What Keeps Fans Away from the Soccer Stadium?

KU LEUVEN

GROEP BIOMEDISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN

FACULTEIT BEWEGINGS- EN REVALIDATIEWETENSCHAPPEN

What keeps fans away from the soccer stadium?

Constraints on soccer attendance in Belgium and Portugal

door Jeff Van Thielen

masterproef aangeboden tot het behalen van de graad van Master of Science in de lichamelijke opvoeding en de bewegingswetenschappen

o.l.v.

prof. dr. J. Scheerder, promotor

prof. dr. F. Boen, copromotor

dra. M. de Carvalho, copromotor

LEUVEN, 2014

KU LEUVEN

GROEP BIOMEDISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN

FACULTEIT BEWEGINGS- EN REVALIDATIEWETENSCHAPPEN

What keeps fans away from the soccer stadium?

Constraints on soccer attendance in Belgium and Portugal

door Jeff Van Thielen

masterproef aangeboden tot het behalen van de graad van Master of Science in de lichamelijke opvoeding en de bewegingswetenschappen

o.l.v.

prof. dr. J. Scheerder, promotor

prof. dr. F. Boen, copromotor

dra. M. de Carvalho, copromotor

LEUVEN, 2014 Opgesteld volgens de richtlijnen van de International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship

WOORD VOORAF

Graag wil ik mijn oprechte dank betuigen aan iedereen die mij geholpen heeft aan deze masterproef. Ten eerste wil ik Bram Maes bedanken voor zijn hulp met het verspreiden van de vragenlijsten vorig jaar en voor het voorbereiden van deze masterproef tijdens onze onderzoeksstage. Verder wil ik Nathalie Henkens bedanken voor het lenen van haar pc die het statistische programma SPSS bevatte. Dit bespaarde me veel tijd. Verder wil ik prof. Jeroen Scheerder en prof. Filip Boen bedanken voor hun hulp en voor de kans om me via dit onderzoek te verdiepen in de voetbalmarketing. Extra dank gaat uit naar dra. Mariana de Carvalho voor haar begeleiding. Ze hielp me gedurende het hele proces en motiveerde me om gericht onderzoek te voeren. Zonder haar hulp had deze paper er wellicht anders uit gezien.

Westerlo, 1 mei 2014

J.V.T.

iii

SITUERING

Elke voetbalclub wil zijn eigen nieuwe stadion. Maar hoe raakt het gevuld? Professionele voetbalclubs kunnen niet overleven zonder fans en daarom is het belangrijk om te weten waarom fans al dan niet naar het stadion komen. Voor voetbalclubs is het dan ook interessant om te weten hoe zij hun omgeving kunnen inrichten om deze fans aan hun club te binden. Bovendien wordt de huidige maatschappij gekenmerkt door een groot aantal alternatieven aan vrijetijdsbesteding (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007). Hier moet de voetbalsector tegen concurreren. Andere vrijetijdssectoren hebben veel aandacht voor het comfort van hun bezoekers. De voetbalsector kan niet zomaar achterblijven. Wetenschappelijk onderzoek kan de clubs hierbij ondersteunen en in de juiste richting gidsen.

Deze masterproef is geschreven bij de Onderzoeksgroep Sport –en Bewegingsbeleid. Hun belangrijkste doel is om beleidsbeslissingen te onderzoeken en helpen om de overheid en andere sportverenigingen via wetenschappelijk onderzoek nieuwe inzichten aan te bieden. Deze masterproef biedt deze nieuwe inzichten en kunnen gebruikt worden door de KBVB en FPF of het management van de professionele voetbalclubs in België en Portugal.

Verder is het onderdeel van een groter onderzoek uitgevoerd aan de Onderzoeksgroep Sport –en Bewegingsbeleid. Dra. Mariana de Carvalho voert momenteel een doctoraatsonderzoek over de belemmeringen die voetbalfans tegen houden om live in het stadion wedstrijden bij te wonen. Deze belemmeringen worden binnen het nationaal kader van België en Portugal besproken. In deze masterproef worden vier grote belemmeringen besproken, namelijk sportscape factors, soccer interest, money issues en organisational issues & level of play (de Carvalho et al., 2013; de Carvalho et al., 2014; Wakefield et al., 1996). Ook in deze masterproef ligt de focus op België en Portugal.

Referenties

Coelho, J.N. & Tiesler, N.C. (2007) The paradox of the Portuguese game: the omnipresence of football and the absence of spectator at matches. Soccer & Society 8 (4), 578-600.

De Carvalho, M., Scheerder, J., Boen, F., & Sarmento, J.P. (2013). What brings people into the soccer stadium? (Part 1) The case of Belgium from a marketing perspective (SPM Report 18). Retrieved from KU Leuven, Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, Department of Kinesiology website: https://faber.kuleuven.be/BMS/

De Carvalho, M., Scheerder, J., Boen, F., & Sarmento, J.P. (2014). What brings people into the soccer stadium? (Part 2) The case of Portugal from a marketing perspective (SPM Report 19). Retrieved from KU Leuven, Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, Department of Kinesiology website: https://faber.kuleuven.be/BMS/

Wakefield, K.L., Blodgett, J.G. & Sloan, H.J. (1996) Measurement and management of the sportscape. Journal of Sport Management 10 (1), 15-31.

Abstract

This study emphasizes the possible constraints soccer fans can have about going to the soccer stadium to watch soccer matches. The research was designed to supply soccer clubs and federations with meaningful information from which to understand what is keeping fans away from the stadium. Five major constraint components were identified (sportscape factors, soccer interest, money issues, organizational issues & level of play and games being played on TV), which were tested on different fan characteristics, EFA, t-tests and regression analysis were used to conduct the research and analyse findings.

Keywords: Soccer, Attendance, Constraints, Belgium, Portugal

Introduction

Over the past twenty years sports event attendance expenditure has been declining as a percentage of total recreation expenditure (Ross, 2006). In this decade some countries struggle to fill their stadiums and see a gradual drop in attendance over the years. Földesi (1996) describes the crisis of Hungarian soccer in the late 1980s, where he stated that the number of people attending soccer matches drastically decreased. At that time the same phenomenon was been noticed in Germany (Merkel, 2012). In countries like Belgium, Portugal, Italy and Switzerland, a lot of soccer clubs are not able to bring satisfying numbers of attendees into their stadiums. These countries have average stadium occupation rates between 45% and 54% (Sá & Malveiro, 2011; Terpstra, 2014). According to the ‘Football Money League’ Deloitte reports of 2008, 2012, 2013 and 2014 (Jones, 2008; Jones, 2012; Jones, 2013; Jones, 2014) some countries or clubs have problems attracting fans. For instance in Italy, where clubs like AC Milan, Internazionale and AS Roma are attracting fewer fans nowadays than five years ago. As well in France, a rising number of fans are staying away from the stade Gerland in Lyon. These are all clubs with outdated facilities and some of them are planning to move to a new stadium. Other clubs with outdated facilities such as Tottenham Hotspur and Chelsea are able to fill their stadiums, but they cannot use their full potential yet. Their market size exceeds the capacity of their stadium. Coelho & Tiesler (2007) described the same trend for Portugal in the 1990s. Gates at First Division soccer matches began to drop sharply, although soccer seems to be everywhere in Portuguese society. Portugal seems to be faced to a paradox: a small number of spectators who actually go to the stadiums, against the centrality and omnipresence of soccer in society. However, in Germany, attendance rates raised after Euro 2000 and the 2006 World Cup. New stadia were built, new football ideas were introduced and much has been done in favor of the fans to attract them to the stadiums, e.g. lowering ticket prices and fans having shares in the club. Nowadays Germany may be seen as an example for many countries (Evans, 2013; Liew, 2013).

