International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATION EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

ONLINE ISSN: 2411-2933 PRINT - ISSN: 2411-3123

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Volume- 3 Number- 2

February Edition International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-3 No-2, 2015 About the Journal

Name: International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

Publisher: Shubash Biswas International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 44/1 Kallyanpur Main road Mirpur, Dhaka 1207 Bangladesh. Tel: +8801827488077

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Edition: February 2015

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Editorial

Dear authors, reviewers, and readers

It has been a month since I was given the privilege to serve as the Chief Editor of the International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER). It is a great pleasure for me to shoulder this duty and to welcome you to THE VOL-3, ISSUE-2 of IJIER which is scheduled to be published on 3th February 2015.

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER) is an open access, peer-reviewed and refereed multidisciplinary journal which is published by the International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher (IERFP). IJIER aims to promote academic interchange and attempts to sustain a closer cooperation among academics, researchers, policy makers and practitioners from a wide range of disciplines, which contribute to state of the art in science, education, and humanities. It provides a forum for the exchange of information in the fields mentioned above by welcoming original research papers, survey papers, and work-in-progress reports on promising developments, case studies, and best practice papers. The journal will continue to publish high-quality papers and will also ensure that the published papers achieve broad international credibility. The Chief Editor, appointed by the Associate Editors and the Editorial Board, is in charge for every task for publication and other editorial issues related to the Journal. All submitted manuscripts are first screensed by the editorial board. Those papers judged by the editors to be of insufficient general interest or otherwise inappropriate are rejected promptly without external review. Those papers that seem most likely to meet our editorial criteria are sent to experts for formal review, typically to one reviewer, but sometimes more if special advice is needed. The chief editor and the editors then make a decision based on the reviewers' advice. We wish to encourage more contributions from the scientific community to ensure a continued success of the journal. We also welcome comments and suggestions that could improve the quality of the journal.

I would like to express my gratitude to all members of the editorial board for their courageous attempt, to authors and readers who have supported the journal and to those who are going to be with us on our journey to the journal to the higher level.

Thanks, Dr Eleni Griva Ass. Professor of Applied Linguistics Department of Primary Education University of Western Macedonia- Greece Email: [email protected]

Paper ID Title Page 308 Teachers’ Belief and Practices in Teacher-Centered Empowerment Reform in 1-16 Taiwan Authors: Yu Shu Kao 309 The Vital Bridge Transforming Postgraduate Nurse Education And Employability To 17-24 Employment Authors: Hardip Kaur Dhillon, Gurmeet Kaur, Jasminder Kaur, Anuar Zaini Md Zain 310 Today’s Cutting Edge in Research Education Increases Tomorrow’s Employability 25-34 Authors: Hardip Kaur Dhillon, Beatrice Low Wei Jin 311 The Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School: Heritage, Transformation, and 35-48 Renovation Authors: Yu Ju Hung 312 Using Response Cards to Increase Student Participation in an Inclusive Classroom 49-61 Authors: Kate D Simmons, Luke Smith 313 Dental Interns' Attitudes toward case-based learning (CBL) 62-70 A Qualitative study. Authors: Ammar A AbuMostafa 314 Tobacco Smoking among Medical Students in the Middle East 71-77 Identifying Areas for Intervention Authors: Salman Alzayani, Randah R Hamadeh 315 Education Technology Policy In Teaching And Learning 78-86 Authors: Christina John, Mohamad Bin Bilal Ali 316 The Relationship Between Perceived Quality Dimensions and Growth in Distance 87-105 Education The Case of External Degree Programme of the University of Nairobi, Kenya Authors: Peter K Nzuki, Omondi Bowa, Samson O. Gunga 317 Education The Retooling Challenge 106-113 Authors: J Anne Affeld, Martha Affeld 318 Cross-Cultural Differences in Coping, Connectedness and Psychological Distress 114-125 among University Students Authors: Aileen M Pidgeon, Tara S. Bales, Barbara C.Y Lo, Peta Stapleton, Heidi B. Magyar 319 Remote Sensing and Topographic Information in a GIS environment for Urban 126-142 Growth and Change Case Study Amman the Capital of Jordan Authors: Mahmoud M. S Albattah 320 The Impact of Quality Management Practices on the Extended Curriculum 143-152 Programme at a University of Technology Authors: Felicity Harris, CM Moll 321 A Case Study of Teaching Integrated Marketing Communication Using an Innovative 153-160 Group Internship Project Authors: Subir Bandyopadhyay

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher ©2015 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 February 2015 322 Education in the 21st Century Oľga Bočáková, Darina Kubíčková 160-169 Authors: Subir Bandyopadhyay

Teachers’ Belief and Practices in Teacher-Centered Empowerment Reform in Taiwan

Yu-Shu Kao National Chi Nan University Department of Educational Policy and Administration 1 University Rd., Puli, Nantou Hsien Taiwan 545 Republic of China Phone number: 886-49-2910960 ext. 2870 Fax number: 886-49-2917191 Correspondence email: [email protected]

Biography: Yu-Shu Kao is an assistant professor at National Chi-Nan University. Her research interests focus on teachers’ professional identity, school democracy, and teacher empowerment. Yu-Shu Kao is the corresponding author National Chi Nan University, Department of Educational Policy and Administration is the affiliation where the research was conducted

Acknowledgement This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C., under Grant NSC 93 - 2413 - H - 260 - 008.

Abstract

Over the past 2 decades, Taiwan has introduced a series of decentralization reforms in school administration and curriculum. Teachers, who are at the center of these reforms, are expected to enrich their knowledge and cultivate strong beliefs regarding these reforms; the teachers’ beliefs and knowledge are not only affected by their personal profile but also by contextual factors of structure and culture at all levels. I conducted this study in order to explore these factors and determine how they affect teachers’ beliefs and practices. Qualitative methods guided this study in which a case-study approach was used. The findings of this study highlight a variety of factors that were identified by teachers. Contextual factors of structure and culture identified by the teachers include the context of the classroom, school administration and top-down authority, teachers’ culture, and government policy. The personal factors include personality, educational background and teacher preparation, demographic profiles, and teachers’ abilities. For the purpose of developing a comprehensive and culturally sensitive model of belief development, implications for practice and future research are provided.

Keywords: teacher empowerment, teacher-centered reform, teachers’ beliefs, Taiwan, teachers’ thinking

Introduction

In this article, I examine teacher empowerment in the context of Taiwan’s decentralization reform. The two dimensions of teacher empowerment addressed involve (a) a decentralization of the policymaking authority in schoolwide administration and (b) curriculum development. A case study of one secondary school and two elementary schools is used here to illustrate the factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and practices while they

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 1 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 undergo transformation and start using their power and exerting influence on school operations.

Educational Reform in the Taiwanese Context: Decentralization of the School Structure

Because teachers are front-line education practitioners, they are widely considered to strongly influence the extent to which fundamental change might occur as a result of reform policies being implemented (Chang, 2001; Woodbury & Gess-Newsome, 2002). Thus, teacher empowerment has received considerable attention globally. Following this trend, Taiwan has introduced, since the mid-1990s, a series of educational reform movements in Compulsory Education for Primary and Junior High School by either amending education laws or instituting new laws in order to ensure decentralization, deregulation, and diversification in numerous aspects of school operation (Fwu & Wang, 2002). The Education Basic Law was passed in 1999 and it declared the significance of teachers’ professional autonomy and involvement in school policymaking. Currently, school members and local governments are deeply involved in making decisions regarding principal assignment, teacher recruitment, and resource allocation (Chang, 1997). At the school level, the site council has been transformed to serve as the highest schoolwide decision-making body that enables school stakeholders to exert their power while helping improve the quality of school education. Teachers’ leadership roles in school, such as their roles in the site council, principal-selection committee, and teacher-evaluation committee, are highlighted by the finding that teachers represent nearly 50% of the members of these groups.

Nine-year integration program

The empowerment program offered through the new curriculum framework not only devotes effort toward integrating over 20 subjects into 9 major learning areas, but also manifests the core essence of the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum. In response to the demands of the advocates of the nationwide educational-reform movement, in 1993, the central government granted local governments, schools, and teachers the authority to select curricula and teaching materials in order to respond locally to individual differences in students’ academic achievement. Schools can even develop their own teaching materials in an effort to provide a learning environment that promotes community values and culture. This large-scale curriculum reform not only means that school education is freed from centralized control, but also that teachers are reskilled, which encourages the teachers to include their practical experiences and knowledge when they plan their teaching.

Literature review

Teachers’ beliefs and practice related to reform

Scholars of organizational behavior consider attitudes to represent the collection of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, an object, or an event (Olson & Zama, 1993; George & Jone, 1997). Beliefs are established through individual perceptions about the environment, which then affects the evaluation of their feelings that connote the possibility of personal action (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978; Zalesny & Ford, 1992). How teachers think about reform might influence their inclination to maintain reform efforts. Teachers’ thoughts can be examined in terms of their knowledge and beliefs regarding reform, which are affected not only by their personal profile but also by contextual factors that exist at the national or school level (Powell & Anderson, 2002). Teachers are exposed to numerous factors that might shape their everyday practice in the classroom or their involvement in management (Raymond, 1997). The messages that teachers receive from policymakers affect how teachers interpret and modify the policies when they implement them in their

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 2 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 teaching practice (Coburn, 2001). Teachers have also been reported to link their craft knowledge to theoretical knowledge and reflective practice, a necessary process that can be used to gauge the degree to which the teachers are likely to introduce reform ideas into classroom practice (Powell & Anderson, 2002). Furthermore, a combination of personal life experience, thinking patterns, perceptions, and professional background constitutes the essence of teachers’ beliefs in education (Chung & Chu, 2002; Galindo & Olguin, 1996; Wu, 2003). Therefore, it is critical to understand the cultural values, life events, or educational backgrounds of teachers and other contextual factors. From the perspective of organizational psychology, NG and Cheng (1993) investigated teachers’ attitudes toward school changes at the organizational level, and they reported that when teachers held a positive attitude and a strong sense of self-efficacy, they were highly prone to be involved in the implementation of management reform. Collective efficacy is one of the most critical contextual variables that influence teachers’ beliefs regarding personal efficacy (Goddard, 2003). Congruence in teachers’ cultural values and the goals and behavior of the leadership, which can be interpreted by teachers either as a threat or a validation of their beliefs and values, determines the extent to which teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior is motivated (Ras, 2012). When teachers lack internal motivators (i.e., when their autonomy is low), the characteristics of work contexts can externally motivate teachers to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors (Runhaar, Konermann, & Sanders, 2013). Regarding leadership behavior, principals’ relationships with their teachers strongly and directly affected the teachers’ attitudes toward their profession (Price, 2012). Teachers’ trust in their principals was reported to be associated with their sense of personal meaning in their work and their sense of autonomy, which was substantially influenced by their work environment (Moye, Henkin, & Egley, 2005). Principals’ leadership styles can serve as an indicator of the success of teacher-empowerment reforms and curricular and instructional changes (Blasé & Blasé, 1997; Davidson, 1994). Teachers feel empowered when they perceive their principals as being similar to them and willing to promote the welfare of the faculty (Rinehart, Short, Short, & Mona, 1998). Furthermore, the extent to which teachers perceive their level of empowerment is closely related to their sense of commitment to the organization and to the profession (Bogler & Somech, 2004). Therefore, teachers’ involvement in decision-making processes, their organizational citizenship behaviors, their direct impact on school life, and their willingness to increase the effort they exert in helping achieve their schools’ goals should be reinforced (Bogler & Somech, 2005). In conclusion, personal, structural, and cultural contextual factors interact to shape teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding change (Woodbury & Gess-Newsome, 2002). Thus, with attention focused on teacher thinking, in this study, I investigated these factors and further related them to how teachers have reacted to teacher-empowerment reform in Taiwan.

Studies on teachers’ beliefs and teacher empowerment in Taiwan

The literature on teachers’ beliefs in Taiwan has mostly focused on teachers’ beliefs regarding classroom instruction. Three types of research interests can be delineated. First, certain studies have investigated how case teachers in their beginning or practicum stage construct their teaching beliefs. For instance, in two studies, teachers in professional-development programs were observed, and the conclusion was that teachers reconstructed their beliefs through self-reflection, by reading the literature, by observing senior teachers’ classes, and by engaging in dialog with peers (Lin, Chin, & Dong, 2010; Chang & Chiang, 2000). In the second type of study, the correlation between teachers’ beliefs and practices has been investigated. Most commonly, scholars compared distinct types of teaching beliefs, which were identified by administering measurement tools to research participants and then making observations or questionnaires in order to collect data on classroom instructions in the case of each type of belief (Chen & Reimer, 2009; Huang, Chou, & Chen, 2001). Overall, no consistent correlation was detected between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Lastly, based on the focus of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 3 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 previous research, effort was devoted toward exploring the factors that prevent teachers from implementing their beliefs; these factors included the pressure created by entrance exams, students’ abilities, a lack of team support, and a lack of continuous professional development (Chang, 2006; Chang, 2010; Cheng, 2001; Chung & Chu, 2002). Because most of the factors identified by teachers were external, maximizing the extent to which teachers’ performance is accommodated might serve as a key condition for ensuring the success of teacher- centered reform (Wu, 2003). Moreover, Shen (1996) suggested that school restructuring can help teachers in Taiwan to increase the power they wield while working in a highly bureaucratic school system. To date, only a few empirical studies have shed light on teachers’ beliefs regarding empowerment or autonomy. One study revealed that teachers’ beliefs regarding autonomy were influenced by individualism, conservatism, segmentation, structured constrains such as parental interference, the trifling nature of teaching matters, and time constraints (Chiang, 2002). In another study, researchers sought to construct a teacher- empowerment scale by dividing teachers’ authority into four dimensions: professional development, professional autonomy in teaching, schoolwide decision making, and professional status; however, the scale was not applied to empirical data (Chung & Huang, 2000). One study revealed that the relationship between teacher empowerment and job satisfaction was mediated by salary and in-service professional development (Lee, 2003). In terms of the correlation between principals’ leadership styles and school effectiveness, transactional leadership was reported to perform more effectively than transformational leadership when mediated by teacher empowerment (Lin, 2007). In another study, the results of document analysis and in-depth interviews indicated that teacher empowerment enhanced innovative teaching by teachers, teachers’ professional development, students’ learning, peer interactions, and interschool exchanges (Chang, Wang, & Ho, 2014). However, in Taiwan, teachers’ beliefs regarding teacher empowerment have not been investigated comprehensively. This study was conducted in order to explore the personal and contextual factors that affect teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding decentralization reform and, furthermore, their practices in Taiwan. I addressed three main research questions. (a) What are the personal factors that affect teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding teacher-empowerment reform? (b) What are the contextual factors of structure and culture that affect teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding teacher-empowerment reform? (c) How do teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding teacher-empowerment reform affect their practices?

Methods

Decision-making structure in schools in Taiwan

Diverse committees operate in Taiwan and these include the Committee of School Curriculum Development, the Site Council, the Teachers’ Association at the School Level, the Teacher Evaluation Committee, and the Committee of Seven Learning Areas. The Committee of School Curriculum Development is responsible for reviewing the annual school-curriculum plan and teaching materials developed for the upcoming year. In this work, the principal, the representatives of administrators and teachers, and parents are involved. According to the law, site councils represent the highest authority in schoolwide decision making. The mission of a school’s teacher association is to protect school teachers against any mistreatment related to interference in teachers’ professional autonomy or to resolve conflicts between administrators and teachers. The teacher-evaluation committee, which mainly handles teacher recruitment, includes teachers, principals, administrators, and parents.

Selection of the case study schools and participants

I used purposeful sampling to select the research sites and the study participants based on my research interest. The schools and participants were selected as follows. First, I surveyed the online database of the Bureau of Education of the counties in central Taiwan and selected two elementary schools and one junior high school that I considered suitable for addressing my research interest. Two of these schools have received awards for excellence in their performance in the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum Reform. The student enrollments of two elementary schools were 1,831 and 1,041, respectively, and the grades ranged from first to sixth. The student enrollment of the junior high school was 2,448, and the grades ranged from seventh to ninth. Other key criteria were the feasibility of the study and access to the participants (Marshall & Rossman, 1994). From the school principals, I received permission to enter the premises and the consents for conducting the interviews. Second, in terms of the selection of study participants, five teachers from each school were the primary participants in this study (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). A purposeful sampling technique was used to maximize variation. By obtaining referrals from principals and administrators, the key informants in the research sites were identified. Participants were also selected based on their years of teaching experience and on their degree of involvement in school policymaking, which I considered to be a key factor. Half of the teachers were recognized to be highly involved in decision-making processes and the other half were considered to be the least involved in decision-making processes (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Seidman, 1991).

Data collection

Data were collected by conducting interviews, observing participants, and obtaining archival collections; interviews were conducted after data had been gathered from participant observation and archival collections. To observe the participants, meetings of school site councils, committees, or other decision-making bodies were attended; moreover, the teachers who participated in the studies were observed in their classrooms. Permission was obtained from the study participants to observe them in order to mainly investigate the schools’ context that affected the teachers’ beliefs and knowledge regarding the reform. The data collected using this method facilitated the discovery of the cultural values and events of interest in the selected schools (Spradley, 1980). In the second approach, documents and records were collected from the three schools; these included school website contents, meeting minutes, newsletters, and archives relevant to this study. To ensure participant confidentiality, all information was identified only by a code name or number. Lastly, in the case of interviews, the 15 teachers were interviewed twice for roughly 30 to three hours. The second interview was conducted mainly to solicit feedback from the participants about the preliminary analysis of the first interview (Maxwell, 2005). All interviews were conducted at the selected schools, and the questions asked were selected based on my interest in exploring the personal and contextual factors that affects teachers’ beliefs and knowledge regarding the decentralization reform. After obtaining the interviewees’ permission, the conversations were recorded in order to generate verbatim transcripts.

