The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 1

THE HORSE

The sound is unmistakable: the thundering hooves of a running horse. Horses have been racing across the landscape for more than 50 million years—much longer than our own species has existed. But once horses and humans encountered each other, our two species became powerfully linked.

Humans domesticated horses some 6,000 years ago, and over time, we have created more than 200 breeds, from the powerful Clydesdale to the graceful Arabian. As we have shaped horses to suit our needs on battlefields, farms and elsewhere, these animals have shaped human history. They have also captured our imagination and hearts. Millions of people rely on horses as their spirited, dedicated, much adored companions. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 2

ANCIENT ORIGINS

The Evolution of Horses Imagine a world in which horses of all colors, shapes and sizes roamed the world, some barely larger than a small dog. That world no longer exists—but once it was real. Today’s horses represent just one tiny twig on an immense family tree that spans millions of years. All the other branches of the horse family, known as Equidae, are now extinct. The earliest known horses evolved 55 million years ago and for much of this time, multiple horse species lived at the same time, often side by side, as seen in this diorama.

Caption for touchable cast of Hyracotherium fossil WHAT IS IT?

This ancient mammal, called Hyracotherium, is one of the earliest known members of the horse family. It lived around 55 million years ago in the forests of North America and Europe. Hyracotherium had four toes on the front feet and three in the back.

Hyracotherium vasacciense Wind River Valley, Wyoming, USA 55 million years old Cast of American Museum of Natural History 4832 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 3

HORSE DIORAMA LABEL DECK #1

Label deck intro

ANCIENT HORSES Some 10 million years ago, up to a dozen species of horses roamed the Great Plains of North America. These relatives of the modern horse came in many shapes and sizes. Some lived in the forest, while others preferred open grassland.

Here, two large Dinohippus horses can be seen grazing on grass, much like horses today. But unlike modern horses, a three-toed Hypohippus tiptoes through the forest, nibbling on leaves. A small, three-toed Nannippus, shown here eating shrubs, ate both grass and leaves.

In the background are several other large mammals alive at that time, including Procamelus, a camel relative; a herd of Dinohippus horses; Gomphotherium, a distant relative of true elephants; and Teleoceras, a hornless rhinoceros.

Illustration of ancient horses A BRIEF HISTORY OF HORSES By 55 million years ago, the first members of the horse family, the dog-sized Hyracotherium, were scampering through the forests that covered North America. For more than half their history, most horses remained small, forest browsers. But changing climate conditions allowed grasslands to expand, and about 20 million years ago, many new species rapidly evolved. Some—but not all—became larger and had the familiar hooves and grazing diets that we associate with horses today. Only these species survived to the present, but in the past, small and large species lived side by side.

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Caption accompanying graph of weight over time CHANGING SIZES Horses were once much smaller than they are today. But there was not a steady increase in size over time. Little Nannippus, shown in the diorama at full adult size, was actually smaller than its predecessors.

Mesohippus ~45 kg Merychippus ~100 kg Nannippus ~75 kg Equus ~500 kg

Brief fact boxes about species in diorama with small illustrations or photos of models for quick identification

Include a very small map of North America with Nebraska highlighted ABOUT THIS SCENE North America 10 million years ago In what is now the Great Plains

DINOHIPPUS Single hoof Ate grass 11 to 4 million years ago

The Dinohippus shown grazing on the left is a close relative of horses today. Like modern-day Equus, Dinohippus had single-toed hooves and ate mostly grass. The other extinct species shown here had three toes and never developed single hooves.

Nannippus Three toes Ate grass, leaves, shrubs 13 to 2 million years ago

Hypohippus Three toes Ate soft leaves 18 to 9 million years ago The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 5

DIORAMA LABEL DECK #2

ON YOUR TOES Horses, humans and all other mammals share a common ancestor—one with five toes. So how did horses end up with single-toed hooves? Over millions of years, many horse species lost most of their side toes. The middle toe evolved into a single large hoof, while the other toes became smaller and ultimately functionless.

Only one species in this scene, the grazing Dinohippus, has a single hoof. What’s the connection between hooves and grazing? Hooves and long legs help horses run farther and faster on the open prairie, helping them flee from predators and find fresh grass for grazing. In the forest, where the ground is softer, many horses retained three toes.

STRETCH YOUR LEGS Comparing a human leg to a horse leg shows which bones give horses their great speed. Horses that moved onto grasslands have longer legs than their forest-dwelling ancestors. But their leg bones did not all lengthen equally. Mostly it was the bones of the foot that grew longer, with the ankle moving relatively higher up on the leg. Long, sturdy, light- weight legs help a horse run faster—a useful trait on the open prairie, where there’s no place to hide. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 6

ADAPTING TO A CHANGING CLIMATE Two major changes in climate affected the evolution of early horses. First, about 55 million years ago, global temperatures abruptly rose by 5 to 10 °C (9 to 18 °F), turning much of North America into a warm, wet, subtropical forest—much like what you’d see today in the Brazilian Amazonian rainforest. Small, leaf-eating horses thrived.

Then, about 35 million years ago, global temperatures dropped, creating a climate more similar to today’s. Thereafter, dry grasslands replaced much of the North American forest, leading to rapid evolution among horses. By about nine million years ago, most forest browsers had disappeared, leaving primarily grass-eating grazers like those alive today.

ABOUT THIS SCENE North America 10 million years ago In what is now Nebraska

Dinohippus Single hoof Ate grass 11 to 4 million years ago

Nannippus Three toes Ate grass, leaves, shrubs 13 to 2 million years ago

HYPOHIPPUS Three toes Ate soft leaves 18 to 9 million years ago

Long after hoofed, grass-eating grazers evolved and adapted to the American plains, three-toed forest browsers like the Hypohippus in this scene still continued to thrive for millions of years. This three-toed lineage is now extinct, but in the past many diverse horses lived side by side.

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Captions for fossil feet in display case HYPOHIPPUS Three-toed forest browser

Hypohippini foot Nebraska, United States c. 12 million years old Hoof: American Museum of Natural History 60596 Foot: American Museum of Natural History composite

NANNIPPUS Central hoof with two side toes

Nannippus foot Kansas, United States 7–4.75 million years old American Museum of Natural History 87206

DINOHIPPUS Single-hoofed grazer

Dinohippus leidyanus foot Edson Quarry, Kansas, United States 7–4.75 million years old American Museum of Natural History 116135

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FOSSIL FEET – TOUCHABLE MODELS ON WALL

ON TIPTOE THROUGH TIME The earliest horses had three or four functional toes. But over millions of years of evolution, many horses lost their side toes and developed a single hoof. Only horses with single-toed hooves survive today, but the remains of tiny vestigial toes can still be found on the bones above their hoofs. Can you find the tiny side toes on these horse feet?

Captions for touchable casts: FOUR TOES Hyracotherium had four functional toes on its front feet and three on its back feet. Hyracotherium 55–49 million years ago Cast of American Museum of Natural History FM4832

THREE TOES Merychippus was three-toed. Some individuals had three full-size toes; on others, the two small side toes only touched the ground when running. Merychippus 18–11 million years ago Cast of American Museum of Natural History FM9383

ONE TOE Pliohippus walked on a large, central toe—the first true hoof. Pliohippus 15–6 million years ago Cast of American Museum of Natural History FM17225

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MAP Map shows three waves of migration, each in a different color WHERE DID HORSES COME FROM?

The majority of horse species evolved in North America. From there, they occasionally walked to other continents. This map shows how horses spread around the world at three different times.

Color-coded map key:

[green arrows] About 20 million years ago, three-toed horses called anchitheres crossed to Asia and continued to Europe and Africa.

[yellow arrows] About 11 million years ago, three-toed horses called hipparions spread from North America around the globe.

[brown arrows, bigger] About three million years ago, hoofed Equus, the ancestor of living horses, spread to several continents including South America.

THE END OF AN ERA About 10,000 years ago, horses became extinct in North America and South America. Equus, the ancestor of all horses today, survived only in Eurasia and Africa. What ended their 55-million-year run in North America? The prime suspects are changes in the environment, disease and overhunting by humans who likely killed them for food.

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DIORAMA LABEL DECK #3

TALKING TEETH You can tell a lot about what a horse eats from its teeth—even if the teeth are fossils. The first horses all had short, broad chewing teeth, like ours. Later horses had teeth three times longer. Why?

Short teeth are fine if you’re browsing on soft leaves, like the Hypohippus shown eating in the forest. But grazing on tough grasses would quickly wear short teeth down to nothing. For prairie horses like Dinohippus, evolution favored longer teeth that could handle the grind of grazing—as a tooth wears down, more emerges.

Diagram comparing hypsodont and brachiodont teeth—see MacFadden 2000 page 35 TOUGH TEETH As horses adapted to eating tough grasses, their teeth became longer, which let them wear down without wearing out.

Horse Human

Sidebar GLASS—IN GRASS? Grazing is hard on teeth for two reasons. Grasses contain bits of the mineral silica that resemble glass and wear teeth away like sandpaper. Chomping grass close to the ground also picks up gritty soil that wears teeth away. Grass-eating horses evolved longer teeth that can withstand this wear.

Until recently, scientists thought that all horses with long teeth grazed on grass. But new evidence shows that some long-toothed species also browsed on leaves. How do scientists know? Tiny scratches on fossil teeth, and chemicals preserved in the teeth, provide clues about what the horses ate.

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TOUCHABLE FOSSIL TEETH – ON LABEL DECK

Mesohippus Upper teeth 37 to 29 million years old

Pseudhipparion Upper teeth 13 to 5 million years old

TOUCH THE TEETH

Can you tell which teeth belonged to grass-grazers and which to leaf-browsers? Here are some clues:

- Grazers crush grass by grinding their teeth together. - Browsers snip off soft leaves and berries, which are much easier to chew.

Which teeth feel like they have been worn flat by grinding?

Which still have sharp ridges with little signs of wear?

Which would last longer as the top wore away?

Answers: Mesohippus ate mostly leaves; Pseudhipparion ate mostly grass

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ABOUT THIS SCENE North America, 12 million years ago, in what is now Nebraska

Dinohippus Single hoof Ate grass 11 to 4 million years ago

Nannippus Three toes Ate grass, leaves, shrubs 13 to 2 million years ago

Hypohippus Three toes Ate soft leaves 18 to 9 million years ago

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CAPTIONS FOR FOSSILS IN DISPLAY CASE

Skull and tooth captions:

DINOHIPPUS Dinohippus had long teeth that could withstand the wear of grazing on grass.

Dinohippus leidyanus skull Edson Quarry, Kansas, United States 7–4.75 million years old American Museum of Natural History 87201

Dinohippus teeth Guymon, Oklahoma, United States 11–4 million years old American Museum of Natural History 142676

HYPOHIPPUS Hypohippus had short teeth suitable for chewing soft leaves.

Hypohippus giganteus skull Kat Quarry West, Nebraska, United States 10–9 million years old American Museum of Natural History 60501

Hypohippus teeth Olcott Quarry, Nebraska, United States 18–9 million years old American Museum of Natural History 60590

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LIVING HORSE RELATIVES – WALL PANEL

MEET THE RELATIVES The horse family (Equidae) today is quite small. All horse breeds, from slim thoroughbred racehorses to stocky plow horses to tiny ponies, belong to a single species, Equus caballus. What’s more, all surviving branches of the horse family tree are also members of this same genus Equus, which now consists of only seven living species. Other equids include donkeys, asses and zebras.

Photo captions

The horse (Equus caballus) includes all domesticated horse breeds. Some scientists also consider the Asiatic wild horse, or Przewalski horse (left), to be a variety of Equus caballus, though it is often called a separate species, Equus przewalskii. Domestic horses are thought to have been bred from the European wild horse, or tarpan, extinct since 1919.

The donkey (Equus asinus) is a domesticated African ass native to eastern Africa.

The onager and kulan are varieties of the Asiatic ass (Equus hemionus), which has five subspecies in the Middle East and Asia.

The kiang (Equus kiang) is an Asian ass with three subspecies ranging from China to India.

The largest zebra, Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) of eastern Africa, has the narrowest stripes.

Known for the “gridiron” stripes on its rump, the mountain zebra (Equus zebra) of southern Africa is endangered due to poaching and habitat loss.

Burchell’s zebra (Equus burchelli) has wide stripes. It has several subspecies with distinctive patterns.

The quagga, a form of Burchell’s zebra, sometimes considered its own species, disappeared in the mid- 1800s. It formerly lived in southeastern Africa. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 15

Add in smaller type below Horse entry: ABOUT SCIENTIFIC NAMES Scientists use scientific names to catalog life—ideally, each true species should have a name different from every other. With very closely related organisms, however, it may be difficult to draw a sharp line between species. While many scientists think that all living horses can be grouped in one species (Equus caballus), as in this exhibition, agreement is not universal.

Photo of tapir AND Photo of rhino

NEXT OF KIN

The only surviving branch of the horse family is the genus Equus, which includes zebras, asses and donkeys along with the horse. But which living animals outside the horse family are the horse’s closest relatives? Hint: you won’t find them on a farm.

Here’s another hint: follow the feet. Horses belong to a group of mammals with an odd number of toes. That rules out mammals with two toes, or “cloven hooves,” like goats, pigs, cows, deer and camels.

So who are the other odd-toed, plant-eating animals? Most members of this group, known as perissodactyls, are extinct. But several species survive at present. They include rhinoceroses and tapirs, the horse’s closest living relatives.

Photo of Charles Knight painting of Brontothere EXTINCT RELATIVES Horses are more closely related to extinct perissodactyls like this brontothere than they are to cows, pigs and goats.

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SECTION INTRO:

HORSES AND HUNTERS How did the relationship between horses and people begin? No one knows precisely, but prehistoric evidence from western Europe tells part of the story. Wild horses roamed the Ice Age landscape of Europe tens of thousands of years ago. By around 40,000 years ago, our own species began settling in the region as well.

In Ice Age Europe, people were predators and horses were prey. Early hunting weapons found in the area show that long before humans rode horses or used them as beasts of burden, they hunted these animals for food. Ancient images carved in bone or painted deep inside caves suggest horses also played an important role in the rituals of prehistoric people, as they would in many cultures for centuries to come.

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What Is It? Object: spear-thrower (cast) WHAT IS IT?

Found in Bruniquel, France Made 16,000–13,000 years ago Carved from reindeer antler Musée des Antiquités nationales, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France (cast)

[Answer]

A Spear-Thrower carved in the form of a leaping horse

Ice Age people used this tool to hurl spears when hunting large animals—including horses—for food.

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Label Deck 3.2.0 (Solutré)

SLAUGHTERING SITE

The limestone ridges of central and southern France contain some of the oldest traces of human culture in Europe, dating back tens of thousands of years. Among the most intriguing of these landmarks is the Roche de Solutré, where thousands upon thousands of horse bones have been found, along with stone spear points and butchering tools. What happened here? Archaeologists think that generations of Ice Age hunters came to this spot to corner and kill horses over the course of more than 20,000 years.

Sidebar with aerial photo or topographic map showing migration route Led Astray

Researchers once assumed Ice Age hunters slaughtered horses by forcing them to plunge from the top of the Roche de Solutré. But in fact, no horse remains have ever been found at the foot of this cliff. Instead, the bones were discovered on the southern side of the ridge, where the slope is more gradual (see photo). So how were the horses killed? Recent studies suggest hunters used the ridge as a barrier to trap the horses.

