EGATI N ~TME-~

-F- ADA 4, lIE SMO YCIT U 1~DI ~ N~WSPAP~I S~I I~ AS A FORUM FOR ~DLACK PER5PECTEYES

By Patricia Pugh Mitchell

the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court the 20th century faced a daunt- decision upholding segregation, "accelerated ing task. The aftermath of the descent of the Afro-American and Reconstruction had ushered in a brought him to his lowest and lowliest periodlack journalism where the atgains the ofturn eman- of position since emancipation." 1 Logan cipationD collapsed. In the South, footholds recognizes 1877 1901 as the "nadir" of the established by African Americans in politics, African American experience. education, and business were removed Typical is an ad in the New Haven Evening through restrictive state "Jim Crow" laws. Register showing "a Negro eating a In the North, the white media attacked black watermelon extolling the virtues of Sanford's images with degrading jokes, cartoons, ginger, a laxative."2 Logan notes "the largest and caricatures. number of derogatory stereotypes appeared According to historian Rayford Logan, the in Harper's, Scribner's, and Century where power of negative propaganda, coupled with blacks were lampooned and assigned

32 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER 2056 07 ridiculous titles such as George Washington, supporting racial inferiority: "A perfectly women, salaried to some degree. Typically Webster, Lady Adeliza Chimpanzee, or Prince stupid race can never rise to a very high CAM agents were college educated, the men Orang Outan" 3 plane; the Negro, for instance, has been engaged in other respectable professions, and African Americans' work ethics were kept down as much by lack of intellectual the women members of community literary attacked in articles, stories, anecdotes, poems, development as anything else." or social clubs. The following ad appeared in and cartoons with black men depicted as Thus, a prime objective of black journalism the magazine's pages: superstitious, dull and stupid, imitative, at the turn of the 20th century was to negate WANTED, AT ONCE. ignorant, suspicious, improvident, lazy, these stereotypes by promoting pride among Active and energetic agents in every town immoral, and criminal. In short: liars, thieves, the race by presenting African Americans and city in this country, to represent The and drunkards. Portrayed using big words at their best. ColoredAmerican Magazine.... We are the they did not understand and liking fine only publishing house in the world that clothes, "they were the inevitable razor-totin' are issuing exclusively, publications Negro." Black women were improvident, "More negative devoted to the Negro race. emotional, gossipy, high-tempered, vain, Booker T. Washington's ideas dominated dishonest, idle, with a hearty appetite and press was expended southern black thought at this time. "miz'ry in de bres." Logan concludes that Washington, a southerner keenly aware of the nearly every derogatory stereotype was in degrading decline in African American's national affixed to African Americans.' progress, said the pursuit of advanced degrees In fact, more negative press was expended African Americans by African Americans was a frivolous venture in degrading African Americans than any than any other that only led to disappointment since black other ethnic group. Logan maintains that professionals lacked the support of white "while some articles and other contributions ethnic group." patrons. He argued that black Americans treated Chinese, Indians, Irish, Germans, should seek agricultural and industrial and other immigrants in general in an pursuits fostering self-help and job readiness unfavorable light, these aliens and the oldest The Colored American Magazine [CAM] for industrial opportunities available in 5 Americans fared better than did the Negro." exemplifies this effort, emerging in May 1900 southern cities. By 1904, CAM came under Thomas Nelson Page, a writer for Harper's in Boston, a hotbed of African American Washington's control, but in 1901, before his Weekly, advocate of the plantation tradition, intellectual debate. At the turn of the century, takeover, the city of Pittsburgh figured and supporter of the lost cause of Recon- five enterprising black Bostonians, one of prominently in the magazine's attempt to struction, commented: them female, constituted the guiding force debunk unfavorable white perceptions by The Negro has not progressed, not behind the Colored Co-Operative Publishing publishing a lengthy four-part study of model because he was a slave, but because he Company.' CAM countered negative African American behavior, achievement, and does not possess the faculties to raise stereotypes with images and biographies daily life in Pittsburgh. himself above slavery. He has not yet promoting respectability, adamant in its In Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and exhibited the qualities of any race which quest to prove African American suitability Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960, John Bodnar has advanced civilization or shown for first-class citizenship. and his co-authors identify Pittsburgh's capacity to be greatly advanced.' The editors realized a collective effort was African American population at the turn Even President Theodore Roosevelt, a needed to undo the widespread defamation of the century as the sixth largest of any U.S. self-proclaimed supporter of Booker T. of African American character. Recruiting industrial city.9 The city's population in 1900 Washington, aired his own opinion agents was a primary goal-both men and was 451,000 of which blacks comprised

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 33 20,355.0 Proportionately, this growth whose position is above that of a menial. exceeded that of both Italians and Poles, since These facts merit the support of all loyal African Americans represented 4.5% of colored citizens." In view of the sizable African American Tbt,'. .'aa~ W /_71.LCreoawm1 ~ Pittsburgh's population, Poles, 2.6%, and m...... ~ a.e..n.. dot C.ak,81. Italians 1.4%. The Industrial Revolution population, economic opportunities, and beckoned blacks and immigrants alike to the established community, CAM may have seen steel capital of the world. Pittsburgh as unique in attitude and offerings Pittsburgh offered a longstanding African toward its black population. Mrs. W. H. Jones American community, and at the turn of was the first Pittsburgh agent to join forces the century, it was one of the nation's most recruiting authors for the magazine. Not much industrialized cities, commanding the atten- is known of Mrs. Jones beyond her address: 705 tion of aspiring business people at home Wylie Avenue.'5 Her association came before the and abroad. Simultaneously, opportunities four-part series, seven months after the Colored opened for unskilled native white sons, as Co-Operative Publishing Company's founding. well as European immigrants and southern The fact that an African American woman took migrants." Pittsburgh's black middle the first step in leading Pittsburgh's class emerged as early as population in its quest for 1830s; undoubtedly ma: pectability is revealing when

HOME FOR AGED AND INFIRM COWNED 'OMEN, LEMINGTONANENVE African Americans whc onsidering the perceived role migrated to Pittsburgh were of women, particularly black aware of the city's strong women, at this time as AFRO-AMERICAN NOT S abolitionist history. homemakers only. Prior to CAM's appear- By January 1901, the ance, the primary source of magazine listed a second news in Pittsburgh's black Pittsburgh agent: Oliver G. community came from a Waters, an aspiring chemist, newspaper column titled whose business address was "Afro-American Notes,"'2 223 Fifth Avenue. 6 It was published each Sunday inG. Waters. publshedeachSundy Waters who conceived of a in Thecollection of TheSc homburgCenter for Research the Pittsburgh Press. This inBlackCulture, New YorkPublic Library. series that he titled "The column devoted exclusively to disseminating Smoky City." It is clear that he chose distinct news of race in the Pittsburgh area trumped areas in which blacks had made progress earlier attempts during the 1890s to establish over time and paired them with vivid independent race periodicals." "Afro-Ameri- biographies, illustrations, photographs, and can Notes" ran from 1896 until 1932. An ad statistics substantiating his claims. Chief promoting the column in the November 1896 among these areas were job opportunities in edition encouraged readership: the public and private sector, access to public For all of the news concerning the col- and higher education, and male fraternities ored people of Pittsburg read the Sunday and women's literary and music clubs. I JMouo A. A M. CHURCH AND IrAtI I Press, the only paper published in this Aside from occasional agitation regarding a. ~ ~Pen..--t. 9 . a4~.D. xC1 ol C~A~I" city devoting any space whatever to col- segregated seating in theatres and opera -' th M b. r. e Mla Ui,.~ 0- a.,- ..wt.. a-fla M oa ored people exclusively and the only one houses and a noticeable lack of attendance at 'li 1..MAA 3 *.0 MM.Noa- ~a. F. m,34 . J r.~ of giving employment to a colored man local art exhibitions, African Americans in