Data analysis

Field notes and documents were analyzed using the contact and document summary form developed by Miles and Huberman (1994). In the contact form, I recorded the contact type, date, time, and the key information obtained from each observation. All documents were reviewed and summarized in the document summary form and then analyzed further. The results of the observations and archival collections mainly served two purposes: to triangulate the data gathered from the interviews and to develop the interview questions. The constant comparative method guided the analysis of the interview transcripts, which were performed in order to categorize and conceptualize the data and develop emerging themes (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The computer program ATLAS.ti 5.0 was used because it is considered to be capable of facilitating coding procedures and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 5 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 linking data. The emerging themes developed for each site were further explored using matrices and networks (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The configurations of the interview data allowed me to develop distinct types of theoretical framework and perform cross-case analysis.

Findings and discussion

Background and overview

The three selected sites were given the pseudonyms Maplewood, Peoplehood, and Uphill. In the following introduction, I describe the schools’ basic features, principals’ backgrounds, and the functions of committees.

Maplewood elementary school When this research was conducted, Maplewood employed 51 faculty members. The school is located in a suburban area in central Taiwan and it was chosen because for two consecutive years, it had received awards for excellence in performance in Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum Reform. During the research period, the principal’s eighth year in office was starting and the principal was expected to continue for another four-year term after the forthcoming principal election. In this school, textbooks were selected based on grading multiple editions of textbooks obtained from six to eight publishers; the grading was completed in two phases, first according to the grade level and then by Committees of Seven Learning Areas. Based on the grades assigned in the first phase, the Committee of School Curriculum Development made the final decision regarding which edition of a textbook was to be chosen for the next year. Site-council meetings were held only twice per semester, once at the beginning, once at the end, and all school members were involved. The school-teacher association included almost all of the teachers in Maplewood, who joined the association voluntarily. The teacher-evaluation committee included teachers, the principal, administrators, and parents. The committee was originally developed to serve as a panel for reviewing teacher recruitment and teachers’ misconduct. However, because teacher recruitment has been taken over by the Bureau of Education, this committee now plays a limited role in schools.

Peoplehood elementary school During the research period, Peoplehood employed 81 faculty members. The school is located in a downtown area in central Taiwan and it was chosen based on the recommendation of the Taichung City Local Teacher Association. When this research was conducted, the principal was starting the first year in office after completing 21 years of teaching. The functions of each committee in this school were similar to those of the corresponding committees in Maplewood. However, the textbook-selection process at this school was distinct from that at Maplewood; here, textbook grading was only conducted according to grade levels and textbooks were not graded by the Committee of Seven Learning Areas. Another difference was that the site council was composed of teacher representatives who were voted for by all faculty members. The teacher association functioned effectively in Peoplehood because it was led by one of the administrators, who served as a staff member of Taichung City’s local teacher association. The association leader’s efforts to promote teachers’ status in the school clearly guided the power redistribution in the school.

Uphill junior high school Uphill employed 142 faculty members at the time of this research. The school is located in the downtown area of Taichung city and was chosen it has received awards for excellence in performance in the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum Reform. The principal was starting the fourth year in office. As in Maplewood and

Peoplehood, several committees were established in Uphill. The responsibilities and compositions of the Committee of School Curriculum Development were identical to those of this committee at the other two schools. Moreover, as in Peoplehood, textbook grading was completed according to grade level only, and the committee made the final decision regarding which edition of textbooks was to be chosen for the upcoming year. However, unlike in the other two schools, the members of the site-council meetings in Uphill were mixed with members of the Committee of School Curriculum Development. The functions of other committees were similar to those of the corresponding committees at Maplewood and Peoplehood.

Teachers as agents of change: Factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and knowledge

Teachers who were involved in the reform process received professional-development and teacher- preparation training so that they could become agents of change. However, transformation is a complex process that involves motivation, which resides internally in the teachers, and contextual factors, which the teachers perceive as being supportive of their transformation toward desired outcomes. Data analysis identified eight factors that contributed to teachers’ motives and attitude toward the reform, which are presented next. Here, I also discuss the strategies that teachers used to cope with belief conflicts.

Contextual factors of structure and culture Context of the classroom: Parents and students. Teachers’ knowledge regarding reform was transmitted primarily through professional-development workshops that were conducted by the government. However, theory-oriented professional-development programs were too vague to allow teachers to grasp the main concepts of the new curriculum. The teachers suggested that they can fully understand the requirements of curriculum reform only through classroom experience.

I did attend workshops but perhaps because they were official workshops, I found them to be somewhat unclear and I did not fully understand what type of message they were trying to deliver… However, if at that time I did not completely grasp the concept, I would figure it out through teaching in my classroom.

The teachers who participated in this study cared most about their students’ requirements. The teachers stated that their beliefs regarding the reform were primarily based on the observations of their students’ academic performance. The teacher did not pay substantial attention to school management and focused on their students. One teacher said, “One of the reasons why teachers did not get involved in decision making at school was that they did not have the time and they would rather spend most of their time taking care of their students.” In line with the comments of most teachers, student comprehension in major learning areas such as language, mathematics, natural science, and biology has declined. The teachers were extremely worried about the students’ future survival skills. The teachers’ observations indicated that the academic-performance pressure that the students faced had become even higher than that faced in the past. Increasing numbers of students relied on using tutorial schools to learn subject contents that were not taught at their schools. Consequently, in the context of their classroom, the teachers were troubled by the large variation in the levels of performance of students who had been taught dissimilarly in distinct tutorial schools. Lastly, parents complained that the new curricula were easier than previous curricula had been, and this pressured the teachers into providing additional educational materials. The teachers considered themselves to be powerless because they were unable to effect policy changes. The only thing that the teachers could change was their classroom practice. One teacher said

For me, as long as the parents recognize what I have done in the classroom, it is unnecessary to conform to the mandates of the government. The new curriculum has been criticized widely. I would feel guilty if I

did only what the policy asked me to do.

One of the major purposes of the educational reform instituted over the last two decades in Taiwan has been to alleviate the competition stress faced by students. However, in Taiwan, parents’ expectations for their children’s academic performance are higher than those of parents in Western countries. Therefore, reform efforts that are aimed at countering the belief rooted in our culture that high academic achievement is essential for future success are likely to fail at some point.

School administration and top-down authority. The relationships between the administration and the teachers at the three schools were traditional relationships in which the teachers concluded that they participated in decision making at school only to follow the demands of the administration. The teachers functioned merely as consultants and did not readily speak up in the meetings. One teacher said, “The principal would ask us to follow orders. Of course there are complaints, but when most teachers comply, it feels strange if you do not.” Another teacher said, “At the meetings, it was clear that there was a sense of hierarchical difference between administration and teachers.” The administration’s attitude toward teacher involvement also affected the teachers’ willingness to speak out. One teacher said

If they (the administrators) are willing to accept teachers’ opinions, the teachers will be willing to get involved in and contribute to decision-making processes. However, if they are self-centered and not mindful of teachers’ opinions, teachers would choose to keep quiet.

The teachers also indicated that the leadership of the principal served as an indicator of how the teachers perceived reform. What the principal asked the teachers to do shaped their perceptions regarding the reform. One teacher said, “If you follow what the principal wants you to do, you can decipher what this reform is about. It goes something like this: If the principal encourages us to develop, for example, creative teaching strategies, we suspect that the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum expects teachers to be creative.” Parental involvement was another influential factor in the school context, and particularly in the elementary schools, parents were highly involved in school policymaking. The administration frequently reached a compromise with parents regarding funding and support for facilities and equipment, but this caused teachers numerous problems, and the teachers hesitated to exercise their reform power in order to implement any innovative ideas that they considered to be beneficial for students. One teacher said

I think our school should limit parents’ power and tell the parents what they can do and what they cannot do. Pressure from the society is growing. Many parents sue teachers… I think our government or society guarantees that parents have an advantage over teachers.

Workload and time pressure represented another major concern of teachers. The teachers complained that they lacked the time required to develop and implement new ideas. Because of heavy workloads, the teachers were unable to spare adequate time to search for any required information outside of the school. The isolation caused by the school culture partly prevented the decentralization reform from effecting changes. Some of the teachers who sought to make changes considered a supportive school culture to be critical because receiving endorsement from the school administration or from fellow teachers would legitimize what they did in the classroom.

Teachers’ culture: fear of change, silent audience, and peer pressure. In terms of their empowerment in school management, the teachers did not appear to wish to make changes in their schools because they took comfort in their high job security. Thus, if the teachers dominated the process of change, it was highly likely that they would favor keeping things as they were. One teacher said, “If we were the ones who made all decisions, I think we would say “no” to every event outside our classroom so that we could concentrate on teaching, as in the case of teachers at some other schools that do not offer many extracurricular activities.” In Taiwan, women consider teaching to be a high-priority career choice because women are the main family caregivers.

If you are serious about a career in teaching, you will devote a lot of effort to it. However, even if you want to take care of your kids and family, teaching can be right for you. Therefore, I think that if site-based reform empowers teachers as school decision makers, it is highly likely that teaching would become even easier than it is now. I believe that most teachers do not favor changes, and so it is my opinion that teacher- centered reform (i.e., reform intended to transform teachers into decision makers) has a remote chance of success.

The teachers were not adequately cohesive as a group and were unable or unwilling to integrate and exert their power and influence over the school decision-making process. Most teachers were silent because given the school hierarchical structure, they were expected to conform. One teacher stated this confidently: “We (teachers) are all obedient and cooperative because we have reached the consensus that we want to focus on students. We all agree on this.” The egalitarianism prevalent among the teachers undermined their pursuit of leadership. For example, sharing teaching experiences in official meetings was likely to be interpreted as “showing off.” One teacher said

We feel comfortable sharing teaching experiences during casual conversations. At official meetings, we do not like to share these experiences because all teachers are considered equal. When you share your teaching experiences, it appears to us that you think you are superior to other teachers.

Because the teachers considered themselves to be equal, congruence at departmental or grade level was regarded highly; thus, the teachers hesitated to experiment with new ideas in their own classrooms. Furthermore, one teacher noted that “if teachers from the same learning area as you were highly supportive of reform, you would be highly willing to get involved.” Pressure might also be exerted on teachers because of the expectations of partners. One teacher, who described the unique culture of the grade level that the teacher taught, said, “If you want to do it alone and without consensus from the team, it is fine. However, you should be aware that you might encounter problems sooner or later, such as complaints from parents.” Some of the teachers indicated that they maintained a low profile when implementing any innovation and that they attempted to avoid conflicts with their colleagues. One teacher said, “The problem is probably that you want to challenge yourself and try out new ideas, but someone in your team might prefer not to do so. Thus, you feel discouraged and finally give up.” Teacher-empowerment reform not only challenges top-down authority but also teachers’ assumptions regarding their parallel relationships embedded in the school culture. Empowerment does not mean increasing access to school decision-making processes; it entails reshuffling the established power structure among teachers, and this raises the possibility that some of the teachers might cross established boundaries because an equal distribution of power among teachers is not assured. Government policy: Performativity and policy comprehension. The government-based leadership has paid excessive attention to performativity but has not conducted an authentic evaluation of the implementation of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 9 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 policies in school practice. While teaching, teachers were concerned about what to include in their performance portfolio. The teachers spent a considerable amount of time on paperwork and they did not get a chance to sit with students and discuss their learning and their views on the teaching. One teacher said

At the beginning of the reform process, we were scared because we were busy taking pictures and conducting experiments. We felt that the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum was all just about paperwork. I remember at a faculty meeting, a teacher stood up and mentioned feeling extremely tired. What the teacher had done thus far for the reform made the teacher feel like a data collector and not a teacher.

Moreover, the competence indicators of student learning of the Grades 1–9 curricula were incomprehensible because the indicators included terms that the teachers considered to be exceedingly theoretical and academic. Some of the teachers were reluctant to employ the indicators in their teaching.

The problem is that I do not know how these indicators can help me with my teaching. I cannot understand the purpose of linking teaching to the indicators. You cannot evaluate your students by merely applying indicators because at times even the meaning of an indicator is not well explained. I cannot understand the indicators and I never use them.

The government has amended its policies several times during the reform process. Thus, the teachers were concerned about the direction of the reform. A lack of understanding of the prevalent policies and the constant amendments diminished the teachers’ motivation to actively contribute to making changes and dampened the teachers’ enthusiasm for reform. The teachers sensed no empowerment in terms of either making curriculum decisions or participating in school management. One teacher said, “Frankly, I do not know… Who is the focus of this reform? I really cannot say what difference the reform has made. Site-based reform, for example, has done little to transform our teaching. Therefore, I doubt that the reform policy had transformed school education. At least, I do not sense any transformation.”

Personal factors Personality. Teachers attributed their willingness to implement site-based reform to their personality. One teacher claimed being reform-oriented by nature and indicated a willingness to become involved in any reform work that empowered the teachers in their efforts to improve the working environment of their schools. “I think it is because of my personality. I like to pursue new challenges… I do not think it has anything to do with my academic background. I just like to learn.” Conversely, some of the teachers were not interested in any form of teacher empowerment. One teacher indicated an unwillingness to be visible and a preference to maintain a low profile: “…personal willingness (to participate in decision-making processes)? As a matter of fact, by nature, I do not like to speak out. I am not very willing to participate in things.” Reticence represented another aspect of the teachers’ personality. When their views on education conflicted with those of school or national policy, the teachers chose to focus on their autonomy in the classroom instead of devoting efforts toward formal schoolwide decision-making processes. Some of the teachers considered themselves to be conservative and they typically did not to use legitimate power for improving their work conditions. These teachers did not accept that it was possible to derive any benefit from teacher empowerment. One senior teacher said

I prefer not to use the official channel to gain power or resources. It does not work for me that way. I perceive my relationship with the administration as being reciprocal. When they ask me to do something, I typically do not turn down the request. I believe that when I require support from them, they will return

the favor.

Educational background and teacher preparation. In Taiwan, teacher-preparation programs are mainly provided through traditional teacher education and at teacher-education centers. The teachers mentioned that because the cultures of the two types of institutions are distinct, their attitudes toward reform might differ. Typically, the teachers trained through traditional teacher education were more conservative than the teachers trained at the teacher-education centers were and, therefore, they were relative less accepting of the reform that empowered teachers in curriculum design and school policymaking. One reason for this is that in traditional teacher education, the culture emphasizes discipline and the strict regulation of student behavior by means of implementing a variety of policies such as dress codes. One teacher recalled

The culture at our school was conservative. We were like senior high school students, and we wore mainly T-shirts and jeans… This is very different from what teachers trained at other universities experienced… I think that the influence of the ethos is inconsistent with the spirit of the current curriculum reform that encourages teachers to experiment with new ideas and diversify teaching approaches.

The teachers trained at teacher-education centers were also considered to be more enthusiastic than teachers who obtained traditional teacher education because the center-trained teachers deliberately chose this career path when they potentially could have chosen otherwise. These teachers were also more open-minded regarding changes than other teachers. One teacher said, “Because I was not trained by means of traditional teacher education, I think, based on my experience dealing with colleagues, that I am more open-mind and liberal than they are. I tend not to confine myself to certain possibilities alone.” Another aspect of the educational background was the teachers’ majors in undergraduate education. Six of the interviewed teachers had majored in business and they indicated that because of their major, they were typically more flexible and less resistant to changes than other teachers were.

I think majoring in business management had positive effect on me. I learned how to see things from distinct perspectives. Why did I say that? When recruiting teachers and serving on the evaluation panel, some of the teachers acted childishly and were not accepting of diverse views. Some people are a little conservative.

Demographic profile. In this category, I mainly discuss the teachers’ years of teaching. Some of the participants in this study stated that they had less than five years of teaching experience and that they were unable to fully understand how things worked in their school, such as the power relationships among distinct parties, school and national policies, and decision-making processes.

Maybe because of my personality or seniority, I have not often spoken up at meetings such as those of the School Teacher Association. I have listened and then voted based on what I have heard. However, if someone wanted me to voice my opinions, I would be reluctant to do so because I am new here and thus should learn only by observing and listening.

In Taiwanese society and especially in Taiwanese schools, inexperienced workers are discouraged from participating actively in decision-making process. Acknowledgment of seniority in the school culture has prevented new teachers from participating in school decision-making processes. One young teacher indicated that the fear of not be taken seriously undermined this teacher’s enthusiasm to exercise legitimate powers: “I think most new teachers should simply follow orders. Others do not take you seriously and will not listen to

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 11 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 you because they think you are not senior enough to make anyone care about what you say.” Teachers’ abilities. The teachers complained about their voice being unheard but did not wish to be more powerful than the school administration. One reason for this was that the teachers were not confident that they were adequately competent to make any changes when playing a key role in reform. In terms of empowerment in curriculum development, the new policy encourages teachers to design teaching materials that can replace textbooks; the materials can be designed in any manner the teachers consider appropriate, as long as the content of the subject corresponds to the Competence Indicators of Grade 1–9 Curriculum. However, the teachers considered themselves to be incapable of contributing to curriculum development.

Because in the case of learning areas like language and mathematics, to develop curriculum, teachers must understand how children at every school level reason things… Otherwise, there is a risk that you might develop a curriculum that appears to be too easy or too difficult for the students.

The teachers’ knowledge regarding school management might also not be adequate for making informed decisions. One teacher said

When I wonder, for example, why a person was hired to take charge of the budget in our school, I realize that it is because that the person has expertise in finance and is qualified for the position. If you ask me to take charge, I might not understand the concepts of budget management and thus would be quite likely to make mistakes.