A general drop in attendance is a negative evolution for the sports sector. Attendance is important for sports events and represents a significant revenue stream for sports venues and sporting associations with subsequent economic benefits for cities and regions (Hall et al., 2010), and therefore also for local society. Fans are extremely important for sport clubs, as they generate a large part of the clubs’ income by attending games, buying merchandise, paying to watch games on television or on the Internet, and attracting sponsors. They also contribute to the atmosphere in sports stadia, the identity of the teams, and what makes those teams attractive to others (Hall et al., 2010; Koenigstorfer et al., 2010).

In the sports business, sports teams produce entertainment that fans consume. This entertainment or service provided by sports teams is produced and consumed simultaneously, the consumer is watching the match while it is being played. Entertainment is generated by performance on the field and amenities at the stadium. Sports fans tend to experience the whole facility and not only the game (Bitner, 1992; Miller, 2009). Therefore, not only the game itself, but also the service environment is very important for a sports team and its fans. The sports sector and in particular the soccer clubs seem to focus primarily on their core product, the soccer match itself (Lagae, 2010). High transfer fees and player salaries are highlighting this fact. Some clubs even have wage budgets that exceed their whole financial resources. Belgian’s top clubs only survive financially because of revenues gained by playing in European competitions and by lucrative transfer fees (Dejonghe, 2014). The presence of fans in the stadium has a very low impact on the outcome of a soccer match and winning matches has a positive impact on attendance rates and other sources of income (Bell et al., 2012; Braga & Guillén, 2012). But both facts should not be an excuse for clubs to focus solely on the core product (Clowes & Tapp, 2003).

Soccer clubs are rarely seen as customer-friendly organizations and they often do not have a clear marketing plan to attract fans (Lagae, 2010). This is mainly because of the commodification of soccer, where spectators are being watched as revenue sources (Giulianotti, 2002). Clubs also see their selves as inviolable and give the impression to fans that they must be satisfied that they can get a place in the stands (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007; Lagae, 2010). In contrast to this attitude, soccer clubs must be aware of the fact that they do not have control over their core product. The factors able to management control are linked to the service environment. They could be called the ‘sportscape’ factors or fixed elements (Wakefield et al., 1996). There is also the potential of a higher service quality to leverage revenue (Theodorakis et al., 2011).

If clubs want to improve their attendance rates, they should be aware of academic research and sector developments, so their actions can have optimal effect. Much of the research been done so far has focused primarily on the motivations of soccer fans to watch the game live at the stadium. But there are suggestions that what encourages fans to attend may not be reflected in what discourages fans from attending (Douvis, 2007). Insufficient research has been done on the constraint side, so this part must be studied more extensively. Douvis (2007) suggests that it is important to include people in the research who do not or only infrequently attend.

The present research focuses on investigating constraints on soccer attendance in a European context. Belgium and Portugal are both countries who suffer with organisational and fan-related problems. This research will investigate the underlying constraints which keep fans away from the

2 stadium in both European countries. In this way the research will help to gain new insights and stimulate Belgian and Portuguese soccer decision makers in attracting more fans to the soccer stadium.

Literature review and hypotheses

Constraints on attendance

Soccer fans can have several constraints to attend soccer matches. Several factors are presented as possible items that could keep fans away from the stadium. Hypotheses are also formulated based on these constraints.

Lack of team identification

While identification with a team relates to the motives for attendance, disidentification and cognitive apathy are both considered constraints (Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2002; Elsbach & Bhattacharya, 2001). Both are also related to the maintenance of the self-concept. Findings suggest that organisational disidentification is a self-perception based on a cognitive separation between one's identity and the organization's identity, and a negative relational categorization of oneself and the organization (Elsbach & Bhattacharya, 2001). The key sub-themes leading to cognitive disassociation are negative perceived club characteristics, taking away from the community and elite focus (Lock & Filo, 2012). Cognitive apathy occurs when an individual sees no value in identifying or disidentifying with a social group. Three sub-themes predict cognitive apathy: no interest or irrelevance, external constraints (time, family and distance), and lacking information. Lowly identified fans might be considered as individuals in a state of cognitive apathy. That type of fans have not much interest in the team. Therefore, the next hypothesis is formulated:

H1a: Lowly identified fans are more constrained in their attendance by soccer interest than highly identified fans

There may be an opportunity to convert this last group of individuals into consumers through targeted marketing initiatives.

A person’s beliefs and inferences with a team coupled with prior knowledge and experience with this team, as well as the team’s reputation, lead to certain overall evaluations regarding the team’s identity. This is subjective, and matching values of the club with a person’s self-concept will increase the possibility of identification and subsequently attendance. These overall evaluations, when assessed for overlap with the person's identity and self-concept, lead to feelings of connectedness

(i.e., identification), separation (i.e., disidentification), or indifference (Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2002; Scott & Lane, 2000).

Overall evaluations could also be made regarding soccer in general. When the values of a person’s self-concept don’t match the subjective values of soccer, this may lead to a negative overall image of soccer and lost ties with society (Földesi, 1996; Lagae, 2012). Both are commonly believed to be higher priority constraints for women. Therefore, a next hypothesis will be tested:

H1b: Men are less constrained in their attendance by soccer interest than women

Club managers need to pay attention for the loyalty of the club’s fans. Stadiums will not be filled to capacity if the management has no interest in building loyalty with its fans or when team identification is absent (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007, Kim & Trail, 2010). The main part of non-attendees has mainly apathetic perceptions to the local team (Lock & Filo, 2012). Tapp & Clowes (2002) also point to the fact that younger fans being opposed to a new life stage might lose their interest in the team. A new life stage is very often accompanied with family or work commitments, which lowers the chance to attend frequently (Földesi, 1996; Kim & Trail, 2010; Lera-López et al., 2012; Lestrelin et al., 2006; Tapp & Clowes, 2002). Engaging in a relationship is considered as a new life stage. Therefore, this hypothesis will be tested:

H2: People who are engaged in a relationship are more constrained in their attendance by organisational issues

Live television broadcasts

In the context of entertainment alternatives, the item of television has had specific attention in the research literature. The relation between live and televised sport consumption is not yet made clear, in the light of the conflicting theories in different researches. Douvis (2007) and Fizel & Bennett (1989) support the substitution effect of television on gate attendance, which lowers the number of fans in the stadium. According to Buraimo et al. (2009), Cox (2012) and García & Rodríguez (2002) a distinction must be made between free-to-air television and pay-per-view broadcasts. Free-to-air live coverage of soccer matches could be much more damaging to attendance rates. Cox (2012) also found top clubs to be much less affected by live broadcasts than bottom league clubs. The more successful teams are better able to keep gate revenue from reducing when fans have an alternative to watching the game at the stadium. The difference between top clubs and smaller clubs is easily identifiable in Belgium and Portugal when budgets, performances in the last decade and fan size are compared. Belgium has its ‘Big 5’ (RSC Anderlecht, Club Brugge, Standard Liège, KRC Genk and KAA

Gent) and Portugal has three top clubs (FC Porto, SL Benfica, Sporting CP). To test the advantage for those clubs in keeping gate revenue from reducing, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H3a: Fans of top clubs are less constrained in their attendance by televised matches than fans of smaller clubs