60 0MM OGN41 b. At of Wo.o~. MM. t. Z , 2.c . . .,

.41dol0~j= 1 At tp - l~a "Afro-American Notes" from the Pittsburgh Press, "' LU '. --- U - 1. March 29, 1908, and July 11, 1909. CarnegieLibrary of Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania Room.

34 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 ty logo with the helm. TheSchormburg Center for ck Culture,New York Public Library.

ft. A thread of optimism existed ughout each issue of the series-even as orship shifted halfway through.

"The Smoky City" social environment for leisure pursuits. a vivid portrayal of the life and industry The "Smoky City" series ran from October in Pittsburgh in general, among our peo- 1901 through February 1902." In addition to ple. It will give a very, comprehensive had been in print a little over a his role as general agent and series architect, view of "our" businessmen, government, year and a half when the "Smoky Waters authored the first two issues: "The and municipal clerks, and both club and City" series began. The maga- Smoky City" and "Glimpses of Social Life." Of social life. The series will be profusely zine's new illustrator, Alexandre Waters himself, CAM reports: illustrated with many photographs taken Skeete, changed the cover design just prior to Oliver G. Waters, our hustling general specially for these articles. 9 the series' publication. Images of flowers, agent for Pittsburgh, Pa., and vicinity, is Waters further claimed that the series was a which adorned earlier editions, were one of the most efficient of our representa- feat never before undertaken by any black enhanced with sketches of abolitionist Freder- tives. He is a young man, having received a news publication in the world and was the ick Douglass and poet Phillis Wheatley. Dou- thorough education as a chemist, but who first attempt by CAM to promote progress glass and Wheatley, history and literature: two has thrown his lot in with us, to assist in among race in any city. The fact that of the magazine's primary themes. Their making The Colored American Magazine a Pittsburgh was given the honor of being the placement on the cover debunked white large national success. Mr. Waters handles "first" in such a detailed focus of African stereotypical depictions of black Americans as his corps of agents with a Napoleonic sway American city life is worth noting. Indeed, incapable of embracing arts and culture. ...we can name no agent in whom we put close scrutiny reveals there was no other The first issue in the series features a portrait more confidence and from whom we urban center during this period receiving of an African American steelworker with a receive more satisfactory results. Mr. such concentrated and extended focus, not steel mill as the backdrop, along with a sketch Waters covers more territory than any even Boston, the magazine's host city." of the Greek god Vulcan, breathing flames, agent in our employ, and is an example in The series stressed five points. First, that anvil clenched tightly in his right hand." strict promptness in all business dealings." Pittsburgh possessed a color-blind attitude The opening essay extols the history of Each agent provided a photograph and towards race. Second, it was a city of Pittsburgh: "the Capital, it might be said-of brief autobiographical sketch, edited by R. S. opportunity for professional and working-class the greatest industrial empire on the globe," Elliott, the magazine's white publisher. African Americans. Third, African Americans where African Americans held an uncontested There was also much hype within the had organized social and cultural clubs. place within the steel industry. Step-by-step advertisement page of CAM about the Fourth, a significant number of educated black details of steel processing, along with the forthcoming series. Waters encouraged professionals thrived there. And fifth, the "new history of the industry and formation of the readers to subscribe to all four issues: Negro" woman played a critical role in racial city ran along with 22 illustrations depicting

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 35 end that we may clearly demonstrate the great factors that have made this section, above all others, the elyrium [sic]2" of the colored laborer.26 Waters concludes that Pittsburgh is the elysium of African Americans, the place where true happiness can be found. Of particular note is his insistence that race is less a factor in Pittsburgh than elsewhere: Nationality and color probably play less part here in the matter of employment than in any other city.... The prime questions are: Do you want to work? and can you put out the goods? 7 n1V THOMAS S. RWELL. Yet, he exaggerates black employment in the steel mills: The Smoky City logo after Ewell took over the series. Thecollection of The Schornburg Center for Researchin BlackCulture, New York Public Library, In the iron mills alone there are nearly six the three rivers of Pittsburgh, the confluence Waters offered a swift reprimand to thousand Negro laborers, skilled and at the Point, views from Mt. Washington, and journalist James Parton, who, in an 1868 issue unskilled, employed as puddlers, rollers, African American steel laborers. A Fourth of Atlantic Monthly, equated the Smoky City heaters, melters, engineers, and in various 23 Avenue image caption touts "the Wall Street of to "hell with its lid off." In the city's defense, other capacities. The wages of these men Pittsburg.' In his acknowledgments, Waters's Waters claimed, range from two to six dollars per day.2 successor and general agent Thomas Ewell Having no means or expectation of Even as these statistics enhanced the noted the contributions of William Nelson being able ever to make such compar- number of blacks in steel prior to World War I, Page of the Carnegie Steel Company. Page, a isons, the good people of Pittsburg can- Waters establishes that African American men respected member and officer of the Loendi not judge of the accuracy of the dreadful secured a variety of mill positions that were Club (the leading club for the city's black elite) assertion of the writer alluded to. No beyond merely janitorial.29 was hired as the first black stenographer, his tourist in Pittsburgh should miss the Waters's history of the "Pittsburgh Negro" position giving him access to imagery, remarkable scenes (of the steel furnace) in the steel industry credits Park Brothers and text, and statistics that were helpful in from these heights at night.24 Company as the first to hire "colored iron illustrating the African American presence in In his opening remarks, Waters made his workers" in 1876: the Carnegie Steel empire. To say Waters purpose clear: [W]hen the Irish puddlers drew their was proud of Pittsburgh would be an In the work now set before us, it is our heats and declined to work, Mr. Park, the understatement: object to touch upon the wonderful father of the present members of the firm, Turning aside from the vision of Wash- resources that have made Pittsburg in had colored men brought in and taught to ington standing on the uninhabited such a manner as to convey to the work His experiment proved quite prof- point of land, we pass a century and a reader an intelligent picture of the itable, and the men were found to be apt half, and as we draw aside the curtain of material state of this section; and then and many became quite skilled." smoke the wonderful spectacle which to give an idea of the transportation Waters also reported that African Americans meets our bewildered gaze, soon begins facilities that have sprung from these were employed "at the Homestead, Braddock, to reveal to us why over 50,000 colored resources; the manufacturing power Etna, Sharpsburg, Duquesne, Temperanceville, people have found here such a ready out- resulting there from, and the commer- and Solar mills and in various smaller let for their labor and skill. cial activity engendered by such; to the manufacturing plants."3 '

