taj'ud-din Firoz. Notable among the poets was Azhari Asfaraini who compiled the epic Bahman Nama, the versified history ofthe Bahmani dynastry, after the fashion of the famous 'Shah Nama' of Firdausi. A great and well known nam,e in the literary history of the Deccan is that of Khwaja Mahmud Gawan after his natal town Gawan on the Caspian Sea. (The Khwaja arrived in Deccan from Iran in 1455 and was decapitated in 1481 due to court intrigue). Mahmud Gawan made a mark as a general and an able adminstrator as well as a literateur. He does not seem to have any equal of his in his versitality in medieval Deccan. He laid the foundation of the famous madrasa at Bidar. Renowned scholars even from countries abroad visited and stayed at this madrasa. He maintained good relations with many eminent poets and writers of the time ^uch as Maulana Abdu'r-Rahman Jami, Khwaja 'Ubaidu'1-lah al-Ahrar, Shamsu'd-din Sakhawi and Sharfu'd-din 'Ali Yazdi. It was due to this illustrious statesman that Bidar became a centre of Persian and Arabic teaching and literatures and its fame spread to various parts of west Asia. 81 He made a collection of letters named 'Riyadu'l Insha'/ the 'Garden of Diction' to set up standards of penmanship. These letters were written either on his own behalf or on behalf of the King Sultan Muhammad Shah III, surnamed 'Lashkari'. Some of these letters are addressed to the rulers of Gilan, Iraq, Egypt and the Sultan of Turkey. Some of them gave us the information of Mahmud Gawan' s compaigns in Konkan and the conquest of Goa in February 1472. These letters are written in highly ornate style. The language is highly Arabicized but the narration and the imagery are purely Persian and local. He is fond of combining Arabic and Persian words. He is also fond of using compound adjectives e.g. 0-l*j-. _ Uj uo Vtfj j*_^ ^j It _ J U>J JVj • d<.^. j^ ^j' '• *^ \- — j\Z ^ J \^ f*,^ >-rJ *^ C ^"^ - ^^ ' O *•••••""• He is also fond of using combied words of same meaning e.g. synonyms: 82 Another outstanding work of Mahmud Gawan was 'Manaziru'l Insha' , a book on the art of diction and penmanship in Persian. The contribution of the sufis to the development of Arabo-Persian literature in the Deccan is no less significant than that of the Kings, their ministers and nobles. The famous saint of Gulbarga, Khwaja Banda Nawaz was a scholar and poet of repute. Besides two commentaries one in Arabic and the other in Persian on the famous 'Awarifu'l Ma'arif of Shaykh Shihabu'd-din Suhrawardi, he wrote commentaries on the Ta'aruf of Shaykh Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Ibrahim Bukhari, the Adabu'1 Muridin of Shaykh Najibu'd-din 'Abdu'1-Qadir Suhrawardi, the Tamhidat of 'Ain'l Qudat al-Hamadani, the Risala of Qushairi and a Risala of Shaykh Abdu'1 Qadir Gilani. He also wrote Majmu'ah Yazdah Rasa'il, a collection of his poems, Anisu'l Ushshaq 71 and a collection of his letters, Maktubat. A brief letter of four lines addressed to Sultan Firoz Shah Bahmani praying for his safety and the destruction of his opponents is included in his collection of letters and is reproduced below: 73 83 PERSIAN LITERATURE IN THE DECCAN KINGDOMS Inspite of Arabic having pre-eminence in the Deccan, the Persian literature during the Deccan Kingdoms received royal patronage and flourished throughout the region. Because of Persian being more cultivated in the northern India, the Persian had to find its proper place in the south also. It received continuous patronage of the 'Adil Shahi, Nizam Shahi and Qutub Shahi rulers. Some of the outstanding works in Persian were produced in these Kingdoms. This will be discussed in the following pages: 84 UNDER THE 'ADIL SHAHIS OF BIJAPUR (1489-1686 A.D.) Like the Mughals in the north India, the 'Adil Shahi rulers of Bijapur also extended liberal