Despite the aforementioned doubts, the teachers wanted their voice to be heard during decision-making processes in their school. One teacher said, “It is my personal belief that teaching should be the focus of school management. Teachers should speak out and guide school practice by negotiating with the administration in order to meet the requirements of school members.” Discussion and conclusion The findings of this study reveal that teachers’ opportunities for participating in school decision-making processes have increased since the introduction of decentralization reforms. However, the teachers still do not exert adequate power to influence the schoolwide policies, including policies related to budget and personnel. Most of the teachers in this study do not recognize any improvement in collaboration and communication among teachers. The teachers also do not consider themselves to be empowered after the implementation of teacher-empowerment reforms and, ironically, feel increasingly powerless. Additional disappointment arises when the involvement of the school participants in school-reform movements requires them, especially teachers, to devote increasing amounts of time to the work and increase their workloads, which leaves little time for the development of the skills and ideas necessary for implementing instructional changes (Malen & Ogawa, 1992). The school leadership appears to lack the support of teachers and it provides insufficient resources to teachers, including the time that teachers must invest to improve their quality of teaching. Four potential reasons might explain teachers’ indifference toward teacher empowerment. First, empowerment methods that are effective in Western countries might fail in Eastern countries in which the power distance is wide (Hofstede, 2001; Oyserman, Coon, & Memmelmeier, 2002). Thus, teachers in Taiwan might consider it awkward to have power over their superiors. Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) emphasize the significance of the social context in their approach of social-information processing, which is centered on how people adapt their behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to the social context and to their past and present behavior and situations; social information regarding past behaviors and the opinions of fellow members of an organization might affect a person’s views regarding the manner in which to construct their attitudes or define their

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 12 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 requirements. Some of the teachers provided examples of their interactions with administrators, and they clarified that the challenge they previously faced in communicating with the administrators discouraged them from presenting their opinions or ideas to the administrators again. Second, the teachers responded that they are incapable of managing schools, and in Taiwan, few professional-development programs transform teachers’ beliefs and provide knowledge that is indispensable for effecting changes. During the transformational process in which schools are restructured and teachers’ roles in decision making are changed concurrently, new environmental pressures might emerge. Therefore, the challenges that teachers confront stem not only from knowledge transmission and acquisition but also from their adjustment to the pressures of the entire school environment. Third, in Taiwan, the school administrative teams led by the principals and several directors have long been granted the authority to administer and manage schools. Teachers who are not placed in any capacity of authority hold a teaching-oriented professional identify as per the distinct divisions of teaching and administration in the school structure. Empowering teachers means crossing this boundary from both sides. Lastly, because all teachers are considered equal, teacher empowerment might threaten the equal distribution of power and disturb the relationships among teachers. According to the assumptions of Weick (1989), schools must depend on teachers’ professional knowledge to define the reasons underlying their unexplained inputs and their value in order to evaluate their preferences. However, the implications of their value and expertise are perceived as being inadequate. The outcome of a decision-making process does not reflect the professional or organizational goals of teachers. Moreover, the decision-making processes are simplified and do not allow teachers to agree on values and standards. One of the challenges is the hierarchical structure retained at the three schools. When making schoolwide decisions, the teachers remain tightly under the control of top-down management. Therefore, the leadership comes primarily from the principal. Conversely, teachers focus on making teaching-related decisions and strongly depend on the administrators when it comes to reforming knowledge delivery. However, principals and administrators are inadequately experienced in teaching to understand how to implement reform ideas in classroom teaching. Thus, knowledge gaps on both sides undermine the possibility of success of the reform.

Implications of the study

The findings of this study suggest that certain practices of teacher participation must be adopted in the three site-based managed schools. Some of the key findings are reviewed here and are presented as suggestions for practice and research. In terms of practice, first, time constraints were identified as one of the biggest obstacles hindering teacher participation in the reform process. In order to meet national standards, the teachers had to spend substantial amounts of time when completing their assignments. Thus, site-based managed schools must be aware of the appropriate amount of responsibilities to allot to teachers, and they must help the teachers in using their time optimally. Second, a major problem identified at the three selected schools was that teacher leadership did not receive adequate attention. School operations were controlled predominantly by administrators. The schools should strive to eliminate this top-down influence by rotating the leaders at a variety of meetings (Weick, 1989). Third, training is critical for enabling the study participants to completely understand the concepts of teacher empowerment and improve their communication and leadership skills. Schools must ensure that all teachers receive training that improves the manner in which they function in the process. Lastly, the teachers obtained most of their information only within their own schools. They did not frequently engage in fruitful interactions with teachers from other local schools. Thus, teachers must be

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 13 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 encouraged to share teaching information and experiences outside of school. In terms of research, this study provides a preliminary understanding of the factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and knowledge regarding teacher-empowerment reform in Taiwan. This subject warrants extensive future investigation because the results could help researchers understand how teachers perceive reform movements. This study was focused on the context within which teachers form their beliefs and acquire knowledge. Belief development is a complex process and it might be culturally sensitive. To develop a comprehensive and culture-sensitive model of belief development, researchers must integrate additional potential indigenized elements into their study.

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The Vital Bridge Transforming Postgraduate Nurse Education And Employability To Employment

Hardip Kaur Dhillon1 Gurmeet Kaur2,Jasminder Kaur3, Anuar Zaini Md Zain4 1Senior Lecturer, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences,2Resources and Operations Manager, School Management Office,3Senior Executive (Research) BRIMS, 4Head, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Selangor, Malaysia. email: [email protected]

Abstract

Today’s universities are constantly looking for a competitive edge in delivering a postgraduate nurse curriculum with a positive outcome of future employability and employment. In this respect, Monash University Malaysia is no different since market differentiation is important for the survival of Private Institutions of Higher Learning in Malaysia. Currently, some Malaysian public and private universities do offer specific postgraduate courses in advanced clinical skills nurse practice which have been accredited by Malaysia Qualifications Agency and recognized by both Ministry of Higher Education as well as Ministry of Health. In addition to that, the Nurses Board Malaysia, also consider the postgraduate courses that are currently offered to be too generic with very little application of theory to practice in the clinical healthcare settings. In view of the gap that exists in the present postgraduate courses, this paper would critically examine the preliminary market information gathered on the requirements of higher educational needs of nurses in Malaysia. The future development of an appropriate higher education course, “the vital bridge”, is in the planning stage. It is expected to be both vigor and relevant to today’s Malaysian nurses’ employability and employment.

Keywords: Postgraduate nurse education, marketing, employability, employment, Malaysia

Introduction

“Knowing is not enough; one must apply, Willing is not enough; one must do” Goethe Up to date from a global perspective, the nurses’ profession continues to be regarded as an oppressed one even though there are nurses in some developed countries who are earning higher salaries with higher status than others. In spite of progress made, nurses continue to struggle with issues of power and status [1] (Some factors associated with an oppressed group are perception of nursing as women’s work, the image and stereotypes of nursing and the traditional structures that serve to maintain the status quo [2]. Previous international study conducted in the 1980s had reported a strong correlation between nurse and feminine [3]. The findings of this study suggested that in the majority of countries studied, nurses were seen as weak, powerless, and little. Roberts [4] supported her assertion that nurses were an oppressed group and her fivestage model (2000) provided a useful paradigm to explore the status of nurses. Birks et. al., [2] Malaysian study applied Robert’s model to their nurse respondents. Their findings suggested that most Malaysian nurses were located in the first stage of Robert’s (2000) model [5], that of unexamined acceptance; the Malaysian nurses were ignorant of their oppressed status. The characteristics of this stage were firstly, a presence of negative view of nursing and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 17 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 secondly an unquestioning acceptance of the role of the nurse, the power of the system, and the dominance of physicians. Even though Robert’s model had described the means by which nurses could act within and overcome a state of oppression through the reconstruction of their professional identity but this concept has yet to make an impact on the current Malaysian nurses’ profession. Hence Malaysian nurses continue to struggle with these elements that are obstacle to the profession achieving its full potential. The future of Malaysian nurses leading change and contributing towards quality health care services is based on the premise that nurses should achieve higher education and training through an improved education system that promotes seamless academic progress [6] The IOM report further states that nurses should be educated with physicians and other health professionals throughout their careers [6]. Education is the key to empowerment of self and others and through education, nurse acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary prerequisites for overcoming oppression. Des Jardin [7] had argued that political activity was essential if nurses wished to take control over the future of the profession. Development of a new form of leadership that unites nurses and presents a powerful front to both politicians and public alike was considered an essential foundation for political effectiveness [4, 8]. Currently 80% of nurses in Malaysia hold a diploma qualification [9] while the reminder professional nurses have a basic degree, Masters or doctorate. In order for the Malaysian nurses to secure recognition of their significant role in the provision of quality health care, there is a need for postgraduate courses. Presently, some Malaysian public and private universities do offer specific postgraduate courses in advanced clinical skills nurse practice which have been accredited by Malaysian Qualification Agency and recognized by both Ministry of Higher Education as well as Ministry of Health. However, the Nurses Board Malaysia has considered these postgraduate courses to be too generic with very little application of theory to practice in the clinical healthcare settings. In identifying and developing employability skills that are pertinent in current competitive job market, Yasmin et. al., [10] had observed that the definition of employability skills were related to the skills that were not job specific but were skills which cut horizontally across all industries and vertically across all jobs from entry level to chief executive officer. Non-technical skills were referred to as employability skills which included basic skills such as oral communication as well as higher order skills e.g. decision making and affective skills, problem solving, learning skills and strategies. Traits such as interpersonal skills (cooperation, team work) dependability and responsibility, self-discipline and self- management positive attitude and ability to work without supervision were some of the traits described by Cotton [11]. He also found that employers value generic employability skills over specific technical skills and had expressed concern regarding the deficiency of graduates lacking the required employability skills. Education in Malaysia has been described as a business entity with a competitive market [9]. Today’s universities are constantly looking for a competitive edge in delivering a postgraduate nurse curriculum with a positive outcome of future employability and employment. In this respect, Monash University Malaysia is no different since market differentiation is important for the survival of Private Institutions of Higher Learning in Malaysia. In view of the gap that exists in the present postgraduate courses, this working paper intends to critically examine the preliminary market information gathered on the requirements of higher educational needs of nurses from nurses in Malaysia.

Nurses Forum

In view of offering the Master of Nursing, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences academic and professional staffs conducted a Forum in Nursing on 27 November 2013. The objective of this forum was

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 18 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 to gather preliminary market information on the requirements of the training and educational needs of nurses in Malaysia. The member hospitals of the Association of Private Hospitals of Malaysia (APHM) were used as database for the invitation. From the list, hospitals within the Federal Territory and Selangor were identified and invited including representatives from the Ministry of Health and Director of Nursing Board Malaysia. A total of 27 private hospitals nurse educators and clinicians were invited, of which 24 participants from 14 private hospitals responded to the invitation to attend the forum. The participants were divided into five groups consisting of either four or five persons at each table. Two nurse educators; a Professor in Mental Health Nursing and Professor in Palliative Care Nursing from School of Nursing and Midwifery Monash University Australia presented various Master courses that were offered by School of Nursing and Midwifery and then they proceeded to facilitate the forum. Each group were given questions on topics or themes to discuss, namely; graduate attributes, manpower requirement, curriculum, career pathways, skills requirement, governance, delivery method, essentials areas, staffing issues and way forward during the round table discussion. The group members were given instructions to discuss the topics within their group and then present their collective views. The information presented was documented.

Themes Theme 1: Graduate Attributes

Cognitive Problem Solving / Psychomotor Decision Making / A ffective Articulat Critical e & Lead Thinking Others Soft skills Change agent with innovative

Attitude & Passion Graduate Attributes Research for Nursing Minded

Partnerships Inter - ( i ) Individual Care between client professional and nurses ( ii) Various health Entrepreneurship Independent Practitioners Life -long Resourceful Learning Person

Figure 1: Graduate attributes which were considered pertinent by participants.

The group members suggested all of the above mentioned attributes of graduates that would influence the development of a new form of leadership to unite nurses and present a powerful front to both politicians and public alike. They discussed the importance of political activity if nurses wished to take control over the future of their profession.

Theme 2: Manpower requirement

During the group discussion a significant ‘lacunae’ or loophole was observed. It appeared that there was a relative shortage of registered nurses who were involved in their own research or collaborative based research. They also highlighted that due to mobility challenges which prevailed among senior nurses who were not seen proactively travelling to other countries or other health sectors to gain new knowledge and skills. This working culture amongst the senior nurses inevitably creates conflict and affected the junior nurses who wished to ensure life-long learning and a sense of purpose. This also limits the growth and development of health care services due to the lack of many nurses in senior positions to propose and implement the relevant development of quality nursing care services. Such limitations especially in developing nations in turn distances nurses from the opportunities of assuming leadership roles or contemplating career progression into academia or research. From a career audit perspective, quantity is seen trumping quality. Given the globalization taking place, training specializing in nursing leadership has become paramount to ensure marketability of the nursing graduates.

Theme 3: Curriculum of a nursing leadership course or training program

The participants’ view on the curriculum was that a nursing leadership course or training program needs to be incorporated into the curriculum. This could also increase the employability value of the nursing graduates by incorporating research skills, evidence based nursing, human resource management, finance management, risk and quality management, governance, organizational behavior, and clinical decision making. These units within the curriculum would inevitably increase the nurses’ ability to adapt and progress through industries. It would also inculcate the motivation for lifelong learning, empowerment to be leaders and knowledge sharing. This program would be delivered according to Malaysian Qualification Agency (MQA) requirements and Nurses Board Malaysia (NBM) guidelines.

Theme 4: Career Pathways

Career Pathways are aplenty provided relevant awareness are created on research management, services, role development and entrepreneurship from the outset of the nursing education. For example

Theme 5: Professional Development

It was considered pertinent that nurses were equipped with clinical specialties, administration, education, quality / risk research skills besides encouraging mobility throughout their nursing career as it would enrich them with indepth knowledge through cross cultural exposure both theoretically and in practice leading on to research

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 20 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 probabilities. Such exposure would also build their confidence in developing multiple skills across the diverse and evolving health service.

Theme 6: Method of Knowledge Dissemination

The method of knowledge dissemination would have to be geared towards competency based curriculum as opposed to purely content based. Using the Generation Y, the IT-savvy generation as a benchmark, the curriculum would need to be technologically inclined to ensure the younger generation remains motivated and engaged to complete the course. Incorporating multi-disciplinary work will expose students to the vast areas of health care as well as the research strengths creating a broader perspective of their career avenues. This would be in line with the objective of incorporating the life-long learning belief. As an added feature to maintain the quality of health practitioners as well as ensure the systems and processes are well in line with MQA, clinical specialties will be assessed by qualified persons. Competitive scholarships would have to be created in order to attract both local and foreign students into the country. This would not only spur the economy but dilute the cultural barriers in nursing practice thereon increasing mobility.

Theme 7: Niche Content Areas

Given the growing changes in the global demographics, lifestyle and health needs, the current niche areas would be gerontology, public health, mental health, and palliative care specifically in the preventive care, health and prevention and non-communicable diseases which would be incorporated into the curriculum starting from basic skills right up to clinical specialties.

Theme 8: Employment Concerns from Employer and Employee Perspectives

Employer’s Perspective Given the quantity of nurses graduating each year, stiff competition dictates potential employers towards scrutinizing the quality of each nurse graduate, screening them from point of entry and identifying if they are ‘out of the box’ thinkers as well as identify if they are functional nurses by observing their cognitive and meta cognitive skills specifically how they utilize their ability to problem solve and adapt accordingly. This mindset appears prevalent in both public and private sector employers.

Employee’s Perspective By acknowledging the stiff competition, graduates would always be concerned about the remuneration packages offered as well as incentives, the value of nursing work and respect in terms of recognition, opportunities junior staff would be exposed to for career progression purposes and if employers would be in support of lifelong learning.

Theme 9: The way forward with nursing

Nurses globally would have to come together in a united voice sharing the benefits and joys of being a nurse. This in the long run will hopefully eradicate the preconceived notion that nurses are merely the support systems of medical doctors. Enhancing the empowerment value would increase the respect nurses would gain worldwide as equals with the medical fraternity in the health industry thereon increasing community engagement and student mobility. Policies making bodies would also engage opinion of nurses to create better suited governance.

Such an proactive move forward would open floodgates to networking, nursing autonomy signing collaborative memorandum of understandings (MoU’s ) with clinical partners in the private as well as public sector and even internationally. Research based opportunities too will increase in the health care sector as a whole guaranteeing career progression for graduate nurses making the nursing program tremendously attractive to the younger generations.

Discussion

Within the rapid globalization and close competition mushrooming all over the world to develop a knowledge based society, the education sector has noted to no longer be a blue ocean from a student’s perspective. In Malaysia, sustainability of education institutes has now been subjected to market differentiation addressing the graduate’s employability prospects both locally and internationally as well as Quality assurance while instilling the concept of life-long learning. Following the recent blueprint developed by the Ministry of Education, the National Education Blueprint (NEB) [12], this differentiation is pivotal to retaining the cultivated Intellectual Property best known as human talent thereon spurring the economy, and inevitably achieving Malaysia’s vision of attaining a developed nation status by 2020. The long standing challenge Malaysia has faced is the requirement of the industry and the talent produced by the Malaysian Higher Education Institutions have often been mismatched prompting many graduates to leave the country and seek employment abroad. Of many questions posed in regards to curriculum in general, the critical questions of essence to this working paper would be:

I. “How can the learning experiences of domestic and international students be improved so that they are better prepared for the global workplace?” II. “What is the career information wished to be incorporated into the program structure?”