Callouts for aerial photo or map (places in bold are on map) •Horses may have traveled past the Roche de Solutré during seasonal migrations.

•Hunters likely drove the horses toward a curve in the rock that served as a natural corral. Then others attacked the horses with spears from the cliff above.

Musée Départemental de Préhistoire de Solutré

Photo: historic illustration showing horses jumping from Solutré cliff Over the Top? Solutré was discovered in 1866 by a local geographer named Adrien Arcelin, who later wrote a popular novel describing what he thought had happened there. In one scene from the book, Ice Age hunters killed dozens of The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 19 horses at once by driving them over the precipice at the western end of the Roche de Solutré. Horse hunts probably didn’t happen this way, but the idea persisted for years—made vivid by a number of drawings and paintings.

Mary Evans Picture Library

Objects: stone tools STONE TOOLS Prehistoric hunters may have used stone blades shaped like laurel leaves to cut horsemeat, and stone scrapers to prepare horsehides. Sharp burins may have helped people split the bones to make artifacts such as sewing needles.

Laurel leaf points Solutré, France c. 19,000–17,500 years old Flint Loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 215171, 215172, 215179

End scrapers Solutré, France c. 19,000–17,500 years old Flint Loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 215087, 215106, 215107, 215116, 215121

Burins Solutré, France c. 19,000–17,500 years old Flint Loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 215080, 215084

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Object: horse bones HORSE BONES Based on the concentration of bones found at Solutré, researchers estimate that Ice Age people killed between 30,000 and 100,000 horses there in the course of some 20,000 years. But surprisingly, the hunters may not have eaten much of the meat— very few of the bones have the cut marks typically found on butchered animals. Perhaps the carcasses were simply too big to be fully used, and were left to rot after the choicest bits were devoured.

Equus caballus bones Solutré, France c. 19,000–17,500 years old Loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago 215238; 219510-02, -03, -07, -12, -23; 219511-29A,B, -31, -43, - 46, -92, -93, -101

Object: horse teeth HORSE TEETH Each summer and winter, the roots of a horse’s teeth develop new layers of cementum, a bonelike material that keeps the teeth firmly attached to the jaw. By examining the layers through a microscope, scientists can often tell what time of year the animal died. Researchers studied a sample of teeth found at Solutré and found that most came from horses killed during the warm months of the year.

Equus caballus teeth Solutré, France c. 19,000–17,500 years old Loaned by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 215253; 219511-17, -25

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Label Deck 3.3.2 (Pech Merle)

Large photo: Pech merle dotted horses

Breath of Life

This dramatic pair of horses was painted in Pech Merle Cave, in southern France, at least 16,000 years ago. Modern research suggests Ice Age artists formed these ghostly images by taking pigment in their mouths and blowing it out through a bone tube. The black spots may have little to do with the horses’ coats, since they extend beyond the figures themselves.

Cave art is often found in deep recesses that are difficult to reach and impractical for use as everyday shelters. These areas may have been reserved instead for religious ceremonies, rites of passage or the spiritual practices of a select few. Some researchers believe Ice Age people thought of underground caves as paths to a spirit world, and images on cave walls as spirit helpers—animals with a link to the beyond.

Ancient Art & Architecture Collection/Danita Delimont Stock Photography

Photo: Horse engravings in Cussac Cave Etched in Stone

Horses appear often in European cave art—perhaps more often than any other animal. This lively engraving was discovered in 2000 in Cussac Cave, in southwestern France. The remains of at least five people were found on the floor of the same cave and have been dated to around 25,000 years ago.

AP/Wide World Photos

Map of France will show location of Pech Merle and Cussac. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 22

Label Deck 3.3.1 (Tito Bustillo)

Large photo: Tito Bustillo violet horse

Wild One

Many layers of colorful images have been painted deep inside Tito Bustillo Cave, part of a network of natural tunnels in the cliffs near the northern coast of Spain. Around 14,000 years ago, a violet horse was drawn in delicate detail, by an artist who was clearly a careful observer.

Although the color is an unusual choice, the form and features of this horse seem lifelike. The painting suggests that the European wild horse roaming the area at the time had an erect mane, pale belly and striping on the shoulders and legs--features that can still be found in wild horse populations today.

© Rodrigo de Balbin

2 Photos: Przewalski horse and Lascaux “Chinese horse” Look-Alikes?

Ice Age paintings at Lascaux Cave (right) suggest the European wild horse looked much like the Przewalski horse of Central Asia (left), with its sand-colored coat, pale stomach and dark, stiff mane. The Przewalski horse is the only truly wild horse that has survived to the present day. All other so-called wild horses are actually descended from domestic ancestors.

Bruno Morandi/AGE Fotostock [Przewalski] The Granger Collection, New York [Lascaux]

Map of Spain will show locations of Tito Bustillo and Lascaux..

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Label Deck 3.3.0 (Chauvet)

Large photo: Chauvet horses

Nature in Motion

The shadowy walls of Chauvet Cave, in southern France, are adorned with some of the world’s oldest paintings, dating back some 33,000 years. In one underground chamber, horses, woolly rhinoceroses and wild cattle seem to stampede around a curve in the rock, as if fleeing a predator.

The four horses in this painting look almost alike, but they actually show different behaviors. The second horse from the left has its ears flattened, a sign of aggression; the third horse has its ears perked, as if calm and attentive. A scene like this is unusual in a real herd, where horses take cues from each other and act as a group. Perhaps the artist meant to show the moods of a single horse at different moments in time.

© Jean Clottes

Photo: Engraved horse Magic Marks

Ice Age people may have used animal figures in rituals to ensure success in the hunt. In this engraving from Chauvet Cave, rows of parallel lines may represent spears piercing the belly of a horse.

© Jean Clottes

Map of France will show location of Chauvet.

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SECTION INTRO:

DOMESTICATING HORSES Today, very few horses are found in the wild—the great majority live among people. We feed and shelter horses, put them to work and control their breeding. Horses have been domesticated for a very long time— perhaps more than 5,000 years.

Prehistoric remains show that at the end of the Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago, wild horses died out in the Americas and dwindled in western Europe, for reasons that are not clear. But they thrived on the steppes of eastern Europe and Central Asia, where short grasses and shrubs grow on vast, dry stretches of land. Most scholars believe it was here that people domesticated the horse, forming a bond that has endured to the present day.

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What Is It? Object: bronze harness decoration WHAT IS IT?

Found in Eastern Europe or Asia Made around 300 BC Cast in bronze American Museum of Natural History 73.0/ 1933

An Ornament for a Horse Harness

Ancient objects like this can help us make guesses about when and where horses were domesticated. But the first horse gear was probably made of rope or rawhide, which rot quickly and may never be found.

British Museum/Topham-HIP/The Image Works

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Intro Panel 4.3.2 (Botai Digsite)

UNCOVERING THE PAST

Some 5,000 years ago, a community of hunters known as the Botai people lived on the steppes of Central Asia. Were they among the first humans to breed horses and put them to use?

To find out more about the domestication of horses, archaeologists are studying the site of Krasnyi Yar in northern Kazakhstan, a country that borders Russia and China. Thousands of horse bones found at this site show that the people who settled here in the distant past lived near horse herds and ate large quantities of horsemeat. But were the horses domestic, or wild? Researchers are considering a wide array of evidence to decide, including bones, artifacts and even chemicals in the soil. title over diorama DAWN OF DOMESTICATION Searching for clues in Central Asia

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Label Deck 4.3.2a (Botai Dig site)

OUT OF THE DUST

At the Krasnyi Yar dig site in Kazakhstan, researchers are uncovering the remains of a village that was once home to the Botai people, whose lives depended on horses. The people and horses are now long gone. But by studying what they left behind, archaeologists hope to understand their relationship more clearly. What did they mean to each other? Were the horses at Krasnyi Yar domesticated?

Sidebar with interactive button that lights up post holes Push to see where the fence posts stood.

FENCED IN By surveying this site with magnetic sensors, archaeologists have found traces of holes where posts once stood. Connect the dots, and these curving rows of postholes suggest fences. What were they for?

Researchers tested samples of soil from inside the fence and found them high in nitrogen and phosphates—the same chemicals found in soil enriched by manure. Horses were the only potential livestock at the site, so it is very likely these fenced areas were horse corrals.

Photo: Image of magnetic field data In this computer image of the Krasnyi Yar site, the dark areas indicate houses, and the yellow spots designate postholes.

© Sandra Olsen The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 28

Object: Thong smoother LEATHER CRAFT This tool, shaped from a horse’s jawbone, was used to make leather ropes, or thongs. Strips of horsehide were pulled back and forth against the notch in the bone until they became flexible and smooth. Researchers have found many tools of this kind at Krasnyi Yar, showing the villagers prepared lengths of rawhide—materials often used to make gear for horse control, such as bridles, whips and lassos.

Leather thong smoother Krasnyi Yar, Kazakhstan 3300 BC Bone Modern replica by Sandra Olsen

Photo: Modern Kazakh roof with manure used as insulation UP ON THE ROOF Archaeologists have uncovered the floor of a house at Krasnyi Yar (see pit at right). Under a microscope, soil from inside a Botai house looks very similar to manure. One explanation is that the Botai people spread horse dung on their roofs for insulation, as many Kazakh horse herders do today. After the people left, the roof caved in, leaving the dung on the floor.

© Sandra Olsen

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Label Deck 4.3.2b (Botai Dig site)

Sidebar on ritual burial SACRED BURIAL Outside a house at Krasnyi Yar, the skull and upper spine of a horse were found buried in the pit shown here. The skull points northeast, where the sun rises in spring.

Burying bones so they face the sun was once a common practice in Central Asia, so this burial was probably part of a ritual. Perhaps someone offered a prized horse as a sacrifice. If so, the horse may well have been domesticated—in most Central Asian cultures, people rarely sacrifice animals that are wild.

Object (attached to label deck): Potsherds FOOD AND DRINK The first domestic horses were probably mainly kept as a source of food, rather than for work or for riding. Horse bones found at Krasnyi Yar are covered with cut marks, making it clear that the people who lived here butchered horses for meat. Their pottery contains evidence too. Biochemists are testing ceramics unearthed from the site to see if they contain tiny traces of milk fats—a sign that the Botai people milked their horses, as many Kazakh people do today.

Potsherds Krasnyi Yar, Kazakhstan 3300 BC Ceramic Modern replicas by Dan Pickering

Photo: Modern Kazakh horse herder milking a mare MILKING A MARE Many people in Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries milk horses, then ferment the milk to make a drink called koumiss. The milk is full of vitamins and helps complete a diet rich in meat.

Michel Setboun/drr.net

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Horse domestication timeline FROM HERDING TO RIDING

No one knows exactly when people began raising, harnessing or riding horses, but evidence from archaeology and ancient art shows that all of these skills were well developed by 1500 BC. c. 3500 BC Horses are raised for meat in Kazakhstan. c. 2000 BC Horses pull chariots in eastern Russia and Kazakhstan.

2000-1500 BC Horseback riding becomes common in Afghanistan and Iran.

Label Deck 4.3.1 (Model of Krasnyi Yar village)

A MODEL OF ANCIENT KRASNYI YAR

Around 5,000 years ago, as many as 200 people lived in this village in northern Kazakhstan. More than 50 houses stood here, and fenced areas may have served as corrals.

The people who lived here grew no crops. Ninety percent of the bones they left behind are horse bones, showing they mainly ate horsemeat. A large settlement like this would have been difficult to feed on hunting alone. So archaeologists think it likely that the people of this village raised domestic horses for food. The area being excavated in the diorama is circled here.

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Label Deck 4.2.0 (Domestication of other mammals)

WHAT IS DOMESTICATION? People have domesticated dozens of animals, from horses to honeybees. Many of these creatures belong to the same species as their closest wild relatives and have essentially the same genetic makeup. Yet they look and act in ways that are quite distinct. How does it happen?

When people domesticate animals, they control their behavior in many ways. For example, animals that are being domesticated no longer choose their own mates. Instead, people control their breeding. Individuals with traits that humans prefer are more likely to produce offspring and pass on their genes. In the course of several generations, both the body and behavior of the animal are transformed.

Sidebar on with photos of domestic cat and horse with white facial markings LOOKING THE PART When animals are domesticated, their bodies change. Many species become smaller than their wild ancestors. Some, including dogs and pigs, tend to have shorter snouts, floppier ears and curlier tails. White markings may show up on the face, chest or legs. Studies show these physical traits may be genetically linked to the gentle behavior people tend to seek in their livestock and pets.

Lena Andersson/iStockphoto [cat] M. Grebler/Peter Arnold, Inc. [horse]

Photo: Dog showing submissive behavior HAPPY TOGETHER Most domestic animals are naturally social. Their wild ancestors lived in groups, with individuals responding to each other—some led, others followed. In domestic animals, the tendency to submit to others is especially strong. Generations of breeding have encouraged them to let people take the lead.

Marcy Ugstad/iStockphoto

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Photo: engraving from Darwin book EVOLVING AMONG HUMANS In the wild, animals that are well adapted to their environment live long and reproduce, while others die young. In this way, nature “chooses” the traits that are passed on to the next generation. Biologist Charles Darwin called this process evolution by natural selection. Domestic animals also evolve, but people do the selecting. Humans seek out qualities like tameness, and help animals with those traits survive and bear young. Darwin called this evolution by artificial selection.

AMNH Library

Objects: Wolf and dog skulls WILD OR DOMESTIC? When animals are domesticated, the change can often be seen in the bones. In dogs and pigs, for example, the muzzle becomes shorter in relation to the rest of the skull. By contrast, early domestic horse bones look very much like wild ones. So archaeologists studying horse remains must use other clues to tell whether they are domestic or wild.

Wolf skull Canis lupus Loh, Mongolia Early 1900s American Museum of Natural History 57328

Domestic dog skull Canis familiaris Anadyr, Siberia, Russia 1800s American Museum of Natural History 18219

Objects: Wolf and dog skulls Wild boar skull Sus scrofa Fujian Province, China Early 1900s American Museum of Natural History 84450

Domestic pig skull Sus scrofa Georgia, USA Mid-1900s American Museum of Natural History 234938 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 33

Timeline on case back 4.2.0

DOMESTICATION TIMELINE

Most of the domestic animals familiar to us today were domesticated not long after people began farming and living in permanent settlements, between 8000 and 2500 BC.

Object: Dog figurine [15,000 years ago] DOGS Canis familiaris Asia and possibly elsewhere

Domestic dogs are descended from wolves (Canis lupus).

Model dog Kushka, Siberia, Russia c. 1900 Wood, pigment American Museum of Natural History 70/3780

Object: Bronze ram’s head [10,000 years ago] SHEEP Ovis aries Middle East

This tiny stone ram’s head shows a trait that came with domestication: It has smaller horns than the sheep’s closest wild relative, the Asiatic mouflon (Ovis orientalis). The horns sit low and curve closely around the head.

Ram’s head stamp Iran c. 600–300 BC Stone American Museum of Natural History 73.0/1913 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 34

Object: Pigs pulling a chariot [8,000 years ago] PIGS Sus scrofa Middle East and possibly China

Most people raise pigs for meat, not transportation. But in this figure from Tibet, Marichi, Buddhist goddess of the dawn, travels in a pig-drawn carriage.