Season-ticket holders are also less influenced by live televised games than single-ticket purchasers (Cox, 2012). In this manner, it is hypothesized that:

H3b: Season-ticket holders are less constrained by televised matches than single-game ticket purchasers

According to Westerbeek & Shilbury (1999), especially the older people prefer to watch soccer on television. There may be a link with crowd violence and safety considerations, two other constraints discussed below. To test if older people are more affected by televised matches, this hypothesis will be verified:

H3c: Older people are more constrained in their attendance by televised matches than younger people

On the contrary, television could not have a dramatic effect on gate attendance, because when a match is not broadcasted, attendance rates are not much higher (Winfree, 2009). So, the other side of the theory is a complementary effect of television (Hall et al., 2010; Lera-López, 2012). Additional interest in a successful soccer club can be enhanced through live broadcasts (Lestrelin et al., 2006). Although television broadcasts might lower the amount of fans in the stadium, broadcast fees are higher than attendance loss revenue. So, more television coverage means more revenues for the club (Cox, 2012; Hill & Vincent, 2006). However, a negative consequence that is often related to television is bad scheduling. Soccer matches are often replaced from Saturday to Friday, Sunday or even Monday by order of television companies. This definitely results in lower gate receipts (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007). Especially midweek matches have a high impact on fans wanting to stay home (Buraimo et al., 2009; Cox, 2012; García & Rodríguez, 2002; Mohan, 2010), especially on families with children (Mohan, 2010).

Sportscape factors

Other previous investigated constraints are bad facilities and poor service. The sportscape is defined as the physical environment of the stadium, and includes the interior and exterior fixed elements, such as stadium access, facility aesthetics, scoreboard quality, and perceived crowding, comprising seating comfort and layout accessibility, i.e., space allocation and signage (Wakefield et al., 1996). In

5 line with the work of Wakefield and Sloan (1995), also non-fixed elements of service quality, such as food service, stadium security, cleanliness and ticketing services, are included in the model of sportscape, because they belong to the stadium factors and can be controlled by the management.

Overall perceptions of the facility are important (Greenwell et al., 2002; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999), as also mentioned above, but a distinction between different items of the facility might be necessary. A bad atmosphere in and around the stadium, offensive behaviour and crowd violence is scaring some types of fans away from soccer. Especially women, children and the elderly attach a lot of importance to safety considerations (Földesi, 1996; Lagae, 2010; Tapp & Clowes, 2002).

As Melnick (1993) pointed out, the design of the stadium should facilitate enjoyment of the game. Poorly designed stadiums may have the psychological effect of making spectators feel crowded. A spectator who feels uncomfortable because other spectators are too close or who feels hampered in attempting to exit the stands and gain to restrooms or concessions may not wish to stay in the place or return (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Due to insufficient space in the seats, aisles and service areas, customers may experience ‘perceived crowding’ even with a sparse crowd. The functional components of the service environment (e.g. layout accessibility and seat space) are predictive of the level of perceived crowding (Wakefield et al., 1996). Yoshida & James (2011) add the functional aspects of frontline employees to the service environment. It could be that different types of fans might attach more or less importance to the sportscape, compared to the game itself, as will be pointed out at the fan segmentation chapter.

Fans who are coming to the stadium want a quick dispatch of business when travelling to and entering the facility. The further a fan lives from the stadium, the more he will decide not to attend (Cox, 2012; García & Rodríguez, 2002). Travelling time might be important to know how big the market size of a club is and because fans that live closer to the stadium could have different constraints on attendance. So, this hypothesis will be formulated:

H4a: Fans who live far away from the stadium are more constrained in their attendance by sportscape factors

H4b: Fans who live far away from the stadium are more constrained in their attendance by money issues

H4c: Fans who live far away from the stadium are more constrained in their attendance by organisational issues

Bad or too few parking facilities might keep fans away (Douvis, 2007; Kim & Trail, 2010) and lost time when parking, entering or leaving the stadium might frustrate spectators (Bitner, 1992). Another

6 point of frustration might be a facility that is not adapted to have much spectators entering together. Waiting lines might often nurture boredom when it is not accompanied by additive entertainment (Lagae, 2010; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). At the end of the day some people might even decide to leave the game before it is finished to increase the chance of having no problems leaving the area (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Wakefield et al. (1996) also support this as being a constraint, but one having minor influence on attendance decisions. Though, in previous research Wakefield & Sloan (1995) point to the fact that it is hard to change a negative perception that is formed before entering the stadium into a positive experience. Elsbach & Bhattacharya (2001) add to this that negative emotions are being remembered more than positive emotions.

Between both studied countries, Belgium and Portugal, there is a difference in stadium quality. Belgium has outdated facilities. Club managers have been realizing recently that Belgian football stadia were outdated, compared to their neighbour countries, the Netherlands and Germany. Next to that, it also seems to be very difficult in Belgium to develop appropriate plans for building new stadia, concerning the many rejected proposals like for instance the one of Club Brugge at Chartreuse (Theuns, 2013). Portugal, on the other hand, has built or rebuilt new stadiums after Euro 2004. They used this tournament as a leverage to improve the quality of their facilities. Therefore, this hypothesis will be verified:

H5b: Sportscape factors are the strongest constraints on attendance in Belgium

Expensive tickets

Another constraint that has had many interest in the literature, is ticket price. For some countries, such as Portugal, soccer tickets are very expensive relative to the income of its inhabitants and are therefore a possible reason to not attend (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007). Ticket prices of Portuguese football, ranging from 10 to 75 euros (Amorim, 2013), are almost the same than those of Belgian football, ranging from 2 to 75 euros. These ticket prices were found on the sites of the club. But, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Portugal is much lower than the Belgian GDP (IMF, 2013). Also the minimum wage in Portugal, which is around 550 euros (http://www.tradingeconomics.com/portugal/minimum-wages), is considerably lower than the minimum wage in Belgium, which is around 1,500 euros (http://www.xpats.com/belgian-minimum- wage-europes-second-highest). Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H6a: Money issues are the strongest constraints on attendance in Portugal

Douvis (2007) and Kim & Trail (2010) also found that the cost of a ticket is a constraint for some people to go to the stadium. Especially college students attach importance to the price of a ticket (Lee & Kang, 2011). To support this finding of Lee & Kang, a next hypothesis will be verified:

H6b: Students are more constrained in their attendance by money issues than working or retired people

Ferreira & Bravo (2007) claim that ticket price does not influence consumer behaviour, but it must be kept in mind that total cost, with food, beverages and merchandise included, might be more important. Food prices are often too expensive and managers of soccer clubs might adopt pricing objectives that result in at least some food prices that are more competitive with outside alternatives (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Although complaints about prices for a soccer evening out are countless, much research supports the theory that ticket prices are inelastic and do not influence attendance behaviour (Hansen & Gauthier, 1989). Bernstein (2011) wrote that soccer is tribal and its fans do not shop around for the cheapest team in town. On the short term higher prices might even lead to higher revenues (Winfree, 2009). However, setting lower ticket prices will be compensated by more expenses on other products in the stadium (Miller, 2009). Predominantly men will not be influenced by higher ticket prices (Lera-López et al., 2012). This could mean that women are more influenced by ticket prices. Therefore, this hypothesis will be verified:

H6c: Women are more constrained in their attendance by money issues than men

Other constraints

Leisure alternatives such as playing consoles, shopping and using the computer count as a possible substitute for soccer fandom. Also other spectator sports are in competition with soccer. Coelho & Tiesler (2007) are describing it as a process of cultural change, where more entertainment alternatives exist in modern society. However, sports participation and attending amateur sports seem to have a positive influence on attending professional events (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Kim & Trail, 2010; Lera-López et al., 2012; Winfree, 2009).