encouragement to the growth of Persian scholarship in the south. Yusuf 'Adil Shah (1490-1510), the founder of the 'Adil Shahi Kingdom, a great patron of learning and scholarship was himself a poet. Ferishta has quoted a few of his ghazals and rubai' s. He invited scholars from Persia, Transoxiana and Arabia to Bijapur. Yusuf 'Adil Shah adopted Shi^ism as the State religion probably because of developing relationships with the Shi«ii Safavids of Persia. Hence the Safawi Kingdom and Bijapur developed closer collaboration in cultural and 74 polxtical affairs. This resulted m the closer diplomatic relations and greater influx of scholars from Persia to 'Adil Shahi Kingdom. This factor gave a greater impetus to the development of Persian literature. Isma'il 'Adil Shah (1510-1534) had continuous contacts with the Safawids of Persia. He was a good poet and wrote under the name of Wafai. Ferishta mentions him as the best of the royal poets of the 'Adil Shahi Kingdom. 75 •Ali 'Adil Shah the son of 'Adil Shah and his successor (1558-80) was renowned among the 'Adil Shahi rulers for his magnanimity, patronage of art and literature. He himself was a scholar, well-versed in 85 different Islamic sciences including art and calligraphy. He was fond of books and he collected a magnificent collection in his royal library. Renowned scholars such as Shah Fathu'1-lah Shirazi, Hakim Ahmad Gilani, Mir Shamsud-din Mahmud Isfahani, Shah Abu'1 Qasim Inju, Murtada Khan Iniu, Radiud-din Shirazi and Afdal Khan Shirazi are 76 some of the learned men who enjoyed his patronage. The Court of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II (1580-1627) attracted a large number of poets and learned men both from north of India and Iran. Though as a prince, he had known the local language well a mixture of Dakhni and Marathi, he also mastered the Persian because of its cultural and political importance. His minister Shah Nawaz Khan was mainly responsible for creating in him a taste for Persian literature. 77 Malik Qummi (d.l640) was the most prominent poet of 'Adil Shahi Kingdom. His Mathnavi Manba'u'l Anhar on the model of Nizami's Makhzanu'1-Asrar was composed at the royal direction. Another author Rafi'ud-din Shirazi was asked to prepare an abridged edition of the Rawdat al-Safa and the Habibu' s-Siyar, the two very well known histories mainly of central Asia written by Mir Khwand and Khwand Mir. 86 Mulla Zuhuri (d.l616 A.D.), a contemporary of Qummi, wrote his famous works Gulzar-i-Ibrahimi and Khwan-i-Khalili jointly with his father-in-Law, Malik Qummi. His other works, especially his 'Sih Nathr' which is considered to be the best type of ornate prose style, reveals his outstanding calibre as a Persian writer. Mulla Zuhuri is regarded as the greatest of the Persian poets of the Deccan. The 'Adil Shahi period is especially remembered for having given to the world the famous Tarikh-i-Ferishta or 'Navras Nama' written by Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah, surnamed Ferishta, during the reign of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II in 1611. The title of the history as well as the name of its author clearly shows the local influence of the languages as well as nomenclature. 79 This history deals with practically every Muslim dynasty that ruled Medieval Deccan. Ferishta has listed some past chronicles, numbering thirty-five, which he had consulted for writing his monumental work. He completed the book in 1018/1619-20 A.D. just three years before his death. Another history compiled during the reign of.Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II was: 1. Tadhkiratu'1-Muluk It was written by Mir Rafi'ud-din Ibrahim Shirazi under the patronage of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II. It is primarily a history of the early Sultans of Bijapur but the 87 author gives a short history of the Bahmanis in the introduction and ends it with an epilogue on the Mughal Emperors from Timur to Akbar. It was completed in 1017/1608 A.D.80 Some of the other prominent poets of the 'Adil Shahi Court of Bijapur were Muhammad Hashim Sanjar, Baqir and Askari of Kashan, Haider-i-Dhihni, Aga Muhammad Nami of Tabriz and Rashid of Qazwin. Their compilations are in brief described here: (a) Muhammad Hashim Sanjar It is mentioned in 'Arafatu'1-Ashiqin' that he arrived in India from Isfahan in 1000/1591-92 A.D. He was attached to the Mughal Court where he received due favour from Emperor Akbar. He was also patronised by Prince Salim, Price Daniyal and Prince Khusro. He, however, migrated to Deccan and at Bijapur he enjoyed the favours of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II, till his death. He composed various panegyrics in praise of the Sultan and his minister Shah Nawaz Khan. He is stated to have attempted to rival Nizami by imitating his Khamsah. He composed several mathnawis but only one mathnawi without a title is preserved in his 81 Kulliyat. His Sagi Nama and one Tarjih Band were composed in a competitive spirit. (b) Baqir of Kashan Baqir is one of the poets who has contributed in no small measure towards the development of Persian literature 88 under the regime of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II. He composed a mathnawi in imitation of the 'Makhzanu'1-Asrar' and wrote two Tarjih Bands/ one parallel to that of Wasahi and other to that of Sa'di at the instance of the Sultan. He was incharge of the Royal Library of Bijapur. He stayed with Sultan Ibrahim for over twenty-seven years until his death in 1034/1624-25 A.D.^^ (c) 'Askari of Kashan Though a merchant by profession, Askari had composed over three thousand verses, including a Saqi Nama which is written in the meter of the conventional epic poetry. Qadi 83 'Abdu'n-Nabi has taken note of him in his 'Maikhana'. Aqa Muhammad Nami Aqa of Tabriz was a poet and musician of the Court of Sultan Ibrahim. The 'Ma'athir-i-Rahimi' speaks very highly of his skill and attainments. 84 Maulana Fahim Maulana Fahim was Shah Nawaz Khan's panegyrist. He composed a qasida on the occasion of the birth of Khan's son in 1010/1601-2 A.D. Ferishta has also quoted a few lines of this qasida. There are several other historical and literary compositions which are worth noticing here. 8[i Futuhat-i-'Adil Shahi This work was compiled by Muhammad Hashim Fuzuni Astrabadi in compliance with the orders of Muhammad 'Adil Shah between 1051/1641 and 1054/1643 A.D. It is a history of the 'Adil Shahi dynasty. It gives glimpses of the literary life at the Bijapur Court and details a lot of information about Malik 'Amber. It also gives notices of the poets who adorned Ibrahim 'Adil Shah's Court. Muhammad Nama This history was compiled by Mulla Zuhur b. Zuhuri during the reign of Ibrahim II and Muhammad 'Adil Shah and brings down the chronicle to 1649-50. The book gives considerable amount of information on the social history of Bijapur. It IS a rare manuscript, 'Adil Nama This poem by Fuzuni Astrabadi was composed at the instance of Muhammad 'Adil Shah and was completed in 1042/1632 A.D. It is an account of the military exploits of Muhammad 'Adil Shah during the first five years of his reign. 