36 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 Glimpses of Social Life Waters asserts that Pittsburgh attracted Negro who has accomplished something, more African Americans than any other who really has arrived at success, is ovember 1901 marked the second ethnic group, another overstatement since looked upon as a Rara Avis by the white installment, "Glimpses of Social census figures show in 1900 African man, who does not seem to recognize in Life'" which shifts in focus from Americans represented 20,355 out of a total him a prototype of his own race. 5 Pittsburgh as the "Sheffield of population of 451,000. Waters claimed over His theory was that access to culture and America" to a city with a reputa- 50,000 blacks called the Smoky City home. refinement for African Americans created a tion for culture and refinement. In fact, At the base of Waters's concerns was desire to make contacts within his [or her] Waters concludes, there were few cultural overcoming the reality of the "nadir" of the community: areas in which African Americans had yet to African American: in spite of the "shadow of In every walk of life contact is an important make an appearance: the plantation," blacks in Pittsburgh factor in the developing of character. As There are few things, if any, in the great established an economic and social life men advance in thought and refinement make-up of life, in which a representa- worthy of celebration, the crux of which he the desire for congenial contact often finds tive of the colored race does not appear. eloquently expressed: expression in the formation of dubs.36 From the hod-carrier to the senator, While only in an abstract way does the Pittsburgh was reasonably liberal in Ethiopia is well represented. If it is to character of the Negro differ from that of sanctioning African American's access to the paint a picture, the representative stands any other race, yet we, at times are professions and education; it limited, without a superior; if it is to write a pleased to group our People into one however, entr&e to white social organizations. book, the representative is ready to give it separate body, and view them as different Quite aware that Jim Crow laws had, for the touch of the artists; if it is to stand from all others. And then, the members the most part, outlawed black membership in upon the platform, and sway great audi- of the opposite race force us into this white clubs, the formation of secret societies, ences by words of eloquence, he has long error because of their failure to view us fraternal alliances, and women's clubs 37 ago proved himself master; thus in every as differing from them in color only. The manifested in African American society. walk of life the gentleman of color has Waters implied that any individual who taken a prominent part. Whether it has experienced a modicum of success and been a work of genius or a game of skill desired furthering his or her aspirations he has accomplished it with credit." needed to make contacts among those Within the socioeconomic sphere, African (within the race) who reflected the same Americans demonstrated competence and goals: to embrace racial uplift and secure success. restoration of liberties granted all Americans Waters maintained that "Pittsburgh affords under the nation's constitution. excellent opportunities for the study of the Waters rejoiced at the "encouragingly rapid 33 different phases of the Negro character" and rate at which young colored men are moving offers up the city's African American into positions of importance."3" He brought population as case study in terms of progress to readers' attention Ralph Jackson's over time. He contended that what the majority significant strides in bicycling, a sport to of blacks across the nation had realized was: which few African Americans had been [Pittsburgh's] preeminence as the Indus- granted access. 39 Jackson surfaced as Western trial Mart of America, possibly of the Pennsylvania's champion bicyclist in 1897. In world, has brought within its borders, 1901, he emerged victorious with "a men of all nationalities, in quest of work, handsome diamond won in the race at the influx of Negroes being greater than WILLIAM N. PAGE. Schenley Park on the 4th of July."' Waters that of any other race.3 reported that young Jackson hailed from a William N. Page. Thecollection of TheSchomburg Center for Researchin Black Culture,New York Public Library.

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 37 family of achievers, his father a prominent Stanton entered the office businessman and owner of a successful of Charles F. McKenna as bicycle shop in the East End. stenographer and completed Waters reiterated that in Pittsburgh, race his studies in January 1895. was not an issue: Stanton ranked highest of [M]ore and more the fact is being real- the 29 in his class. That same ized that it is not so much a question of year he was admitted to the color as it is a question of ability in the Pittsburgh Bar, tried his first business world. Where one door is dosed case four days later, and another will be opened, and if a young opened a Fifth Avenue office. man have the ability to do, it will not be At the time of publication, long before his merit will be recognized Stanton's office was still in and rewarded." operation. Waters notes that Waters's position that it was less a question in Stanton's early career, he of color in Pittsburgh than ability is a key appeared before the Supreme theme throughout the series. Court in "one of the most Admittance to Pittsburgh's Loendi Club notorious murder trials on was one way African American men were record." Stanton served as recognized for ability and merit among their legal counsel for a great peers. Established August 13, 1897, by many of Allegheny County's businessman George W. Hall, the Loendi successful black business Club became Pittsburgh's most exclusive institutions.' African American male club for more than Another Old Pittsburgh

50 years. At the time of the Smoky City family progeny, Howard Champion bicyyclist Ralph Jackson. Thecollection of TheSchomburg Center for Researchin BlackCulture, series' publication, the club was in its Dilworth Woodson, was NewYork Public Library. prime-nationally known and respected. descended from early According to Waters, it possessed a wide abolitionist and civic leader Rev. Lewis Western University of Pennsylvania that reputation as "one of the most prosperous Woodson. Born in 1876 and graduated from few students attain. Of his text book he organizations of its kind in the country; no Pittsburg Central High School with high was master.4" 42 gambling was permitted." honors in 1897, Woodson entered Western Dr. Robert Brady from Virginia served as Waters's sketches mostly feature University of Pennsylvania, now University of valet to his slave master in the Confederate businessmen with ties to the Loendi Club Pittsburgh, receiving his degree in Civil Army until his owner's 1862 death. with pages of photographs accompanying Engineering in 1900. He held several positions Afterward, he settled in Pittsburgh, serving as the nearly-dozen profiles. Some born in of distinction with both Pittsburg Plate Glass porter in a dental office where he won Pittsburgh were descended from families Company and, at the time the article was favor and eventually apprenticed. Brady labeled affectionately "Old Pittsburghers," published, as transitman and assistant experienced blatant prejudice from his co- that is, families who had been in the city for engineer with the Pittsburg Coal Company.' workers. To remedy this situation, he stayed many years. Of Woodson, Waters wrote, after hours, disassembling his colleagues' One example is William H. Stanton, born Where there is merit, prejudice cannot work in order to figure out how to reassemble in 1873 and educated at Pittsburg Central long remain. It is encouraging to note it. He became proficient in anesthetics, and is High School. In 1892, he was the first black that, although the only colored student credited with making "the first laughing gas American to pass, on his first attempt, the in his class, Howard Woodson won a ever manufactured in the city of Pittsburg."' examination for registration as a law student. place among his fellow students in the By 1884, Brady was the first African American