Votive figure Tibet Early 1900s Copper alloy, enamel, gilding American Museum of Natural History 70.0/7111 AB

Object: Indian oxen pulling a cart [8,000 years ago] CATTLE Bos taurus Middle East

[6,000 years ago] ZEBU CATTLE Bos indicus Pakistan

Cattle were domesticated more than once, from different branches of the species Bos primigenius, or aurochs. One branch became Bos taurus, the domestic cattle that live in Europe and North America today. Another became Bos indicus, the humped cattle.

Model, Plowing China c. 1950 Wood, pigment, thread, metal American Museum of Natural History 70.2/824

[6,000 years ago] HORSES The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 35

Equus caballus Central Asia

The DNA of domestic horses is very diverse. This suggests they may have been domesticated in more than one place, from several different wild horse populations.

Object: group of silver llama figurines [4,500 years ago] LLAMAS Lama glama Peru

Like sheep, cattle and horses, llamas are naturally social. Domestic llama herds are often allowed to roam freely, and over the centuries, they have probably interbred many times with their wild relative, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe).

Llama figurines Peru 1450–1532 Silver American Museum of Natural History B/1622, B/1625, B/1628, B/1630, B/9211

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SECTION INTRO:

THE NATURE OF HORSES No other animal can match the contributions that horses have made to human civilization. What makes horses such good partners for people? Horses cannot learn the way people do; training horses involves working with their natural instincts, not trying to change them. But fortunately for us, most of the qualities that make horses helpful to humans were already present in wild horses. Their bodies are powerful, living machines that can work all day, powered only by grass. And their brains give them both the ability to understand subtle commands and the motivation to obey them.

Used in the United States Sewn in 2008 Made of nylon and plastic American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

WHAT IS IT?

BLINKERS For a racehorse

Blinkers block a horse’s view to the sides. Horses evolved to be always on the lookout for predators. With eyes on the sides of their head, they can see in almost every direction. Blinkers keep them from getting distracted by sudden movements. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 37

THE NATURE OF HORSES

LABEL DECK 1 OF 3

THE POWER OF INSTINCT This dramatic display shows a man struggling to control a rearing horse. But why can humans control horses at all, when horses are so much bigger and stronger than humans?

Horses are creatures of instinct. But certain instincts work in our favor. The way horses naturally evolved to eat, mate, form family groups and accept the authority of herd leaders makes them receptive to taking orders from humans as well.

Tombstone horse and man skeletons HORSE AND MAN Equus caballus, Homo sapiens American Museum of Natural History (replica)

Photo of Lipizzaner stallion performing acrobatic dressage, e.g. the capriole, in which it leaps, then kicks its hind legs out at the peak of the jump. LEAPING LIPIZZANERS Lipizzaner horses perform incredible acrobatic displays. But even these highly stylized movements are based on instinctive behavior. Trainers start with a movement like kicking an attacking animal and gradually train the horse to do it in a different way, until it resembles ballet.

Photo of zebra biting TOUGH TO TRAIN Why do we ride horses, but not their close relatives, zebras? Male Grevy’s zebras fight over territory, so they can’t be kept in the same corral. Horses have no fixed territories, wandering constantly to graze, and fight less over turf. Zebras are also notorious for biting—in fact, zebras injure more zookeepers than tigers do.

Photo of trainer “gentling” a horse The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 38

“BREAKING” VS. “GENTLING” One way to train horses is through brute force and intimidation. But some trainers instead appeal to a horse’s natural instinct to follow a leader. For example, instead of beating a horse until it is afraid to disobey, a trainer might chase it away. Horses don’t like being isolated from the herd, so the animal returns, seeking permission to end its banishment. From then on it accepts the human trainer as herd leader and follows instructions.

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LABEL DECK 2 OF 3

FAMILY TIES The need to avoid being alone is a powerful instinct for horses. In the wild, horses evolved in constant danger from predators such as wolves and mountain lions. They seek safety in numbers by living in herds. Young horses, or foals, always travel with their mothers in a family group guarded by a male horse, the lead stallion. Even young males, who must fight other stallions for the right to lead a family, often band together with other bachelor stallions.

Photo of young horse following an older horse by jumping over a low fence HEY, WAIT FOR ME! Jumping can be frightening and dangerous for horses. So how do you get a young horse to jump over a fence for the first time? One way is to exploit the herd instinct: a young horse will follow an older horse over a fence to avoid being left behind.

Photo of horse with cat or goat companion BUDDY SYSTEM Horses often pair off and form close partnerships with other members of their herd. But if they can’t find a horse to partner with, they sometimes befriend another animal like a goat or housecat. This instinct also helps them bond with humans.

Photo of two horses grooming each other GROOMING Horses spend a lot of time scratching each other’s backs with their teeth. This grooming strengthens social bonds, reduces tension and increases trust. Similar grooming can help a human gain a horse’s trust as well. Research shows that brushing the neck and back can lower a horse’s heart rate by 11 to 14 percent—a clear sign of relaxation.

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LABEL DECK 3 OF 3

WHO’S THE BOSS? Horses have a strong instinct to form groups in which some horses lead and others follow. A typical family group consists of one male, several females and their offspring. The male stallion fights off predators and rival stallions, but the leader of day- to-day activities is usually a female. This lead mare decides where the group should go and punishes misbehavior. Every horse knows whether it is dominant or submissive to every other horse. If a new horse joins the group, it quickly sorts out where it stands.

photo of horses in a line following the lead mare, ideally with a stallion guarding the rear FOLLOW THE LEADER Horses live in well-structured groups with clear followers and leaders. Without any human training, horses will line up behind a lead mare according to their rank in the herd, usually with a stallion guarding the rear.

photo of horse being led docilely by a rope UNDER CONTROL By controlling the movement of horses with ropes and fences, humans can establish their dominance. Eventually, the horse will submit to being led around by a thin rope, or no rope at all, even though the horse is the stronger animal. One reason this works is that horses instinctively submit to a more dominant individual that controls their movements. photo of horse mare visibly asserting its dominance through its posture BODY LANGUAGE Dominance relationships are very important among horses. In fact, a faster horse will sometimes lose a race to a slower horse that expresses dominance through its body language. For people, the key to working with horses is to make it clear who is in charge. If you act unsure, the horse may ignore your commands. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 41

[BIOLOGY INTERACTIVE]

[A computer interactive featuring a video display of a life-size horse and two interactive kiosks allows visitors to explore the biology of horse digestion, locomotion, passive stay apparatus, hearing and vision.]

[HALF HORSE model]

COMPARE YOURSELF TO A HORSE

TRY THIS!

FIND YOUR HEIGHT IN HANDS Horses are measured in “hands.” One hand equals 10 centimeters, or four inches—about the width of a human hand. To see how you measure up, stand next to this ruler and find your height in hands.

A horse’s height is measured from the withers. (If you don’t know what withers are, check the model.) But since you don’t have withers, you can measure from the top of your head.

[PARTS OF THE HORSE]

Crest Withers Back Loin Croup Dock Hock Pastern Hoof Gaskin Elbow Fetlock Cannon Forearm Chest Throat latch Muzzle The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 42

Section intro 6.1.0

HOW WE SHAPED HORSES HOW HORSES SHAPED US

The close relationship between horses and humans has changed us both. People have remade horses, creating dozens of breeds in our efforts to make horses faster, stronger, bigger or smaller. But horses have also changed us. The ways we travel, trade, play, work and fight wars have all been profoundly shaped by our use of horses. The galleries that follow provide a glimpse into the countless ways that horses have transformed human societies around the world.

TOY HORSE Senegal c. 1998 Iron American Museum of Natural History 90.2/9106

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Banner 6.2.0 (Intro to Warfare)

WARFARE For more than 3,000 years, a warrior on horseback or horse-drawn chariot was the ultimate weapon. Time after time, from Asia to Europe to the Americas, the use of horses in war has changed the balance of power between civilizations. When people with horses clashed with those without, horses provided a huge advantage. When both sides had horses, battles turned on the strength and strategy of their mounted horsemen, or cavalry. Horses continued to define military tactics well into the 1900s, until they finally became outmoded by machine guns, tanks, airplanes and other modern weapons. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 44

WHAT IS IT?

SLIDE THE PANEL TO FIND OUT

AN IRON STIRRUP Inlaid with silver

Stirrups help riders mount a horse and stay balanced while riding. In warfare, stirrups helped fighters brace themselves while swinging swords or shooting arrows. Whether made from metal, leather or wood, stirrups help riders ride all day, as standing helps blood circulate to the legs.

Found in Syria Made around 1900 Forged of iron with silver inlay American Museum of Natural History 70.0/1798B

Photo credit: Galerie Daniel Malingue, Paris/The Bridgeman Art Library

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Banner 6.2.1 (Samurai)

SAMURAI Japanese Warriors For roughly a thousand years, from about the 800s to the late 1800s, warfare in Japan was dominated by an elite class of warriors known as the samurai. Horses were their special weapons: only samurai were allowed to ride horses in battle.

Like European knights, the samurai served a lord (daimyo). In 1600, after a long period of conflict among rival daimyo, the victorious Tokugawa Shogun discouraged armed warfare but maintained the samurai’s traditional status. The sword and the horse remained symbols of their power.

Label Deck 6.2.1a (Samurai)

KNIGHTS VERSUS SAMURAI European knights and Japanese samurai have some interesting similarities. Both groups rode horses and wore armor. Both came from a wealthy upper class. And both were trained to follow strict codes of moral behavior. In Europe, these ideals were called chivalry; the samurai code was called Bushido, “the way of the warrior.” The rules of chivalry and Bushido both emphasize honor, self-control, loyalty, bravery and military training.

Picture of wakizashi “honor blade” DEATH BEFORE DISHONOR

The samurai warriors who ruled Japan until the late 1800s followed a strict code of behavior. Proper behavior was so important that a samurai would kill himself rather than accept dishonor. Most samurai carried a special sword called a wakizashi (below) for this purpose.

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Samurai with arquebus NO GUNS FOR SHOGUNS In the late 1500s, the Japanese had more guns than any nation in Europe. Using guns, an army of peasants could be very powerful, threatening the social order. So in the 1600s, the samurai leaders, or shoguns, banned guns. With their traditional power secured, the samurai ruled in peace for 250 years.

DID YOU KNOW? Samurai were divided into two classes, and only upper- class samurai were allowed to ride horses.

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OBJECT CAPTIONS 6.2.1a

Samurai saddle SAMURAI SADDLE This beautiful saddle was made for a Japanese samurai in the 1800s. The high pommel and cantle on the front and back of this type of saddle were designed to keep the rider secure and stable while riding or fighting. Japanese stirrups differ from most other stirrups: instead of forming a loop, they are tucked into a curved shape that covers the toes.

Saddle with stirrups Japan Late 1800s Leather, wood, lacquer, silk, metal, cloth, padding American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

Samurai sculpture SAMURAI WARRIOR This figurine shows a Japanese samurai on horseback. The warrior is wearing the typical curved stirrups, armor and helmet characteristic of the samurai.

Samurai figurine 2000s American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

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OBJECT CAPTION 6.2.1b

Samurai print A BLOODY BATTLE In both of these Japanese prints, a samurai general, or shogun, is prepared to battle his attackers. He is armed with a bow and arrows, as well as a long sword.

Warrior Sasaki Takatsuna on a White Horse Japan c. 1950, by Hasegawa Sadanobu III (1881-1963) Paper, ink American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

Kajiwara Kagesue on a Black Horse Japan c. 1950, by Hasegawa Sadanobu III (1881-1963) Paper, ink American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 49

Banner 6.2.4 (Inca Case)

FIRST ENCOUNTERS

Although horses evolved in North America, by the time Spanish soldiers invaded in the 1500s, horses had been extinct in the Americas for thousands of years. To the native peoples, the Spaniards’ horses must have seemed like frightening monsters. The Spanish made the most of this advantage by spreading rumors that horses were magical beasts.

Horses were certainly not the only reason for the conquest of the Americas—disease, civil war and steel weapons were probably more important in the long run. But in early encounters, horses were an intimidating and unstoppable force. Hernán Cortés, who led the conquest of what is now Mexico, is said to have claimed that, “Next to God, we owed our victory to the horses.”

Label Deck 6.2.4 (Inca case)

SLAUGHTER ON HORSEBACK In 1532, 168 Spanish soldiers, including 62 on horseback, faced off against the huge Inca empire at Cajamarca, in western South America. Though vastly outnumbered, the Spaniards launched a surprise attack on the Inca emperor, Atahuallpa, who was surrounded by about 80,000 Inca soldiers. The Spanish charged into the crowd on horseback, their steel weapons easily cutting through the Incas’ quilted armor. The massacre went on for hours until some 7,000 Incas lay dead. Yet through it all, the Spaniards could not reach Atahuallpa. He was held aloft on a litter by his subjects, and as they were killed, more rushed in to replace them. Finally the Spaniards toppled Atahuallpa’s litter with their horses, and the one-sided battle was over.

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Inca gold - photo caption A KING’S RANSOM After the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca emperor Atahuallpa, who until 1532 ruled the largest and most advanced empire in the Americas, Pizarro demanded the largest ransom in the history of the world. The Incas handed over enough gold to fill a large room, piled more than 2.5 meters (eight feet) high—but the Spaniards killed Atahuallpa anyway. Most of this treasure was melted down to make gold coins.

Photo credit: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY

OBJECT CAPTION: Inca vessel

SPANISH ONLY The man shown riding on horseback on this Colonial period Inca-style cup from the early 1700s is not an Inca—he is actually one of the Spanish conquistadors. The Incas were not allowed to ride horses for centuries after the Spanish occupation began. The Spaniards wanted to keep the power of horses for themselves—and with good reason. When Native peoples acquired horses in Chile, Argentina and the U.S. Great Plains, for example, they quickly became superior riders and used them to fight off the European invaders for years.

Inca-style drinking vessel Peru Early 1700s Wood, pigment, mopa mopa plant resin American Museum of Natural History 41.2/7659A

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Banner 6.2.5 (Greek Vase)

RIDING INTO BATTLE Horses were probably first used to pull chariots in battle starting around 1500 BC. But it wasn’t until around 900 BC that warriors themselves commonly fought on horseback. Among the first mounted archers and fighters were the Scythians, a group of nomadic Asian warriors who often raided the ancient Greeks.

For Greeks who had never before seen a person on horseback, the first sight of these riders racing toward them while firing volleys of arrows must have been truly terrifying. Some modern scholars wonder if early sightings of strangers on horseback might have inspired the Greek myths about the legendary half-man, half-horse beings called centaurs.

Label Deck 6.2.5 (Greek vase)

WOMEN WARRIORS Fighting on foot against horses couldn’t have been easy. Stories of the legendary Amazon women warriors might have been inspired by Scythian raiders, who frequently attacked the Greeks on horseback. In fact, recent archaeological discoveries indicate that some Scythian warriors were indeed female.

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Photo Sidebar with vase label THE TROJAN HORSE According to ancient Greek myth, soldiers from Greece laid siege to the city of Troy for ten years, but could not conquer it. Finally the Greeks pretended to give up. They departed, leaving behind a large wooden horse as a gift. The Trojans brought the horse inside their city walls and celebrated victory. That night, however, Greek soldiers hidden inside the giant horse crept out and unlocked the gates. The rest of the Greek army rushed in and destroyed the entire city.