88 Ma'danu'1-Afkar It is a mathnawi composed by Fuzuni on the model of Nizami's Makhzanu'1-Asrar. It was composed in 1043/1633-34 A.D.89 90 Nuh-Sipihr A mathnawi by Fuzuni modelled on Khusro's mathnawi 91 of the same name. It was completed in 1034/1625 A.D. Guldasta Gulshan-i-Raz The full name of the work is Guldasta Gulshan-i- Raz dar ta'rif Muhammad 'Adil Shah. It covers the reign of Muhammad 'Adil Shah upto 1648 A.D. Tarikh 'Adil Shahi It was written by Qadi Nuru'1-lah. The book is also called Insha-i-'Adil Shahiyah owing to its ornate composition and diction. It was written in 1077/1666-67 92 Basatinu's Salatin Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi wrote a comprehensive history of the 'Adil Shahis ranging from the establishment of the dynasty to its dissolution in 1686. This history has been carried further to the arrival of British hegemony consequent to the last Maratha War in 1818 by other authors. 93 2. Under the Nizeun Shahis of Ahmadnagar Though the kingdom had a short life span and was under constant threats of Mughals from the north, it patronized scholars and poets. The most important history Burhan-i-Ma'athir was written by Sayyad 'Ali b. ''Azizu ' 1-lah 94 al-Tabataba. It is one of the most remarkable histories 91 produced in the Deccan. The author Sayyad 'Ali Tabataba was originally a native of Simnan in Iran. He came to Golkunda in about 1580 A.D. where he started his career in the service of Ibrahim Qutub Shah. But after the arrest of Mir Shah Mir, he left Golkunda and came to Ahmadnagar. It was during the reign of Burhan Nizam Shah II, that he was entrusted with writing the history of the rulers of the Deccan, mainly of the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar and their predecessors, the Bahmanis. The name of the book Burhan-i- Ma'athir is itself a choronogram giving the date of the commencement of its writing. The book consists in three parts. The first part deals with the Bahmanis of Gulbarga, the second with the Bahmanis of Bidar and the third with the Sultans of Ahmadnagar. It also contains a detail account of the seige of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals. The work is a notable specimen of rhetorical style abundantly intermixed with verses of the Qur'an and is a great contrast to the simple and matter-of-fact style of the Tarikh-i-Elchi-i-Nizam Shah. The original Persian manuscript is preserved in Cambridge University. It was later edited and published by Maulvi Sayyad Hashimi from Hyderabad in 1936. Another eminent scholar of repute and poet who had considerable influence over Burhan Nizam Shah I was Shah Tahir b. Shah Radiu'd-din Husaini. He succeeded in 92 converting Burhan Nizam Shah I to the Shi'ah sect and in establishing a college of theology at Ahmadnagar which attracted a number of Persian scholars and writers from overseas. Besides being a prose writer, he was a poet also. The author of the Majalisu'l Mu'minin, Sushstri mentions a number of works by Shah Tahir of which the following are known to have survived: (1) Fateh Nama; It is an account of the conquest of Salarpur by Burhan Nizam Shah I. 95 (2) Munsha 'at-i-Shah Tahir; This is a collection of letters written by Shah Tahir, some in the name of Nizam Shah and some in his own name. Burhan Nizam Shah II (d.l595 A.D.) was a patron of scholars and men of letters. Zuhuri the famous Persian poet dedicated his Saqi Nama to him. Other poets like Malik Qummi, Maulana Zade Badi' Samarqandi, Haider-i-Zihni and Hayati were also attached to the Court of Nizam Shah. Badi' Samarqandi's qasidas and ghazals are included in the tadhkira, the Khulasatu'1-Ash'ar. 97 Maulana Malik Qummi arrived at Ahmadnagar from Qazwin in 986/1578 during the reign of Murtada Nizam Shah * * and was received with honour at the Court. He composed poems in praise of Murtada Nizam Shah, Burhan Nizam Shah, Salabat Khan and Khan-i-Khanan which are preserved in his kulliyat. He stayed for about seventeen years at Ahmadnagar 93 3 Under the Qutub Shahis of Golkunda The Qutub Shahi rulers of Golkunda were great patrons of Persian scholarship. Some of them like Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah and Sultan Muhammad Qutub Shah were themselves poets and literatuers. Among the ministers, the names of