38 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER 2006-07 dentist serving both blacks and whites in the of New York. After arriving in Pittsburgh in of most. Trips to Paris, the purchase of fine city. An ad for his office was one of the first 1891, Randolph was admitted to the art, acquisition of the pressed brick building, from Pittsburgh to appear in CAM. Allegheny County Bar. Active in politics, he and the exquisite furnishings symbolize The profile of John M. Clark demonstrates spoke before the National Republican success. These material acquisitions solidified African Americans' ability to develop Committee on behalf of Pittsburgh as the attainment and respectability for a group successful professional and business lives in location for the National Republican otherwise ignored. Pittsburgh where ability, not color, was the Convention of 1896. Eventually, he accepted The series also pays tribute to African measure of the person. At 17, Clark traveled an appointment to a commission dividing American women. In spite of the odds, many by foot to the "growing city of iron." His first the city of Pittsburgh into election districts. black women across the nation established a job, a blacksmith's helper, paid $12 a month. In 1897, Randolph married Mary Durham, foothold within mainstream society through Clark attended a black school in Allegheny the sister of John Durham, the former persistent pursuit of education, often achieved 5 1 City at night managed by Professor Samuel minister to Haiti. through a nationwide network of women's 7 A. Neale.1 Eventually, he owned and Randolph, Stanton, and other Loendi Club clubs. CAM and its contributors diligently controlled his own blacksmith and wagon- members pooled their personal resources and worked to negate the notions of disrespect for making shop. He attributed his success to acquired a three-story brick building on African American women nurtured by the "persistent endeavor, sobriety, economy and Fulton Street, "one of the prominent white press. honesty" stating these values enabled him to thoroughfares of the city:' The club spared no The beginning of the 20th century simultaneously manage a general hauling expense in its interior design: marked a critical moment in the role business and a blacksmith shop. Clark It is magnificently furnished throughout of women in the U.S. The suffrage reportedly had 30 to 50 people on payroll. In at a great expense. The furnishings of the movement, in motion even before the Civil addition, he operated a stock farm, which parlor, particularly, have been most har- War, intensified as it was embraced by both included his prize stallion, "Braden Pointer," moniously selected and most beautifully black and white women during post- and "was the only colored man in the arranged. The rich carpets, fine tapes- Reconstruction. country controlling a half-mile race track."" tries, beautiful pictures, rosewood piano, From 1900 to 1910, African American Clark exemplifies pride and possibility for and all the furniture and decorations women formed more than 25 literary and both black and white readers of CAM: "such have been selected with rare taste.52 social clubs. Prime among these was character as exemplified by Mr. Clark tends to Loendi Club housed a dining room, a Pittsburgh's Narcissus Literary and Musical acquaint members of the other race with the second floor billiard and pool room, along Club. Organized by Miss Elfrieda Hamilton, fact that opportunity is all that we need. To with a card room and bathrooms. There was the club comprised 15 young ladies, all his own race, he is as a beacon light, showing also a third floor steward's apartment for affiliated with the "Smart Set," another forth their possibilities ..... - popular social club. Miss Worth and merit will not Pauline Writt, daughter of remain buried; it will sprout "Such character as exemplified by John T. Writt, the city's most and raise its head above its distinguished caterer, was surrounding whether it is Mr. Clark tends to acquaint mennbers the club's first president. 4 embryonically held with a of the other race with the fact 1that Purely cultural in nature, the 5 colored skin or otherwise.' Narcissus Literary and Musical Some were accomplished opportunity is all that we nee 1," Club explored the "works of professionals before arriving in the best authors, both literary Pittsburgh. Attorney William and musical "'55 Maurice Randolph, Loendi Club's first Mr. Stirling Austin, who lived on the premises. Waters presents these young women as president, came from Richmond, Virginia, Waters paints a picture of upper middle participants in racial uplift, and their clubs as and attended the University of the City class attainability that was not the experience models of success:

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 39 ambition to gain culture for the sake of remained modest in spite of his meteoric culture. They seem to realize the fact that success among both black and white clientele: the world will demand more of them Thus throughout the evening the com- 5 7 than it did of their mothers. fort of the guest is at the mercy of the Waters, a man before his time, recognized waiter, but at the head of all is the man that the world was changing and along with upon whom rests the responsibility of the those transformations came an increased whole affair. His brain is kept ever busy; recognition of woman's intellectual input. he must have experienced men; he must have reliable men; he must have honest

Writt grandchildren (Mary Tocas Cawthome, David Glimpses of Social Life men. His ware must be "up to date"; his Richards, Writt Richards, and Granville Woodson). service must be of the latest style; a thou- Courtesyof theRichards/Conley family, all rights reserved. sand and one details he must keep in his It is to be hoped that young women of City Series, appearing in head, at his tongue's end.... He under- the race, all over the country, may speed- December 1901, focused on the stands what the people want, and spares 5 ily fall in line, and organize themselves business and social life of no pains to supply that demand. into bodies having for their object the African Americans in Pitts- cultivation of the higher faculties. By so burgh. Waters's assistant, Thomas S. Ewell, doing they will not only lift themselves, replaced him as author, profiling shipbuilder but mankind with them, for such organ- Captain C. W. Posey, 43, and caterer John T. izations must produce the best thinking Writt, 53. Each man is sketched from humble women for all time to come. 56 beginnings to positions of financial and social He held these African American woman of prominence." Pittsburgh in high esteem, and devotes much Writt came to Pittsburgh in 1864 and worked space to their progress in business, education, for a wealthy white family for several years. and social endeavors: During this period, he developed the skills A most encouraging sign among the needed for his future catering business. Writt young ladies of Pittsburg is that their was meticulous and took care with the seems to be a general spirit of ambition; presentation of food, crystal, and cutlery. He

John T. Writt, Jr. in his firefighter's uniform. Courtesyof the Richards/Conleyfamily, all rights reserved.

Posey was "the first colored man in the United States to receive a license as Chief Engineer." A builder of boats and an astute businessman, he invested in the coal and coke industry. Ewell commented: Pittsburg as the world knows, is a wonder- ful place for the production of coal....For this purpose there must be a great supply of substantial boats and the man who fig- ured most conspicuously in meeting this demand is Captain C. W. Posey.'