These questions are based on the aim of developing “internationally recognized professionals, capable of engaging in professional practice in a variety of contexts both within and beyond their country of origin or domicile” [13]. In acknowledgement of this challenge, critical questions and current demands of the health industry, the nursing course curriculum would now have to be a competency-based curriculum [12] with Nursing Board Malaysia Guidelines on Standards & Criteria for approval /accreditation of nursing programmes [14] as opposed to merely being a content-centered curriculum. It would encompass soft skills such as creativity, innovation, professional ethics, team-working, leadership and entrepreneurship as well as respect for organizational cultural diversity [12]. Given the growing globalization, such ‘cultural intelligence’ is an imperative which would have to be inculcated on day one onwards. According to Blasco (2009) cited by Mackrell [13] ‘cultural intelligence’ consists of a combination of 1) knowledge of culture and its effect on manifest behaviour; 2) mindfulness or sensibility to cultural signals; and 3) behavioural skills from a combination of knowledge and mindfulness. This Endeavor also projects Malaysia as a multicultural brand in itself and well blended with its foreign ties as well as its vision. Other soft skills e.g. communication and team working could be incorporated through a standalone project, through campus life, formal and informal activities at faculty level and through industrial training to name a few. These skills from the employer’s perspective are considered adaptable and ‘transferable’ workforce skills [10]. The nursing curriculum would still advocate the hard skills (e.g. a good degree qualification and nursing skills) reflected through virtual classroom, e-learning, blended learning, and have its research based components as

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 22 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 the research based components would be pivotal in building future researchers [15]. Reflective practice would also be part of the curriculum as it is viewed as a compulsory competence by the nursing licensing boards [16]. Such a practice would also reflect incorporation of critical thinking which is paramount as it would improve the graduate’s problem solving skills and ability to deal with vast scenarios at hand. As a measure to constantly develop the student’s cognitive skill, the Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA) [17] can be used as a measure to observe the critical thinking judgments and logical reasoning derived by testing skills of argument, drawing inferences, interpreting, deducting, recognizing assumptions, evaluating conclusions and assessing reasoning strengths. Peer Review and industry collaboration would be the additional benchmarks used to enhance the curricula development and evaluation besides the assessments set by the Malaysian Qualification Agency (MQA) namely SETARA, MyQUEST and MyRA as well as the Codes of Practice for Program Accreditation (COPPA) and Codes of Practice for Institutional Audit (COPIA) [12]. This potential is possible given Malaysia’s high level of fluidity in globalizing the higher education market. [12].

Conclusion

This working paper concluded that a tailor made postgraduate course, “the vital bridge” was considered to be of utter most importance to the Malaysian nurses. A curriculum which would groom the Malaysian nurse, to move from a subservient role in the healthcare settings to one of partnership and leadership, would require tremendous amount of planning. In order to remove the shackles of oppression and address the gender inequalities, as well as be equipped with relevant knowledge, skills and attitude, the Monash University postgraduate nursing course, meeting the MQA and NBM guidelines, is expected to be both vigor and relevant to today’s Malaysian nurses’ employability employment and career development.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Matron TSelvi a/p Subramaniam, Registrar, Nurses Board Malaysia, Professor Helen Bartlett, PVC Monash University Malaysia, Professor Wendy Cross, Head, School of Nursing and Midwifery, and Professor Emeritus Margaret O’Connor, Vivien Bullwinkel Chair in Palliative Care Nursing, Peninsula campus, Monash University Australia, towards their contributions and continuous support to the nurses’ profession in Malaysia.

References

1. Fletcher, K. Image: Changing how women nurses think about themselves. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 2007; 58 (3) 207-15. 2. Birks, M., Chapman, Y., and Francis, K. Women and Nursing in Malaysia: Unspoken status. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 2008; 20 (1) 116-23. 3. Austin, J. K., Champion,V. L., and Tzeng, O.C.S. Cross-cultural comparison on nursing image. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 1985; 22 (3)231-39. 4. Roberts, S. J. Oppressed group behavior: Implication for nursing. Advances in Nursing Science, 1983; 5 (4), 21-30. 5. Roberts, S. J. Development of a positive professional identity: Liberating oneself from the oppressor within. Advances in Nursing Sciences, 2000; 22 (4), 71-82.

6. Institute of Medicine (IOM). The Future of Nursing: Leading change, Advancing health. National Academic Press. 2011. Washington DC. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12956&page=163 (retrieved 9th January 2015). 7. Des Jardin, K.E. Political involvement in nursing- Education and empowerment…First in the Series of two articles. AORN Journal, 2001; 74 (4), 467- 82. 8. Affara, F.A. Issues of control: The role of nursing in the regulation of the profession. In N.H. Bryant (Ed.), Women in nursing in Islamic societies, 2003, pp.42-55. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 9. Lim Pek Hong. Current trends, innovations and issues in nursing education to cater for the bottom billon nurses. IeJSME 2012; 6 (1) S69-S74. 10. Yasin Mohd Adnan, Md. Nasir Daud, Anuar Alias. Importance of Soft skills for Graduates in the real Estates Programmes in Malaysia. Journal of Surveying Construction & Property 2012; 3 (2) 1-13. 11. Cotton, K. Developing employability skills, Northwest Regional Educational Research Laboratory, Portland available at www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8c015.html (retrieved 27th December 2014). 12. Selvaraj Grapragasem, Anbalagan Krishnan and Azlin Norhaini Mansor. Current Trends in Malaysian Higher Education and the Effect on Education Policy and Practices: An Overview. International Journal of Higher Education. 2014, 3 (1) 85-93. 13. Mackrell, D. A Project to Improve the Employability Skills of Postgraduate ICT Students through Workplace Cultural Awareness. Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education (InSITE) 2010.pp. 145-156. 14. Nursing Board Malaysia. Guidelines on Standards and Criteria For Approval/ accreditation of nursing programmes. Nursing Board Malaysia. 2010. Nursing Board Malaysia. 15. Lovat, T.,Davies, M., and Plotnikoff, R. Integrating research skill development in Teacher Education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 1997; 20 (1) 30-35 16. Epp. S. The value of reflective journaling in undergraduate nursing education: A literature review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 2008; 45, 1379-88. 17. Kuiper, R.A. and Pesut, D. J. Promoting cognitive and meta cognitive reflective reasoning skills in n nursing practice: self-regulated learning theory – Issues and Innovation in Nursing Education, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 2004; 45 (4) 381-391

Today’s Cutting Edge In Research Education Increases Tomorrow’s Employability

1 2 Beatrice Low Wei Jin , Hardip Kaur Dhillon 1MBBS Year 2 undergraduate ,2Senior Lecturer, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, 46150 Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is now considered a fundamental basis for clinical practices globally. There is an enormous necessity of going beyond merely reading research articles to actually applying research studies to solve patient management problems on a day to day basis. In order to have a cutting edge in a very competitive, international trade of education, Monash University Malaysia encourages Year 1 and 2 undergraduates to engage in various research projects, available within the School of Medicine during their semester breaks. This paper demonstrates a student’s use of experiential learning, reflective journaling and blended Learning while engaging in a research project. The basic research skills acquired early in the undergraduate MBBS curriculum is expected to achieve advance level research skills as the medical student completes the fifth year of the course. Hence, today’s cutting edge of developing research skills early increases the chances of tomorrow’s employability and employment in evidence based health care settings.

Keywords: Experiential learning, research journaling, research skills, reflective process, blended learning, Malaysia.

I. Introduction

In recent years many more teacher educators are considering innovative methods in which to introduce and enhance research skills development through use of reflectivity [1]. In the current digital age, there is a push to acquire knowledge in the most efficient manner possible. Learning is no longer confined to classrooms nor is it merely didactic, requiring the constant presence of a lecturer. This paper shares the process of a second-year medical student acquiring basic research knowledge and skills during her internship. She accompanied a researcher who conducted a cross-sectional community-based survey and later in-depth interviews in a project titled ‘A Study of Urinary Incontinence in women living in Selangor Malaysia’. Educators are aware that in the world of research, there are many research skills which could be acquired through experiential learning [2] rather than traditional learning. In order for the medical student to develop research knowledge and skills throughout her internship, the researcher encouraged her to maintain a reflective journal [2]. “There is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education.” John Dewey, 1938 The Kolb Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) emphasizes the importance of experience in learning. The theory is called "Experiential learning" [2] to emphasize the central role that experience plays in the learning process. It provides a holistic model of the learning process and is a multi-linear model of adult development, both of which are consistent with what we know about how we naturally learn, grow, and develop.

Figure1. The Kolb Cycle of Experiential Learning [2]

Kolb cycle involved a four-step continuous cycle, composing of (i) concrete experience, (ii) reflective observation, (iii) abstract conceptualization, (iv) active experimentation. The cycle began at any step. However it was recognized that usually learning began with the student participating in an activity for him/herself. The student then spends time to reflect upon what had been done and the impact it carried. This was then followed by a stage whereby the student generalized the action and its impact and did some research and critical thinking over what had been reflected. Sometimes thinking how it could have been done in a differently. The last stage is to put the abstract conceptualizations to practice by trying the action again. During the first and second year internship, the researcher included the constructivism theory [3] in the student’s learning experience. Learning was considered an active process in which the student constructed new ideas or concepts upon her current and previous research knowledge and skills. Based upon her cognitive structure, the reflective journaling, the intern provided meaning and organization to her learning experiences in Year 1. In the following year, the intern selected and transformed new information generated from her experience in Year 1 and at times even went beyond the information provided by the researcher. Since technologies were considered cognitive tools to help learners elaborate on what they are thinking and to engage in meaningful learning [4], the intern was also encouraged to use online learning. Online learning resources, web-based instructions with technical support including web search were some of the tools made available to the students at Monash University Malaysia. By Year 2 the MBBS student had already received formal lectures on data entry, statistical tests, and analysis and in her own time she increased her comprehension of data entry and SPSS analysis through the use of online tutorials. This concept of blended learning [5] is considered a formal education when thoughtful integration of two components, internet technology and face to face teaching (lecture) is provided to enhance the student’s learning experiences [6].

Internship

The medical student’s internship at Monash University Malaysia began in December 2012 to January 2013. Her placement was at Pandan Jaya, Hulu Langat, Selangor, Malaysia. She was exposed to quantitative research. A pilot study was conducted to validate the research instrument, Malay language questionnaire for urinary incontinence diagnosis (QUID) [7]. It was administered to a cohort 150 women of whom one hundred and eleven healthy Malaysian women living in the communities of Selangor responded.

They were required to meet the inclusion criteria prior to voluntary recruitment to the study. The aim of the study was to document the prevalence, and the risk factors associated with urinary incontinence (UI). The subsequent internship was at the end of Year 2 MBBS program. This time the intern was exposed to qualitative research. She observed and participated in sessions when the researcher conducted in-depth interviews using audio recording and note taking to assess the quality of life of women with urinary incontinence using the QUID score criteria.

Brief outline of the research project

1. Problem statement Urinary incontinence is a common problem that may be under reported by Malaysian women. A standardized, validated English language Questionnaire for Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID) was translated to Malay language QUID to be used in this study. 2. Aim To test the validity and reliability of the Malay Language Questionnaire for Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID). 3. Research Methodology • Survey • Purposive sampling method 4. Study design Cross-sectional, observational pilot study 5. Sample size n =100 6. Source of Funding Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) e-Science Fund Project no: 06- 02-10-SF0103 7. Materials Malay language Questionnaire Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID) 8. Ethics approval Ministry of Health Malaysia Ethics Committee Approval dated 1st June 2011-15 was obtained (Project no. NMRR-11-149-8830). Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee Certificate of Approval was obtained from 16th August 2011–16th August 2016 (Project no. CF10/1725- 2010000963). 9. Recruitment • Inclusion criteria comprised of healthy, Malaysian women aged 18 years and above, women with children aged 2 years and above, single women, nulliparous women, and women with well controlled diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and coronary heart disease. • Exclusion criteria consisted of non –Malaysian women, under the age of consent (<18 years) women with uncontrolled diabetes, hypertension, cardio-vascular disease, undergone gynecological or abdominal surgery in the last six months, recent abortion or childbirth, women with children under the age of 2 years, women undergoing chemotherapy or in remission for cancer treatment. . 10. Data collection

• Quantitative research- self- administered questionnaires or face to face interview 11. Statistical analysis • SPSS version 20 was used to analyse the data. • Statistical tests - Factor analysis and reliability 12. Publication • Dhillon, H.K., et al. (2014) Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses for Testing Validity and Reliability of the Malay Language Questionnaire for Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID). Open Journal of Preventive Medicine, 4, 844- 851. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpm.2014.411095 [7] Some of the research knowledge and skills, acquired by the MBBS student during her internship were as follows; purposive sampling method, ethical consideration, cultural awareness, data collection, data entry and basic statistical tests.

Reflective journal

1. Research skill: Purposive sampling method used to recruit respondents Concrete experience In order to perform purposive sampling method to recruit appropriate respondents in various locations in Selangor, the researcher had obtained various maps from Department of Statistics, Malaysia (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia). In preparation for the first field trip the researcher showed me a map of Pandan Jaya. Within the map, a number of houses had been highlighted on certain roads and streets. In order to become familiar with the locality, we drove around the roads and streets identifying the house addresses. By performing this first visit to the area, we already had a rough idea of the location and planned appropriate strategies for the home visits. We planned to recruit approximately 30 participants per location using the purposive sampling method. Flyers in English and Malay language had been placed in the letterboxes of identified houses on marked roads according to the map provided to us. Another ingenious way to recruit participants was through the networking sampling. Once gaining access to a subject’s home, sometimes the respondent would enquire from the researcher if their female friends who met the inclusion criteria and were living within the area of the survey could participate in the study. More often than not, respondents had at least one or two friends to recommend. This was known as the snowball technique. Reflective Observation The pilot study was a cross sectional survey and recruitment was initially made using a purposive (purposeful) sampling method. Bilingual flyers were used to advertise the recruitment drive at Pandan Jaya before making any initial contact with the women. Initial recruitment was successful but due to no responses from some of the addresses the dropout rate was significant. To overcome that issue, the researchers used the snowball technique to recruit sufficient number of women (n=30) from each location of a district. Abstract Conceptualization A pilot study is a small-scale study or trial run done prior to a major study. This study was a cross-section survey which was a non-experimental research that focused on obtaining information which influenced lifestyle activities, beliefs, preferences and attitudes [8]. This data was obtained via direct questioning from a sample of respondents [8-9]. Initially, recruitment was done using the purposive sampling. Polit & Beck [8] defined it as a nonprobability sampling method, whereby the researcher selected participants on the basis of personal judgment about which ones will be most representative of the population. This was also known as judgmental sampling. But as the weeks passed by, the target number of achieving 30 respondents was still not met as the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 28 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 dropout rate from non-responsive household was significant. To overcome this problem, the researcher started using the snowball technique of recruiting respondents instead. This selection of participants was by means of nomination or referral from earlier participants. If the referred women lived in the same location and met the inclusion criteria they were then recruited into the study. Active Experimentation The purposive sampling method continued to be used for recruiting subjects. But for those houses where the researchers were unable to gain access they were aborted. Instead the researcher was able to recruit other women within the same location through the “snowball technique”. This method proved to be successful and within a very short period of time the researcher was able to achieve her target respondents within one district.

2. Research skill: Ethical consideration during home visits.

Concrete experience Prior to doing home visits, I was also involved in the administrative preparation of recruitment envelopes. Developing a process to enable easier packaging of recruitment packs was important to ensure I would not miss anything out when placing them into packets. Recruitment packs contained a consent form, explanatory statement with the researcher’s contact number enclosed, and research questionnaire booklet. This preparation was so vital because it enabled us to carry out the recruitment with ease when we reach the houses of respondents. Those who met the inclusion criteria had given implied consent by agreeing to participate. I observed the researcher going through the explanatory statement and consent form together with the respondent to ensure valid, legal voluntary consent was obtained prior to data collection. The respondents were asked if they wished to self-administer the questionnaire or to engage in face-to-face interviews to complete the questionnaire. Reflective Observation Based on Monash University Research Ethics Committee (MUREC) guidelines, I learnt the importance of conducting research professionally and ethically in order to protect both the researcher and the respondent. To obtain valid, legal voluntary consent, the researcher was ethically bounded to provide explanation, both verbally and written in order to obtain voluntary informed consent in a language the potential participant was most comfortable to speak in. It is only through this experience that I was able to appreciate better the knowledge that I had acquired during the lectures on bioethics in the first year of MBBS program. Deeper learning and comprehension was occurring in me by way of further understanding the knowledge obtained from bioethics lectures through practice of recruitment using purposive and sampling method. Abstract Conceptualization From the beginning of the project, I learnt the importance of research ethics. The researcher was both legally and ethically bound to ensure the research was carried out according to the Nuremberg code and Declaration of Helsinki which states that all researchers should adhere to the ethical code of conduct as it protected the wellbeing of the respondents [10]. It was considered ethical to have all relevant documents such as explanatory statement, consent form and questionnaire to be made available in major languages used in Malaysia, namely, English, Malay, Tamil and Mandarin. The assumption was that the respondents would provide a valid, informed consent and comprehend the questionnaire better if it is available in a language of her choice. In return the quality of data collected would be better. Active Experimentation During the field visits, the researcher has to ensure that all relevant documents such as explanatory statement, consent form and flyers were made available in order to obtain valid, legal, informed consent from the volunteer who met the inclusion criteria. I therefore personally took the responsibility to ensure all the relevant documents

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 29 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 to obtain valid informed consent was available in the recruitment envelopes before we set out to recruit subjects for the study.