Mir Muhammad Mu'min who was Vakil and Peshwa during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah and Sultan Muhammad Qutub Shah and the Peshwa Ibn-i-Khatun who was Qutub Shahi Ambassador to Iran, were responsible for the propagation of Persian studies in the kingdom. The Qutub Shahi dynasty ruled till 1687 A.D. when the kingdom was annexed to the expanding might of Mughal Empire. The extinction of the Deccan States at the hands of Aurangzeb 'Alamgir ended the chapter of Persian art and learning in Deccan. Besides these literateurs and historians the Sufis have also played an important role in the development of Arabo-Persian literature in the Deccan. There were many sufis, saints and scholars who have enriched the Arabo-Persian literature by their malfuzat as well as their writings. Although we would deal with this in detail in our fourth chapter, here it is worthwhile to mention a few of them viz. Shah Raju Qattal, Burhanu'd-din Gharib, Shaykh 'Ainud-din Ganjul-'Ulum, Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesu Daraz and 94 and composed a large number of poems in all verse forms besides a Diwan of ghazals which he had completed before he arrived in India. Historians like Tabataba, Khurshah Husaini and Ferishta enjoyed the patronage of Nizam Shah for sometime but the internal disorders forced most of the scholars and poets to leave Ahmadnagar and join the courts of 'Adil Shahis at Bijapur and Qutub Shahis at Golkunda. 95 Qadi Shihabuddin of Daulatabad with a view to understand the influence of Arabo-Persian compositions in the region. The works of Sufis and Saints have indelible influences both on the local languages and idioms besides being a contribution to the Arabo-Persian literature. PERSIAN LITERATURE UNDER THE MUGHALS (1658-1707 A.D.) It was coming of Aurangzeb that Deccan States lost their separate identity and became a part of the sprawling Mughal Empire. Since this was conquered directly, Aurangzeb withdrew the royal patronage to the poets and hence the Persian poetry lost its time honoured place in the imperial court. However, it may be mentioned that inspite of the opposition of Aurangzeb to the writing of any history of his times, a number of histories were compiled by scholars by personal interest in chronology and history. The most important works during the reign of Aurangzeb are: (1) Muntakhabu'1 Lubab written by Muhammad Hashim Khafi Khan. It is a record of events of the Mughal Empire upto 1719 A.D. (2) 'Alamgir Nama was compiled by Mirza Muhammad Khazim. This was permitted by Aurangzeb himself. (3) Ma'athir-i-Alamgiri by Saqi Mustabad Khan is particularly rich in the description of Aurangzeb's Deccan compaigns. These were included in the book without the knowledge of the Emperor. 9Q b (4) Mir'atu'l 'Alam was written by Bakhtawar Khan. It is remarkable for its biographical accounts of the \02. intelligentia of the period. (5) Waqa'i Muhasarat-Haiderabad; The great seige of Golkunda by Aurahgzeb is recorded in this short wor]^ by its author Ni'mat Khan 'Ali. (6) Ma'athiru' 1-Umara' was written by Shah Nawaz Khan. It is a storehouse of the biographies of the nobility, mainly of the Mughal Empire, both Hindus and Muslims. (7) Futuhat-i-Alamqiri; Aurangzeb also found a Hindu historian to celebrate his victories; he was Ishwardas Narang. (8) 'Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh was written by Munshi Sujan Rai in 1695. It is perhaps the most interesting work of history written by a Hindu m Persian. (9) 'Naqsh-i-Dil Kusha by Bhimsen. (10) Gwalior Nama was written by Munshi Hirawan Lai. (11) Tarikh-i-Kashmir by Narayan Kaul. (12) Tadhkira-i-Gul-i-Ra'na by Lachmi Narayan Shafiq. (13) ' Insha' the courtly art of epistolography of Madho Ram. (14) Chahar Chaman, a Diwan of ghazals and quartrains by Chandra Bhan, poetically named Brahman. He was the first Hindu to achieve literary distinction in Persian Prose and verse. It is available in the Bombay University Library. (15) Rug'-at-i-'Alamqiri?