Object caption (Greek vessel) GREEK VESSEL Amazon warriors on horseback were a common motif on Greek ceramics, perhaps symbolizing the confrontation between Greeks and outsiders. This vessel depicts four Amazons prepared for battle, two of whom are on horseback.

Greek Lekythos Athens, Greece Early 400s BC Ceramic, paint De Young Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, Gift of the Queen of Greece through Alma de Bretteville Sprekels 1925.346.28 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 53

Banner 6.2.2 (Horse Armor)

A TANK ON LEGS

Horses were a huge advantage in battle. Riding on horseback made a soldier much bigger, faster and stronger than a fighter on foot. But horses, like the warriors who rode them, needed armor to avoid injury. Throughout the Middle Ages in Europe, knights and their horses wore steel armor. Such armor is heavy, often weighing more than 23 kilograms (50 pounds) for the horse, and as many for the rider.

European horses were bred to increase their size and strength just so they could carry knights into battle. While the horses of 500 years ago did not approach the size of modern horses, several large horse breeds today, such as the Percheron and shire horse, claim descent from the noble steeds used by ancient knights.

Label deck 6.2.2 (Horse armor)

A horse in SHINING ARMOR

A knight in shining armor wouldn’t get very far unless his horse was well-protected, too. During the 1500s, the armor worn by horses in Europe rivaled that of the knights that rode them. This diagram shows the major elements of equine armor.

Horse armor Germany 1480–1500 Iron, brass, leather Deutsches Historisches Museum GOS-Nr. MI010011; Inventarnr. W 5464 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 54

Callouts to armor diagram:

Chanfron Covered the horse’s head and carried the rider’s family crest or coat of arms

Crinet Made of overlapping plates so the horse could move its head easily

Crupper Protected the horse’s hindquarters

Saddle Protected the rider’s waist from lances, spears and arrows

Peytral Raised or flared outward to provide freedom of movement for the horse’s legs

Durer print of muscular horse A KNIGHT AND HIS HORSE(S) European knights had different horses for different purposes. The largest, grandest horses, reserved for battles, tournaments and jousts, were called destriers or “great horses,” illustrated at left by Albrecht Dürer. A large modern breed, the shire horse, is said to have been bred from destriers. When a knight needed a faster horse that could change direction quickly in battle, he rode a courser. For everyday use, he rode a smaller, all-purpose rouncey. Destriers, coursers and rounceys were descriptive categories, not distinct breeds.

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Freestanding quote on glass armor case WORTH A HUNDRED MEN? “There is no other beast which so befits a knight as a good horse….A brave man mounted on a good horse may do more in an hour of fighting than ten or maybe a hundred could have done afoot.”

—Spanish knight Gutierre Diaz de Games, 1400s

Illustration of Henry VIII in armor on horseback LIVING LARGE Knights in shining armor were too heavy for most British horses, so large horses had to be imported from other European countries until at least the 1500s. Determined to increase the size of British horses, King Henry VIII decreed in 1535 that major landowners must keep at least two large mares, and in 1541 he banned stallions from grazing on public lands unless they met certain height requirements. The king may have had a vested interest in breeding strong horses, since his own waistline ballooned after an injury that the once-athletic monarch suffered while jousting.

FROM THE HORSE’S MOUTH Horses have long been associated with high status in Europe. The French, Spanish and English words for gentleman—chevalier, caballero and cavalier—all mean “horseman.” The phrase “get off your high horse” may have once referred to the superior attitude of knights who looked down at common people from their tall horses. The phrase “come off it” supposedly refers to the same thing.

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Banner 6.2.3 (World War I)

RETREAT Of the cavalry

The importance of horses in warfare dropped off over the centuries with each arrival of new, more deadly weapons. The development of powerful bows and arrows that could pierce horse armor, as well as the introduction of guns, meant horses were no longer invincible. Even so, as recently as a hundred years ago, millions of horses were still used in battle.

The last hurrah came with World War I. At the beginning of that war, in 1914, cavalry charges, in which thousands of soldiers on horseback rode into battle together, were still seen as a major offensive tactic. But trench warfare, barbed wire, machine guns and other modern developments effectively brought such charges to a dead halt. By the war’s end, horses were still used behind the lines to transport guns and supplies, but their role in leading the attack had become a thing of the past.

Label Deck 6.2.3 (WWI and WWI)

THE LAST ROUNDUP Millions of horses died in World War I, even though by the end of the war their status had been reduced from leaders of the charge to a supporting role. The clash between old-fashioned ways of warfare and the newer technologies of death led to poignant sights like horses wearing gas masks, horses pulling guns larger than themselves and horses lying dead next to heaps of mortar shells.

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Photo of horse wearing gasmask POISON PROTECTION To protect against the poison gases used in World War I, both soldiers and horses wore gas masks. Horses’ noses were covered but their eyes were not, since horses could tolerate the poisons better than humans.

Photo of U.S. special forces on horseback in Afghanistan HORSES IN MODERN WARFARE Though cavalry charges are now a thing of the past, there are still places where a horse is more useful than a truck. In 2002, for example, during the war in Afghanistan, some U.S. Special Forces rode horses in areas where the rugged terrain and lack of fuel made automobiles impractical.

DID YOU KNOW The last cavalry charge made on horseback by the U.S. Army took place in 1942, when the United States fought the Japanese army in the Philippines. After that, the mounted cavalry was replaced by tanks.

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OBJECT CAPTIONS 6.2.3 (WWI)

WWI Cavalry recruiting poster; WWI picture of fallen horse. AN EXCITING START (top) World War I was a major turning point in the role of horses in battle. At the beginning of the war, a romantic view of battle still prevailed, as shown in this recruitment poster.

Recruiting poster Canada 1914-1919 Paper, ink Reproduction of Canadian War Museum 19870123-004

A HARSH REALITY (bottom) By the end of World War I, horses had proved as vulnerable as humans to new military tactics and technologies. And, just like human soldiers, millions of horses died in the war.

Print of British Horse Artillery in World War I England 1915, by Fortunio Matania Paper, ink Reproduction of Canadian War Museum 20060056-001

HORSE GAS MASK One of the most gruesome weapons in World War I was poison gas, which killed horses as well as humans. Gas masks like this one were deployed in World War II to protect horses from deadly chemical weapons.

United States c. 1941 Leather, rubber, canvas, metal Loan courtesy the American Saddlebred Museum, Lexington, Kentucky L985.05.01

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HORSE-DRAWN AMBULANCE This toy model represents a horse-drawn field ambulance. As World War I progressed, horses were shifted away from their role in mounted cavalry leading the attack into more of a support role behind the lines. Horses were used to transport people and supplies.

Germany c.1916 Tin, cotton, plastic, wood American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

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SECTION INTRO:

WORK

Horses are built for power. Their muscular bodies are heavier in front than in back, making them well balanced to pull heavy loads. Yet they can also be agile and quick—fit to carry out difficult tasks at top speed.

For more than a thousand years, people have called on the power of horses to achieve their own ends. Horses have cleared forests, plowed land, herded cattle and driven machines. Over time, horses bred for different jobs have become heavier, stronger or more flexible. As people have shaped horses, horses and humans working together have shaped the world in remarkable ways.

What is it object: fly terret WHAT IS IT?

Found in Europe or North America Made around 1900 Formed of brass on a wooden base Loan courtesy the International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 991.25.026

A Fly Terret made to fan flies away from a working horse

In the 1800s, carriage horses often wore bridles with brass fittings on the crown. Some had parts that swung back and forth as the horse moved, to keep away bothersome flies.

Michael Thornton/drr.net

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Banner 6.3.1 (horses in the city)

HEYDAY OF THE HORSE

In Europe and in the Americas, the nineteenth century was the age of the machine. Mills and factories turned out goods by the ton. Bustling cities were linked by railroad and steamship. Yet without horses, this new world of industry could never have thrived.

In the 1800s, machines and horses often labored side by side. Many new inventions meant more work for horses, not less. In fact, horses worked at more varied jobs during the industrial era than at any other time. They pulled carriages, buses and carts on streets and barges on canals. While steam engines pumped, horses kept the wheels of commerce turning. The age of the machine was also the heyday of the horse.

Culver Pictures

Label Deck 6.3.1a (fire horses)

PULLING THEIR WEIGHT The first fire engines to hit city streets were hand- pumped, and light enough to be pulled by men. In the late 1800s, new pumps came out that were bigger or ran on steam or even gasoline. They were heavier too, weighing more than a ton. So horses stepped in to haul the load—and became stars of the firefighting team.

Object: fire engine Horse-drawn fire pump Howe Fire Apparatus Company Inc., Indiana c. 1890 Iron, steel, brass, rubber, paint, wood Fire Museum of Greater Cincinnati

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Sidebar on horses and firefighting (with photo of white fire horses pulling an engine) FIT FOR FIREFIGHTING Fire horses had demanding jobs. They had to gallop uphill on hot summer days and down icy streets in the winter. They needed to be quick, ready to rush to the harness at the sound of a bell--and to be calm, willing to stand and wait patiently while engines pumped, firefighters shouted and flames roared.

Only the most highly qualified were picked to become fire horses, and many were trained in firefighting schools. A favorite breed of fire departments was the Percheron, a carriage horse known for its strength and serene disposition. Many Percherons are dapple gray, fading to white as they age, and engines were often drawn by handsomely matched teams.

Brown Brothers

Photo: Horse-drawn streetcar MASS TRANSIT Before cities had subways and light rail systems, people packed into horse-drawn streetcars, as in this 1898 scene in Vienna, Austria. Many lines ran out to the suburbs. By providing commuters with cheap transportation, they allowed cities to expand.

Library of Congress Commented [KR1]: Venue will customize this text for the stage coach Label Deck 6.3.1b (other city horses)

IN THE CITY

Across Europe and North America, as industries grew and thousands of people moved from farms into cities, horses moved with them. Hard-working horse teams were the lifeblood of the city. They kept urban markets stocked with food and other supplies. Goods that arrived by steamship or rail were heaped onto carts at the loading dock. It took horses to wheel these goods through crowded streets to warehouses, markets and homes. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 63

Library of Congress

Sidebar on horse-driven machinery (with illustration of horse ferry) A LIVING MACHINE For captains of industry eager to turn a profit, the horse was as good as a living machine. Experts measured maintenance costs, such as feed, shelter and veterinary care, against output—pounds of freight moved or bushels of grain milled. For some tasks, they argued, horses were simply a better bargain than steam.

By the 1870s, more than 300 U.S. patents were issued for horse-powered machinery. One idea that had its day was the horse ferry. Like steamboats, horse ferries used paddle wheels. A horse walked on a treadmill mounted on the deck, which turned the paddle wheel by a series of gears.

Kevin Crisman

Fast facts DID YOU KNOW?

• In 1900, around 130,000 horses worked in Manhattan—more than 10 times the number of taxicabs on the streets of New York City today.

• A typical city horse produced up to 20 kilograms (45 pounds) of manure and 7.5 liters (2 gallons) of urine a day.

• Many city horses died young, sometimes in the street. In Chicago in 1916, more than 9,000 horse carcasses were carted away.

Photo: Cartoon about horse abuse STREET LIFE For some horses, city life was bitter and short. Drivers sometimes beat their horses, neglected them or forced them to pull more than they could bear. In time, horse abuse came to be seen as a major public problem. When the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) formed in New York City in 1866, protecting horses was one of its most urgent goals.

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The Granger Collection, New York

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Banner 6.3.1 (Breeding horses for work)

BRED FOR STRENGTH

Most horses are strong enough to pack or pull heavy loads. Their strength is part of their makeup. Horses have evolved by natural selection to have thick muscles, a large heart and powerful lungs.

Yet over the centuries, people have also bred some groups of horses to be even stronger. By bringing the heftiest or hardest-working horses together to mate, people have developed breeds that are especially suited for certain jobs—whether to haul fuel for industry or to pull a plow in the fields.

Label Deck 6.3.3a (draft horse skeleton)

Object: Draft horse skeleton DRAFT HORSE This skeleton belonged to an unusually large horse raised in the United States. There are no records of its breed, but it clearly came from a line of horses that was bred over many generations to be massive and strong. Such breeds are known as draft horses because they are especially fit to draw or pull heavy loads.

The horse stands at rest, with the left leg locked at the kneecap. In a living horse, a group of ligaments called a stay apparatus helps the leg stay in place. Because of this structure, even the heaviest horse can remain standing for long hours without tiring.

Draft horse skeleton Equus caballus American Museum of Natural History (replica)

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Sidebar on draft horse breeding BREEDING DRAFT HORSES The largest horse breeds have roots in northern Europe. During the Middle Ages, the horses of Belgium were especially famed for their strength and size, although they were probably much smaller than today’s draft breeds.

Around 500 years ago, European horse breeders began bringing the largest, strongest animals together for breeding, often crossing local mares with stallions imported from abroad. Over many generations, their descendants became larger than any horses known before.

Photo: Draft horses used in logging ON THE JOB Today, loggers sometimes work with draft horse teams to thin small areas of forest. Unlike heavy machinery, a pair of horses can pull a log along a narrow trail without damaging trees and undergrowth nearby.

The Granger Collection, New York

Fun facts DID YOU KNOW?

• When this horse was alive, it weighed more than a ton: about 1,075 kilograms (2,370 pounds).

• The Clydesdale, a draft horse bred in Scotland, can eat up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) of hay and 4.5 kilograms (10 pounds) of grain a day.

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Label Deck 6.3.3b (Shetland pony skeleton)

Object: Draft horse skeleton SHETLAND PONY The Shetland pony is one of the smallest horse breeds. This particular Shetland, named Highland Chieftain, was thought to be the smallest adult pony in Great Britain when it died more than 100 years ago.

This breed has lived for centuries on the windswept Shetland Islands, some 160 kilometers (100 miles) north of Scotland. Shetland ponies were traditionally allowed to roam freely, and they probably became smaller as they adapted to their environment. It may have been easier for short, stocky animals to survive the harsh conditions on these remote, treeless islands.

Shetland pony skeleton Equus caballus American Museum of Natural History (replica)

Sidebar on Shetland ponies in coal mines (Photo:Coal miner and Shetland pony) PIT PONIES In the 1800s, Shetland ponies were specially bred to work in underground coal mines. Strong, hardy and small enough to enter narrow mine shafts, these “pit ponies” were well suited for their jobs.

Pit ponies literally lived underground. They were kept in stables inside the mine, where a caretaker fed and groomed them and a blacksmith repaired their shoes. During the day, each horse worked side by side with a driver, pulling carts full of coal from the areas where miners worked to the shaft to be lifted away.

Durham Mining Museum

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Photo: Shetland pony at a fair TAKE ME FOR A RIDE Most Shetland ponies are gentle and easy-going. Many continue to work at petting zoos, fairs and carnivals, where young children with no experience may be given a chance to ride.

Ernesto Solla/iStockphoto

Fun facts DID YOU KNOW?

• People living on the Shetland Islands once used hair from their ponies’ long manes and tails to make fishing line.

• The word pony is mainly used for small horse breeds with short legs and a stocky build. But informally— especially in sports—even a lean, long-legged horse may be called a pony.

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SECTION INTRO:

STATUS AND SPIRITUALITY

In many societies around the world, horses are a marvelous luxury. The ability to ride can make even the most ordinary woman or man feel like royalty.

Some cultures have considered horses worthy of gods. In many faiths, they play a role in sacred rituals. Swift, strong and sometimes unruly, a spirited horse can be awe-inspiring. A running horse may be seen as an expression of freedom, a rearing horse as a symbol of power.