3. Research skill: Cultural awareness during home visits.

Concrete experience Initial approach to potential respondents in their homes was paramount. I observed my researcher greeting and introducing herself to potential participants, making sure not to come across as being too forceful as participation in the study was entirely voluntary. A total of two to three visits were necessary at each household in order to recruit women who met the inclusion criteria and collect their data. We always dressed simply in long or three quarter sleeves, collared shirts or Monash tee-shirts and long or three quarter length pants. Preferably in dark colours, in order not to draw attention to ourselves. As we scouted the location looking for identified house addresses for recruitment we always checked for any clues at the front door, to the type of culture and religion the residents of the identified household would be practiced. Various religious and cultural symbols such as the Arabic calligraphy with Malay handicrafts in the garden depicted a Muslim, Malay household or a cross at the top of the front entrance of a house may be a Chinese or Indian Christian. Red Chinese lanterns hanging from the porch with an altar in the garden may be a Chinese person’s house. Some Indian houses had strings of mango leaves at their main entrance or symbols of the Hindu gods and goddess on the front doors. Noticing all these clues were crucial when making our first home visit as it ensure the researcher made proper greetings with due respect to the potential participants. Meeting various families opened my eyes towards the astounding cultural diversity in Malaysia. Not only did we meet people of many races but interracial marriage too contributes towards the melting pot. An instance that we saw was an African-Chinese child who looked like her African father but spoke like a true Malaysian. Reflective Observation Preparation for recruitment was crucial as it will set the tone for the visit. I learnt that preparation was not only confined to materials and apparatus but also the mental preparation necessary to be able to approach potential respondents with confidence. The preparedness will come across during the home visit and affect the flow of the visit (which may inadvertently affect the response of the respondents). A few strategies enabled us to gain easy access to homes of potential respondents. Firstly, we were aware of the cultural differences of the three major ethnic groups. The rough demographics of the area to be surveyed were kept in mind. For instance, if the location was predominately Muslims, the logic would be to cover up more i.e. long pants and a long-sleeved shirt. Furthermore, I realized that it helped in home visits when the researchers were female, especially when our target respondents were women. There is also no real substitute for politeness and being nice. I learnt that we did not have to rely solely on the randomly generated addresses we obtained from the Ministry, but rely on help from the existing participants themselves, who passed on news of the research by word of mouth to friends living in the same area. For me, a useful aspect was learning to be flexible in approaches to different participants. Some respondents were more open to advice and lifestyle ‘critique’ whereas others refuse to disclose personal matters. Some were very relaxed while others tended to be very uptight and stressed out. The research must go on! Researchers needed to be ready for anything – just put on a mask of calmness and carry on. In addition, I learnt it was important to be empathetic towards the respondents, as I observed my mentor communicating with them in that manner. Abstract Conceptualization The home visits conducted during research is different from one done by the health professionals such as midwives, nurses and doctors. In research, the initial contact with respondent strongly affects the woman’s decision whether to participate or not in the study. A friendly, motivating interviewer can increase response and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 30 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 item response rates, maintain motivation with longer questionnaires, probe for response and clarify ambiguity [11]. Some may also use memory jogging techniques for aiding recall of events and behavior as well as control the order of the questionnaire. Both cultural awareness and effective communication skills are of utmost importance in retaining recruits [12]. In this instance, culturally congruent questionnaire were essential to the success of this research study as the information collected was both personal and sensitive [12]. The QUID was translated into three major languages; Malay, Mandarin and Tamil languages using the MAPI guidelines [13]. Active Experimentation The intern had assisted the researcher in undertaking the task of translating the English language version of the explanatory statement, consent form and flyer to Malay language. Being bilingual, she was able to translate it from English to Malay with ease, using Google Translate as a guide. It was later that the student fully appreciate the importance of the translation of the explanatory statement later on when we started recruiting more respondents in other locations. Most women were most comfortable answering questions in their native language; hence the availability of different languages to read from; showed that the researcher was both culturally competent and sensitive to the needs [14] of the respondents. Future pilot studies within Malaysian cohorts were expected to be conducted to validate the Mandarin and Tamil language questionnaires.

4. Research skill: Data collection

Concrete Experience I participated in the qualitative research, during the survey, I observed the researcher conducting a face-to- face verbal interview mode using the traditional pen and paper interview (PAPI) questionnaire. This mode was used for all the respondents who had limited education. Those respondents who had received O level education (SPM), the researcher applied the self-administrative mode. Reflective Observation I observed how the researcher conducted a face to face interview with respondents who were unable to comprehend the questions due to limited education. A significant element that I noticed was the diverse education levels among these respondents ranging from no formal education to tertiary education. Educated women were able to answer the entire questionnaire on their own within a short period of time whereas for the uneducated ones we had to painstakingly go through each question with them. Abstract Conceptualization During the survey, the researcher had used two modes to collect the data using the paper questionnaire, i.e. verbal face to face interview using traditional pen and paper to answer the questionnaire [11]. The interview mode used was verbal-interviewers, face to face; using traditional pen and paper interview (PAPI) and questionnaires, as well as self-administrative mode. Traditional paper and pen self-administrative ‘interview’ (PAPI) was used whereby the this time the paper questionnaire was handed to women in person and asked to complete it by hand and return the answered questionnaire to the researcher personally. Evidence based medicine is not just about clinical skills but also to be able to demonstrate sensitivity with appropriate communication skills to fully understand the patient’s context. Including the ability to elicit and understand patient values and preferences [14]. This concept can also be applied in research studies. Active Experimentation After observation, I participated in a verbal face to face interview using the PAPI mode with a respondent under supervision. To ensure accurate responses I would go through each question slowly and where necessary, if the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 31 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 respondent appeared confused, I would use simpler words to reach the respondent’s level of comprehension. At times language did become a barrier. For instant, the participant who couldn’t speak English, knew very basic Malay and was unable to read Mandarin but spoke a Chinese dialect. On the other hand, I was of Chinese origin and did not speak Mandarin fluently. Being Chinese myself, she had anticipated that I would assist her to answer the questionnaire in Mandarin. I became aware of my own limitation. During my subsequent home visits I was able to speak in Mandarin when necessary. This was because I started to learn common Mandarin terms off the internet. In this way I was prepared for similar encounters in future.

5. Research skill: Data entry and analysis

Concrete experience Of the 200 women who were approached, a total of 111 respondents responded to the questionnaires. They were from various locations of Selangor. To me, a significant aspect of research was to observe the researcher use SPSS Statistics version 20. Even though she entered the data of her pilot study herself but she did allow me to assist her in developing a code book for each variable. She demonstrated how to perform basic analysis of the data using descriptive statistics. The results were illustrated using tables and figures. The analytic reasoning to interpret the findings was a challenging one for me. Later I created my own dataset. Reflective Observation Previously, I thought that I knew it all when it came to data entry using Microsoft Excel. I was blissfully ignorant of the mountains of data to be entered and analyzed in a study such as this one. I was introduced to software called Statistical Package Social Science (SPSS) version 20. My researcher showed me how to create a codebook by providing a number to the various responses for each question. Later I learnt to enter the data carefully as this was considered a very important aspect of data entry. I realized that poor data entry could affect the analysis of the study. Abstract Conceptualization I applied online learning [4] by exploring various online tutorials, hosted by the popular social networking site. You-tube guided me by showing a step-by-step approach. I filled in the gaps with a SPSS guidebook and observation of my supervisor. I had significantly developed my knowledge of data entry and analysis. I realized that while this process was tedious, it was also fruitful especially when one starts to get results from clicking on the button to analyze data. Active Experimentation Under supervision, I created my own dataset and learnt to perform data entry and analysis using SPSS version 20. I practiced on various statistical analyses for factor analysis and reliability of the instrument. To do so, I would press the following buttons: Factor analysis Dimension reduction Factor (i) Descriptive initial solution and KMO and Bartlett’s test of sphericity, (ii) Extraction Unrotated factor solution and scree plot, (iii) Rotation Varimax. For Reliability test the following analysis was performed: Scale reliability analysis statistics Item, scale and model alpha. Changes were made based on feedback from my supervisor and also reference material I found online. I experienced and learned throughout the process

6. Research skill: Reflective journaling

Concrete experience Initially, my reflective journal was a big jumble of material that was a product of my reflection which was maintained throughout the duration of the study. Subsequently when doing literature review and came across papers about urinary incontinence, I started questioning my own academic writing skills. So what is reflective writing?

Reflective observation Through reflection, I began to critically think about my experiential learning of various research skills. To be able to write the information generated by my brain in an organized and structured manner definitely required skill. Even while writing this manuscript, I learnt to write and rewrite drafts of manuscript, and to build upon and refine my ideas. I learnt to compartmentalize my written material, organize it, and give it clear headings. I also changed sentence structures and improved the grammar in order to give my ideas more substance. Abstract conceptualization Informal writing is for diary entries, personal writing, letters or emails to friends. On the other hand academic writing is formal writing and its characteristics include a formal tone, clear focus on the issue or topic and precise word choice. Reflective writing is again different from either of the two; it is evidence of reflective thinking in an academic context; it usually involves looking back at an incident, idea or object, analyzing the event through different perspective and in-depth and trying to explain often with reference to a model or theory the subject that is being reflected upon [2-4]. Reflective writing is more personal than other kinds of academic writing. Unlike academic writing where the use of the third person rather than the first person perspective is applied, in reflective journaling the pronoun “I” is frequently used. Active experimentation Following repeated discussions and feedbacks from my supervisor, my thinking process slow began to comprehend. I began to recognize the difference between informal writing, academic writing and reflective journaling. Through writing a reflective journal, as I probed into my experience further, my understanding of the various research skills I had been exposed to also increase. My deeper learning of research skills occurred mainly during the abstract conceptualization of reflection. It was self-directed learning process and gaining new research knowledge and skill gave me a sense of empowerment.

III. Conclusion

Medical students need to be highly encouraged to develop research skills in the course of their medical education. Acquiring research skills and knowledge through experiential learning, construct and blended learning is expected to broaden the students’ perspective on research and the contributions they can make as a future medical practitioner. Since evidencebased medicine (EBM) is now considered a fundamental basis for clinical practices the results from this research project, when published would provide evidence based knowledge on urinary incontinence (UI) in Malaysian women living in Selangor to the medical and health professionals. By undertaking this internship, the medical student was able to develop some basic research skills within the first two year of her MBBS course. In future, in terms of employability and increased chances of employment, this research internship would provide this medical student a cutting edge over other medical students who possess no research skills.

References

1. Lovat, T., Davies, M., and Plotnikoff, R. Integrating research skills development in teacher education. Australian Journal of teacher Education. 1995, 20; 1: 31-35. 2. Mobbs, R. David Kolb [Internet]. UK: University of Leicester; 2003 [updated 2003 December; cited 2014 December 18]. Available from: http://www.le.ac.uk/users/rjm1/etutor/resources/learningtheories/kolb.html 3. Burner, J. (1966). Towards a theory of instructions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard: www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist.html

4. Hsiu-Mei Huang (2002). Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environment. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2002; 3: 1, 27-37. 5. Garrison, R. and Kanuka, H. Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 2004, 7: 95-105. 6. Sharma, P. Blended learning. ELT J[Internet]. 2010 Jul [cited 2014 Dec 18]; 64(4):456-458. Available from:http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/content/64/4/456 doi: 10.1093/elt/ccq043 7. Dhillon, H.K., et al. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses for Testing Validity and Reliability of the Malay Language Questionnaire for Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID). Open Journal of Preventive Medicine, 2014, 4, 844- 851. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpm.2014.411095 8. Polit, D.F.,and Beck, C.T. Nursing research: appraising evidence for nursing practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010. Chapter 12, Sampling plans; p.305-333. 9. Gledhill, S., Abbey, J., Schweltzer, R. Sampling methods: methodological issues involved in the recruitment of older people into a study of sexuality. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2008, 26; 1: 84 - 94. 10. Grove, S., Burn, N., and Grey, J. The practice of Nursing Research, Appraisal, Synthesis and Generation of Evidence, Chapter 4, Examining ethics in nursing research; 7th edition. United States of America: Elsevier Saunders 2012, p. 102-143. 11. Bowling, A. Mode of questionnaire administration can have serious effects on data quality. Journal of Public Health, 2005, 27; 3: 281-291. Doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdi031. 12. Shiu- Thronton,S. Addressing cultural competency in research: integrating a community based participatory research approach. Alcohol. Clin. Res.[Internet]. 2003 Aug [cited 2014 Dec 28]; 27(8):1361- 1364.Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/doi/10.1097/01.ALC.00000 80200.07061.66/abstract;jsessionid=7502FD9C50894C921A32DEAE026D956A.f03t 04 doi: 10.1097/01.ALC.0000080200.07061.66 13. MAPI Institute: Linguistic Validation Manual for Health Outcome Assessments, 2nd edn. Lyon: MAPI Research Trust; 2012. 14. Guyatt, G., Rennie, D., Meade, M.O. Cook, D.J. Users’ guide to the medical literature. Essentials of evidence -based clinical practice. 2nd Edition. Mc Graw Hill Medical. New York. 2008. Chapter 2 The philosophy of evidence -based medicine. p. 11. 15. Epp. S. The value of reflective journaling in undergraduate nursing education: A literature review. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2008, 45: 1379-1388.

The Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School: Heritage, Transformation, and Renovation

Yu-Ju Hung, Ph.D. Assistant Professor History Department, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan (R.O.C.) [email protected]

Abstract

The creation of mother-tongue language schools was the prevalent phenomenon in the American immigration communities in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Some European, such as German, immigrants capitalized their ethnic network to develop their ethnic language instructions within the systems of public school or religious parochial school, while certain Asian (Chinese or Japanese) immigrants created private language schools to maintain their heritage and culture for younger generations. Through the case study of history of the Chinese Confucius Temple School in Los Angeles Chinatown, along with the examination of theoretical frame of contemporary non-English mother-tongue schools in the United States, this study demonstrate the transformation of Chinese language school in the aftermath of 1950s. It shows that the development of language school not only dwells on the issues of Mandarin-learning and culture maintenance, but also accompanies with the transition of Chinese community from inner-city enclave to suburbs.

Keywords: Language school, Los Angeles Chinatown, Chinese Confucius Temple School, Chinese tradition, cultural heritage

Introduction:

The development of Chinese language schools dates back to the late 1880s when the first one, Chinese Minister Zhang Yinguan, was established in San Francisco.1 In the following years to serve the needs of early immigrants, classes in Cantonese language were provided for the residents of Chinatown in a number of large cities in the United States. The common feature of the earliest Chinese school in San Francisco and its contemporary counterparts was that it played supplementary role to regular school. Moreover, just like language schools in the immigrant German, Scandinavian, Jewish, and Japanese communities, Chinese language schools strongly aimed to preserve Chinese language and cultural heritage in the second and succeeding generations. Nevertheless, due to the restriction of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the resulting discriminatory practices against the Chinese in the United States, Chinese language schools seldom evolved the way of their European counterparts that finally joined in the mainstream educational system. Rather, Chinese language schools maintained their isolated situation and located exclusively within Chinatown.

1 The earliest Chinese classes for the Chinese miners were created in 1848 in California, but it was not the formal Chinese language school. In 1874, the compulsory Chinese classes were established in Connecticut to ensure that the 120 Chinese youths sent by Qing government to study in America would not forget their ancestral heritage. However, these classes had little interaction with the contemporary Chinese American community, and had slight influence on the development of community- style Chinese language schools. See Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions (New York: A Division of Rowman X Littlefield Publisher): 272; Theresa Hsu Chao, “Overview,” in Xueying Wang, A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language schools in the United State (Washington, D.C.: National Foreign Language Center, 1996): 7.

After World War II, the development of Chinese language schools entered the new stage. A host of new immigrants from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Mainland China made a fundamental demographic change to the traditional Chinese communities in the United States, which used to be mainly constituted by Cantonese. These new Chinese immigrants were mostly professionals, from middle class backgrounds, and emigrated in family units, so that they possessed the capability to acculturate into the American society. In residential patterns, they tended to inhabit in the suburban region and gradually created the distinctive Chinese language schools for their descendants. The emergence of the new Chinese language schools had an impact on the traditional ones in Chinatown, and forced them to transform and renovate as well. The Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School was the model of the traditional Chinese language school in Los Angeles Chinatown after WWII. Supported by the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) 2 , from the beginning, the school was intimately connected with the local Cantonese Chinese community and obviously portrayed itself as the representative of the Chinese cultural heritage. Although the school faced a challenge from the new Chinese language schools after 1980s, it self-transformed and recreated itself to conform the need both for newcomers and traditional Cantonese decedents. From the history of the Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School capitulated the reality and dilemma that Chinese community encountered for their younger generations in the second half twentieth century. In this essay, first I will introduce the review of literature about the study of different ethnic language schools, then, go on a brief history of early Chinese language schools in Los Angeles. In the final part, I will focus on the development of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School, discussing its history, school life, and its transformation and renovation.