^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ letters of Aurangzeb 'Alamgir written by him firstly as Viceroy of 9V Deccan and then as Emperor. They were compiled by Qabin Khan who was private secretary to the Emperor. Extract of few letters are given at the end of this chapter. The successors of Aurangzeb continued their patronage to Persian literature. A number of works on Sufism and history were produced. Some of the important chronicles produced during the later Mughal period are: 1) Sairu'1-Mutakharin by Ghulam Husain. 2) Tarikh-i-Muzaffari by Muhammad 'Ali Ansari. 3) Tawarikh-i-Chahar-i-Gulzar-i-Shuja'i by Hari Charan Das. 4) ^Imd-us-Sadat by Ghulam 'Ali Naqvi. 5) Ma'dan-us-Sadat by Sultan 'Ali Safawi. 6) 'Ibrat Nama by Khairuddin. 7) Haqiqat-ul-Aqalim by Murtada Husain Bilgrami. En passant, it may be mentioned that during the reign of Auranzeb's successors, especially Muhammad Shah (1713-1748 A.D.), the Persian suffered a set back and the local languages, Urdu, Deccani, Marathi which were already developing as languages of the people, received encouragement and came to be accepted as vehicles of literary and folk compositions in the region. The Arabic, however, remained as a language for study and scholarship because of its religious connections and continuation of the educational institutions and religious seminaries. This will be dealt in detail in Chapter VI. 88 Arabic litterateurs and authors of Maharashtra (17th to 20th Century) We have tried here to include all, those scholars and litterateurs of Arabic whose family originally belonged to Maharashtra and later migrated to other places and also those who came from outside Maharashtra and settled down here or stayed for some considerable period of time. They too have contributed towards the promotion of a Arabo-Persian literature in the region and are remembered as belonging to Maharashtra. Of these, the Nawa'it family is most important - Nawa'it being a Persian corrupted word meaning the new-comers. They claim to have migrated from Basra and settled down in Konkan about the end of the 14th century on the Konkan coast and some left for south India and settled at various places in Karnatak and Tamil Nadu. There were several eminent Scholars, Sufis, Jurist and Administrators among the Nawa'its. The most prominent among them have been noted here: 1. Qadi Nizam al-din Ahmad Sagheer (Junior) 1113-1189 A.H./1701-1775 A.D. He belonged to a respectable Nawa'it family of Bijapur, the members of which have been well known for their knowledge and piety. His grandfather Qadi Nizam al-din Kabir, his great grand-father Qadi Husain Lutf ul-lahk\?ere all great scholars and men of eminence. 91J Qadi Nizam al-din Sagheer studied Arabic and Persian under his father Muhammad *Abd Allah and other teachers at Arcot. It is reported that Maulvi Ghulam 'All Azad Bilgrami met him at Arcot in 1161 A.H. and showed him his work Shamamat al-Anbar fi ma warad fil Hind-i-'an Sayyidil Bashar. Azad Bilgrami also presented his personal copy to Qadi Sagheer. Qadi Sagheer spent his time in teaching and writing. He wrote on different subjects. He was the author of the following books in Arabic: 1) Husul a1-Mabarrat bi Sharh-i-Dala il a1-Kha irat. 2) Anba-ul-Azkiya bi-Tahdeebat-Teeb wal-Niza ila Sayyid al-Anbiya. 