Low game quality is an often heard argument for fans to stay away from the soccer stadium (Molina, 2007), especially in smaller soccer countries like for example Portugal (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007) and Belgium, where the best national players do not play in the national competition.

Other possible constraints that are worth mentioning, although not much investigated, are unclean facilities (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995), lack of knowledge and lack of someone to attend with (Kim & Trail, 2010), bad weather (García & Rodríguez, 2002), lack of socialisation into the game (Lock & Filo, 2012) and concentration of power, where there is a big gap between top clubs and other clubs in the

8 league (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007). This is, for instance, the case in Portugal, Turkey, Greece and Scotland.

Fan segmentation

When considering motivators and constraints on soccer attendance, it is worth noticing that different behaviour might be expected from fan to fan. According to Tapp & Clowes (2002), clusters of fans with the same needs can be created, which is called segmenting. Important measures for segmentation are geodemographic data, psychographic approaches and behavioural data. Geodemographic data describes extrinsic factors about customers such as their income, age, household status, house type and so on. Psychographic approaches means segmentation of people according to their activities, interests and opinions. Behavioural data means segmenting by product need (what supporters want from the soccer product), or product value (how much supporters are worth to the club). Another behavioural approach to consider is to segment according to the different levels and types of loyalty that supporters exhibit.

The three most important variables for segmentation seem to be life stage, gender and proximity to the club (Tapp & Clowes, 2002). No difference has been found for age, occupation and income between different segments, what means that clustering fans on the basis of those characteristics might be inappropriate (Clowes & Tapp, 2003; Lera-López, 2012; Mongeon & Winfree, 2012).

First, the strategy of segmenting on geodemographic data leads to some specific differences between certain types of fans. One of the most common strategies is to segment by gender. Mostly male fans come to the stadium, and their portion gets bigger by increasing age. Nevertheless, the amount of women in the stands is rising (Molina, 2007). The increased safety and the problem tackling of hooliganism have significantly increased the share of women in soccer stadiums (Tapp & Clowes, 2002). Differences in household status and social class show that modern facilities attract more families and that there has been a shift from low social class fans to fans of middle and upper social class (Földesi, 1996; Giulianotti, 2002; Hill & Vincent, 2006; Lera-López et al., 2012; Merkel, 2012; Molina, 2007; Tapp & Clowes, 2002).

The biggest part of fans lives in the direct environment of the club and lives within 30 minutes of the stadium (Molina, 2007). People that attend very frequently, heavy or medium users, live close to the facility, where light users, people who just pick some games, tend to live outside the city bounder (Clowes & Tapp, 2003).

Next, segmenting on psychographic data leads to five types of fans (Tapp & Clowes, 2002). The first type of fans is not loyal to the same team and seeks quality performances with different teams.

Probably they will attend more if star players are attracted by the team (Mahony et al., 2002). The second type of fans is looking for entertainment and a close contest, apart from seeing the home team win the game. Both types are more likely to switch between successful teams. The third type of fans is the most important source of income to clubs. These fans are the most loyal and want to see their favourite team win, apart from having a good game. They do not change to other clubs and the facility is an important and meaningful place for them, although, they seem to be less influenced by stadium quality (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). So, fans with a high identification tend to give major attention to the team, whether or not facilities are bad. Therefore the following hypotheses can be formulated:

H5a: Lowly identified fans are more constrained in their attendance by sportscape factors than highly identified fans

The fourth type of fans does identify with the team, but they do not often attend. They mostly follow their team on television or other digital media. The last type can be described as a modern fan, which is driven to a specific club because of the possibility to enter in market-centered relations (Coelho & Tiesler, 2007; Giulianotti, 2002; Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999)

Finally, segmenting on behavioural data leads to three categories. According to Tapp & Clowes (2002), casual fans attend one to nine games per season. They prefer entertainment above winning. Regular fans attend ten to eighteen games per season (Tapp & Clowes, 2002). This group of fans tends to spend the most on merchandising products (Bernstein, 2011). Fanatics attend all home games and some or all away games of the team. Regular fans and fanatics prefer winning rather than seeing a good game. (Tapp & Clowes, 2002).

Materials and methods

Data collection

The study was conducted in Flanders, Belgium, and in Portugal. Both countries were chosen because of the above mentioned problems of clubs with attracting soccer fans to their stadiums. A first pilot study was designed in order to find gaps and difficulties in the questionnaire. The survey was first elaborated in English and then translated in Dutch and Portuguese. Respondents were asked about the length of the survey and the clarity of each question. Open-ended questions were also used to improve the survey. The survey had several flaws, namely, the exaggerated extension, and organisational issues. It was too time-consuming, leading to a lack of interest and attentiveness from a certain point on. A first set of changes was performed and the adapted survey was held on a bigger sample of students in Leuven, Belgium and Aveiro, Portugal (de Carvalho et al., 2013; de Carvalho et

10 al., 2014). This pilot study was used to create the appropriate questions concerning constraints on attendance at soccer matches. The questionnaire was peer-reviewed and a final version was accomplished.

Participants were questioned through an online questionnaire, which was online between half November 2012 and the end of January 2013. People were invited to answer to the online survey through different media: e-mail, Facebook pages and blogs of the clubs. Motives and constraints were gathered from previous studies, as well as existing scales on sport spectator attendance, and some items related to own experience and context. Hence, the utilized questions were previously validated. Anonymity was guaranteed. The survey has been leveraged by an article about the research in a Belgian journal Het Nieuwsblad, and a Portuguese journal, O Jornal Record, after which a higher amount of responded questionnaires was noticed.

Sample

A total of 7,199 respondents took part in the survey. Belgium had 5,015 respondents (69.7%) and Portugal had a total of 2,184 respondents (30.3%). Due to the fact that the present research focuses on live attendance during the season, 58 Belgian fans were excluded because they supported a foreign team or the national team of Belgium. As a consequence 4,957 Belgian respondents constitute the study sample. In Portugal, 34 fans of foreigner clubs (mainly Brazilian clubs, because of the high amount of Brazilians in Portugal and both have the same language) were excluded, which means that 2,150 Portuguese respondents constitute the study sample.

In Belgium 4,261 males (86.0%) and 633 females (12.8%) took part in the study. Portugal counted for 1,196 males (55.6%) and 954 females (44.4%). The distinction between males and females is important, because both genders could have different constraints on attendance. The mean age of the Belgian respondents was 35.4 years old (SD = 15.7), ranging from 9 to 82 years old. This is in accordance with the literature that the mean age of a soccer fan lies above 30 years old (Conn, 2007; http://sport.infonu.nl/voetbal/103378-positionering-van-de-nederlandse-eredivisie.html). The mean age of the Portuguese respondents was 25.9 years old (SD = 9.4), ranging from 11 to 68 years old. This sample is almost ten years younger than the Belgian sample, but being not representative for the Portuguese population, as it is a convenience sample.

A few other demographic data were obtained through the questionnaire. In Belgium, 19.5% had a basic level of education or less and 42.8% completed one of the different levels of high school, while 37.6% had a bachelor, graduation, master or PhD. When the marital status was measured, 35.5% was single and 36.1% was married. Most of the people were employed fulltime (56.4%), while 27.6% was still a student. In Portugal, 2.4% had a basic level of education or less and 46.7% completed one of

11 the different levels of high school, while 50.9% had a bachelor or higher level. When the marital status was measured, 62.0% is single, 19.4% was in a relationship and 13.3% was married. Most of the people were students (61.1%), while 28.6% was employed fulltime.