Review of Literature

As for the relationship among language, culture, and ethnicity, along with the typology of ethnic language schools in the United States, research by Joshua A. Fishman and other scholars provided fundamental theoretical structure.3 Fishman suggested that the mother tongue school, acting as secondary reward system and combined with force within home, community, and churches, could play an important role in maintaining the ethnic language through promoting ethnic literacy, sustaining ethnic dignity, and training leadership within the minority community. Likewise, E.Brdunas and B.E. Topping’s research examined language schools for thirteen

2 Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of Los Angeles (CCBA of Los Angeles) was the branch of the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association/huiguan, which was founded in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century in San Francisco. This association served as the major association for six main Chinese clan systems in the Chinatown. CCBA had established its branches in many cities throughout the United States in 19th century and early 20th century. As for CCBA of Los Angeles, it was originally called as “Wei-Liang Association” when setting up in 1889 in the Garmier building, Los Angeles Street. In 1910, “Wei-Liang Association” was renamed as CCBA of Los Angeles, and predominated the Chinatown affairs. In 1945, CCBA of Los Angeles planned to construct its new building at 925, N. Broadway which followed the move of Chinatown. In September 1952, CCBA of Los Angeles moved to the new constructed building and lasted till nowadays. CCBA of Los Angeles contained twenty seven associations―Wong’s Family Benevolent Association of Los Angeles, Lung Kong Tin Yee Association, Taishan Ningyung Huigen, Taishan Ningchiao Kung Hui, Bing Kung Tong, Lee On Dong Association, Hoy Ping Student Association of Southern California, Gee How Oak Tin Association, Ho Sheng Tsung Chih Tong, Jan Ying Benevolent Association, Gee Tuck Sam Tuck Association, Chinese American Citizens Alliance, Gee Poy Kuo Association, New Women Movement Association, Eng Suey Sun Association, Ma’s Family Association of Southern California, Lung Sai Ho Tong, Kuomintang-Los Angeles Branch, Ying On Association, Chew Lun Association, Kong Chow Benevolent Association, Kong Chow Pao An Hui, Su Yuan Tong, Yee Fung Toy Association, Fung Lun Association, Louie Family Association, Chung Wah Corporation. These twenty seven associations elected the board of directors and board of supervisors, which were responsible for operations of the accessorial associations―Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, Chung Wah Fu Ti Commission, Chung Wah Fu Chiao Commission. Interviewed with CCBA of Los Angeles. November 13, 2008. 3 Joshua A. Fisherman, V.C. Nahirny, J.E. Hofman, and R.G. Hayden, Language loyalty in the United States (The Hauge: Mouton & Co., 1966); Joshua A. Fisherman and V.C. Nahirny, “The ethnic group school and mother tongue maintenance in the United States,” Sociology of Education 37 (1964): 306-317; Joshua A. Fisherman, “Minority language maintenance and the ethnic mother tongue school,” The Modern Language Journal 64, no.2 (Summer 1980): 167-172; Joshua A. Fisherman, “Ethnic community mother tongue schools in the U.S.A.: Dynamics and Distributions,” International Migration Review 14, no. 2 (Summer 1980): 235-247.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 36 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 groups that corresponded to Fishman’s classifications of language schools, including Polish, Hungarian, Turkish, Cambodian, Japanese, Greek, Korean, and other ethnic schools.4 Since the United States is a country composed of mostly immigrants and their descendants, the mother tongue school in American history was evident. Hence, there is ample relevant research based on the theoretical structure Fisherman, Brdunas and Topping established. Regarding the European immigrants and language maintenance, German, as the largest non-Anglo European immigrant group, presented the most far-reaching endeavors to keep their mother tongue since eighteenth century, whether in the forms of private schools, parochial schools, or in the form of setting up their mother tongue courses in the public schools. Early German language schools usually existed as all day schools or weekend schools. Furthermore, the numerical size of the German-speaking population at the beginning of the nineteenth century contributed to growth of the ethnic language instructions. As a result, German language became as the most important non-English language that spread nationwide. Many German words such as hamburger, kindergarten, delicatessen, and frankfurters were already incorporated into American system of language and culture.5 In this vein German language schools and its supplementary instructions, both in and outside the public education proved to be the representative of the contemporary maintenance of non-English linguistic traditions. The significance of German language schools was reflected by enormous scholarly case study. For example, Kloss’s research offered an outline of the development of German mother tongue schools in the United States, along with the specific discussion of their virtual disappearance during the two world wars, caused by intense national anti-German activities. 6 Similarly, Steven L. Schlossman’s study demonstrated developments of German language instruction within the public elementary school system in famous German Triangle Area in the Middle West, including several cities―Cincinnati, St. Louis, Milwaukee, and Indianapolis―during the period from 1840 to 1919.7 Kenneth B. O’ Brien Jr.’s article examined three Supreme Court cases- Meyer v. the State of Nebraska (1919), Pierce v. Society of Sisiters (1922), and Farrington v. Tokushige (1927), marking the mounting nationalism and xenophobia after World War I that targeted three types of foreign language schools: parochial German schools in Nebraska, German language schools in Oregon, and Japanese language schools in Hawaii respectively. 8 Joanthan Zimmerman’s work stressed the ambivalent attitudes European immigrants toward their native language courses in the American public schools prior to 1940.9 Richard J. Quinlan’s article focuses on another type of European groups, the Catholic followers, showing how Catholic parochial schools offered alternative language training for certain ethnic groups. 10 Walter P. Krolikowski and Dorota Praszalowicz’s article stressed the early importance of Polish parochial schools in the formation of language heritage in the religious system.11 The development of Japanese language schools in the United States was representative of mother language maintenance among Asian Americans. Yoshihide Matsubayashi’s dissertation presented an overall examination of the historical development of Japanese language schools (Nihon-go Gakko) in Hawaii and California between 1892 and 1941.12 He focused on the socio-political realities, the culture, and the nationalistic factor that led to

4 E.Brdunas and B.E.Topping, Ethnic heritage and language schools in America (Washington: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1988). 5 Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America: A History (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1981): 43. 6 H. Kloss, “German-American language maintenance efforts,” in Language loyalty in the United States: 207-251. 7 Steven L. Schlossman, “Is There an American Tradition of Bilingual Education? German in the Public Elementary Schools, 1840-1919,” American Journal of Education 91, no. 2 (February 1983): 139-186. 8 Kenneth B. O’ Brien Jr., “Education, Americanization and the Supreme Court: The 1920’s,” American Quarterly 13, no.2 (Summer 1961): 161-171. 9 Joanthan Zimmerman, “Ethnics against Ethnicity: European Immigrants and Foreign-Language Instruction, 1890-1940,” The Journal of American History 88, no.4 (March 2002): 1383-1404. 10 Richard J. Quinlan, “Growth and Development of Catholic Education in the Archdiocese of Boston,” The Catholic Historical Review 22, no.1 (April 1936): 27-41. 11 Walter P. Krolikowski, “Poles in America: Maintaining the Ties,” Theory into Practice 20, no. 1 (Winter 2001): 52-57; Dorota Praszalowicz, “The Cultural Changes of Polish-American Parochial Schools in Milwaukee, 1866-1988,” Journal of American Ethnic History 13, no.4 (Summer 1994): 23-54. 12 Yoshihide Matsubayashi, The Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii and California From 1892 to 1941 (PhD diss., University of San Francisco, 1984).

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 37 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 the establishment of the schools and effected the enrollment of Japanese children in these schools. Noriko Asato’s research also discussed the Japanese language schools in Hawaii from 1916 to 1920; nevertheless, she stressed the debates and influences, together with the Federal Survey of Education in1919 targeting Japanese language schools.13 Eileen H. Tamura and Ralph Thomas Kam dealt with the dispute over Japanese language schools in Hawaii during the two great wars.14 Yuki Yamazaki’s work portrayed the Japanese Americans experience of acculturation in a Los Angeles church school, the St. Xavier School, by focusing on the results of their conversion to Catholicism in early twentieth century. 15 With respect to the Chinese language schools in America, Him Mark Lai’s two articles can be regarded as most significant investigation, drawing panorama of the development in San Francisco and Hawaii from late nineteenth century to current times.16 Xueying’s overview focused on the academic curriculum, extracurricular activities, teaching and training, along with the administration and management of the Chinese language schools.17 Min Zhou and Li Xiyuan’s article aimed to unpack ethnicity through a close examination of ethnic language schools and the system of supplementary education in the immigrant Chinese community, particularly those being established in the post-1960s, in the United States.18 Charles A. Donovan’s study described the Paulist Mission’s effort to evangelize and help the Chinese in San Francisco by building parochial day school and Chinese language school since early twentieth century.19 Catherine Leung’s essay surveyed the conditions of Chinese language schools in San Francisco presently.20 In addition, there are three relevant dissertations focusing on Chinese schools in America through specific case studies. Min-Hsun Chiang’s dissertation offered an understanding of a community-based Chinese language school, while she sheds light on American-born Chinese’s perceptions of Chinese schools through a case study of the Faith Chinese School (FCS) in Cypress City, Texas.21 Lu Chang’s dissertation was another case study, including surveys of 800 principals, teachers, parents and students, concerning about Chinese language schools in Northern California in maintaining the Chinese language, culture, and ethnicity in a multilingual/multicultural environment. 22 Chen Yung Fan’s dissertation was a case study of the Chinese language schools in the Chinatown of San Francisco, and he stressed the interrelation between the school and community in a complex and changing contemporary environment.23 Materials in Chinese are the important source for research on the Chinese language school. Pei Chi Liu’s books provided detailed and considerable references for the development of Chinese schools, especially before WWI, in the United States.24 Shu-Hua Wang’s book, published by Taiwan’s Overseas Compatriot Affairs

13 Noriko Asato, ”Mandating Americanization: Japanese Language Schools and the Federal Survey of Education in Hawaii, 1916-1920,” History of Education Quarterly 43, no.1 (Spring 2003): 10-38. 14 Eileen H. Tamura, “The English-Only Effort, the Anti-Japanese Campaign, and Language Acquisition in Education of Japanese Americans in Hawaii, 1915- 40,” History of Education Quarterly 33, no.1 (Spring 1993): 37-58; Ralph Thomas Kam, “Language and Loyalty: Americanism and the Regulation of Foreign Language Schools in Hawaii,” The Hawaiian Journal of History 40 (2006): 131-147. 15 Yuki Yamazaki, “St. Francis Xavier School: Acculturation and Enculturation of Japanese Americans in Los Angeles, 1921-1945,” U.S. Catholic Historian 18 ( 2000): 54-73. 16 Him Mark Lai, “Chinese Schools in America before World War II,” in Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions, Him Mark Lai (New York: A Division of Rowman X Littlefield Publisher,): 271-309; Him Mark Lai, “Chinese Schools in America after World War II,” in Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions: 310-351. 17 Xueying Wang edited, A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States (Washington, D.C.: National Foreign Language Center, 1996). 18 Min Zhou and Li Xiyuan, “Ethnic Language Schools and the Development of Supplementary Education in the Immigrant Chinese Community in the United States,” New Directions for Youth Development 100 (Winter 2003): 57-73. 19 Charles A. Donovan, “The Paulist Mission to the Chinese in San Francisco since 1903,” U.S. Catholic Historian 18 (Winter 2000): 126-142. 20 Catherine Leung, “An Overview of the Chinese Language Schools in San Francisco,” History & Perspectives 7 (2007): 265-266. 21 Min-Hsun Chiang, A Study of the Chinese Language School and the Maintenance of Ethnic Language in the Second-Generation (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2000). 22 Lu Chang, Culture and Ethnicity in Chinese Language Schools in Northern California (PhD diss., University of the Pacific, 1994). 23 Chen Yung Fan, The Chinese Language School of San Francisco in Relation to Family Integration and Cultural Identity (PhD diss., Duke University, 1976). 24 Pei Chi Liu, A History of the Chinese in the United States of America, 1848-1911 (Taipei, Taiwan: Li Ming Culture Corporation, 1976); Pei Chi Liu, The education of Chinese Americans (Taipei: Taiwan, The Editing Committee of the Overseas Chinese Education Conflation, 1957).

Commission, and offered overall an introduction of the Chinese language schools in North America.25 Han- Liang Yu, Chen-Hua Hsia, and Tzu-An Tai’s books all discussed about the education of overseas Chinese.26 In addition, the unions or associations of Chinese language schools in the United States also routinely publish related references which can be used as school catalog. For example, National Council of Associations of Chinese Language Schools (NCACLS), Southern California Council of Chinese Schools (SCCCS), Association of North California Chinese Schools (ANCCS), and other associations all publish journals quarterly or yearly. Moreover, many Chinese schools publish their own school journal as well. In addition, the books on the history of Chinese in Los Angeles and California served as references for the Chinese language schools. Icy Smith, Robert S. Greenwood, Susie Ling, and Timothy Patrick Fong all wrote books on this subject.27 As for the materials of the Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School, its two publications were the most important sources. I also interviewed the principal of the school, Kuo- Pin Chang, and some faculty of school and CCBA. Their conversations provided additional information. Some newspaper articles from Los Angeles Times, World Journal (in Chinese), Singtao Journal (in Chinese), and Epoch Times (in Chinese) all offered reports about the schools.

The early development of Chinese language schools in Los Angeles

Los Angeles was one of the most important cities for creating Chinese language schools in the aftermath of the late nineteenth century. Like their counterparts in the San Francisco, the development of Chinese language schools was associated and synchronous with the vicissitudes of Chinatown. They developed distinctiveness as Los Angeles grew, and as the city became most concentrated spot for Chinese immigrants after 1960s. The earliest Chinese school in Los Angeles was the True Light Chinese School, which was operated by True Light Chinese Presbyterian Church in 1894.28 In the early twentieth century the “Kan Cheng Xuetang” was established by the Chinese Empire Reform Association, headed by Kang Yu-wei, who assisted the emperor Guangxu wage a failed coup d’état against the Empress Dowager Cixi and later fled abroad. “Kan Cheng Xuetang” was operated by Lin Hsiang-Tan and Chang Hsiao, who rented the site of Chee Kong Tong, a Chinese secret society, as their classrooms. Basically, “Kan Cheng Xuetang” possessed strong political stance; thus, most of the students were adults and received military discipline. This school was plagued by the frequent personnel infighting, and soon suspended in one year.29 From 1910 to 1920, several Chinese schools, including Yeh-Ch'in School (operated by Tan Shu Tang), the Methodist Episcopal Church Chinese School (managed by Madam Liang Chang), Chung Shan School (operated by Chou Chien Chen), and Lee Cho-Nan Sishu emerged in Los Angeles. By 1916, Shang-Chih School was

25 Shu-Hua Wang, An Introduction of Chinese Schools in North America (Taipei, Taiwan: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, 1998). 26 Han-Liang Yu, The Education History of Overseas Chinese (Taipei: National Institution for Compilation and Translation, 2001); Chen-Hua Hsia, Overseas Affairs and Education, 1912-2004 (Hsinchu, Taiwan: Hsuan Chuang University Overseas Chinese Research Center, 2005); Tzu-An Tai, Research of Overseas Chinese’s Culture and Education (Taipei: Cheng Chung Book Company, 1963). 27 Icy Smith, The Lonely Queue: The Forgotten History of the Courageous Chinese Americans in Los Angeles; Robert S. Greenwood, Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933 (Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996); Susie Ling, Bridging the Centuries: History of Chinese Americans in Southern California (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of South California, 2001); Timothy Patrick Fong, The First Suburban Chinatown: The Remaking of Monterey Park, California (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995). 28 The True Light Chinese School originally located at 766 Juan Street. According the 1900 Census, there were 44 students attending the grammar class of the school from seven to eight o'clock, after they were back from English schools. The True Light Chinese School changed its location into Adam Street in the early twentieth century, and relocated to 2500 Griffin Avenue in 1967. Till 2002, the school was still in active. See Icy Smith, The Lonely Queue: The Forgotten History of the Courageous Chinese Americans in Los Angeles: 17. 29 Kan Ch'eng Xuetang was one of the branches of the Chinese Impire Reform Association (later transformed as the Chinese Constitutionalist Party), which aimed to secure emperor Guangxu. Leaded by K'ang Yu-wei and his famous disciple Liang Qichao, the Chinese Impire Reform Association expanded its associations throughout the America Continent in the early twentieth century to more than one hundred divisions. Nevertheless, suppressed by the Qing Dynasty along with the founding of the Republic in 1911, the influences of Chinese Impire Reform Association soon disappeared both in China and America.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 39 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 established, and in 1919, managed by Huang Chien-Nung, the Ming-Te School was set up. These Chinese schools essentially were operated by private as the form of sishu.30 After 1921 Chinese educators and official administrators Tsai Yuan-Pei, Wu Tsai-Min, and Tsou Lu successively toured Los Angeles. They advised the local Cantonese Chinese to organize a school conforming to the Chinese educational system. It caused the local Cantonese to launch the unification activity for the regional Chinese schools which gave birth to the establishment of three Chung Wah Chinese schools in the subsequent years― he major one was in Los Angeles Chinatown in 1927, with two branches formed at Tenth Street in 1927, and the third one started at Twenty-third Street in 1932, respectively.31 Pei-Ha Chang, as the principal of these three schools, led them with the elementary program and junior high school. From 1930 to 1940, 112 students graduated from the schools’ elementary program, while twenty students graduated from the junior high school. Nevertheless, the occurrence of World War II, along with a series changes in Chinatown32 from the 1930s to 1940s, interrupted the schools’ operation, forcing them to suspend activities in 1943. 33 In addition to the Chung Wah Chinese schools, several Chinese schools (or classes) supported by Chinese Protestant churches, were founded: Baptist Church in 1932 and Catholic Church founded in 1931. Compared to the Chung Wah Chinese schools, the size and scale of these church schools were relatively small and exclusive.34 Briefly, the development of Chinese schools in Los Angeles during the first half twentieth century showed the fledging, but aggressive potential for further progress. The emergence of Chung Wah Chinese schools, though discontinued in 1943, demonstrated firm resolution that the local Chinese community supported the language schools for the young generations. Moreover, with the growth of the Chinese population in Los Angeles, and the rebirth of Los Angeles Chinatown after 1950s, the ground for the Chinese language school’s advancement became more staunch, exemplified by the advancement of the Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School.

Chinese in Los Angeles County and Los Angeles Chinatown, 1960-2000 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Chinese in L.A. County 19,286 40,798 93,747 245,033 329,352

Chinese in Chinatown* 3,321 4,218 6,661 8,078 11,029 *Chinatown and its immediate communities include census tracts of 1971, 1976, 1977, 2071. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

30 Sishu was the private school headed by a personal tutor, and was the most common style of schools in China before 1905 which taught the baguwen (eight-part style essays) and other Chinese literary classics helping students to pass the government exams. Normally, sishu was mainly associated by its tutor, was usually identified by the teacher’s name. 31 In 1924, Chung Kuo School established in Los Angeles under the auspice of Kuan Shao-Wen,. In 1928, this school discontinued because of the establishment of Chung Wah Chinese schools. 32 Since late nineteenth century, the nascent Chinatown in Los Angeles experienced a host of vicissitudes. The Golden Rush and the construction of Pacific Railroad brought hundred thousand Chinese workers in California which produced the demographic possibility to build a Chinatown in Los Angeles. In 1870, according to Census, there were 172 Chinese in Los Angeles as farmers, peddlers, , and the most primitive Chinatown in Los Angeles was built around Los Angeles Street. The Chinatown then expanded into the region of Marchessault Street, Alameda Street, and Apablasa Street in 1880s. Thereafter, scourged by a fire attack (possible arson) in 1887, Chinese residents, about two thousands rebuild Chinatown around the district off Marchessault Street and Apablasa Street, and gradually relocated it to the area which the Union Station situates presently. During the mid-1930s, the construction of Union Station forced the Chinese to move to the area of Spring Street and Main Street in 1938. In the late 1940s, the construction of Santa Ana Highway, which expropriated the property of local Chinese compelled them to make a move again to the territory of North Broadway. See Robert S. Greenwood, Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933 (Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996): 1-19. 33 See Pei Chi Liu, A History of the Chinese in the United States of America, 1848-1911: 368; Pei Chi Liu, The education of Chinese Americans: 33-34. 34 Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions: 286-287.