3) Wagai-e-Muhimwa. Qadi Nizam al-din was a fine ca1igraphist. He copied more than a hundred Arabic and Persian books. He died on 16th November 1775 A.D. 2. Shaykh Ahmad b.''Abd al-Qadir Konkani (1272-1320 A.H./1855-1902 A.D.) Shaykh Ahmad's fore-fathers belonged to the Arab traders who are said to have settled at Konkan coast from Basara at the end of the 14th century) ' 10 U Shaykh Ahmad was born at Bombay in 1272 A.H. He was brought up in a very nice atmosphere. He studied Holy Qur'an under Shaykh Adam Dehalvi and Mukhtesarat from Mohammad *^Ali Konkani. He studied Mantiq, Logic, Hikma (Philosophy), Usui al-Kalam (Scholastics), Tib (Medicine) from Maulana *Abd Allah Hanafi Badayuni and Qadi Mohammad Ismai'l Mahri Shafi'e Konkani, '^Allama 'Abd al-Hai b. "^Abd al-Halim Lukhnavi, Maulana Nasr Allah Khan Khorjavi and Shaykh Muhammad Shah Hanafi Muhadith Dehalvi. He was not only well versed in Arabic literature but had interest in other sciences also. He was regarded as a very learned man. It is reported that Sayyad'Alavi b. Ahmad al-Haqqaf, the Chief of the scholars of Heram Sharif, Mecca undertook the journey from Mecca to India just to meet Maulana Shaykh Ahmad. He died in the Hijra year 1320 at Bombay. He has composed many Arabic verses. A few of them are given below. <•*•'••••• ' t^-^ ^ J v5^^ ^ > f *-—- Jii .SJ l«- J ^ ^ ^>. 10 i 3. Shaykh Abd Allah al-Jaitekar al Konkani (d.l325 A.H./1907 A.D.) Shaykh Abd Allah was born at Bombay. He studied under his elder brother Shaykh Ahmad and other Ulemas. He started a printing press at Bombay for printing Arabic books. He was acknowledged as an eminent learned personality among other *^Ulemas of his period. He died at Bombay in the Hijra year of 1325 (1907 A.D.). He has written many Arabic Qasidas. A few Arabic verses written in praise of 'Nadwat al-Ulema in the year 1320 A.H. are reproduced here. ^M_J•^>J^ w l^ Oi 4iJ I ^JJs ijsji UJS l> ^> tlf^ J '>* il J "--^ » : «.^i,. Maulana Abdu'l Heunid Nu'mani (1892-1983) Maulana Nu'mani was not only a well known Arabic scholar but was a great social reformer, religious leader, a writer and an orator. He was born in a poor but highly respected family of Malegaon in the year 1892. The Maulana received his elementary education in Baitu'l 'Ulum, Malegaon from where he received the Sanad of Dars-i-Hadith in the year 1345 A.H. He then joined Madrasa Ilahiyat, Kanpur from where he took the Sanad of 'Faraghat' in the year 1349 A.H. He then took a job of a preacher (Muballigh) in 'Anjuman-i-Islamia' Hyderabad, under Maulana Habibur Rehman Khan Sherwani who was the Sadru's-Sudur. During his service he undertook his first translation of the Arabic works of the famous Egyptian writer 'Khatun Malak Khanam'. The Urdu translation was entitled 'Taj Afrinash' and was published by Ajmal Press, Bombay. While at Hyderabad he composed many Arabic poems. But unfortunately most of his compositions are lost. He then joined the Office of the 'Daily Khilafat' as an Arabic news translator. He also wrote many articles, a major part of which was devoted to the Arabic literature. He also wrote review articles on Arabic literature. He resigned his job from 'Khilafat Daily' due to some political differences. On invitation from Moinu'd-din Harith he joined the Editorial Board of the 'Daily Ajmal'. Here he came in contact with the famous Arabic journalists and writers 103 posted at various Arab Consulates. He was introduced to the well known writers of Bairut viz. Muhammad Jamil Beham and Sayyad *^Abdur Rehman al'Assiabi. He translated Jamil Beham's well known books 'Almi'rat fi Tarikh wa al-Sharai' and 'Falsafat al-Khilafat al-Uthmania' in Urdu. These were published in the editions of the 'Daily Ajmal'. He also translated in Urdu the well known book 'Ali wa Banuho' of the famous Egyptian litterateur Dr. Taha Husain. He also used to translate in Urdu some important news and articles published in the renowned Egyptian daily 'Al-Ahram' and 'As Siyasat al-Usbu'a. Besides, he translated in Urdu the fiction works of the famous and well known Egyptian writer Lutfi Manfluti'. On invitation from the then Minister of Education Central