A last measure, next to education, civil and employment status, was the financial status. Respondents were asked how easy it is to live, considering their financial situation at home. On a 5 point Likert-type scale, Belgians rated their lives slightly more easy to live (x = 3.7) than the Portuguese (x = 3.3). In general Belgium is known to be a wealthier country than Portugal, so this might be an explanation.

Instrument

The survey consisted of three parts. The first part examined the person as a soccer fan. The second part investigated the reasons of the respondents to not attend to soccer games and their soccer consumption habits. The third part consisted of sociodemographic questions.

The first part measured some specific features about the respondents. A first question was about being a fan and non-fan and meant to divide both groups. If a person answered no on this question, all the next fan-related questions were skipped.

Also the level of team identification was investigated. This was measured based on the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS), developed by Wann & Branscombe (1993). Seven items, as can be seen in table 1, were presented as a 7 point Likert-type scale. A low score means low identification, where a high score means high identification.

An EFA with the seven items of the SSIS with oblimin rotation was conducted. The KMO measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO = .90. Bartlett’s test of sphericity X² (21) = 24,951.22, p < .001, indicated that correlations between items were sufficiently large for EFA. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each component in the data. Only one component with the seven items was extracted explaining 61.6% of the variance. The SSIS shows a high reliability through the Cronbach’s Alpha (α = .87).

Table 1 SSIS: means and standard deviations (n = 6,353)

M SD

How important to YOU is it that the team wins? 5.72 1.24 How strongly do YOU see YOURSELF as a fan of the team? 5.69 1.24 How strongly do your FRIENDS see YOU as a fan of the team? 5.54 1.42 How closely do you follow the team? 6.03 1.26 How important is being a fan of the team to YOU? 5.49 1.47 How much do you dislike the greatest rivals of the team? 4.39 2.03 How often do YOU the team’s name of insignia? 3.58 1.90

The second part was about the constraints of soccer fans. These items included being a season-ticket holder, number of home games attended during previous season, number of away games attended during previous season, travelling time to the stadium and time per week dedicated to the club.

To measure the possible constraints soccer fans can have, 21 constraints were listed. Those proposed constraints are presented in table 2, with their factor loadings. Respondents were also given the opportunity to fill out other, non-mentioned constraints. These measures were presented as a 5 point Likert-type scale, with five as being very important.

Table 2 Factor loadings for exploratory factor analysis with oblimin rotation of the Motives for Non- Attendance Scale (n = 7,199)

Items M (SD) Components Sportscape Soccer Money Organisational factors interest issues issues & level of play Crowded / unsafe / chaotic stadium 2.71 (1.41) .888

Bad stadium conditions 3.44 (1.38) .797

Violence at/around the stadium / hooliganism 2.55 (1.37) .774

Ugly stadium / bad architecture of the stadium 2.63 (1.53) .540

Bad accessibility (not enough parking / no public 2.51 (1.43) .505

transports or too expensive / difficult to reach)

It’s a waste of time 1.96 (1.18) .809

Lack of interest 3.11 (1.35) .766

Soccer is boring, in general 2.78 (1.41) .644

Soccer mentality (too much money involved / no fair-play / 2.42 (1.29) .422

corruption / too much attention to soccer)

The kind of people that attend 1.47 (0.93)

Expensive tickets / too expensive tickets 2.59 (1.33) .889

Expensive drinks / food / trip / all together 2.27 (1.31) .588

Lack of money / alternative activities to spend money with 1.42 (0.84) .579

Bad schedules / we only know the schedules too late 2.60 (1.36) .602

Bad ranking or winning record / disappointment with the 1.88 (1.10) .591

team

Bad atmosphere (not enough people at the stadium / not 2.00 (1.18) .584

cosy enough)

Lack of attractiveness / quality of soccer / bad opponent 2.53 (1.41) .489

Nobody to go with / Disinterest of friends or family 2.04 (1.23) .420

Lack of time / being too busy / work reasons 1.88 (1.12)

Bad weather conditions (cold / rain / cold and rain) 2.85 (1.39)

The game being played on TV 1.49 (0.96)

Eigenvalues 7.33 1.86 1.49 1.34

% of variance 34.93 8.88 7.08 6.38

α 0.88 0.77 0.77 0.75

Number of items 5 4 3 5

Note: Factor loadings < .40 were suppressed to assist the screening.

The third part was measuring some demographic data about the respondents. These data give the opportunity to measure which constraints are most common in certain groups. Demographics such

14 as age, sex, origin, education, marital status, professional status and financial situation were measured here.

The last part was about favourite sports to watch or attend and favourite sports being practiced. Respondents had to give a rank of their three favourite sports to watch, either live or on television and of their favourite sports to practice as well.

Data analysis

Descriptive and multivariate analyses are carried out using SPSS 20.0. T-tests and regression analysis are used to test the hypotheses. EFA is carried out using principal axis analysis.

Results and discussion

First, some descriptive measures about Belgian and Portuguese fans are presented. Table 3 shows the results for both samples. As it can be seen in the table, Belgian fans also attended more home and away games during previous season, although the difference between both samples is bigger for home games. Moreover, fans of Belgian soccer clubs live closer to their favourite club, according to the time it takes to travel to the stadium. On top of that, Belgian fans slightly tend to spend more hours per week to the club.

Belgium (39.3%) has also more season-ticket holders, than Portugal (15.4%), while 32.3% of the total sample has a season-ticket.

Table 3 Descriptive measures about Belgian and Portuguese fans

Belgian fans Portuguese fans Total sample M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Number of home games attended 8.70 (7.77) 5.08 (6.76) 7.64 (7.67) Number of away games attended 2.06 (4.05) 1.38 (3.22) 1.86 (3.84) Minutes to the stadium 58.48 (46.55) 98.96 (131.88) 69.77 (82.11) Hours per week to the club 2.53 (0.97) 2.14 (1.03) 2.42 (1.00)

The most popular sport in both countries to watch or attend was soccer. In Belgium, road cycling and basketball were the next favourite sports to watch. In Portugal, the two most prominent sports to watch, after soccer, were handball and basketball. The most popular sport in both countries to practice was as well soccer. Recreational cycling and running appeared to be the other popular sports being practiced in Belgium. In Portugal, indoor soccer and swimming are preferred as other sports being practiced.

An overview of the t-tests being performed on the hypotheses is shown in Table 4. Apart from H3a H5b and H6a, the Belgian and Portuguese sample is tested together. H5b and H6a are tested using a regression analysis. All other hypotheses could be tested using an independent samples t-test, with the four components (sportscape factors, soccer interest, money issues and organisational issues & level of play) and one single item (game being played on TV) as dependent variable. Different groups were established for the independent variable.