The History of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School

The interruption of Chung Wah Chinese schools in 1943 did not discourage the enthusiasm of local Chinese in Los Angeles to rebuild the Chinese school. As Chinatown was resettled in the late 1940s, the CCBA of Los Angeles took the leadership in the local Chinatown, proposing the formation a new Chinese language school. In the late 1940s, the CCBA of Los Angeles created the non-profitable organization, Committee of Preparation and Construction for CCBA Building and Chung Wah Chinese School, to support the construction of the school scheduled to finish at the end of 1951. With $ 120,000 left from war relief funds, which aimed to help China fighting against Japan during the period of 1937-1945, and another $60,000 raised from the local community, the committee acquired a site in Chinatown (816 Yale Street) on which to build the school. The new school, which was completed on schedule and opened in the fall of 1952, 35 was a merger of the former Chung Wah Schools and three Chinese classes sponsored by the Congregational and Presbyterian churches.36 The school was governed by the student affairs office (changed to school board of directors afterward), which was appointed by CCBA’s board of directors and supervisors. At the beginning of operation, the total number of the pupils was roughly sixty, and the tuition for each student was only three dollars. Almost free tuition was out of the consideration that CCBA expected to provide universal education for the local Chinese, and to continue instilling the culture and language heritage for the younger generations. In other words, the re-formation of Chung Wah Chinese School in Chinatown in 1952 manifested the determination that the local Chinese community was highly concerned about their cultural heritage, just as their ancestors were. Moreover, as the major and largest Chinese school in Los Angeles at that time, Chung Wah Chinese School was the forerunner, providing the model for the subsequent educational aspirants to follow in the later decades. Unlike the modern Chinese language schools after 1970s in suburban area of Los Angeles, which operated with independent monetary support and higher tuition fees, the Chung Wah Chinese School, as a nonprofit organization and by virtue of the extremely low fee charged to students, certainly encountered the financial problems from the inception. Hence, the support from local community was inevitably necessary, and proved to be the most vital source to uphold the school maintaining till nowadays. First of all, through the CCBA of Los Angeles, the school conducted the fund raising campaigns annually, usually on the occasions of New Year festivals, school anniversaries, fairs, and wedding feasts, to ask donations from Chinese organizations as well as earnest Chinese individuals of Greater Los Angeles region. In addition the Ming Yi Hsuan Jui Lion Dancing Team, which belonged to Lung Kong Tin Yee Association, was another enthusiastic community unit to assist the school in fund raising. From 1952 the Ming Yi Hsuan Jui Lion Dancing Team volunteered freely to perform lion dancing, with the school students and teachers waving the flags ahead, and forming the parade in Chinatown on the first day of Chinese New Year. Store by store was called on, as well as shops, restaurants, banks, and associations, to share the New Year luck, while seeking funds for the school as well. The performance of lion dancing brought about ten thousand dollars to the school each year, and it became a fascinating tradition both for the school and Chinatown residents that tied them together; 37 another important monetary source for school came from selling firecrackers. Credited by the local Fire Station, in the very previous days of every Chinese New Year, the school would purchase firecrackers, and sold them to the residents during the New Year. The firecrackers sale resulted in more than $ 8,000 funds each year for the school.38

35 The CCBA and Chung Wah Chinese school inaugurated on 18 May, 1952. 36 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School Building Renovation and Expansion Commemoration (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School, 2004): 61; Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions: 312-313. 37 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School Building Renovation and Expansion Commemoration: 75. 38 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, The 32 anniversary of founding of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School and

Depending upon voluntary fundraising did not guarantee the financial stability for the school. In particular, more than $ 2,000 for property taxes every year proved to be the heavy burden for school operation. It forced CCBA to reorganizing the school to become tax-free. In 1968, the school principal Huang Yuan-Sheng proposed the suggestion looking for tax-free to the CCBA’s board of directors, and the board soon agreed, then, hired lawyers, along with accountants to apply to the government for the exemption. When the application failed, the school sought other access to reach their end. In March 1969, CCBA organized the “Chinese Confucius Association,” which was subordinate to CCBA as well. Subsequently, CCBA transferred the whole property of Chung Wah Chinese School to the “Chinese Confucius Association.” In the name of “Chinese Confucius Association,” CCBA applied again for exemption, and was approved by the Californian government in August. One month later, the school was renamed as the “Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles.”39 Although the reorganization of school was inescapably for tax purposes, the change still matched the goals of the school in education and culture to a certain extent. For the school itself, the thoughts of Confucius remained the quintessence of Chinese traditional culture that the leaders of the school expected their students to embrace. The image of Confucius as the teacher and educator was also suitable for the school which tried to portray itself as the representative of traditional Chinese schools in Los Angeles. Moreover, according to the faculty of school I had conversations with, they thought Confucianism can serve as the religion for Chinese, given its intensive and lasting spiritual influences upon Chinese, just as Western religions had on the Americans. At last, the external and internal of Confucianism injection into school also built effective social bridge to conjoin the school with the varied Confucius organizations beneficial for the co-activities. Physically, the school served as the location of a variety of relevant activities and associations in Southern California and they frequently upheld the collective celebration and festival of Confucius’s Birthday (The Teachers’ Day on September 28). Spiritually, the school provided the forum for the advocacy and discussion of Confucianism. Based on that, the changes of name and organization of the school associated with “Chinese Confucius Association” more appropriately reflected the essence and additional function of the school in some ways. As for the student life and their response to the school, Los Angeles Times in 1969 ever had a report concerning the subject. From the essay depicting that there were 150 children (120 during the winter months) making up five grades between the ages of 5 and 14, many of the children were American born and had learned to speak Chinese language in their homes, but were unable to read or write it. In school, they were taught to speak Chinese loudly and uniformly, and learned the Chinese writings through copying the Chinese characters in the paper in order to recognize them. The teacher Miss Ma found that the students were enthusiastic learners, but tended to be quiet and listen in the classroom, which she regarded as the different way from the American students did. Besides, the correspondent also quoted one student Scott Lee, who was 12 at that time and attended the school for two years to cheer the school, “I like it here. It’s good to learn the language. Now I can talk to my grandmother.” However, he also revealed that “Sometimes, I’d just rather go out and play ball.”40 In 1973, CCBA amended its statutes, and transformed the school’s governing unit, “student affairs office,” into the school board of directors, which constituted by twenty-one members (fourteen from CCBA’s board of directors, seven from CCBA’s board of supervisors). The reconstitution of school board of directors formally made the CCBA more involved in the school’s affairs and reinforced its weight to decide the school’s issues regardless of the personnel appointment and the operation direction of school.41

Confucius’ Birthday Commemoration (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School, 1984): 30. 39 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, The 32 anniversary of founding of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School and Confucius’ Birthday Commemoration: 26-28. 40 Marlene Cimons, “Confucius Taught Here,” Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1969. 41 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, The 32 anniversary of founding of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School and Confucius’ Birthday Commemoration: 28.

To the middle of 1970s, over more than twenty years since its establishment, the Chinese Confucius Temple School progressed in many ways. With regard to facilities, the school had three capacious classrooms (and two classrooms separated with folding screens) with equipment’s such as reference books, biologic specimens, and maps; a well-equipped auditorium for multiple usage; the playground that suitable for diverse sports activities; the principal and faculty offices; the library containing more than ten thousands books, the largest one among the contemporary Chinese schools of Los Angeles. As for the academic program, from the beginning the school operated its elementary classes for first to sixth grades from 4: 30 to 6:30 in the afternoon every day. By 1962, the school added the kindergarten program as well. In general, during the first twenty years, the school’s students mostly came from Chinatown or the neighborhood, and basically spoke Cantonese as their mother tongue. Hence, by the middle of 1970s, the school provided the classes solely in Cantonese as the teaching language. Nevertheless, compared to its nascent years and other early Chinese schools at that time, the school officials were able to be proud of its extraordinary advancement: the total students nearly rose to three hundred― more than two hundred in the elementary program, and seventy in the kindergarten program.42 The influx of Vietnamese refugees into the United States in the late 1970s brought an expansion in the school to the unimaginable levels. A host of Vietnamese settled in Los Angeles at that time, and the Chinese Confucius Temple School, situated well geographically and with noteworthy fame, soon attracted Vietnamese newcomers, including many Vietnamese Chinese in need of instruction in Mandarin. Responding to the sudden increase students’ needs, by 1980, the school arranged morning classes on the weekends, and added noontime classes on the of weekends in the following year, as well as setting up afternoon classes in 1983 for the new Vietnamese students. Moreover, the school continued to form the seventh-grade classes in 1982, and the eighth to ninth classes in the next year. In sum, until the early 1980s, the classes ranging from kindergarten to ninth grades expanded to nearly 1,000 students, making the school maintain the largest and most influential Chinese school in the Greater Los Angeles area.43 The blossom of the school went on to early 1990s when the numbers peaked at more than 1,100 students with the total of thirty classes. Nevertheless, the school began to decline in the middle of 1990s, and the numbers of students went down to about 500 in 2000. In this light, the Chinese school attempted to revamp itself to progress with the times. It began to cooperate and exchange with other Chinese schools in the field of teaching, and participated in the school unions such as the Southern California Council of Chinese Schools (SCCCS) as well. Presently, the school makes an effort to gear its class program toward the public education system and the AP tests.

From traditionalism to renovation

From the school’s history, the Los Angeles Confucius Temple School demonstrates impressive emphasis on traditionalism. First, from the original goal of the school, it reflected the insistence of the early Cantonese immigrants on instruction in the traditional language and culture.44 Its curriculum concentrated more on the Confucius’ thoughts and the Chinese classics. The extracurricular and cultural courses at the school also stressed the conventional Chinese arts and crafts such as calligraphy, abacus, traditional Chinese painting and music instruments (zither, huqin, flute, and drum).

42 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, The 32 anniversary of founding of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School and Confucius’ Birthday Commemoration: 27; Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School Building Renovation and Expansion Commemoration: 77. 43 See Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, The 32 anniversary of founding of Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School and Confucius’ Birthday Commemoration: 28-29. 44 The goal of school is to “cultivate the Chinese teenagers to learn Chinese; promote the Chinese culture and ethics.”

Moreover, the school underscored the Chinese traditional values and ethics, looking forward to delivering these traditions to the younger generation. They taught their students to be loyal to the country and hometown, to maintain filial duty to their parents, to respect teachers and the seniors, to get well along with their siblings, and to behave politely and modestly. The school also launched a variety of cultural activities in traditional Chinese holidays― Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival, Youth Day, Ching Ming Festival (Tomb-Sweeping Day), Dragon Boat Festival (Zongzi’s Day), Double Seventh Festival (Lover’s Day), Mid-Autumn Festival (Moon Cake Day), and Confucius Birthday (Teacher’s Day). In a word, through the spiritual and physical culture instilled to the students, the school served as the source of Chinese traditional culture for the Chinese American community, rather than mere a school for language instructions. In addition, since the school was administrated by CCBA, it inevitably became incorporated with the overseas Chinese educational system, which was promoted by the Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission (OCAC), an official organization in the government of Taiwan (Republic of China, ROC). 45 From its establishment, the school maintained frequent interchanges with the OCAC, and regularly received the assistance in the form of teaching materials, instruments, and manpower from OCAC. For instance, the school used the textbooks of Taiwan’s Cheng Chung Book Company and the National Institution for Compilation and Translation (a Taiwanese officially educational unit). Every year, the school sent their students to the Summer Camp in Taiwan under the auspices of OCAC. Moreover, along with the CCBA, the school also earnestly involved the activities associated with ROC. On the Double Tens Festival (in 10th October), the day commemorating the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, The school, sponsored by CCBA, usually organized a parade in Chinatown every year to express the respect for the feat of Chinese Revolution of 1911, while showed the close relationship with ROC, the government that CCBA recognized as the legitimate authority of the Chinese heritage. The intensive sense of clan and hometown identity, which was predominately within CCBA, also influenced the school’s emphasis on regionalism (Cantonism). Before 1980, the students were mainly Cantonese, residing in Chinatown and the adjacent area. The classes exclusively were taught in Cantonese, and the teachers were almost all Cantonese as well. Likewise, non-Cantonese principal, though appointed through the public recruitment, barely had the chance to head the school. Furthermore, the Chinese Confucius Temple School remained as the only one school rooting in Chinatown, and unintentionally had a plan to expand itself beyond Chinatown. At last, the swift personnel changes and the patriarchal approach of the school’s board of directors led the school into the clan-superiority and conservativeness. However, after 1980s, the Los Angeles Confucius Temple School increasingly improved itself, while simultaneously taking pride in maintaining the traditional heritage. With the establishment of Mandarin classes, the students were not confined to Cantonese language. Following the trend that Him Mark Lai claimed, the school accepted more children of new Chinese immigrants from suburban areas such as Monterey Park, Alhambra, San Gabriel, and others. Vietnamese Chinese students also enrolled in the school as well. For example, the child star Jonathan Ke Quan, who played “Short Round” in the movie of Indiana Jones and the Temple Doom, was a Vietnamese Chinese who fled to America in late 1970s and attended the Los Angeles Confucius Temple School in 1981. The school’s publication noted that he was an impressive well-performed student, and ever won the championship of the speech in the school. Moreover, in the last decade, there were white and Hispanic students from the Castelar Elementary School, which located on the same street with the

45 Traditionally, the CCBA throughout the United States were closely connected with the Republic of China (R.O.C.), even though the ROC government moved to Taiwan when Kuomintang lost its inner war to the Communists Party of China in 1949. For ROC, the overseas Chinese served as the important part of its blueprint against the Communist China, and the CCBA became the vital role that ROC controlled the Chinese American community. Till present, Kuomintang branches also constitute part of the CCBA’s organization.

Los Angeles Confucius Temple School, who joined the school to learn Chinese language and culture. The diversification of the student population made the school more open to the whole Chinese community and mainstream society. The courses of the school transformed as well. The traditional phonetic system and standard Chinese character teaching system were replaced by Hanyu Pinyin and the system simplified characters, the way Mainland China applied for.46 The cultural courses employed more living way to imbue the students in the local environment. For example, the school took the students to the Chinese restaurants or theaters, and let the students order for themselves; the school frequently invited the traditional Chinese drama troupe and artists to perform for the students. The school also organized the tour for students to Asia, usually sponsored financially by Chinese cultural organizations locally and transnationally. As for the extracurricular programs, the school increasingly created more practical programs such as computer and drawing classes. These transformations demonstrate that the school self-renovate to conform to the demand of the students with times.

The numbers of establishment of Chinese schools in Southern California, 1952-2000

46 Before the mid-1990s, most of the Chinese language schools in United States used the traditional phonetic symbol and Chinese characters teaching system that Taiwan’s OCAC promoted. However, with the rise of People of Republic of China (PRC), more and more Chinese language schools changed to the Hanyu Pinyin and the simplified characters system, the way that PRC used.

The CCBA of Los Angeles in 2009 The school in 1979 Double Ten Festival Parade Photo by author; date: 2 May, 2009 Source: Courtesy the school

The students in the class (1984) The student chorus (1984) Source: Courtesy the school Source: Courtesy the school

Conclusion:

The half-century history of the Chinese Confucius Temple School witnesses the development of Chinese schools in Los Angeles. As the first one Chinese school in Los Angeles after World War II, its establishment and advancement demonstrates the collective enthusiasm and insistence of the early local Cantonese Chinese community to maintain their traditional language and culture in the alien territory. Moreover, its role as the forerunner in Chinese instructions and its symbol as the traditional Chinese culture speaker provide the experimental model for the incessant Chinese language schools in the Los Angeles suburban area after 1960s. From its peak in early 1990s with more than one thousand students and as the head of the Chinese schools in Los Angeles, the Chinese Confucius Temple School became mere one of the numerous Chinese schools nowadays, even it was regarded by its counterparts as the outdated one with virtue of its way of sticking to the local Chinatown, operating in conservative and patriarchal manner, and being solidly adherent to the traditional Chinese heritage. However, the normalization of the weight of the Chinese Confucius Temple School in the local Mandarin-learning circle after the mid-1990s reflected the collective progressions and promotions of the overall Chinese schools in Los Angeles. The Chinese Confucius Temple School does not have to take the leading responsibility anymore; instead, it acts as a sharing companion to contribute its effort to the developments of Chinese schools in Los Angeles nowadays and in the future, just as what it had done for the Chinese community in the last sixty years.