One of John Writ's many catered events, July 4, 1924. Courtesyof the Richards/Conleyfamily, all rightsreserved, Ewell also proposed a formula for Leaders." Both were models Posey's success: of respectability within their The question of color never enters his communities, having serviced business; he is a boat builder, and mas- both blacks and whites in their ter of his profession. Pittsburg needs lines of business. Both experienced boats; Posey supplies them; hence his a middle-class existence in success. In this age of keen competition neighborhoods not restricted to the man who can do a thing best is usu- them on account of race and were ally the man sought. There is, perhaps, fluid in their social comings and no city in the United States where com- goings and business ventures.' petition is keener than it is in Pitts- African American women in burg.6 But the man who comes into the Pittsburgh made progress towards world with no other heritage than a uplift through local women's sound body, and a sound mind, and dubs, namely the Aurora Club and who learns to grasp opportunities as the Tuesday Evening Study Club, they come, thus building the ladder established in 1894 and 1900, upon which he climbs, is truly the great- respectively. Fourteen portraits of est exponent of human development.62 Pittsburgh's finest and most In the early 1890s, Posey organized the accomplished black women filled Delta Coal and Coke Company and later the the pages of this edition. Ewell The library of John T.Writt, Jr., labeled "Uncle John's Den." of to provide Courtesy tthe Richards/Conleyfamily, all rights reserved. Posey Coal Dealers and Steam Boat Builders, took special care where he supervised all construction. 3 He photographs of many.7 in this Home'' The Aurora Club's motto undertook ventures, including real estate and The Aurora Club, founded in the home of "lifting as we climb" was also the slogan of the banking. He was, at this time, the wealthiest Mrs. Rachel Jones," had several co-founders: National Association of Colored Women. In African American in Pittsburgh. Mrs. Willie Austin Wagner, Mrs. Dr. J. P. fact, Anna Posey represented the Aurora Club Ewell described Posey's home: "I went where Golden, Mrs. Thomas Johnson, and Mrs. as a delegate at the 1901 NACW convention the man directed me, and standing back in a Virginia Proctor. The Club's membership held in Washington, D.C.7 beautiful lot on one of the most prominent totaled 25, many of them wives of prominent The Tuesday Evening Club's goal was to streets, was a mansion which, from appearance, businessmen and race leaders. Anna Posey, wife cultivate independent, intellectual minds. might have been the home of a prince ' of Captain C. W. Posey, is one example. Others Ewell stresses equality between women and He continues: were in business for themselves. According men in their pursuit of racial uplift: I was ushered into a tastefully furnished to Ewell, Virginia Proctor was "the foremost The great Creator of us all fixed their room, where my attention was first business woman of color in the city of place in the beginning, and eternity can- attracted by an unusual number of cur- Pittsburg. She conducts one of the oldest and not change it. While the brother is culti- rent periodicals on the center table. I most reliable hair dressing establishments."69 vating the higher faculties, that he may be then noticed the elegantly bound vol- The club pursued cultural interests as well fitted to direct and rule, the sister is umes of general literature in other parts as charitable endeavors, such as helping to equally preparing herself that she may of the room-all of which portrayed the establish the Aged Women's Home, dedicated guide and counsel. And who shall say home of culture. Here I met the man in 1901. CAM notes, "the women took great which of the two is the more important?' whose life has been interwoven in the pride in furnishing and beautifying the Unlike the Loendi Club, the women's clubs history of Homestead.6" rooms they have furnished, and see that they had no permanent residence, meeting in Posey and Writt represent the best of are kept pleasant and comfortable for those members' homes and at the Carnegie Library Pittsburgh's African American "Race old ladies who are spending their last days Wylie Avenue Branch. The Tuesday Evening

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER 2006-07 41 other young men and women, who are will not erase' Pittsburg Central High School struggling to make their lives successful. had a stellar reputation, its graduates of the In so far as I have accomplished that, I caliber granted admission to college. Walter feel the articles have been a success." E. Billows, a graduate of Pittsburg Central's Ewell's narrative admonished readers to class of 1889, became a successful attorney move forward with persistence and purpose after being named class orator during his while they "strive to make the most of [their] high school days. W. H. Stanton, class of '93, a 7 opportunities. h high honor student, also became an attorney. CAM's goal was to alter anti-black James Wiley, a whiz in math and the sciences, sentiment and educate its white readership graduated in the class of '99, then entered concerning the past and present advances Western Pennsylvania University (later the that African Americans had made and could University of Pittsburgh) in 1899 to pursue a make. In both Waters's and Ewell's eyes, one Civil Engineering degree. colored American's success was a gain for the Robert Jackson, father of young champion race and a mark against stereotype: bicyclist Ralph Jackson, was profiled as a Let our aims and ambitions be high, our champion in his own right. He advised the Mary Writt, 1908. Courtesyofthe Richards/Conley family, all rightsreserved. minds broad, and cultivate the very best school board in remedying the typhoid that is within us. He who strives hardest disease spreading through the school's water Study Club comprised 13 young women, to better conditions around him is him- system, insisting they provide water fiters to "some who had already graduated from high self lifted the highest' control and eventually eliminate the disease. school or college." Ewell alluded to earlier generations with The city's newspapers applauded his efforts. The club's course of study included historical limited access to education, adamant that CAM claimed that Pittsburgh afforded novels, current events, and notable worldwide their children "be equipped with the best advancement to those who were patient, cities. The overall purpose was establishing a educational advantages that their means persistent, wise, and willing to put forth the 7 "love for the best and noblest of literature;' with could give them." He vividly described a effort in seizing opportunities. To these 73 each member reporting on assigned topics. framed photo of a pioneer school hanging in individuals, the city offered more than other Often with nationally known speakers, the club a place of honor within Central High School's urban areas. extended an open invitation to the community. corridor as a remembrance of earlier generations' trials in securing an integrated Reflections education for their children; many profiled Public Schools: Business matriculated from this school. I n The Philadelphia Negro: A Social and Professional Life The Central High School of Pittsburg was Study, W. E. B. DuBois looked at the January/February 1902 edi- far from being modern, but it, and the city's progress of blacks socially, politically, The African American predecessors, made and economically at about the same tion of CAM titled "Public educating their offspring and those of others time as CAM.8 DuBois, like the archi- Schools: Business and Profes- who followed possible. Ewell offers no dates; tects of the Smoky City series, embraced the sional Life" marked the final however, separate schools for black children assimilation of African Americans into main- installment in the series: in Pittsburgh were abolished in 1874." stream society. He, too, believed that the model In closing this series of articles on the Ewell defended the need for integrated of respectability demonstrated by African "Smoky City," I wish to record the fact schools, and scorned those against them, American elites was critical in generating uplift that my aim has been to paint the suggesting that when black and white within the race and advancing its acceptance progress of the various persons students share similar experiences, bonds by white society. described in such a way as to inspire were formed promoting good will "that years One can only imagine the enthusiasm

42 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 with which Oliver G. Waters approached the editors of CAM, sharing his idea for an aRAND MIDWINTER NUMBER incredible series that would increase magazine membership in addition to aiding THE, efforts in advancing the race. Waters may also have wanted to attract more upwardly mobile blacks to the city. Whatever the rationale, COLORED AMERICAN both he and Ewell were not hard pressed to find successful African Americans walking Pittsburgh's streets. MAGAZINE Clearly, the "Smoky City" series examines 0 I I Il I1llllI middle to upper-middle-class African Ameri- . 15CNTs A NUMBERJAN.t FEBRUARY, 1902. $1.50 AAYR. cans. Other than accounting for working class blacks as puddlers, melters, hod-carriers, pro- fessionals or business people, neither Waters nor Ewell mentioned those removed socially or economically from privileged circles. The final issue of the series states as much: In closing this series of articles on the "Smoky City," I wish to record the fact that my aim has been to paint the progress of the various persons described in such a way as to inspire other young men and women, who are struggling to make their lives successful.79 At the turn of the century, African Americans in Pittsburgh shifted from protesting political and social injustice to promoting race pride and respectability, embracing the ideology of racial solidarity and self help. Black Chicago, according to historian Allan Spear, likewise shifted from the "abolitionist tradition ... of militant protest for the attainment of equal rights ... to the dominant national ideology of accommodationism and self-help ... keeping in step with the times " " This theory helps account for the upbeat tone and optimism with which CAM reported the achievements among members of their race. It was an enormous opportunity provided to Waters and Ewell, heralding these achievements in a national publication. The Colored American Magazine featured a woman on its cover, January & February 1902. Thecollection of TheSchomburg Center for Researchin BlackCulture, New York Public Library.