Dinodia/AGE Fotostock

What is it object: Bronze cheek pieces from Luristan WHAT IS IT?

Found in Luristan, Iran Made between 1000 and 650 BC Cast in bronze American Museum of Natural History 73/3411A,B, with replica crossbar

A Fancy Bit for a chariot horse

In ancient Iran, rich men drove horses decked with trappings made of bronze. The magic animals on this bit fit against a horse’s cheeks. The reins were attached to the crossbar, which was placed in the horse’s mouth.

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Banner 6.4.2 (Sakha horse herders)

PEOPLE OF THE HORSE The river- and lake-filled landscape of eastern Siberia holds the record for the coldest temperatures in the Arctic. Yet for centuries, a people known as the Sakha have called this region home. Their neighbors once called them “the people of the horse.” Through most of their history, the Sakha have lived as horse herders, using horses for food, clothing and transportation, and as sacred symbols of fertility and wealth.

Today, many Sakha live away from their traditional pastures, in the modern city of Yakutsk. But in music, stories, food and spiritual life, they continue to celebrate their close connection with the horse.

Label Deck 6.4.2 (Sakha horse herders)

MILK OF LIFE The Sakha milk their horses and ferment the milk to make koumiss, a drink that is rich in vitamins and mildly alcoholic. Koumiss is an important part of the Sakha diet, and at least nine different varieties are made, including a bubbly brew known as champagne koumiss.

At the summer solstice in late June, Sakha communities gather to pray, feast, sing, dance, perform dramas and race horses in a festival honoring the height of light and life. Koumiss is tossed in four directions and fed to a bonfire as an offering to the spirits. Then goblets of koumiss are passed around and the drink is shared by all.

Photo: Koumiss festival from AMNH archives SUMMER CELEBRATION Sakha villagers share fermented mare’s milk during an yhsakh ceremony in 1902. In 1992, this summer rite became a state festival in the part of the Russian Federation known as the Sakha Republic.

AMNH Library The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 71

Photo: Yakut horses in winter SURVIVING THE COLD Sakha horses—known as the Yakut breed—have adapted remarkably well to life in the Arctic, where temperatures can drop below -50° C (-58° F). As winter approaches, they take on extra layers of fat and grow dense, shaggy coats. Their breathing slows down and their blood circulates faster. Yakut horses left to fend for themselves can withstand the cold without shelter.

Bryan & Cherry Alexander Photography/Alamy

Objects: Koumiss containers CONTAINERS FOR KOUMISS To celebrate the renewal of life at the beginning of summer, the Sakha share koumiss, a drink made of fermented mare’s milk. Traditionally, a container shaped like a horse hoof is used to funnel milk into a leather bag, where it is churned with a stick and left to sit for many hours until it is fermented. During the festival, guests drink koumiss from carved wooden goblets with hoof-shaped feet.

Tripod goblet Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1900 Wood American Museum of Natural History 70/9207

Funnel Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1900 Wood, copper alloy, sinew American Museum of Natural History 70/8871 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 72

Object: Saddle and whip SADDLE AND HORSE WHIP A century ago, a wealthy Sakha woman might ride to a summer festival on a finely decorated saddle and carry a whip trimmed with silver.

Saddle Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1900 Wood, iron, copper alloy, hide American Museum of Natural History 70/8742

Blanket Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1900 Hide, fur, glass, sinew American Museum of Natural History 70/8738

Horse whip Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1900 Wood, hair, hide, white metal, copper alloy, iron American Museum of Natural History 70/8505

Object: Fly whisk HORSEHAIR FLY WHISK

The Sakha once used horsehair for sewing thread and as a fiber for fishnets. Many of these traditional arts faded in the mid-1900s, but some are being revived. This horsehair fly whisk was made in the 1990s and sold in the capital of the Sakha Republic, Yakutsk.

Fly whisk Yakutsk, Sakha Republic, Russia c. 1992 Wood, white metal, fur, horse hair, leather American Museum of Natural History 70.3/5349

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Label deck 6.4.7 (Horse armor)

DRESSED TO IMPRESS

An armored horse was a powerful status symbol for a European knight. It advertised both his nobility and his wealth—armor like this 500-year-old German set was very expensive. While knights on horseback are a thing of the past, the institution of knighthood lives on. Even today, many countries honor their most illustrious citizens by making them knights.

Photo of Bono: OH, WHAT A KNIGHT! The long tradition of honoring great achievement and public service with the title of knight continues today. Modern-day knights include the musicians Paul McCartney, Elton John and Bono, lead singer of the band U2 and a prominent figure in the global campaign to end poverty in Africa. In 2007, Queen Elizabeth II of England announced, "Her Majesty the Queen has appointed Bono to be an honorary Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire."

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tombstone Horse armor Germany 1480–1500 Iron, brass, leather Deutsches Historisches Museum GOS-Nr. MI010011; Inventarnr. W 5464

Callouts to armor diagram:

Chanfron Covered the horse’s head and carried the rider’s family crest or coat of arms

Crinet Made of overlapping plates so the horse could move its head easily

Crupper Protected the horse’s hindquarters

Saddle Protected the rider’s waist from lances, spears and arrows

Peytral Raised or flared outward to provide freedom of movement for the horse’s legs sidebar FROM THE HORSE’S MOUTH Horses have long been associated with high status in Europe. The French, Spanish and English words for gentleman—chevalier, caballero and cavalier—all mean “horseman.” The phrase “get off your high horse” may have once referred to the superior attitude of knights who looked down at common people from their tall horses. The phrase “come off it” supposedly refers to the same thing. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 75

Banner 6.4.1 (Plains Indians)

POWER OF THE PLAINS

The Native and First Nations people of the North American Plains are known for their matchless horsemanship. In fact, horses shaped nearly every step of Plains life for some two centuries.

The Crow, Lakota, Blackfeet and other Plains tribes first took up riding around 300 years ago, on horses captured by other tribes from Spanish herds in the American Southwest. In a short time, the people of the Plains learned to travel, hunt and fight battles on horseback. In this new world of freedom and movement, the power of the horse was incomparable. A fine horse could make a great hunter or warrior, and many horses could make a rich man.

Yale Collection of Western Americana/Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library

Label Deck 6.4.1 (Plains Indians)

Object: Crow woman’s horse gear CROW WOMAN’S HORSE GEAR In the 1800s, the Crow people of the northern Plains kept some of the area’s largest horse herds. The Crow traveled long distances to trade with allies, exchanging horses for other valuable goods. When a band moved camp, a wealthy Crow woman would adorn her horse head to tail with beautifully beaded buffalo or buckskin trappings. Women made their own saddles and bridles, though Spanish bits with dangling trim were traded from tribe to tribe.

Saddle, saddle blanket, crupper, medicine case United States c. 1900 Leather, hide, rawhide, sinew, bone, wood, cotton, wool, dye, glass American Museum of Natural History 50.1/1260, 50.1/1971, 50.1/1256, 50.1/1261 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 76

Stirrups, bib, whip, lead rope United States Late 1800s Wood, rawhide, hide, sinew, wool, cotton, dye, copper alloy American Museum of Natural History 50.1/730 AB, 50.1/709, 50.2/5194, 50.1/727

Bridle ornaments, cradle board, shield Montana, USA Late 1800s Hide, glass, pigment, hair, wool, cotton, wood, dye, paint, feather American Museum of Natural History 50/6853A, 50/6839, 50.1/3909, 50.1/3896

Bit United States c. 1800 Tinned iron, copper alloy, hide American Museum of Natural History 50.1/726

Blanket Arizona, USA Late 1800s Wool American Museum of Natural History 50.1/4247

Sidebar with photo of buffalo robe [AMNH 50/6793] STOLEN AWAY In many Plains tribes, a family’s wealth was measured in horses, and some owned more than 100 at a time. A man could win status by stealing a prized horse or a herd from an enemy. Anyone who achieved such a feat might record it with a painting on buffalo hide. This buffalo hide picture from the 1800s shows a Lakota man capturing horses.

AMNH Department of Anthropology

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Photo caption: horses in courtship [AMNH ledger book photos] BETTER TOGETHER Horses once played a role in almost every aspect of Native life on the Plains, including courtship. A man who wanted to marry might give handsome horses to his sweetheart’s family, or present a horse to the girl herself and ask her to elope. When courting, young men and women often rode double, as shown in this picture drawn by a Cheyenne artist in the late 1800s.

AMNH Library

Photo caption: Woman and child riding horseback at Crow Fair CROW FAIR Horses and riders parade their finery each year at the Crow Fair, a five-day celebration of Crow culture. At a traditional event called a give-away, a man or woman may celebrate an achievement by giving away a spirited horse.

Christian Heeb/Aurora Photos

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Banner 6.4.3 (terra cotta horse from India)

GIFT FOR A GOD

In India, riding a horse was once an honor enjoyed only by foreign conquerors or rulers with fabulous wealth. Over the centuries, the horse has become a symbol of nobility and power.

Even in southern India, where living horses are rarely seen, images of horses are presented to gods as sacred offerings. Hundreds of horses shaped of clay or cement can be found at temples in rural Tamil Nadu. The people who made these majestic statues may travel on foot, but the gods will ride.

Stephen Inglis/Canadian Museum of Civilization

Label Deck 6.4.3a (terra cotta horse from India)

Object: terra cotta horse TERRA COTTA HORSE In the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India, village potters create horse figures as offerings to Aiyanar and other local gods, who are said to patrol village borders and protect people from harm. Many village shrines contain hundreds of these votive horses, some standing more than five meters (16 feet) tall. This horse is trimmed with garlands, like the stone horses in grand Indian temples. The face on its chest is Yalli, a spirit who protects Aiyanar.

Horse figure Pondicherry, India 2007, by Shri. V. K. Munusamy Terra cotta American Museum of Natural History Exhibition Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Ranobir Roychowdhury

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Sidebar with photo: potter creating votive horse AN ANCIENT ART When Tamil potters make a large terra cotta horse, they start with a handful of earth from the floor of a shrine, then build the figure and fire it there. Today, temple horses are also made out of plaster or cement.

Ron Dubois

Photo: Horse sacrifice [image from British Library] ROYAL SACRIFICE In the Vedic religion that flourished in northern India some 3,000 years ago, kings held a ritual involving the sacrifice of a horse. This illustration from the Hindu epic known as the Ramayana shows a scene from the ceremony: the king’s favorite wife slays a stallion and then lies next to the corpse.

© British Library Board

Map of India showing Tamil Nadu

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Banner 6.4.4 (Samurai)

A MARK OF NOBILITY The class of noble warriors known as the samurai arose more than a thousand years ago as armed horsemen who fought for the warlords of Japan. But during the Edo period (1603–1867), Japan’s rulers kept the country at peace. The samurai left the battlefield and became teachers, doctors and administrators.

In time, samurai fighting skills were transformed into ceremonial arts. Once needed for war, the samurai’s weapons, his armor and his horse became symbols of rank and refinement.

The Art Archive

Label Deck 6.4.4 (Samurai)

STRAIGHT SHOOTER Early samurai warriors lived by a code of conduct known as “the way of the horse and bow.” Each man had to act with honor while mastering the arts of war, including the difficult task of shooting a bow and arrow from the back of a galloping horse.

In the 1100s, the shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo took a special interest in this skill and made it into a sacred ritual. Today, riders continue to perform the art of archery on horseback, or yabusame, at Shinto festivals in Japan.

Interfoto/AGE Fotostock

Photo: Ema (votive tablets) offered at a Shinto shrine MESSAGE BEARER In the Shinto religion of Japan, worshippers write prayers on wooden tablets known as ema, meaning “horse picture.” This custom may have roots in ancient times, when horses were presented to Shinto shrines as living offerings to the gods.

Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 81

Fun fact DID YOU KNOW? In the twelfth century, the samurai Kiso no Yoshinaka reputedly had 10,000 horsemen in his command. Their horses may have belonged to the Kiso breed, which was developed about a thousand years ago in central Japan.

Object: Samurai saddle SAMURAI SADDLE During the peace that reigned in Japan from the early 1600s to the mid-1800s, the samurai’s tools of war were transformed into decorative arts. This saddle trimmed with lacquer recalls the victories of a mounted warrior.

Japan Late 1800s Wood, lacquer, metal, leather, silk, cloth, padding American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

Object: Japanese print of riding Samurai WOODBLOCK PRINT In this wintertime scene, two high-ranking travelers ride through the snow, while their lower-ranking attendants lead on foot. The party is traveling the long route between present-day Tokyo and Kyoto along a trail known as The Nakasendō.

Ōi-juku (from The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō) Japan c. 1950, by Utagawa Hiroshige (1797-1858) Paper, ink American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 82

Banner 6.4.5 (West African horse gear)

FIT FOR A KING

Horses are rare in some parts of Africa—in damp, tropical climates, they are often done in by disease. But the West African grasslands just south of the Sahara Desert are horse country. Around a thousand years ago, powerful empires arose in this region. Their rulers traveled on horseback and commanded large armies with thundering cavalry.

Though these empires have faded, West African leaders still keep horses as tokens of status and authority. On formal occasions, many rulers dress their horses in lavish trappings and display their wealth as they ride.

British Museum/The Bridgeman Art Library

Label Deck 6.4.5 (West African horse gear)

WEST AFRICAN HORSEMEN Commented [KR2]: Final text pending

Horses have historically played an important role in several West African cultures, including the Hausa and the Mossi. Wide stretches of the country now known as Burkina Faso were once ruled by the Mossi. Centuries ago, the Mossi battled their enemies on horseback. In the 1800s, they enriched their empire by breeding horses and trading them for cotton cloth, metal goods and slaves.

The Hausa, found in central and northern Nigeria, use their richly decorated horses in both state and religious ceremonies. One festival that is still celebrated today, called Sallah by the Hausa, includes a procession of elaborately dressed horses, a tradition that began in the city Kano in the 1400s.

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Photo: Durbar festival in Kano, Nigeria RIDING HIGH Finely dressed Hausa and Fulani horsemen fight mock battles during a 2004 festival honoring of the emir of Kano, a Muslim ruler in northern Nigeria. The tradition dates back to a time when the emir was protected by cavalry, and regiments had to demonstrate their skills on command. AP/Wide World Photos

Photo: Mossi horseman A Mossi rider prepares for a race at a royal festival in Yako, Burkina Faso, in 1976. Christopher Roy

Map of Africa showing Mossi cultural area and Kano, Nigeria

Objects: head ornament and boot CEREMONIAL HORSE GEAR During a celebration, a Hausa man might parade through the streets on a horse decked with luxurious trappings. The triangular designs on this ornamental headpiece and riding boot are traditionally considered to offer the rider protection from battle wounds. The red and green coloring is often used as a mark of status as well.

Horse head ornament Kano, Nigeria Early 1900s Dyed leather, metal, cord American Museum of Natural History 90.1/8552

Riding boot Nigeria Early 1900s Dyed leather, cotton, pigment American Museum of Natural History 90.1/9011A

Object: stirrup STIRRUP

This simple stirrup, one of a pair, was made by a Hausa craftsman using recycled materials. Shaped from the metal of a gasoline can, it was then painted red on the inside and finished with a decorative braided leather strap.