Table 4 Comparing means and t-tests of the hypotheses on constraints on soccer attendance

Group 1 Group 2 Total sample M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Soccer interest (H1a) Low TI High TI n = 2,129 n = 3,791 1.87 (0.88) 1.45 (0.66) t (5,918) = 20.68*** 1.60 (0.77) Soccer interest (H1b) Men Women n = 5,457 n = 1,587 1.55 (0.71) 1.79 (0.94) t (5,959) = 9.58*** Organisational issues & In rel. No rel. level of play (H2) n = 3,172 n = 2,756 2.29 (0.89) 2.28 (0.89) t (5,926) = 0.66 2.28 (0.89) Top clubs (Bel) Other clubs (Bel) Game on TV (H3a) n = 2,970 n = 1,430 2.75 (1.34) 2.32 (1.32) t (4,398) = -9.94*** Top clubs (Por) Other clubs (Bel) n = 1,611 n = 186 2.60 (1.36) 2.62 (1.38) 2.16 (1.31) t (1,795) = -4.36***

Game on TV (H3b) ST-holder SG-ticket n = 2,007 n = 4,164 2.10 (1.20) 2.84 (1.36) t (6,169) = 20.54*** Game on TV (H3c) Old people Young people n = 644 n = 2,772 2.90 (1.43) 2.48 (1.33) t (3,414) = 6.95*** Sportscape factors (H4a) Lives close Lives far n = 2,214 n = 3,836 2.38 (1.15) 2.47 (1.12) t (6,048) = 3.12** 2.44 (1.13) Money issues (H4b) Lives close Lives far n = 2,245 n = 3,903 2.92 (1.20) 3.01 (1.14) t (6,146) = 3.13** Organisational issues & Lives close Lives far level of play (H4c) n = 2,202 n = 3,824 2.21 (0.90) 2.33 (0.88) t (6,024) = 5.00*** Sportscape factors (H5a) Low TI High TI n = 2,138 n = 3,796 2.64 (1.12) 2.31 (1.22) t (5,932) = 10.82*** Money issues (H6b) Students Non-students n = 2,253 n = 3,785 3.14 (1.16) 2.89 (1.15) t (6,036) = 7.93*** 2.98 (1.16) Money issues (H6c) Men Women n = 5,457 n = 1,587 2.92 (1.15) 3.26 (1.18) t (6,070) = 9.11*** Note: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p <. 001, two-tailed.

Abbreviations: Low/high TI = low/high team identification; In/no rel. = In/no relationship; ST-holder = season-ticket holder; SG-ticket = single game-ticket purchaser

To test H1a, the concept of team identification was divided into lowly identified fans (TI ≤ 4) and highly identified fans (TI > 4). The results of H1a indicated a significant difference between both groups with regard to soccer interest. As follows, fans with low team identification are more constrained by soccer interest than highly identified fans. Soccer interest is one of the three sub- themes to predict cognitive apathy, which signals an absence of team identification (Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2002). Therefore, the theory of Lock & Filo (2012) that non-attendees are apathetic towards the local team can be supported. Cognitive apathy can be treated as low team identification. So, this result supports an absence of soccer interest to be one of the characteristics of lowly identified fans. Research by Bhattacharya & Elsbach (2002) and Scott & Lane (2000) shows that these persons can be converted into fans with interest in the team. This group of persons can be a possible marketing target for soccer clubs by trying to build fan loyalty with them, as Coelho & Tiesler (2007) and Kim & Trail (2010) are describing.

To test H1b, men and women were split apart in two groups. The results of H1b indicated as well a significant difference between both groups. Men are less constrained by soccer interest than women. Soccer is often referred to as a sport dominated by males, which might explain the lower interest of females. On top of that, a negative overall image of soccer and lost ties with society, which has been previously investigated by Földesi (1996) and Lagae (2012), is affecting women more than men.

To test H2, the civil status of fans was divided into two groups. The first group contained three civil statuses: married, living together and in a relationship. This group was called ‘In relationship’. The second group contained three other civil statuses: single, divorced/separated and widowed. This group was called ‘No relationship’. Although these data are not able to say if people are opposed to a new life stage, being in a relationship does mean to have family commitments which lower the chance to attend soccer. The result of H2 did not show a significant difference between both civil statuses. So, people who are in a relationship are not more constrained by organisational issues & level of play than people who have no relationship. But it must be noticed that this component might be too inclusive of other terms. Therefore, this result cannot be fully compared with the results of Földesi (1996), Kim & Trail (2010), Lera-López et al. (2012), Lestrelin et al. (2006) and Tapp & Clowes (2002). Previous research by these authors, Kim & Trail (2010) and Mohan (2010) show that bad schedules, disinterest of family and no one to attend with are constraints for people in a relationship. However, this result cannot support their theory.

Before testing H3a, a subdivision was made between top clubs and other clubs of Belgium and Portugal using the item ‘Fan of which team’. It must be noticed in table 4 that a subdivision was made between Belgium and Portugal, as it was easier to test both samples separately. In

17 contradiction to what was expected in H3a, fans of top clubs are more constrained by television broadcasts, which is in contradiction with the results of Cox (2012). So, this hypothesis is not confirmed. The explanation behind this might be that the struggle for tickets is harder in top clubs because stadiums are filled more than in other clubs. It might also be that top clubs have more fans living far from the stadium. Those fans might always watch the match on television, instead of travelling a long distance. Lestrelin et al. (2006) might offer another explanation. Namely, small teams can enhance their interest through live broadcasts, which might positively affect live attendance.

To test H3b, the item ‘Season-ticket holder’ was used. The testing of this hypothesis revealed a significant difference between season-ticket holders and single game-ticket purchasers. As follows, season-ticket holders are less constrained by live television broadcasts than single game-ticket purchasers. This finding is in accordance with previous research by Cox (2012).

To test H3c, age categories were introduced. The first group contained ages of 55 years old to the maximum age of the respondents, which was 82 years old and is called ‘Older people’. The second group contained the minimum age of the respondents, which was 8 years old, to 25 years old and is called ‘Young people’. The result of H3c showed a significant difference between both groups, indicating, as in the results of Westerbeek & Shilbury (1999), that older people are more constrained by live television broadcasts than younger people. On top of that older people are also found to be more constrained by sportscape factors. So, the link between older people staying at home, bad stadium conditions and crowd violence might be true, which is in line with previous research by Földesi (1996), Lagae (2010) and Tapp & Clowes (2002). Older people must have more comfort watching soccer from the couch.

To test H4a, b and c, the total sample was divided in fans living 30 minutes or less (named ‘lives close’) from the stadium and fans living more than 30 minutes (named ‘lives far’) from the stadium. This cut-off point of 30 minutes is based on recommendations by Molina (2007). But, it must be noticed that distances are perceived differently in Belgium than in Portugal. This test does not control for that. The result of H4a, b and c showed a significant difference between both groups for sportscape factors, money issues and organisational issues & level of play, with the last as the most significant factor. This might indicate that fans who need to travel a long distance need to be convinced more by all these factors. These results support the theory of Cox (2012) and García & Rodríguez (2002) that the further a fan lives from the stadium, the more he will decide not to attend. The components of ‘bad schedules’ and ‘nobody to go with’ might be the most important in the factor of organisational issues & level of play. Having no companionship and matches being

18 scheduled badly do people decide not to travel this distance. These results might indicate that it is harder to increase market size for clubs in two situations: clubs located in a less populated region and clubs having many rival clubs in the same region.

To test H5a, the same division of the team identification concept was made. When tested, the results revealed a significant difference between lowly identified fans and highly identified fans. This means that fans with low team identification are more constrained by sportscape factors than fans with high team identification. So, this result supports the theory of Wakefield & Sloan (1995), which states that highly identified fans give minor attention to stadium quality. Though, these fans often have a high place attachment.