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 43 of "The Pilgrim Fathers." Miss states that blacks in positions other than those Sallie Fowler one on "Historic on the fringe were the exception rather than Boston." Miss Myrtle Lett" the rule, and that they were not given jobs in will present it as a literary cen- the steel industry. Helen A. Tucker claims the ter. Miss M. Lanier will speak numbers of black men employed in the mills of its churches and Miss Nana were significantly less in 1900, as does The Johnson will tell of Harvard WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh,which University." puts blacks employed in steel mills in 1907 and The magazine's biographical 1908 at less than half of the 6,000 reported sketches provide otherwise largely by Waters."- unavailable information on the Both Waters and Ewell report surprising personal and professional lives of racial openness in terms of housing and African Americans at this time. business. Robert Jackson's daughter Hadesha Ultimately, the difference between operated a hair-styling service frequented what was reported in the white press primarily by white women in the East End. and rebutted by The Colored Hadesha's father, Robert Jackson, moved his American Magazine is that CAM family into the exclusive area of Shadyside substantiates truth through evidence on Claybourne Street, home to many of Emma Bell Writt, 1899. Courtesyof the RichardsiConley family, all rights reserved. in the form of biographies and Pittsburgh's upper-middle-class whites. The primary goal identified by the magazine photographs, as opposed to caricatures Jackson operated a successful bicycle shop in editors was to rally against Jim Crow. A lot of accompanied by unmerited attacks on the the East End, perhaps near his home. His time and energy went into gathering and intelligence and morality of African Americans. clientele would most likely have been creating photographs and in canvassing the Waters and Ewell's reports were at times predominantly white. Jackson's older son community to interview individuals. They exaggerated, but except for overstating the entered Western University of Pennsylvania's must have created quite a stir. African American population's size and the medical school, where he was surely one of Other sources on the Negro community of number of black males employed in the the first blacks. His younger son Ralph, the this era such as the Pittsburgh Press's "Afro- mills, neither Waters nor Ewell deviates too far. champion bicyclist, competed in a sport that American Notes" column, The WPA History of Captain Posey was indeed an astute business- was almost exclusively off-limits to blacks. the Negro, and "The Negro in Pittsburgh" by man and shipbuilder, John T. Writt a successful Helen Tucker substantiate some of Waters's and caterer with daughters who were members of Ewell's claims. "Afro-American Notes" echoes the Tuesday Night Study and Aurora clubs. the upbeat tone and content of the "Smoky For historians, the challenge in mining this City" series, highlighting Robert Jackson and four-part series is separating credible from family, as well as the Tuesday Night Club:' incredible. In cross-referencing information, it An informal porch party was given last is clear that Waters and Ewell try to render Friday evening by Miss Hadesha Jackson honest factual background information. In at her home on Claybourne Street, some areas their heightening of facts might Shadyside.... The house and grounds have been wishful thinking, for example, the were illuminated with Chinese lanterns ease with which Waters reports African 2 and a collation was served.8 Americans assuming a variety of skilled and The Tuesday Night Club will discuss unskilled positions in the mills, when this "Boston and Vicinity" at its next meet- information contrasts with statistics reported ing. Miss Emma Writt will read a paper by other authorities. Historian Frank Couvares

Thomas S. Ewe II.The collection of TheSchomburg Center for Researchin BlackCulture, New York Public Library.

44 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 Jackson's presence there along with his family Clearly, the best method of proving Dignified Proprietor (of a first-class restaurant in Central Africa): "You'll have to go to that little chop- attests to a fluidity of movement with which a respectability and first-class citizenship, in house down the street, sah. We don't entertain white select few African Americans could operate, addition to negating caricatured images of people here, sah." On the other hand, on the death of Frederick Douglass, the Pittsburgh Dispatch provided they had the means. blacks portrayed in the white press, commented sarcastically that "the North Carolina legislature had honored him above Washington and was through publication of impressive Lee." (Logan, p. 229). Pittsburgh, unquestionably, photographs in which subjects are well- was a city that wavered on the question of full equality of the colored American on par with whites. "Pittsburgh may have dressed, well-groomed, and dignified. Ibid., p. 216. Although some argue these images simply been the exception Ibid., p. 241. emulate elite whites, it could also be said that 4 Ibid, pp. 241-242. in its attitudes emulating white culture gave this segment of Ibid. Interestingly, Logan argues that "Jews received more favorable treatment than did other minorities the black population access to upward and offerings because the articles written about them were written movement in American society at this time. by Jews." (Logan, p. 242) toward these select Strides that may appear small to us now Ibid., p. 268. Ibid. loomed large to Waters and Ewell in a period blacks at a critical Founders of The CAM included: Walter W. Wallace, in which success of one meant victory for all. Walter A. Johnson, Jesse S. Watkins, and Harper S. To think otherwise would be to go against Fortune. The fifth and equally vital contributor/editor time in history." was Pauline S. Hopkins also of Boston. Although ideas that permeated African American Pauline's photo and bio. appear in the May 1901 anniversary issue and her contributions are culture at this time, not only in Pittsburgh, acknowledged, the title of editor does not appear in Dr. Brady, the city's first African American but throughout the nation in combined print. Over time, Hopkins' colleagues attested to her significant role in charting the editorial direction of dentist, counted whites as well as blacks efforts to "negate the nadir." 0 The Colored American Magazine. (See: Martha Hopkins, " 'kin' o' rough jestice fer a parson': among his clientele; Posey built boats for a Pauline Hopkins's Winona and the Politics of Reconstructing white clientele; Mary Writt was seamstress to The author thanks Edward Muller, Ph.D., History," African American Review, Volume 32, William Chase, Ph.D., and Evelyn Rawski, Ph.D., Number 3, 1998, p. 445). As a writer, however, Mrs. Pitcairn, whose husband owned Hopkins' novels and short stories were serialized in University of Pittsburgh; The Schomburg Center Pittsburg Plate Glass Company; Louis The CAM, often under an assumed name. Eventually, for African American Research in New York City; the stress associated with the expense of publishing Woodson, descendant of well-known Old and the great-granddaughters of John T. Writt. literary works in addition to printing the magazine adversely effected the Pittsburgher Reverend Louis Woodson, publishing company's stability. John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber. worked as an engineer for PPG-all reasons Patricia Pugh Mitchell, local historian and former Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in why Waters and Ewell considered Pittsburgh coordinator of African American and Adult Pittsburgh, 1900-1960. (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983), p. 20. Programs for the History Center, holds an M.A. special in its attitudes and offerings toward o in American History from University Ibid. African Americans. However, African Americans did not represent more of Pittsburgh. This article is adapted from than a token number in mill and factory Unquestionably upbeat, the "Smoky City" work until her master's thesis titled "Negating the Nadir: World War I. See Laurence Glasco, ed. The WPA series does not dwell on issues of prejudice. Elite Black Perspectives on Race, Class, and History of the Negro. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), p. 217-218. On the contrary, Waters and Ewell use the few Gender at the Turn of the Century in The Colored 12In 1896 the Pittsburgh Press committed a column American Magazine's 'The Smoky City' Series." situations that they report to show triumph of its Sunday edition to "news and comment of special interest to colored readers," edited by Dr. over racism. Rayford Logan, The Negro in American Life and John W. Browning. Browning's career as editor of Some may argue that this indifference Thought: The Nadir,1877-1901 (New York: The Dial "Afro-American Notes" was cut short by his sudden death in 1897. Abram Hall took over as editor until toward race was propaganda. And yes, the Press, Inc. 1954) p. 83. Logan sampled 12 northern newspapers in an attempt to gauge northern se- the column ceased in 1932. See Laurence Glasco, series is overly optimistic in its cadence. ntiment regarding African Americans. One of those ed. The WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh, newspapers sampled was the Pittsburgh Dispatch, a (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), Yet, given the poor reception of blacks in other firmly Democratic newspaper whose loyalties shifted p. 248. urban industrial cities, Pittsburgh may well around the mid-1890s. Logan reported what he 2 Laurence Glasco, ed. The WPA History of the Negro deemed "a rare example of a joke against in Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh have been the exception rather than the rule in discrimination which appeared in the Pittsburgh Press, 2004), p. 248. Dispatch in 1895: A traveler asked: "What's the its attitudes and offerings toward these select Pittsburgh Press, "Afro-American Notes," reason I can't get a meal here, I'd like to know." November 1, 1896, p. 17. The man referred blacks at a critical time in Pittsburgh history. to is editor Dr. John W. Browning.