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Kano, Nigeria Early 1900s Metal (gasoline cans), paint, leather, cloth American Museum of Natural History 90.1/8556A

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Banner 6.4.6 (Polo)

A PASSION FOR POLO

Many sports that involve fine horsemanship have come down to us from royalty. Even today, they tend to be practiced by a privileged few. In Europe and North America, no sport is considered more dashing or aristocratic than polo.

Before polo was known in the West, men and women of the royal court in Persia and India played the game. In the 1800s, the English upper classes learned to play polo—and made it popular with the wealthy in many other parts of the world.

© Delfina Blaquier

Label Deck 6.4.5 (Polo)

PONY UP A polo player must ride with perfect control, while swinging a mallet to drive a ball toward a goal at the end of the field. Most fans agree that a player is only as good as his horse. Polo ponies work hard and tire quickly, so after each seven-minute playing period, the players switch to fresh horses. Buying and caring for a pool of highly skilled polo ponies is part of the expense of the game.

Sidebar with photo of Nacho Figueras playing polo TRENDSETTER The polo equipment in this display belongs to Argentine polo player Ignacio “Nacho” Figueras (right), a member of the Black Watch team of East Hampton, New York, and Palm Beach, Florida. Figueras also models clothing for the fashion industry, where polo has long served as a symbol of elegance and prestige.

© Delfina Blaquier

Photo: Persian miniature The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 86

THE STICK AND THE BALL In Persia, polo was once called the game of kings. Legend has it that when Alexander the Great was about to invade Persia in 334 BC, the Persian ruler sent him a polo mallet and ball and invited him to a game. “I am the stick,” Alexander replied as he turned down the invitation. “The ball is the world.”

Institute of Oriental Studies, St. Petersburg, Russia/The Bridgeman Art Library

Object: polo shirt POLO SHIRT The design for the modern polo shirt, a cotton-knit garment with a collar and buttoned placket, was originally developed for tennis and dates back to the 1920s. Like many other forms of clothing worn in equestrian sports, it has become an article of fashion, meant to evoke both leisure and traditional style.

United States c. 2006 Cotton Black Watch Polo Team

Objects: boots and kneepads BOOTS AND KNEEPADS Most polo players wear custom-made boots like the pair shown here. Kneepads protect a player’s legs in this bruising, sometimes dangerous game.

Argentina c. 2006 Leather, synthetic fiber, plastic, rubber, metal Black Watch Polo Team

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Section Intro 6.5.0

TRAVEL AND TRADE

For most of human history, there was no faster way to travel over land than on a horse. When it comes to transporting people and their possessions, horses have two important advantages: they can run very fast and very far. Their speed and endurance are amazing for a creature so large, making them the ideal animals to carry people and goods around the world.

Horses offer other advantages as well. Since they eat grass, horses can go almost anywhere that humans can, eating as they go. And unlike cows and camels, which must sit and rest to digest food, a horse’s digestive system allows it to graze and walk all day. By carrying people, goods and ideas between civilizations, horses changed history.

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What Is It? 6.5.0 What Is It?

AN EARLY HORSESHOE Roman “hipposandals” like this are among the oldest known metal horseshoes. These early horseshoes were strapped on like sandals that people wear, not nailed to the hoof like most horseshoes. Earlier horseshoes might have been made from animal skin but none have survived.

Found in Europe Used from AD 50–400 Made of iron Loan courtesy the International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park 979.01.02 (modern replica)

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Art caption: Scott Leighton oil painting

PIT STOP In this 1883 oil painting, two coach horses pause for roadside refreshment. Before planes, trains and automobiles carried us from place to place, the roads were filled with horse-drawn carriages and coaches of all kinds. The quickest way to travel long distance was by stage-coach. Like the Pony Express, stage-coaches maintained top speed by switching to fresh horses at regular intervals.

Two Horses at a Wayside Trough United States 1883, by Nicholas Winfield Scott Leighton Oil, canvas Brooklyn Museum, gift of the executors of the estate of Colonel Michael Friedsam 32.834

Art caption: Currier and Ives farrier print 6.5.x WHY DO HORSES NEED SHOES? This Currier and Ives print shows a man shoeing a horse. But why do horses’ feet need protection? Horse hooves are made of material similar to human fingernails. In the wild, horses’ hooves are worn flat by running on dry, hard ground. When horses are penned on soft, wet ground, their hooves do not wear flat naturally. Unless their hooves are trimmed and shod, they can stumble and hurt themselves. Eating hay and oats, which lack nutrients found in fresh grass, also weakens hooves, as does ammonia from urine in stalls.

Trotting Cracks at the Forge United States 1869, by Currier and Ives Lithograph (facsimile) The Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame, Goshen, New York TM266.01 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 90

Banner 6.5.1 Mongols

EMPIRE OF THE HORSE The vast Mongol empire, ruled by Genghis Khan and his descendents in the 1200s and 1300s, covered most of Asia, the Middle East and Russia. Far larger than any empire built by the Greeks, Romans or Russians, it stretched from the Mediterranean to the Pacific Ocean, making it the largest mass of connected land conquered by anyone in history, before or since.

Horses made possible the conquest of this immense empire—and also the successful management of it for more than 100 years. Outside of Mongolia, Genghis Khan’s horsemen are thought of today as ruthless raiders who swept into cities to loot and pillage. But they did much more than destroy. They created an era of unprecedented travel, trade and cultural exchange.

Label Deck 6.5.1 Silk Road/Mongol Empire

MOBILE MONGOLS In Genghis Khan’s army, every soldier traveled on horseback. This all-cavalry army was easily the most mobile military force in the world. The Mongols’ horses could travel almost anywhere, grazing as they went, even if they had to kick through snow to reach grass. The Mongols themselves could also travel long distances without provisions. The Italian explorer Marco Polo described Mongols riding for ten days at a stretch while living on dried milk and blood from their horses. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 91

Map showing Silk Road routes SILK ROAD The feared Mongol horsemen not only conquered most of Asia, they created a vast trade network that linked previously isolated civilizations. The ancient Silk Road trade routes date back to well before the Mongol empire. But it wasn’t until the Mongol army made them safe from bandits that the Silk Road blossomed, enabling caravans of camels and donkeys to carry goods, people and ideas between Asia, Europe and the Middle East.

Map caption: In the 1200s and 1300s, the Mongols revived and extended the renowned Silk Road trade routes.

Photo of morin khuur BOWED INSTRUMENTS Until about a thousand years ago, almost all stringed instruments were plucked. All bowed instruments, from the European violin to the Mongolian horsehead fiddle (left), trace their origin to Central Asia, where the first bows strung with hair from horsetails were invented. The idea quickly spread via the Silk Road and other trade routes.

Object Caption 6.5.1a Celestial Horses CELESTIAL HORSES This bronze horse was made during the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220). During the Han dynasty, the Chinese mounted an expedition to Ferghana, 2,000 miles west of the Chinese capital, Xian, to acquire superior horses. This expedition is credited with opening the eastern leg of the Silk Road. Ferghana horses were famous for sweating blood—a mystery now thought to be caused by parasites under their skin.

Horse figurine China 206 BC–AD 220 Bronze American Museum of Natural History 73.0/7117

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Object Caption 6.5.1b Horsehead Fiddle HORSEHEAD FIDDLE The Mongolian horsehead fiddle, or morin khuur, has a carved horsehead on the end, and its two strings are made of hair from a horse’s tail. In Mongolia, music, horses and mysticism are all related: horses carry people in the material world, and music carries people to the spiritual world. Musicians refer to the instrument as their steed, and they sometimes mimic the sound of hoofbeats and whinnies as they play.

Morin khuur fiddle and bow Mongolia c. 2000 Wood, horsehair, paint Theodore Levin

Object Caption 6.5.1c Mongol Pass KEY TO THE KINGDOM Using a Mongol pass that looked much like this modern recreation, a visitor could travel all over the empire of Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson. His immense transportation network included thousands of luxurious way stations offering fresh horses for travelers along the Silk Road and other trade routes. Like a combination passport and credit card, the pass told everyone that the wearer was to be treated as a guest of the great Khan. The Italian explorer Marco Polo wrote, “The whole organization is so stupendous and so costly that it baffles speech and writing.”

Safe conduct pass (paizi), model American Museum of Natural History, Exhibition

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Banner 6.5.2 Pony Express & other postal relays

HORSE RELAYS

Horses are extremely fast—but they can’t run at top speed for very long or they overheat. The only way to ride at a full gallop over long distances is to regularly switch to a fresh horse. For most of human history, this was the fastest way to transport people and parcels over land.

The fabled Pony Express of the American West is the most famous horse-based relay system, but it was not the first, the largest or the most successful. Such relays date back nearly 4,000 years and were used widely in ancient Babylonia, Persia, China, Mongolia, Egypt, Italy and France.

Label Deck 6.5.2 Pony Express & other postal relays

PONY EXPRESS In 1860, there was no coast-to-coast railroad across America. The fastest way to get a letter across the country was still by horse-drawn stagecoach. This took 25 days or more—faster than sailing around South America, which took at least 45 days, but still pretty slow. So in April 1860, a new postal service called the Pony Express was born. With railroads handling the eastern leg and horsemen racing day and night from Missouri to California, the Pony Express could get a letter from coast to coast in just ten days for five dollars, later reduced to one dollar.

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RELAY RACE Of course, no single horse could carry mail day and night without rest. So a series of relay stations was spaced 16 kilometers (10 miles) apart, and riders passed a small bag of mail from horse to horse, like sprinters passing a baton. Some riders supposedly blew a horn before reaching each station, so a fresh horse would be waiting for them to jump onto the moment they arrived.

Photo of Buffalo Bill Wild West show poster showing Pony Express demonstration THE LEGEND GROWS The Pony Express opened in April 1860—and closed in October 1861, a few days after cross-country telegraph became available. Though the Pony Express went out of business just 18 months after it began, its fame only continued to grow. In the late 1800s, traveling shows such as “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West” included demonstrations of Pony Express riders leaping from one horse to another. The image of brave riders racing across the open range became a symbol of the American West. Today the U.S. Postal Service uses the Pony Express as its symbol.

Object Caption 6.5.2 Pony Express mochila on saddle

BLAZING SADDLES

Within two minutes of arriving at a station, a Pony Express rider left on a fresh horse. To speed up the transfer, mail was carried on top of the saddle in a removable leather overlay, or mochila. At each station, the mochila was slapped onto the saddle of a waiting horse. Like many ranching terms, including lariat, lasso, chaps and ranch, the term mochila comes from the Spanish language.

Pony Express letter carrier United States Modern reproduction Leather, wood, rawhide, metal American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 95

Banner 6.5.3, Gaits

GAITS Having four legs, instead of two, makes it possible to move your feet in a variety of different patterns, or gaits. Humans can walk, skip and run; horses naturally walk, trot, canter and gallop. In addition, horses can be trained to a dozen other distinct gaits. Each gait is most efficient at a particular speed. The walk is best at slow speeds, but awkward at higher speeds. To move faster, a horse “switches gears” to the trot, and at top speed it shifts to the gallop.

Every gait has a distinctive pattern of leg movements—in some, only one foot leaves the ground at a time, while in others, multiple feet do. Because of the speed of gaits like the gallop or canter, for years people could only guess at these leg patterns. But in the 1870s, British photographer Eadweard Muybridge captured the horse midstride in a historic series of photographs, some of which are on display on the wall here. The same photos can be seen in motion in the spinning zoetrope.

Interactive 6.5.3 Gaits zoetrope SPIN AND LOOK IN Look through the slots of the spinning cylinder and watch horses using three different gaits: the gallop, trot and walk. The images you see were taken in the 1870s by Eadweard Muybridge, who was famous for taking freeze-frame images of animals and people in motion. When you spin the wheel, the images seem to come to life.

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Art Caption 6.5.3a Muybridge trotting photos

The Trot Until the 1870s, no one was sure whether all the hooves of a trotting horse left the ground at the same time. Look closely at the fifth frame of this Eadweard Muybridge sequence and you can see that all four legs are indeed off the ground at once. Inset photo caption The Pace The legs of a trotting horse always move in pairs, with each leg mirroring the motion of the one diagonally opposite. In a gait called the pace (above), the motion of the legs is very similar to the trot, except the front and rear legs that move together are on the same side.

Art Caption 6.5.3b Muybridge Galloping photos The Gallop In the gait known as the gallop, all four feet leave the ground—but not when the legs are outstretched, as you might expect. In reality, the horse is airborne when its hind legs swing near the front legs, as shown in Muybridge’s photos (second row). A related gait, the canter, is similar to the gallop, except that two hooves land at the same time, so listeners hear three hoofbeats instead of four.

Inset photo caption FLIGHTS OF FANCY Before Muybridge’s photos revealed the horse’s true gaits, galloping horses were often portrayed flying through the air with all four legs outstretched (above)— something that never actually happens.

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Art Caption 6.5.3c Muybridge Walking photos The Walk When walking, the horse never gets all the way off the ground. This uses much less energy than the other gaits but limits how fast the horse can go.

Plates from Animals in Motion United States 1887, by Eadweard Muybridge Paper, ink American Museum of Natural History Library Reproduction of RF-62-B plates 574 and 598, RF-62-C plate 628

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Banner 6.5.4 (Gauchos and cowboys)

OUT ON THE RANGE

From the plains of western Canada to the pampas of Argentina, skilled ranch hands once traveled hundreds of miles across the open range to round up cattle and bring them to market. These men led grueling lives. They toiled in the sun, slept in the dust and spent most of their days on the back of a horse.

On the long, hard cattle drives of the 1800s, a cowhand’s horse was his closest ally, trained to sprint, stop and turn on command and to trek across any terrain. The cowboys of North America favored the American quarter horse, bred to run short-distance races. South American ranch hands known as gauchos rode a tough breed descended from Spanish stock called the criollo.

Library of Congress

Label Deck 6.5.4 (Gauchos)

ROUGH RIDERS

In the 1800s, ranch hands known as gauchos, huasos or llaneros drove cattle from the open plains of South America to ranches and markets. Famed for their grit and love of freedom, these roving horsemen had tough jobs. As few as five cowhands might handle a thousand head of cattle at a time. Horses and riders faced the same dangers as they weathered storms, crossed violent rivers and skirted stampedes.

Mary Evans Picture Library

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Sidebar(with photo of Criollo horse demonstrating ranching skills at a South American rodeo ON THE JOB To help with the cattle drive, a cowhand’s horse developed specialized skills. Argentine gauchos taught their horses to run shoulder to shoulder with massive steers and to use their strength to pull lassoed cattle for branding. Today, many riders still practice these moves at Argentine rodeos, or domas.

Eduardo Amorim

Photo: Remington illustration of cattle drive Did You Know? Between 1865 and 1890, U.S. cowboys drove more than 6 million head of longhorn cattle from the Texas range to ranches and railroad stations hundreds of miles to the north. This 1888 engraving by Frederic Remington captures life on the trail.

AMNH Library

Object: Argentine stirrups and quirt STIRRUPS AND WHIP Because a gaucho moved from place to place, he traditionally kept few possessions. He might carry what wealth he had in the form of horse gear trimmed with silver, like the stirrups and riding whip shown here.