To test H5b, a multiple regression analysis was conducted. The four extracted components were used as independent variables. Number of home games attended was used as dependent variable. The language of the survey was used as a selection variable in order to use the Belgian sample only. The total model explained 3.2% of the variability on number of home games attended, which is a low value. But, the aim of this research is not to predict attendance, but to elaborate results about the major constraints on attendance in Belgium. The adjusted R² was .031, so if the model were derived from the population rather than a sample it would account for approximately 0.5% less variance in the outcome. Although R² is low, the F-value (F (4,005) = 32.75, p < .001) is highly significant.

The results of the multiple regression can be seen in table 5. Contradictory to the expectation in H5b, sportscape factors are the weakest constraint on attendance in Belgium (β = .04, p < .05). So, H5b is not confirmed. The β-value is even positive, which means that the worse the sportscape factors, the higher attendance will be. This seems not logic, but can be explained by the fact that the sample mainly consists of highly identified fans who attach minor importance to sportscape factors.

Table 5 Multiple regression analysis of constraints on attendance in Belgium

β t P

Sportscape factors .04 1.96 .05 Soccer interest -.06 -3.44 .001 Money issues -.11 -5.96 .001 Organisational issues & level of play -.08 -3.65 .001

Although these results give no indication that sportscape factors in Belgium are perceived modern enough, Belgian fans are still more constrained by other factors such as ticket prices and level of play. But it must be noticed that the difference between sportscape factors and other constraints is smaller in Belgium than in Portugal (see below). This might indicate that sportscape factors are of

19 major importance for attendance constraints for Belgian fans, although in Portugal this constraint reaches a higher value. This might be due to sample characteristics. However, in order to attract new fans, a reassessment of Belgian stadia might be necessary, because it is hard to change negative perceptions of people (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995; Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2001). Previous research by Földesi (1996), Giulianotti (2002), Hill & Vincent (2006), Lera-López et al. (2012), Merkel (2012), Molina (2007) and Tapp & Clowes (2002) also shows that modern facilities can attract new types of fans.

To test H6a, a multiple regression analysis was conducted. The four extracted components were used as independent variables. Number of home games attended was used as dependent variable. The language of the survey was used as a selection variable in order to use the Portuguese sample only. The total model explained 12.6% of the variability on number of home games attended, which is a relatively low value. Again, the aim of this research is no to predict attendance, but to elaborate results about the major constraints on attendance in Portugal. The adjusted R² was .124, so if the model were derived from the population rather than a sample it would account for approximately 0.5% less variance in the outcome. Although R² is relatively low, the F-value (F (1,669) = 60.03, p < .001) is highly significant.

The results of the multiple regression can be seen in table 6. As expected in H6a, money issues are the strongest constraint on attendance in Belgium (β = -.27, p < .001). So, H6a is confirmed.

Table 6 Multiple regression analysis of constraints on attendance in Portugal

Β t P

Sportscape factors -.07 -2.17 .05 Soccer interest -.19 -6.74 .001 Money issues -.27 -10.52 .001 Organisational issues & level of play .14 4.62 .001

This result is in line with the fact that ticket prices in Portugal are considered too high in comparison to the wages of Portuguese people. This is in accordance with the findings of Coelho & Tiesler (2007), but in contradiction with research by Hansen & Gauthier (1989) who are saying that ticket prices do not affect attendance. Additional research shows that investing in better players, good results and higher team loyalty will lead to acceptance of higher ticket prices (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2013; Drayer & Shapiro, 2011; Lee & Kang, 2011; Miller, 2009). According to Fizel & Bennett (1989) teams with a stadium occupancy rate above 85% should not be afraid of losing fans due to high ticket prices. In England, stadiums are often filled, but the focus of the clubs is more on gaining revenues

20 from its fans. For example, Arsenal has the most expensive tickets in England (Weaver & Seghi, 2013), but still fan attendance is high. In Germany, stadiums are also filled, but the focus is more on fan satisfaction and fan entertainment. Germany is known for its cheap tickets (Evans, 2013; Liew, 2013), so it depends on the policy of the league of club to decide whether ticket prices are high or low.

It must be noticed that money issues are as well the strongest constraint in Belgium, so this constraint might be the most important in a lot of countries. Still, the difference between money issues and other constraints is bigger in Portugal than it is in Belgium. Though it must be noticed that the Portuguese sample is young, and as this is also tested below, this might affect the results.

To test H6b, students were compared to non-students, using the item of ‘Employment status’. ‘Non- students’ contained people employed full and part time, unemployed people, housewife/househusband and retired people. The testing of this hypothesis showed a significant difference between both groups for money issues. Students were significantly more constrained by money issues than non-students, which supports the theory of Lee & Kang (2011).

To test H6c, men and women were split apart in two groups. The results of this test indicated a significant difference between men and women. Women are more constrained by money issues than men. This result is in accordance with previous research of Lera-López et al. (2012) by confirming that predominantly women are influenced by money issues. The explanation behind this might be offered by previous research of Miller (2009), who says that women also spend less to other products, such as food and beverages.

Conclusions

In order to elaborate results on constraints on attendance, four components and one single item were used to test on different groups. These components contained items about soccer interest, organizational issues & level of play, sportscape factors and money issues. Soccer games being broadcasted live on television was used as a single constraint item.

First, this research has revealed that soccer interest is a bigger constraint for lowly identified fans. This result is interesting, because fans with a low soccer interest might be converted into fans with a high interest in the team through specific marketing initiatives. This research also showed that soccer interest is a bigger constraint for women. Women seem to be more affected by the negative overall image of soccer and lost ties with society.

Second, organizational issues & level of play was not a bigger constraint for people being involved in a relationship, contradictory to research expectations. In this research it cannot be proved that bad

21 scheduling, disinterest of family and having no one to attend with are major constraints for people in a relationship. Though, fans living far from the club were more constrained by this component. Bad schedules, and having nobody to go with are keeping fans who live far away from the stadium at home. Therefore, it might be harder for clubs in smaller towns to increase market size.

Third, the single item of games being broadcasted live on television was a bigger constraint for single game-ticket purchasers. Season-ticket holders have already paid at the beginning of the season to watch the match, so they will rather decide to go to the stadium even if a match is broadcasted. This research also showed that older people are more constrained by live broadcasts. Bad stadium conditions and safety considerations keep older people at home when a match is broadcasted live. This research also shows that fans of other clubs (different from the top clubs) were not more constrained by live broadcasts. Even the contradictory result has been found significant. Top clubs might have more fans living far from the stadium. Those fans might prefer to watch the match on television, which might have affected this result.

Fourth, sportscape factors were a bigger constraint for fans living far from the club. Clubs with a modern stadium might catch attention of those fans more easily. This research also showed that lowly identified fans are more constrained by sportscape. Those fans do net get convinced to come to the stadium just because of the game itself. Contradictory to research expectations, sportscape factors are not the biggest constraint in Belgium. But this does not mean that Belgian stadia are perceived modern enough. It might be even necessary for Belgian clubs to build new stadia, in order to attract new types of fans.

Finally, money issues are a bigger constraint for fans living far from the club. For those fans it is not only the cost of the ticket price that counts, but also travel costs. All this together might raise total costs, which can be perceived too high to see a soccer match. This research also found money issues to be a bigger constraint for students, as they are usually low on money. Next, this research also showed money issues to be a bigger constraint for women. Women, in general, tend to spend less on other products (e.g. food and beverages) as well when they are on a soccer night out. On top of that, money issues are the biggest constraint in general in Portugal. So, ticket prices in Portugal are perceived too high relative to the wages of Portuguese people. But, money issues may be in general the biggest constraint on attendance, as this constraint was also found to be the biggest in Belgium.