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006i7 45 11However, in further reading when a Mr. W. H. Jones Waters's claim of "nearly six thousand laborers" in History: An Introduction." Social Science History was prominently featured in one edition of the the mills is not substantiated by other authorities. 28:3 (fall 2004), pp. 355-366. Smoky City series, with a similar address, it is J. Ernest Wright in The WPA Study of the Pittsburgh 11 The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, reasonable to assume that the two were husband and Negro reports less than half that number employed by p. 17. wife. Her name did not appear in any association 1907-1908. Bodnar, et. al. in their study report with social, literary, or music clubs highlighted in the "only 507 blacks were found among the 19,686 men 11 Ralph Jackson may have heard of the fame of Smoky City series. Neither did her picture appear in working in Pittsburgh's blast furnaces and rolling Marshall "Major" Taylor, who by 1898 held seven The CAM's May 1901 anniversary issue. Mrs. Jones' mills." Further, Bodnar states that blacks "exclusion world records in bicycling. In 1900, Taylor competed tenure with the magazine lasted five months. By from steel production in Pittsburgh was characteristic in his first interracial national championship series March 1901 Waters was listed as the sole agent of the general exclusion of blacks from industrial and emerged as American sprint champion. [Prior to from The Smoky City. occupations throughout the North." (Bodnar, et. al. 1900 he was barred from bicycle competition in Lives of Their Own, p. 60, 61.) While Helen A. America on account of his race. By 1901 Taylor was 11This address was probably Waters's home address, Tucker in her report "The Negro in Pittsburgh" cites in Europe where he defeated every European as well. only "1,365 Negroes employed in the champion. Taylor retired from bicycle racing in 1910 17By May 1901, [The CAMs first anniversary year] "manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in 1900." at the age of 32. For more information on Taylor see: Pittsburgh is listed as a branch office and Oliver G. (Helen Tucker, "The Negro in Pittsburgh" in the Andrew Ritchie's biography Major Taylor(Johns Waters its general agent and sole representative for Pittsburgh Survey, 1909). According to J. Ernest Hopkins University Press, 1996). the Smoky City. No photo appears of Mrs. Jones in Wright, not until 1918 do the numbers approach 11 Ibid. p. 18. the May 1901 Anniversary issue, or any reason given 7,000. (Laurence Glasco, ed. The WPA History of the for her departure. Negro in Pittsburgh, p. 218) Couvares maintains that 11 Ibid. p. 20. ,2 11 The Colored American Magazine, May 1901, p. 73. the African American "was never patronized as a The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, Waters tenure with The Colored American Magazine community. Most filled the pool of casual, unskilled p. 19. spanned a period of approximately ten months laborer in the mills. Couvares cites the Pittsburgh 3 bid., p. 19. [January 1901 - November 1901]. Surveys claim that "As a rule, Negro boys do not remain in the mills long, nor work up in them." Woodson's position with Pittsburgh Plate Glass 19 The Colored American Magazine, August 1901. Frank Couvares. The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class Company was the exception rather than the rule. Advertisements. and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877-1919 Howard Woodson would eventually marry into the 11 After 1904, The Colored American Magazine shifted (Albany: The State University of New York Press, family of John T. Writt, marrying Writt's youngest location as well as editorship, moving to New York 1984), pp. 90-91. J. Ernest Wright would no doubt daughter Pauline. Interestingly, Mary Wrift was hired City. Issues perused for this study cover only those attribute the warped perception by whites of "the as a seamstress for the Pitcairn family. Mr. Pitcairn through 1904 with the magazine under the editorship Negro job" as an impediment to Negro advancement was president of the Pittsburg Plate Glass Company. of its original owners, i.e., Wallace, et.al. Booker T. in mill work. (See Laurence Glasco, ed. The WPA 1 The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, Washington, who also secretly underwrote the History of the Negro in Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh: p.20. financing of the magazine for his friend when it University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004) 16 Ibid., p. 22 assumed new ownership, was critical of the pp. 217-218. However, over time, mill and industry magazine's original focus on historical achievements work became racialized in theory and in print. 11 This school attended by Clark was most likely The and literature. He influenced a new direction that Historians such as Gilbert Osofsky, and Allan Spear Negro Public School of Allegheny City where S. A. embraced his own agenda. also claim that African Americans did not amount to Neale served as principal. See Laurence Glasco, 21The Colored American Magazine staff artist Hanson is a substantial number in the mills; their positions ed., The WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh within the mills were primarily remanded to the (Pittsburgh: University of responsible for the artwork on The CAM covers prior Pittsburgh Press, 2004), fringes of the industry, i.e. janitors, elevator p. 243. to the arrival of Alexandre Skeete, December 1900. operators, etc. See Allan H. Spear: Black Chicago: Although not mentioned as a staff artist in the May 38 The Colored American Magazine, November, 1901, 1901 anniversary issue, Hanson's art work graces the The Making of a Negro Ghetto: 1890 - 1920, p. 21. (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago covers of The CAM through March 1901. Thereafter, 49Ibid. Skeete's illustrations appear on the covers of The Press, 1967), p. 7; and Gilbert Osofsky. Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York 1890- CAM beginning in May 1901. However, Hanson is I Ibid. 1930. (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, credited with creating the sketch of what appears to 11 Ibid., pp. 11, 14. 1963), p. 23. be the mighty Vulcan with anvil in hand and flames 11 Ibid., pouring from his mouth amidst a backdrop of 30 Ibid., p. 420. p. 11. smoking stacks that appears throughout the four part 31Ibid. 11 Ibid., p. 14. series on The Smoky City and with the cover drawing 11 The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, 1' Pauline Writt would eventually become the wife of of the African American steelworker on the first issue Howard Woodson, also profiled in The Smoky City of the four-part series, titled "The Smoky City." p. 18. Series. See The CAM, November 1901, pp. 19, 20. 11Ibid. p. 20. 11 The Colored American Magazine, October 1901. From 11 The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, the collection of The Schomburg Center for Research 34 Ibid. p. 18. in Black Culture, The New York Public Library. 35 The Colored American Magazine, November 1901, 23The Ibid. Atlantic Monthly, Volume 21, Issue 123, January p. 21. Ibid., p. 17. 1868, pp. 17-36. 36 Ibid., p. 11. 11 The Colored American Magazine, October 1901, Bodnar et.al. report that "John T. Writt was born in 11Affiliations with African American secret societies p. 419. 1848; his wife, Susan, was born in Pennsylvania the such as The Oddfellows, Knights of Pythias, etc. were same year. The couple married in 1873 and had six 11 Here, Waters mistakenly uses the word "elyrium" established early on by African American males in children, but two died before 1900. In 1883 Writt when the proper choice would have been "elysium" Pittsburgh. Even prior to Jim Crow, black membership purchased 7225 Susquehanna Street in Homewood "a place or condition of ideal happiness." Elyrium is within white fraternal organizations was not accepted. for $1,900 ($2,346) with only a $200 ($247) down not a word. Therefore, African American males in Pittsburgh and payment. In the 1880s Writt was listed in the city I The Colored American Magazine, October 1901, throughout the country created their own "replicas" directory as a janitor, but in the mid-1890s he p. 404. of these organizations, which were primarily entered the catering business and advertised his 27 Ibid. ceremonial in nature. See "Negro Secret Societies" downtown location in the city directory." (Bodnar, by Edward Nelson Palmer in Social Forces, et.al. Lives of Their Own, 1983, p. 177). 18 Ibid. Volume 23, No. 2, p. 207, and Joe W. Trotter, 5 The Colored American Magazine, December 1901, "African American Fraternal Associations in American pp. 134-135.