Stirrups Argentina Date unknown Wood, leather, silver Loan courtesy the International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 2000.020.002 A,B

Whip Argentina Date unknown Silver, wood, leather Loan courtesy the International Museum of the horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 2000.020.001

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Object: Stirrups Stirrups Brazil 1889 Silver Loan courtesy the International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 2000.020.003A,B

Object: spurs Spurs Peru Early 1800s Silver American Museum of Natural History 40.0/2267A,B

Object: Bolas BOLAS To stop cattle in their tracks, Argentine gauchos carried bolas, hunting weapons used by the native people of the South American plains. Three lengths of rope were bound together, with balls attached to the ends. Holding onto one ball, a gaucho whirled the others around his head and then flung the bolas. The ropes whipped around an animal’s legs so it fell to the ground.

Argentina Early 1900s Ivory, copper alloy, silver, hide, rawhide American Museum of Natural History 40.0/2384

Object: Painting COWPUNCHER During spring roundups on North America’s Western Plains, cowboys brought cattle in from the open range so that ranchers could survey their stock and calves could be sorted and branded. Horses had to respond at the blink of an eye to help riders rope in strays.

The Challenge United States 1985, by Joyce Brock Lee Oil on canvas American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 101

Cattle Trail map THE GREAT CATTLE TRAILS In 1860, more than six times as many cattle as people lived in the U.S. state of Texas. The cowboy’s job was to move this livestock to towns and cities where beef was in demand. When the first railroads stretched westward in the mid-1860s, new markets opened up, and the era of the great cattle drives began.

For about 30 years, cowboys on horseback drove millions of cattle from the Texas range to stockyards and railheads in Missouri, Kansas and Colorado, or even farther to fresh rangelands that opened up in the north. This map shows the legendary trails they traveled, until changing markets, modern transport and barbed wire fences drew the age of the cowboy to a close.

Shawnee Trail (1840s–1860s) Chisholm, McCoy or Eastern Trail (1867–1880s) Goodnight-Loving Trail (1866–1880s) Great Western or Dodge City Trail (1874–1890s)

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SECTION INTRO:

SPORTS

A well-trained horse is a magnificent athlete. Most horses, no matter what breed, can trot for many hours without resting. A fit quarter horse can sprint a quarter-mile (402 meters) in less than 21 seconds, and a talented thoroughbred can jump a fence more than seven feet (2.1 meters) tall.

Equestrian sports make the most of these skills, while also pushing human athletes to perfect their horsemanship. In sporting events, people and horses must cooperate brilliantly to succeed.

Library of Congress

Object: Pakistani whip (with photo of buzkashi players) WHAT IS IT?

Found in Afghanistan Made in the late 1800s Crafted of hide, rawhide, iron and white metal American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

A riding whip for the game buzkashi

In the Central Asian game called buzkashi, players fight for control of a heavy bundle made from the carcass of a slaughtered goat. When necessary, riders hold their whips in their teeth to keep their hands free.

AP/Wide World Photos

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Banner 6.6.0 (rodeo)

COWBOY CONTEST

Daredevil athletes test their skill at riding and roping at sporting events like the Grand National Rodeo and the Calgary Stampede. Rodeos can be traced to a time when cowboys competed for fun after rounding up cattle each autumn and spring.

In the popular rodeo sport known as bronc riding, horse and human battle each other. The “bucking bronco” tries to throw the rider off, even as the rider fights for control. Bronc riding is based on a method for breaking horses where a cowboy rides by force until the horse is tamed. But in rodeo, the action is just a performance. Most bucking horses are specially bred for their jobs and may work as broncos for years.

Objects: Rodeo posters RODEO POSTERS

Rodeo began as a form of popular entertainment and has roots in the traveling “Wild West” shows that first emerged in the late 1800s. Over time, these staged events developed into competitive sports.

Many rodeo contests—especially bronc riding—can be dangerous for both riders and their horses. Concerns for the safety and well-being of rodeo broncs and other animals have prompted a number of communities in North America to pass laws specifying how rodeo animals should be treated.

Calgary Stampede Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1981

Grand National Rodeo San Francisco, California, USA c. 1940–1960

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Pawnee Bill’s Historic Wild West United States 1889 Facsimile

Strawberry Roan Rodeo United States 1930s Facsimile

La Fiesta de los Vaqueros Tucson, Arizona, USA 1984

Sonoma Marin Fair Rodeo Petaluma, California, USA 1957 Facsimile

All posters American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

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Banner 6.6.1 (breeding racehorses)

BRED FOR SPEED

The horse is one of the world’s fastest land animals. A galloping horse can top 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour—a breathless pace compared to a person running on foot. Perhaps it’s not surprising, then, that almost everywhere horses are found, people love putting their speed to the test.

The finest racehorses have long legs and powerful muscles. These traits first evolved in the wild, where horses had to move fast to flee predators and travel far to find food. Eventually, horse breeders chose some of the longest, leanest horses to develop racing breeds that are especially sleek, slender and swift.

AMNH Library

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Label Deck 6.6.1a (skeleton of trotter)

Object: Skeleton of trotter STANDARDBRED TROTTER Some horses are bred to race at a fast trot instead of a gallop, while pulling a driver in a lightweight cart called a sulky (overhead). This skeleton shows the long, low lines of a typical American standardbred, the fastest of all trotting breeds.

Standardbreds are descended from thoroughbred racehorses and have a similar lean build, but with shorter legs and heavier bones. In the 1800s, breeders selected horses that could trot or pace a mile (1.6 kilometers) within the “standard” time of 2 ½ minutes to develop the breed.

The bronze sculpture in front shows a champion trotter, known as Lee Axworthy, who was the first horse in racing history to trot a mile (1.6 kilometers) in less than two minutes.

Standardbred horse skeleton Equus caballus American Museum of Natural History (replica)

Model of Lee Axworthy United States 1925, by Amory Coffin Simons Bronze American Museum of Natural History Mammalogy

Sulky United States c. 1935 Wood, metal, rubber, paint, leather The Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame, Goshen, NY, TM309.98

Photo: Lee Axworthy HOW FAST WAS THIS HORSE? In a harness race against the clock, the standardbred racehorse Lee Axworthy trotted a mile (1.6 kilometers) in one minute, 58 1/4 seconds, for an average speed of just over 30 miles per hour. An ordinary horse gallops at about the same speed.

Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 107

Label Deck 6.6.1b

Sidebar What Makes a Great Racehorse? By taking bone samples from skeletons, scientists in Great Britain are studying the DNA of successful thoroughbreds, including the champion racehorse Eclipse, pictured here. Born in 1764, this sensational stallion never lost a race. But most researchers agree that genetics are just a small part of what makes a champion. The environment in which a horse is raised, its food, training and the jockey who rides it can make all the difference in its success.

The Granger Collection, New York

Object: 3 framed prints showing Thoroughbred sires FOUNDING FATHERS The most illustrious racehorses in sports today are thoroughbreds—strong, long-legged, sensitive animals famed for their beauty as well as their speed. Thoroughbred horses are bred to carry a jockey and race at a gallop. The breed was founded in England in the 1700s, after three legendary stallions were brought to Europe from North Africa and the Near East. All thoroughbreds—winners and losers—are descended from these “foundation sires.” Pictured at right, they are known as the Darley Arabian (top), Godolphin Barb (center) and Byerley Turk (bottom).

The Darley Arabian England Lithograph after John Wootton (1682–1764) Paper, ink, paint American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

The Godolphin Barb England Lithograph after George Stubbs (1724–1806) Paper, ink, paint American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

The Byerley Turk England Lithograph after John Wootton (1682–1764) Paper, ink, paint American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 108

Banner 6.6.4 (thoroughbred racing)

SPORT OF KINGS The most celebrated horse races today are thoroughbred races, where jockeys ride at top speed around a flat course. Only horses of the thoroughbred breed can enter these intense competitions.

Thoroughbred racing began around 300 years ago in England, where the idea of breeding a superior racehorse was a passion of royalty. Since that time, the sport has taken hold in many other regions, including the Americas, Australia, East Asia and the Middle East. Now anyone can come to the track and be a part of the “sport of kings.” And even an ordinary racing fan who bets on a favorite horse can win or lose a royal sum in a single day.

Doliwa/AGE Fotostock

Label Deck 6.6.4 (Triple Crown trophies)

THE WINNER’S CIRCLE The most coveted horseracing prize in the United States is the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing. To take home the Triple Crown, a horse must win three races for three-year-old thoroughbreds that take place just a few weeks apart: the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes. A horse must be very talented—or incredibly lucky—to finish first in all three. Only 11 horses have been named Triple Crown champions since the first winner, Sir Barton, in 1919.

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Fun facts FROM THE HORSE’S MOUTH

Many common expressions in the English language come from horseracing:

When a jockey is sure his horse is about to cross the finish line first, he may lower his hands and let up on the reins to win hands down.

A racehorse that is unfamiliar to racing fans is a dark horse.

The part of a racecourse between the last turn and the finish line is the homestretch.

A racing fan with an inside tip on a likely winner may say it came straight from the horse’s mouth.

Photo caption: Arabian horse breed Daughters of the Wind Thoroughbred racehorses are descended from the Arabian breed, famed for its grace, spirit and endurance. Centuries ago, Bedouin breeders began raising Arabian horses in the deserts of the Middle East. According to one story that has been passed down, God created the Arabian horse from a handful of wind. In Arab tradition, mares are more prized than stallions, and many poets have sung the praises of these “daughters of the wind.”

Juniors Bildarchiv/AGE Fotosrock

Objects: Triple crown trophies TRIPLE CROWN In 1943, a lean, brown colt named Count Fleet seized the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, one of the highest achievements in U.S. equine sports. “When he wants to run, he can just about fly,” said a stable boy of this swift-footed champion. After taking the Belmont Stakes by a record-setting 25 lengths, Count Fleet left the tracks and returned to his home in Paris, Kentucky, where he lived to the ripe old age of 33. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 110

Kentucky Derby Trophy Louisville, Kentucky, USA 1943 Gold Collection of the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame, Saratoga Springs, NY

Preakness Stakes Trophy Laurel, Maryland 1943 Silver Collection of the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame, Saratoga Springs, NY

Belmont Stakes Trophy Elmont, New York 1943 Silver Collection of the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame, Saratoga Springs, NY

Triple Crown Trophy United States 1950 Silver Collection of the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame, Saratoga Springs, NY

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Banner 6.6.2 (Ancient Greece)

THE CHARIOT RACE

In ancient Greece, one of the most gripping—and dangerous—athletic events for both horses and men was the chariot race, a sport that dates back at least to 700 BC. Spectators gathered to watch as horse teams pulled drivers in two-wheeled carts around a track with a hairpin turn at each end.

Chariot races were held in a specially built arena, or hippodrome, with posts marking the turning points. As many as 10 chariots raced at a time, each pulled by two- or four-horse teams.

Label Deck 6.6.2a (Parthenon frieze)

Object: Cast of Parthenon frieze A DAY AT THE RACES This panel from the Parthenon, the great temple of Athena in Athens, Greece, shows horseback riders celebrating the Great Panathenaea, a religious festival capped by a day of sporting events much like the Olympic Games.

Horse-drawn chariot races were among the most spectacular contests held during the Great Panathenaea. In one form of chariot race, warriors had to leap from a moving chariot, run beside it and then leap back in. The winner of a four-horse chariot race was awarded 140 ceramic pots full of olive oil, a particularly extravagant prize.

Stone Relief Athens, Greece 438–432 BC American Museum of Natural History Exhibition (cast) Original in The British Museum

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Sidebar on Xenophon The Golden Rule One of the oldest existing works on the care and training of horses was written by the Greek historian Xenophon in 350 BC. Xenophon offered tips for mounting a horse, controlling its movements and even fighting on horseback—at a time in Greek history when saddles and stirrups were still unknown. Like many modern horse trainers, Xenophon also taught that riders should treat their horses with understanding. In dealing with a horse, he wrote, “The one best precept—the golden rule—is never to approach him angrily.”

Photo of equestrian event at modern Olympics OLYMPIC SPORTS Horses became part of the Olympic Games in 684 BC, when four-horse chariot races were held in the hippodrome at Olympia. At today’s Olympics, horses and riders display their skill in jumping, dressage and cross- country competitions. Here Canadian equestrian Ian Millar and his horse Promise Me clear a jump at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece.

AP/Wide World Photos

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Banner 6.6.5 (Polo)

BATTLE FOR THE BALL Horses and riders sprint, shove and spin around when playing a fast-paced game of polo. By swinging a mallet, each player tries to drive a ball over the goal of the opposite team.

The horses used in polo are often called ponies, but they can belong to any breed, large or small. A well- trained polo pony will gallop at the touch of a spur and hold a straight course while the rider leans out to swing the mallet. Quick turns, hard knocks and collisions are common. The fray is exhausting, so every few minutes, fresh horses are brought into the game.

Collection Kharbine Tapabor, Paris/The Bridgeman Art Library

Label Deck 6.6.5 (Polo case)

CONTACT SPORT Polo ponies are trained from an early age to muscle other horses aside when following the ball. Even at a gallop, they can lean on opponents to drive them away. A well-trained horse responds instantly to a polo player’s signals, makes appropriate moves on its own and even anticipates play.

Sidebar EAST TO WEST British officers first learned to play polo in the mid-1800s in India, where the game dates back more than 500 years. After catching on in Great Britain, it spread to other parts of the world. Today, Argentina is a major center for polo. Argentine polo ponies are typically bred from thoroughbreds crossed with criollos, South American ranch horses known for their cattle-herding skills.

Michel Setboun/drr.net

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Photo of polo players in Work to Ride program POLO POWER In a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, program called Work to Ride, high school students who may never have ridden a horse before are learning to play polo. In 1999, players began competing across the United States after forming the first all African-American interscholastic polo team.

Work To Ride, Inc.

Object: Nacho Figueras’ Polo shirt POLO GEAR This polo shirt belongs to Argentine polo player Ignacio “Nacho” Figueras, a member of the Black Watch team of East Hampton, New York, and Palm Beach, Florida. A typical polo team has four players, who wear numbers indicating their positions. Highly rated players are often assigned the number 2 spot and play both offense and defense at all times.

Shirt United States c. 2006 Cotton Black Watch Polo Team

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Object: Mallet MALLET AND BALL During the game, a polo player must lean down from the saddle and strike a ball with a mallet like the one shown here, often while the horse is galloping down the field. The handle is traditionally made from a specially treated length of cane. Handles can be firm or more flexible, depending on the player’s preference. Experienced players often use very bendable mallets, which are harder to aim but ensure a more powerful swing.

Mallet Argentina c. 2006 Wood, cane, paint, fabric Black Watch Polo Team

Ball Argentina c. 2006 Plastic Black Watch Polo Team

Object: Helmet Helmet United States c. 2006 Plastic, polyurethane foam padding, cotton, synthetic fiber, rubber, metal Black Watch Polo Team

Object: Whip Whip Argentina c. 2006 Fiberglass, nylon, rubber, fabric Black Watch Polo Team The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 116

Banner 6.6.6 (Hunting on horseback)

THE THRILL OF THE CHASE

In Europe, Asia and the Middle East, hunting on horseback has long been a favorite pastime of the ruling classes. During the Middle Ages, young noblemen were encouraged to learn skills such as tracking down game and shooting while riding as preparation for war.

Other animals sometimes helped with the chase, including hounds, hawks, falcons and even big cats. Horses had to be trained to work calmly side by side with these hunting partners and to follow in swift pursuit when hunting parties spotted their prey.