Research limitations

The first limitation of this study is the entire sample. This research focuses on people who already are a soccer fan. Non-fans could fill out the questionnaire as well, but were excluded for future research. In the online questionnaire they had to skip all the questions concerning constraints on attendance.

Their opinions were not tested, and therefore, were not useful. The second limitation of the entire sample is that it consisted mainly of strongly identified fans. People who are really committed to soccer were more interested in filling out the questionnaire. The third limitation is the Portuguese part of the sample. The Portuguese part contains mainly young people and is therefore overrepresented. The Portuguese part is also overrepresented with fans of top clubs. Though, it must be noticed that a typical Portuguese fan is supporting one of the three top clubs and his local team. But in this research only one favourite club could be selected.

Future research

Future research should focus on the motives and constraints of non-soccer fans. Understanding how to attract non-fans might be of vital importance to increase the market size of a club. In the light of modern society it is even more important, because leisure alternatives are countless. Soccer is in a battle for fans with other entertainment industries and may not lose their market potential.

Additional research on the role of sportscape factors as a constraint in Belgium is required. As the Royal Belgian Football Association wants to build and see their clubs build new stadia (Peeters, 2012), they need to be sure that the investment is worth the cost. Especially for smaller clubs with small financial resources it is important to know whether sportscape factors are a big constraint. As this research shows, other less expensive factors can be optimized first in order to attract more fans.

Marketing implications

Clubs and federations can learn some things of these results. First, soccer interest should be raised through specific marketing strategies in order to convert lowly identified fans into real soccer fans. The major part of these fans are women, therefore clubs should provide pricing strategies targeting women, as they are more constrained by money issues. Second, clubs must try to sell as many season-tickets possible, because single game-ticket purchasers decide more quickly not to come to the stadium due to several factors. Season-ticket holders are also easier to direct marketing initiatives to. Third, clubs should provide areas in the stadium where safety is higher, in order to keep older people coming to the stadium. Fourth, in order to attract more students, discounts should be provided for them when they show their student card. Fifth, a reassessment of sportscape factors will attract different types of fans. This is what Belgian clubs can achieve by building new stadia. But they must keep in mind that other (and cheaper) adaptations can also be made to attract more fans. Sixth, Portuguese clubs with few fans should adapt pricing strategies, as it is important for them to raise interest in the team. Finally, a guideline for federations is to be aware of the fact that bad scheduling is damaging small clubs from populated regions the most. So, especially for those teams they should give attention to good match schedules.

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Appendices

Appendix A: Populaire samenvatting

Voetbal is de belangrijkste mediasport in België en Portugal. Nochtans hebben vele clubs problemen om hun stadion vol te krijgen met fans. Deze masterproef onderzoekt de achterliggende redenen waarom voetbalfans beslissen om de wedstrijd niet live in het stadion bij te wonen. Vijf factoren hebben hier een grote invloed: sportscape factoren, interesse in voetbal, de kostprijs van een voetbalavond, factoren omtrent organisatie & het spelniveau en live televisieuitzendingen. Sportscape wordt gedefinieerd als alle factoren in en rond het voetbalstadion, zoals parking, veiligheid, bereikbaarheid, etc. Deze belemmeringen worden onderzocht op verschillende kenmerken van voetbalfans zoals geslacht, relatiestatus, leeftijd, afstand woonplaats – stadion, etc. Daarnaast wordt ook onderzocht welke de belangrijkste belemmeringen zijn in België en Portugal. Dit onderzoek concludeert het volgende:  Vrouwen worden meer belemmerd door interesse en kostprijs  Fans met een lage team identification worden meer belemmerd door interesse en sportscape  Live televisieuitzendingen belemmeren fans van top clubs, fans met een dagticket en ouderen  Studenten worden meer belemmerd door kostprijs  De afstand woonplaats – stadion zorgt voor een belemmering o.v.v. sportscape, kostprijs en organisatie & spelniveau  Sportscape is niet de grootste belemmering van Belgische fans  Kostprijs is de grootste belemmering van Portugese fans

Appendix B: Guidelines for authors: International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship

Submit paper

The journal welcomes the submission of research papers, articles, case studies, interviews and book reviews from academics and practitioners. Please read the information below about the aims and scope of the journal, the format and style for submitted material and the submissions protocol. Following these guidelines will improve the likelihood of having your work published.

Submissions should be sent to the editor [email protected] but please copy in the publisher; [email protected]

AIMS AND SCOPE

The main mission is to bring together academics and practitioners to further the knowledge and understanding of sports marketing and sponsorship.

We interpret the subject to include issues involving individual, team, event or organization marketing and sponsorship; event management; advertising; and broadcasting.

We encourage submissions relating to these topics from a variety of perspectives, including management, strategy, economics, politics, history, cultural studies, sociology and psychology. We also invite reports on new or revised business techniques, perspectives on contemporary issues, and the results of surveys.

CONTENT

All articles should be written primarily to inform senior practitioners and academics involved in sports marketing.

Articles that detail the results of original work and detailed case studies are accorded high priority.

Reviews of books and/or reports are welcome. Copies of the book/report must be sent to the editor and to the publisher.

Research articles should be well grounded conceptually and theoretically, and be methodologically sound. Qualitative and quantitative pieces of research are equally appropriate.

The editor is keen to discuss and advise on proposed research projects, but this is no guarantee of publication.

FORMAT AND STYLE

The author(s) name(s) and affiliation should appear on the cover page. Manuscripts should normally total approximately 4,000 to 8,000 words.

Case studies of 2,500-5,000 words should be objective rather than promotional and should follow the following format: Background/ Objectives/ Implementation/ Results/ Conclusion.

Articles should include an Executive Summary of approximately 500 words, which should give a flavor of the article, include the rationale for the study, methods used, key findings and conclusions. A shorter abstract of about 70 words should also be included. Authors should submit a short biography (no more than 80 words). Full contact details of all of the authors should also be provided.

Interviews are welcomed, but should be discussed with the Editor beforehand. Book Reviews should normally be less than 1,500 words.

Endnotes should be used only sparingly, footnotes not at all. Tables, charts, diagrams and figures should be in black and white, placed on separate pages at the end of the manuscript. Jargon should be reduced to a minimum, with technical language and acronyms clearly defined. The accuracy of any citations is the responsibility of the author(s).

For more specific style questions, please consult a recent edition of the journal.

SUBMISSIONS PROTOCOL

Ideally submissions should be sent as e-mails. If this is not possible, one copy of the manuscript should be sent by regular mail along with a copy on computer disc. Submissions that include graphics of special characters should include a PDF copy. It is preferred that authors submit their manuscript together with a covering letter. Receipt of submissions is no guarantee of publication.

Submission of a paper to the publication implies agreement of the author(s) that copyright rests with International Marketing Reports Limited if and when a paper is published. The copyright covers exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the paper.

IJSMS will not accept submissions under review with other publications. If the manuscript is previously published or copyrighted elsewhere, specific permission must be obtained from the publisher before submission to IJSM&S and the editor of IJSM&S be informed.

All research papers submitted will be peer reviewed, usually by three reviewers. Authors will normally receive a decision regarding publication within six to 12 weeks. Rejected manuscripts will not be returned.

Information appearing in the Journal is the sole responsibility of the contributor concerned. Accordingly, the publisher, the Editorial Board, Commissioning Editors, reviewers and other agents acting on behalf of the publisher accept no responsibility of liability whatsoever from the consequences of any inaccurate or misleading data, opinions of statements.