Government, Maulana Abu'1 Kalam Azad he went to Delhi and was appointed as Associate Editor of the Arabic Quarterly Journal 'Thaqafat al-Hind'. He translated many well known Urdu literary pieces into Arabic and the same were published in 'Thaqafat al-Hind'. The most important of his translation works in Arabic are - (i) The introduction/preface to Maulana Azad's Tafsir 'Tarjuman al Qur'an' and (ii) Dr. Zubaid Ahmad Siddiqui's English book 'The contribution of India to Arabic literature. The Arabic translation was named 'Hal Adabil Arbai'. He also wrote many articles in Arabic on Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy on non-violence and on Indian culture for te benefit of the Middle-East Arabic readers of the Thaqafa. 104 Maulana Nu'mani was responsible for the establishment of the following Institutions at Malegaon: (i) The famous Arabic madrasa "Mahd-i-Millat" whose sanad was later recognised by the famous Al-Azhar University, Cairo. He also started an Arabic magazine "Al-Nida" for the benefit of the Arabic students. (ii) Ihya al-Ma'arif (Publication Bureau): This institution was established in the year 1959. The following books were printed and released from the Bureau: (a) Allama Manzari's collection 'Al Tarqhib wal Tarhib' (b) Hadrat'Abdullah Ibn Mubarak's collection of Hadith • • • 'Kitab al Zuhad wal Daqa'iq' (iii) D5rul Ta*lif wal Tarjuma (Translation Bureau): Many Arabic books and Arabic articles were translated by this Bureau. One such notable book 'Mushkilat al Faqr wa Kaifa 'Alijha-al Islam' of the famous Arabic writer and powerful orator Ustadh Yusuf Al-Qardawi was translated in Urdu under the title of 'Islam mein Gharibi ka Ilaj'. (iv) Darul Qada' (Department of Justice): This Institute was established for the benefit of the Muslim population of Malegaon in the year 1973. This Institituion is still working and is doing Yoemen's service in the field of social justice. Though Maulana Nu'mani is no more with us (d.20th January 1983) his Madrasa-i-Millat continues to 101 spread the light of Arabic teaching and learning in the State of Maharashtra. Maulana Sayyed Abu'1-ala Maududi (1903-1979) Another eminent and well known personality from Maharashtra was Maulana Maududi. He was at once a writer, orator, thinker, political visionary, philosopher and religious leader. He was an outstanding scholar of Islam. His commentary of the Holy Qur'an is his remarkable contribution. Maulana Maududi was born in Aurangabad (Maharashtra) on 3rd Rajab 1321 A.H./25th September 112 1903). His father Maulvi Sayyad Ahmad Hasan had arranged for his primary education at home where he was taught Urdu, Arabic Persian, Fiqh and Hadith. At the age of nine, on the advice of his teacher he was admitted to the Madrasa Fauqania, Aurangabad where for the first time he came into contact with modern subjects. At the age of thirteen he was awarded the degree of Maulvi from the same madrasa in the year 1916. He started his journalist carrier in 'Taj Daily' and the 'Muslim' . He then left for Delhi where he joined Madrasa Daru'l 'Ulum, Fatehpuri. Here he obtained the degrees Balaghat in the 'Uloom-e-Aqleea-wa-Adbiya and 'Ulum-i-Asleeya wa-Farsea. lOB In 1933 he started the magazine 'Tarjuman al-Qur'an at Delhi. In 1938 he left Delhi and migrated to Punjab on the advice of''Allama Mohammad Iqbal. He then migrated to Lahore after the partition in the year 1947. He breathed his last on 22nd September 1979 in America. Maulana Maududi has written his monumental commentary of the Holy Qur'an The Tafheemul Qur'an in six volumes. This work accounted for no less than thirty long years of his fruitful life. His main Arabic works are: 1) Al Islam fi Muwa Jahat al Tahdyat al-Mua'sara 2) Mubadi'-al Islam 3) Al Jahad fi Sabilillab A) Al Islam al Yeom 5) Vajab al Shabab al Muslim al Yeom.