46 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-07 TH[i Mo l- k "- , 'I : _ I. 'V. *b~

Ibid., p. 138. Ibid. ORe AMERICAN 6' Ibid., p. 136. 61 Ibid., p. 135. 1, Ibid., p. 135.

" Ibid. 66 In further research, I was able to uncover a great deal of additional information about John T. Writt and his family that validates the information that Ewell shared with the readers of The Colored American Magazine, having interviewed the great- granddaughters of John T. Writt; Martha Richards Conley of Pittsburgh, who lives in Pittsburgh, and Margaretta Richards of New York City. They shared stories and critical photographs of John T. Writt's home life, business, and family. His son, John T. Writt, Jr. was one of the first African American firemen in Pittsburgh. All the Writt women were involved in women's social clubs of the day (i.e., the Aurora Club, the Narcissus Musical and Literary Club, The Tuesday Evening Study Club). Daughter Emma taught English after graduation from Pittsburgh Central High School and at Charles Avery Institute, the first school of higher learning established for the colored American in Pittsburgh. This information substantiates the views of Waters's regarding the role and "place" of African American women not only within his family but in society at large. 67 Ibid., p. 143. 60There is some discrepancy here as to the actual founding date of the Aurora Club. Actual members have documented the founding as early as 1894 and not 1897 as reported by Ewell. In The WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh, J. Ernest Wright lists 1898 as the date the club was formed (Glasco, ed., p. 295). 66 Ibid., p. 142.

70 Ibid. "1Ibid., p. 142. 12 The Colored American Magazine, December 1901, p. 143. Ibid., p. 145.

71 The Colored American Magazine, January/February The Colored American Magazine, October 1901. Thecollection ofThe Schomburg Center for Research inBlack Culture, 1902, p. 171. NewYork Public Libraey. 76 Ibid. claimed middle-class blacks were not living in the humanity of white America that the reality of 76 Ibid., p. 172. real world, but one which they created for hardened segregation against the black race became themselves. Laurence Glasco, ed. The WPA History of the Negro in Emulating mainstream white society, a harsh reality. Regarding Frazier's claim about the they denied the reality that whites would never exaggeration of the press as to the success of black Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), p. 244. Pittsburgh Public Schools did not hire accept them. Frazier also claimed that black businesses, we do see some of that in the "Smoky newspapers had a tendency to exaggerate their first African American teacher until 1937. Colored the success City" series; it may or may not have been intentional. students who pursued teaching as a profession were of black businesses. Frazier's work was published Considering the authors' efforts to present the best over permitted only to do observations of classes in session 50 years after the "Smoky City" series appears possible picture of the Afro-American in Pittsburgh, it but never participate in student teaching. in The Colored American Magazine. I argue, however, is obvious to the writer when cross-referencing 0 that while it may appear that the goal of upwardly sources that some exaggeration was employed. See E. ' W. E. B. DuBois. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social mobile blacks at the turn of the century was to Franklin Frazier, The Black Bourgeoisie (New York: Study (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania imitate white culture, one must take into The Free Press, 1957). Press, 1899. Reprint, 1996). consideration that this was the only culture that 02 Pittsburgh Press, "Afro-American Notes," August 25, dominated mainstream society, which set the norms "The Colored American Magazine, January/February 1901, p. 15. Hadesha Jackson was the daughter of for what was and was not acceptable. Given that fact, 1902, p. 171. businessman Robert Jackson; both are featured in blacks were content to enhance to some degree a an Allan H. Spear: Black Chicago: The Making of a The Smoky City series. facsimile of white culture for their own well-being Negro Ghetto: 1890-1920 (Chicago and London: and enjoyment within their own communities. Also, at Myrtle Lett was secretary to Captain C. W. Posey. The University of Chicago Press, 1967), preface ix; this early period blacks still believed that total pp. 51-56. Ibid. October 27, 1901, p. 13. acceptance and assimilation into white society was a 06 For detailed information, see footnote on page 22. 00 In 1957, sociologist E. Franklin Frazier published the possibility. It was not until DuBois (successor to B.T. extremely controversial Black Bourgeoisie that Washington) had exhausted all possible faith in the

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I WINTER2006-0T 47