© British Library Board

Label Deck 6.6.6a (Hunting on horseback)

BIG GAME

Hunting on horseback is an ancient sport. Stone carvings from ruins in the Middle East show that horses were used in royal lion hunts more than 2,600 years ago. In the fourth century AD, Iranian kings kept game parks where hunters on horseback stalked dangerous beasts such as bears, leopards and wild boars. It took strength, speed and courage to hunt large animals like these, so hunters selected their horses with care.

The Granger Collection, New York

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Photo of modern fox hunting HOT ON THE TRAIL In the 1700s, British aristocrats made foxhunting into a popular sport. A master on horseback leads the chase, helped by a team of assistants and a pack of hounds. To follow the hounds cross-country, horses must jump over hedges, fences and streams. Traditional foxhunts are now banned in most parts of Great Britain, though they are still held in other parts of the world.

Juniors Bildarchiv/AGE Fotostock

Object: Ceramic jar with hunting scene CERAMIC JAR A playful hunting scene decorates this container, which once served as the bowl of a hubble-bubble, or water pipe. Images of hunters on horseback have long appeared as symbols of nobility in the art of Central Asia and Iran.

Iran Early 1800s Ceramic, glaze American Museum of Natural History 70.2/8152

Object: Shield with etched decoration SHIELD In western Asia and the Middle East, young men of the royal court once proved their mettle by hunting dangerous game. This ornamental shield displays scenes from a lion hunt, with hunters and horses decked out in princely attire.

Kabul, Afghanistan 1900s Iron, hide, thread, pigment American Museum of Natural History 70.2/4639

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7.1.0 Section Intro: Horses Today

AN ENDURING BOND Horses no longer carry soldiers into battle or pull plows and stage-coaches as they once did. But our long relationship with these majestic animals has not ended. Horses are still part of our lives. Today, however, they are used less for work, travel and warfare and more for companionship and recreation.

In the past century, the number of horses in the United States and Canada dropped dramatically—and then climbed again. With more than 58 million horses in the world today, the enduring bond between horses and humans will remain strong for many years to come.

WHAT IS IT?

BLACK BEAUTY: THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A HORSE Since its publication in 1877, Black Beauty has sold over 30 million copies. Written from the point of view of a horse, the book was intended by its author, Anna Sewell, to make people treat workhorses with more kindness and understanding.

First published in Great Britain Written in 1877 by Anna Sewell American Museum of Natural History Exhibition The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 119

7.4.0a: Racehorse injuries/safer tracks

PROTECTING RACEHORSES In the spring of 2006, the thoroughbred colt Barbaro was the talk of the racing world. Undefeated going into the Kentucky Derby, America’s most prized race, Barbaro won that contest by over six lengths. But then, just a few weeks later, in the Preakness Stakes, he stumbled—no one knows why—and broke his right hind leg in more than 20 places. Even with the best possible medical treatment, including six surgeries, Barbaro could not be saved.

Despite the many impressive medical advances now used to treat injured horses, it is still usually impossible to save an animal with a broken leg. If a horse is unable to stand and is in constant pain, the only humane option is often euthanasia. Fortunately, however, some new strategies offer hope of preventing such injuries before they occur.

sidebar: Photo of Barbaro in a sling, and X-ray of Barbaro’s bones with surgical pins BROKEN LEGS Fatigued bodies are prone to injury, and racing stresses limbs to the limit. To make matters worse, racehorses are bred for speed, not bulk. Their long, thin, lightweight leg bones can withstand the impact of hooves slamming into the ground, if they land cleanly—but if they don’t, their legs can twist and break.

Unlike humans, horses rarely recover from broken legs. Lack of exercise can damage the tissue connecting the hoof to the leg, a painful illness called laminitis, which ended Barbaro’s recovery. Here, Barbaro is lifted on a sling from a pool (right) after surgeons inserted pins in his broken leg (x-ray, left). The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 120

SIDEBAR WITH ACTUAL POLYTRACK SAMPLE

ON THE RIGHT TRACK The thundering hooves of a thoroughbred strike the track with incredible force. If a horse is fatigued or lands on a rock, its legs can twist and snap. To reduce the risk of injury, some racetracks have installed synthetic surfaces that cushion the impact and prevent missteps. At the first synthetic racetrack in the U.S., Kentucky’s Turfway Park, catastrophic injuries dropped from 16 to three in the first year. Today all major racetracks in California are required to use synthetic surfaces.

caption callouts for cross section of polytrack sample

SYNTHETIC TRACK Synthetic racing surfaces have several layers that provide a stable, cushioned surface with good drainage.

- Polytrack polypropylene fibers, rubber and sand, coated with wax

- Porous asphalt

- Crushed rock

- Fabric filter

- Perforated drainage pipes

Polytrack credit TK

The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 121

7.4.0b Wild Horses

PROTECTING WILD HORSES

Across the globe, there are small populations of wild horses that roam free, ridden by no one. Among the most famous of these are the mustangs of the American West. But mustangs, like many other “wild” populations, are actually descended from escaped domesticated horses. The only truly wild horses live in Asia: the Przewalski horses of Mongolia have never been domesticated by anyone.

Today, all wild horses need human help to survive. As people made more and more demands on the land for livestock and human use, their numbers dwindled. Consider the case of the mustangs. The mustang population dropped from about two million in 1900 to just 17,300 in 1971. That year the U.S. Congress passed a law protecting mustangs, which stated, "Congress finds and declares that wild free- roaming horses and burros are living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West." About 30,000 mustangs remain on public land today.

SIDEBAR:

MUSTANGS Horses have roamed free in the American West since the Spanish brought these animals to North America in the 1500s. For years, wild mustangs were rounded up and used for anything from rodeos to dog food, until a 1971 law made it illegal to kill or capture them. Most Americans strongly favor protecting mustangs, but some worry that they harm native plants and animals and drain conservation resources, and cattle ranchers complain about sharing land with horses. Mustangs today have few natural predators so their populations rise quickly if left unchecked. Since 2000, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has been reducing the number of mustangs on public lands, but the question of how many horses to remove remains controversial. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 122

OBJECT CAPTION: ADOPTION CERTIFICATE Courtesy of the Wild Horse & Burro Program, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior

Photo caption of adopted horse and owner ADOPT A MUSTANG The U.S. Bureau of Land Management controls the number of wild mustangs by regularly capturing a specific number and offering them for adoption. Many remain in corrals for years without finding homes—but this mustang, Calamity Jane, was adopted in 2004 by Carrie Frazier (above).

SIDEBAR: PRZEWALSKI HORSES

THE LAST WILD HORSES Mustangs and wild ponies from Assateague, Virginia, or Sable Island, off Novia Scotia, Canada, capture our imagination—but the only truly wild horses alive today are the Przewalski horses of Mongolia. They nearly became extinct in the 1960s, when the last free-roaming wild horses in Mongolia died. Fortunately, captive populations remained in zoos, although at one point, that population dwindled to no more than 15 horses. But these animals were bred successfully, and since 1992, many have been released into the wild. By 2005, the number of Przewalski horses reached 1,500, with 248 living in the wild in Mongolia. The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 123

Enduring Bond photo gallery captions

Xavier Jijon riding Diluvio in Quito, Ecuador Xavier Jijon

Caption: Jackie McDonald (right) greets Chevron and rider Kim McDonald at the Glanbrook Cadora dressage show in Ontario, Canada Richard Siemens

Renan Weber riding Norteña in Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Eduardo Amorim

Juliana Manzini on her horse in Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Eduardo Amorim

Holly Brown leading her miniature horse Pearl in a 4H competition at the Canadian National Exhibition in Ontario, Canada Bill Strong

Makhmoud al-Bdoul walking his horse after a race near Kerak, Jordan Eleanor A. Power

Wigdan Barbare with the foal of her mare Bagdada in Cairo, Egypt Maryanne Gabbani

Batbaatar Javhlantugs with two horses in Mongolia Michael Scholten

Suzie Byrd riding her adopted mustang, Siraya, at the Johnson County Fairgrounds in Warrensburg, Missouri, USA Abbie Turner

Kareem Rosser and Matilda playing polo in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA Jennifer Wenzel

Helen van der Heide riding Isabelle in Sint Jansklooster, The Netherlands Marjolein Lolkema

Amanda Gilliland riding Tiny in Alabama, USA Tricia Gilliland The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 124

Lucien Dumont feeding Luna in Soignies, Belgium Fabrice Dumont

Danielle Meyboom with Jauke in Eindhoven, The Netherlands Danielle Meyboom

Warren Matsumoto and his grandaughter Leysie with Nui in Hawaii, USA Pete Orelup

Savannah Ward leading Answer in Virginia, USA Jade Krafsig

Larry Carter and Sobradodepaz awaiting competition at the Kenton County Fair in Kentucky, USA Cat Pentescu, www.imagesbycat.com

Shane DeLeon with Buster Brown in Texas, USA BLM

Ray Bailey riding Sir Kai, his adopted mustang, in Nevada, USA Diane Garland The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 125

7.2.0 Breeds Interactive (Graphic panel introduction)

HORSE BREEDS

All horse breeds, from tiny Shetland ponies to massive Clydesdales to speedy thoroughbreds, are members of a single species, Equus caballus. Over the years, humans modified this species through selective breeding. The result: numerous breeds suited for specific tasks, in a variety of colors, shapes and sizes. Since genetic traits are inherited from both parents, carefully selecting horses to mate with each other eventually yielded offspring with the desired qualities.

Horse breeds are not scientific categories, like species. Still, there are clear differences between them, and today over 200 different breeds are recognized.

Touch the screen to learn more about a variety of popular breeds.

List of breeds:

Abyssinian Akhal Teke Albanian Altai American Cream Draft American Creme and White American Walking Pony Andalusian Andravida Anglo-Kabarda Appaloosa Araappaloosa Arabian Ardennes Argentine Criollo Asturian Australian Brumby Australian Stock Horse Azteca Balearic The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 126

Baluchi Banker Ban-ei Barb Bashkir Bashkir Curly Basotho Pony Belgian Bhirum Pony Bhotia Pony Black Forest Boer Breton Buckskin Budyonny Byelorussian Harness Camargue Campolina Canadian Carthusian Caspian Cayuse Cheju Chilean Corralero Chincoteague Pony Cleveland Bay Clydesdale Colorado Ranger Horse Connemara Pony Criollo (Uruguay) 50 Crioulo Dales Pony Danube Dartmoor Pony Deliboz Djerma Døle Dongola Dülmen Pony Dutch Draft Dutch Warmblood East Bulgarian Egyptian Eriskay Pony Estonian Native Exmoor Pony Faeroes Pony Falabella Fell Pony Finnhorse Fleuve Fouta The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 127

Frederiksborg French Saddlebred French Trotter Friesian Galiceño Galician Pony Gelderlander Gidran Golden American Saddlebred Gotland Groningen Guangxi Hackney Haflinger Hanoverian Hequ Highland Pony Hokkaido Holsteiner Hucul Hungarian Warmblood Icelandic Iomud Irish Draught Jinzhou Jutland Kabarda Karabair 100 Karabakh Kazakh Kerry Bog Pony Kiger Mustang Kirdi Pony Kisber Felver Kiso Kladruby Knabstrup Kushum Kustanai Latvian Lithuanian Heavy Draft Lipizzan Lokai Losino Lusitano Malopolski Mangalarga Marwari M'Bayar Mérens Pony Messara Miniature The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 128

Misaki Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Miyako Mongolian Morab Morgan Moyle Mustang Murgese National Show Horse New Forest Pony New Kirgiz Newfoundland Pony Noma Nooitgedacht Pony Noric Nordland Northeastern North Swedish Horse Norwegian Fjord Ob Oldenburg Orlov Trotter Paint Palomino Pantaneiro 150 Paso Fino Percheron Peruvian Paso Pindos Pony Pinia Pintabian Pinto Polish Konik Pony of the Americas Pottok Przewalski Pyrenean Tarpan Qatgani Quarab Quarter Horse Quarter Pony Racking Horse Rocky Mountain Horse Russian Don Russian Heavy Draft Russian Trotter Saddlebred Sanhe Schleswiger Heavy Draft Schwarzwälder Fuchs Selle Francais The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 129

Shagya Shetland Pony Shire Single-Footing Horse Skyros Pony Somali Pony Sorraia Soviet Heavy Draft Spanish Mustang Spanish-Barb Spanish-Norman Standardbred Sudan Country-Bred Suffolk Swedish Warmblood Taishuh Tarpan Tawleed Tennessee Walking Horse Tersk Thessalian Thoroughbred Tokara Tori Trakehner Ukrainian Saddle Vlaamperd Vladimir Heavy Draft Vyatka Welara Pony Welsh Pony and Cob West African Barb Western Sudan Pony Wielkopolski Xilingol Yakut Yanqi Yili Yonaguni Zaniskari Pony Zhemaichu

Source: Breeds of Livestock Project, Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University

The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 130

6.1.1 AMNH horse toys

TOYS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

As the toys in this case show, horses are deeply woven into the way we think about ourselves and our world. Horses are no longer the engine of our economy, but they remain part of our lives in stories, books and films. Whether imagining a knight in shining armor, a dusty cowboy or a fairy tale princess, it is hard to imagine a hero without also imagining a horse. Horses are more than just part of our history. They have become part of who we are.

HORSE AND RIDER DOLL North America 1940–1962, Seminole Palmetto fiber, cotton American Museum of Natural History 50.2/6409A,B

RED-AND-GOLD TOY SOLDIER Afghanistan c. 1963 Wood, adhesive, paper, foil, paint, hair American Museum of Natural History 70.2/4762

HORSE AND CART Quebec, Canada c. 1800s Wood, metal, paint Canadian Museum of Civilization 59-2

METAL HORSE ON WHEELS India Date unknown Copper alloy, silk, cotton American Museum of Natural History 70.2/8022

WINDUP HARNESS RACER Japan c. 1958 Metal, string, paint The Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame, Goshen, New York TM405.01

WOODEN PULL TOY Italy 2007 The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 131

Wood, paint, cotton, synthetics American Museum of Natural History Exhibition

The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 132

Label 7.7.0 (Deborah Butterfield sculpture) sculpture by Deborah Butterfield SUGI

Deborah Butterfield has been building horse sculptures for more than 35 years. She shapes her art from a wide variety of materials, both natural and industrial. “My horses’ gestures are really quiet,” Butterfield has said of her work, “but their internal space reflects great movement and energy.”

This sculpture was inspired by two Japanese icons. The Sugi tree (Cryptomeria japonica), a type of large evergreen often planted near temples and shrines, is the national tree of Japan. And Chiune Sugihara was a Japanese diplomat in Lithuania who saved thousands of Jewish refugees during World War II.

United States 1997, by Deborah Butterfield Bronze Courtesy of the artist The Horse @ Utah– July 19, 2014 - 133

QUOTES

FIRST BANNER The wind of heaven is that which blows between a horse's ears. –Arabian proverb

A horse is a thing of beauty…none will tire of looking at him as long as he displays himself in his splendor. –Ancient Greek historian Xenophon (c. 430-350 BC)

Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? –The Bible, Book of Job, 39: 19

SECOND BANNER We can use the wisdom of an old horse. Release the old horses and follow them, and thereby reach the right road. –Guan Zhong, Chinese politician and scholar (725- 645 BC)

God forbid that I should go to any heaven in which there are no horses. –Scottish politician R.B. Cunninghame-Graham in a letter to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt (1917)

Wild, wild horses, we'll ride them some day –English rock group The Rolling Stones, “Wild Horses” (1971)