Reference:

Books:

1. Board of Directors of Chinese Confucius Temple of Los Angeles, Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School Building Renovation and Expansion Commemoration (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Chinese Confucius Temple School, 2004). 2. Brdunas, E. and B.E.Topping, Ethnic heritage and language schools in America (Washington: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1988). 3. Chang, Lu. Culture and Ethnicity in Chinese Language Schools in Northern California (PhD diss., University of the Pacific, 1994). 4. Chiang, Min-Hsun. A Study of the Chinese Language School and the Maintenance of Ethnic Language in the Second-Generation (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2000). 5. Fan, Chen Yung. The Chinese Language School of San Francisco in Relation to Family Integration and Cultural Identity (PhD diss., Duke University, 1976). 6. Fisherman, Joshua A., V.C. Nahirny, J.E. Hofman, and R.G. Hayden, Language loyalty in the United States (The Hauge: Mouton & Co., 1966). 7. Fong, Timothy Patrick. The First Suburban Chinatown: The Remaking of Monterey Park, California (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995). 8. Greenwood, Robert S. Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933 (Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996). 9. Hsia, Chen-Hua. Overseas Affairs and Education, 1912-2004 (Hsinchu, Taiwan: Hsuan Chuang University Overseas Chinese Research Center, 2005). 10. Lai, Him Mark. Becoming Chinese American: A history of Communities and Institutions (New York: A Division of Rowman X Littlefield Publisher). 11. Ling, Susie. Bridging the Centuries: History of Chinese Americans in Southern California (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of South California, 2001). 12. Liu, Pei Chi. The education of Chinese Americans (Taipei: Taiwan, The Editing Committee of the Overseas Chinese Education Conflation, 1957). 13. Liu, Pei Chi. A History of the Chinese in the United States of America, 1848-1911 (Taipei, Taiwan: Li Ming Culture Corporation, 1976). 14. Matsubayashi, Yoshihide. The Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii and California From 1892 to 1941 (PhD diss., University of San Francisco, 1984). 15. Smith, Icy. The Lonely Queue: The Forgotten History of the Courageous Chinese Americans in Los Angeles (Gardena, CA: East West Discovery Press, 2000). 16. Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1981). 17. Tai, Tzu-An. Research of Overseas Chinese’s Culture and Education (Taipei: Cheng Chung Book Company, 1963). 18. Wang, Shu-Hua. An Introduction of Chinese Schools in North America (Taipei, Taiwan: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, 1998). 19. Wang, Xueying edited. A View from Within: A Case Study of Chinese Heritage Community Language Schools in the United States (Washington, D.C.: National Foreign Language Center, 1996). 20. Yu, Han-Liang. The Education History of Overseas Chinese (Taipei: National Institution for Compilation and Translation, 2001).

Essays:

1. Asato, Noriko. ”Mandating Americanization: Japanese Language Schools and the Federal Survey of Education in Hawaii, 1916-1920,” History of Education Quarterly 43, no.1 (Spring 2003): 10-38. 2. Cimons, Marlene. “Confucius Taught Here,” Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1969. 3. Donovan, Charles A. “The Paulist Mission to the Chinese in San Francisco since 1903,” U.S. Catholic Historian 18 (Winter 2000): 126-142. 4. Fisherman, Joshua A. and V.C. Nahirny, “The ethnic group school and mother tongue maintenance in the United States,” Sociology of Education 37 (1964): 306-317. 5. Fisherman, Joshua A. “Minority language maintenance and the ethnic mother tongue school,” The Modern Language Journal 64, no.2 (Summer 1980): 167-172. 6. Fisherman, Joshua A. “Ethnic community mother tongue schools in the U.S.A.: Dynamics and Distributions,” International Migration Review 14, no. 2 (Summer 1980): 235-247. 7. Kloss, H. “German-American language maintenance efforts,” in Joshua A. Fisherman, V.C. Nahirny, J.E. Hofman, and R.G. Hayden, Language loyalty in the United States: 207-251. 8. Kam, Ralph Thomas. “Language and Loyalty: Americanism and the Regulation of Foreign Language Schools in Hawaii,” The Hawaiian Journal of History 40 (2006): 131-147. 9. Krolikowski, Walter P. “Poles in America: Maintaining the Ties,” Theory into Practice 20, no. 1 (Winter 2001): 52-57. 10. Leung, Catherine. “An Overview of the Chinese Language Schools in San Francisco,” History & Perspectives 7 (2007): 265-266. 11. O’ Brien Jr., Kenneth B. “Education, Americanization and the Supreme Court: The 1920’s,” American Quarterly 13, no.2 (Summer 1961): 161-171. 12. Praszalowicz, Dorota. “The Cultural Changes of Polish-American Parochial Schools in Milwaukee, 1866-1988,” Journal of American Ethnic History 13, no.4 (Summer 1994): 23-54. 13. Quinlan, Richard J. “Growth and Development of Catholic Education in the Archdiocese of Boston,” The Catholic Historical Review 22, no.1 (April 1936): 27-41. 14. Schlossman, Steven L. “Is There an American Tradition of Bilingual Education? German in the Public Elementary Schools, 1840-1919,” American Journal of Education 91, no. 2 (February 1983): 139-186. 15. Tamura, Eileen H. “The English-Only Effort, the Anti-Japanese Campaign, and Language Acquisition in Education of Japanese Americans in Hawaii, 1915-40,” History of Education Quarterly 33, no.1 (Spring 1993): 37-58. 16. Yamazaki, Yuki. “St. Francis Xavier School: Acculturation and Enculturation of Japanese Americans in Los Angeles, 1921-1945,” U.S. Catholic Historian 18 (2000): 54-73. 17. Zimmerman, Jonathan. ”Ethnics against Ethnicity: European Immigrants and Foreign-Language Instruction, 1890-1940,” The Journal of American History 88, no.4 (March 2002): 1383-1404. 18. Zhou, Min and Li Xiyuan, “Ethnic Language Schools and the Development of Supplementary Education in the Immigrant Chinese Community in the United States,” New Directions for Youth Development 100 (Winter 2003): 57-73.

Using Response Cards to Increase Student Participation in an Inclusive Classroom

Kate D. Simmons Auburn University Montgomery [email protected] Luke Smith Auburn University Montgomery [email protected]

Abstract

One of the most challenging aspects facing educators today is ensuring academic success for all students in the classroom. Many teachers feel that increasing participation levels of students during instructional time afford students the best chance of academic success. This study analyzed the use of response cards in an eighth grade inclusion math classroom to increase student participation and academic achievement. An AB design study was used to collect data on five students who represented the classroom population of students with and without disabilities. Lesson materials were delivered under two conditions, hand-raising and write-on dry erase board response cards. Results indicated a significant increase in student participation and on-task behaviors during the response card phase. Scores on weekly quizzes and end of unit tests increased after review lessons were conducted with response cards. Recommendations for future studies are included.

Keywords: response cards, student participation, students with disabilities, inclusion

Introduction

One of the most prevalent trends in education today is providing all individuals, regardless of ability, equal access to the general education curriculum. Many students with disabilities have been allowed to shed the restraints of the self-contained classroom and spend the vast majority of their day in regular education classrooms. Thus, inclusive classrooms have become the norm of school systems across the country, thereby allowing students of all ability levels to share time receiving instructional material from both regular and special education teachers in the same setting. While inclusive classrooms present all children with the opportunity of equal access to the classroom materials, they do not guarantee success in the classroom for all students.

Response Cards Defined

Response cards are one type of teaching strategy in which students respond simultaneously to teacher prompts using a card with pre-written answers, yes/no answers, the use of a white board, interactive white board, or any other technology. The teacher then uses students’ responses as an assessment for learning. Teachers from elementary through secondary education can benefit from using response cards.

Response Card Effects

[7] Heward, (1994) found that using teaching strategies at any grade level, such as response cards, which promote a high level of active student response increases learning, provides feedback to the teacher, and is correlated with an increase in on-task behavior. [8] Randolph (2007) acknowledged that the major difference

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 49 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 between hand raising and response cards is that using response cards allows multiple students to respond to questions presented by the teacher instead of the lone responder via hand raising. The teacher is also afforded an opportunity to provide immediate feedback to those students displaying incorrect answers. When compared to passive instruction techniques such as hand raising, employing active learning strategies such as response cards increases quiz and test achievement scores, increases student engagement and participation rates, and results in students displaying less off-task behaviors during instruction time. [1] Berrong, Morse, Schuster, and Collins (2007) studied the effects response cards had on student participation and social behaviors of students with moderate and severe disabilities. The ABAB designed study utilized a target population of eight elementary-aged students aged 10 to 12 years with moderate and severe disabilities in self-contained special education classrooms. Results of this study mimicked the results of other studies in that active student responses increased from using response cards when compared with responses elicited via traditional hand raising methods. Mean averages increased from 21.7% to 58.8%. On-task behaviors also increased with mean averages rising from 35.7% to 74.9%. Inappropriate behaviors also increased as students switched back to hand raising responses after using the response cards. The study conducted by Berrong, et al. (2007) concludes that response cards are an effective intervention to increase active participation rates, increase student engagement, and promote on-task and appropriate behaviors of students with disabilities.

Response Cards in Elementary Settings

[3] Christle and Schuster (2003) examined the effects response cards had on student participation, academic achievement, and on-task behavior in an elementary school setting. The ABA designed study investigated rates of the aforementioned variables after using response cards during whole-class math instruction in a fourth grade classroom consisting of 24 students ranging from age 9 to11. During both A sections, the traditional hand raising response format was used. In the B section, response cards were used as means of student response. The researchers acknowledged that the traditional format of questions and answers used by most teachers resulted in mainly the higher-achieving students raising their hands or the teacher calling on these student to ensure that a correct response was given. Meanwhile, mid and low-achieving students rarely raised their hands and had fewer opportunities to actively participate in the learning process. This study investigated the number of student-initiated responses, the number of student responses, time on-task, and scores of weekly quizzes. The findings of this study are in agreement with other studies investigating the same dependent variables. The total number of student-initiated responses increased as well as the correct number of student responses. Time on-task saw a dramatic increase as nearly all students remained engaged and behaved appropriately during the intervention period. When reverting back to the hand raising phase of the study, quiz grades returned to their pre- intervention levels. [5] Gardner, Heward, and Grossi (1994) compared rates of participation, academic success, and on-task behaviors between elementary students who used response cards versus students who used traditional hand raising methods. Rather than comparing results of the variables on students with and without exceptionalities, their study expanded the parameters by conducting an inquiry that utilized a target population of 22 students aged 10 to 12 years in a low socioeconomic neighborhood, inner-city classroom. This study compared results regarding the number of student responses and accuracy of student responses. As a result, mean scores increased from 49% after using instruction that incorporated hand raising responses to 70% after utilizing the intervention of response cards. Student satisfaction rates were also higher after using the response cards with 20 of 22 students expressing that response cards helped them get a better grade than hand-raising did. Although the subjects were from vastly different backgrounds as other study participants, the results of this study replicated the results of previous research and further demonstrated that using active learning techniques such as response

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 50 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 cards can lead to an increase in student participation, active engagement in instruction, less disruptive behavior, and enhanced academic achievement for all students regardless of ability level or socioeconomic status.

Response Cards in Middle School Settings

[6] George (2010) conducted a study with twenty-nine middle school students with emotional or behavioral disorders in sixth through eighth grade. The study compared results after using response cards versus traditional teacher-led instructional methods. Data was then inspected to search for correlations between the use of response cards and increases or decreases in five areas: 1) chapter posttest scores, 2) academic responding, 3) correct responses, 4) on-task behaviors, and 5) student satisfaction. The findings indicated a positive correlation between using response cards and gains in all five areas of investigation. Mean posttest scores increased 9.55 percentage points with 88 % of students increasing their scores after failing a test that was given following instruction via traditional methods. Mean increases were also seen in student responses since 54% more responses were given by students using response cards than traditional hand raising methods. Correct academic responses also increased on average by 36%, and on-task behaviors increased by 9 %. Students reported high satisfaction with response cards, and most of the students reported that they retained more information and listened more on days when the response cards were used than they did when traditional instruction was used. Although George’s (2010) study only used students with disabilities in a support classroom setting, the findings reach similar conclusions as other studies that were conducted in inclusive and general education classrooms; response cards increased student participation, increased on-task behaviors, and promoted academic achievement of all students regardless of ability level.

Response Cards in High School Settings

Students in secondary education have also benefited from response cards. [4] Ducahine (2011) compared participation rates, on-task time, and academic scores on formative assessments of students using the traditional hand raising method versus the intervention strategy of response cards. Conducted at the high school level, the population of the alternate treatment study was general education students and students with behavior problems. Upon completion of the study, data collected allowed the author to conclude that her research concurred with previous findings that response cards positively influenced student engagement, lengthened on-task time, reduced incidences of disruptive behaviors, and increased student participation. Furthermore, response cards increased academic achievement by higher assessment scores and longer periods of material retention with that particular sample of students. [2] Cavanaugh, Heward, and Donelson (1996) also devised a study at the secondary level that also investigated the effect that response cards had on assessment scores. The study was conducted using 23 ninth-grade high school students, of which, 8 were identified as students with disabilities or at-risk students. An alternate design method of active participation using response cards and passive learning using fill-in-the-blank review notes was used to collect and compare data to assess recall of lesson material and scores on formative assessments. The findings indicated a higher amount of student participation using response cards which also correlated with higher scores on both next-day quizzes and end of the week tests. According to the findings, 13 of 15 general education students and all of the special education students received higher scores on next day tests and end-of- the-week tests than on tests given before the intervention of response cards were implemented. Teachers also reported higher levels of student attentiveness and engagement during the response card sessions when compared to fill-in-the-blank reviews. Additionally, using response cards provided feedback for teachers which allowed them to correct any misconceptions before progressing forward.

Regarding the use of response cards, much of the research points to a positive correlation between active student participation and success in the classroom; instructional strategies that increase participation among students, including exceptional students, tend to promote greater levels of academic success (Duchaine, 2011; George, 2010). Therefore the purpose of this paper is to see if using response cards with 5 middle school students will increase student participation and academic success.

Method

Participants

Five students from a 6th grade rural, Title 1, elementary school in Georgia were randomly selected to participate in the study. Two of the participants were general education students, two were students with disabilities, and one English as a Second Language (ESL) student. Three of the five students were boys. All students in the class participated in the study activities; however, only data collected on five target students were reported in the research findings. Two teachers participated in the study. The regular education classroom teacher was a Caucasian male with three years teaching experience. He was certified in middle school mathematics and Secondary Social Science and had completed a master’s degree in Secondary Education. The co-teacher was a Caucasian female with 4 years teaching experience, certified in special education and middle school mathematics and language arts, and had completed a master’s degree in special education.

Setting

The classroom used during the study consisted of 30 student desks arranged in five rows of six desks in a column facing an interactive Promethean Board and large dry-erase whiteboard in the front of the room. The teachers used an interactive slate to perform mathematical computations on the Promethean Board which allowed for free movement to monitor student progress. The teacher’s desk sat in a corner of the room adjacent to the whiteboard. A large rectangular table in one corner of the room was used by the teachers to differentiate instructional materials to struggling students.

Experimental Design

An AB design treatment was used to compare the effectiveness of utilizing traditional hand-raising techniques (the baseline) versus the use of individual dry-erase white boards (the intervention) on the dependent variables student participation and academic achievement. An AB design treatment was used to observe the effect of single student responses observed using traditional hand-raising responses compared with the number of responses made by the target population using individual dry-erase white boards during whole class instruction. The design consisted of establishing a baseline followed by an intervention after which comparisons were made to determine the effects of the intervention on the dependent variables of student participation and academic achievement. During the study, both types of student response options were utilized by the teachers during daily review sessions conducted at the beginning of each class period as well as during instructional time. This study was conducted over a six week period separated into two, three week phases. The first phases occurred during the first three weeks followed by the intervention phase the remaining three weeks. During the A Phase of the study, the teachers encouraged students to enter classroom discussions through hand raising; thus, no special materials were used during classroom instruction. During the intervention (Phase B),

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 52 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 student response cards were utilized by all students. The response cards were individual 8.5” x 11” dry-erase whiteboards purchased by the participating school at the beginning of the year. During this study, the whiteboard response cards were kept in the classroom and distributed to students at the beginning of class. Additional materials supplied to students included dry-erase markers and a small rag to be used as an eraser. Each student kept his/her dry-erase marker and eraser in their math binders for use each day. To ensure 100% participation in the study, any student without the necessary materials was issued temporary supplies for that day.

Procedures

Both teachers noted the relative ease in which the response card intervention was incorporated into the lesson during whole-class instruction. The intervention was easily implemented because students used them to respond to their math lessons on a daily basis. For the teachers, increased use of response cards throughout the entire lesson rather than as a bellringer aid was the only alteration to classroom instruction needed. Both phases in this experiment possessed the following characteristics. Each session lasted 75 minutes. The first few minutes of each class were dedicated to students answering a bell-ringer question on their white board while the teachers checked homework for completion. This bell-ringer was a question from any material covered from the first day of school to the previous days material. The remainder of the period consists of: a “Quick Check” to review previous material; homework review; presentation of new material; guided practice; differentiated group work based upon mastery of current material; independent practice for some students while the teachers helped struggling learners; and homework assignment. During the review, presentation of new material, and guided practice sessions, specific questions were asked to assess student comprehension. During the A phase of the study, the teachers conducted class following their normal routine of encouraging students to raise their hands to participate in classroom discussions. The teachers would present material and at brief intervals, would stop and ask a specific question while instructing the students to raise their hands to in order to respond. The teacher(s) would then call upon one student to answer the question. If the student answered correctly, praise was given by the teacher; however, if answered incorrectly, the teacher would provide feedback before moving on to the next topic and question. The other teacher observing the interaction noted the students who raised their hand, their response to the question. During the B Phase of the study, the teacher conducted class similarly to the A phase of the study; however, when he asked a question during this phase, students were instructed to write an answer onto their whiteboard. After issuing the question, the teacher would begin a 10 second countdown beginning at 10 and ending at 1 at which point he would give the command “boards up”. The students would then hold their boards high above their heads for the teachers to see. The teacher counted the correct number of responses and offered immediate feedback to the students who had the incorrect answer written on their board. The other teacher, as the observer, noted how many students responded by answering on their boards and tallied the number of responders compared to the opportunities to respond during the 75 minute math period. During this study, the teacher used the whiteboard response cards to differentiate instruction and assess which students “got it” and which students did not. After a period of instructional time elapsed, written responses to target problems let the teacher know which students understood the concept being taught and which did not. Those students who answered the problem correctly were allowed to move ahead to more difficult/ different types of problems within the same concept while those students who answered incorrectly, remained with the teacher and were given different instruction to clear up student misconceptions based on responses written on the cards. After a brief period of altered instruction, the teacher presented these students with another target problem to work out on their whiteboard. This process continued until all students demonstrated mastery of the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 53 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 concept. If only a couple of students needed further remediation, the teacher would conduct small group sessions with the students while the remainder of the class continued working independently.

Dependent Variables

There are two dependent variables in this study: 1) student participation and 2) academic achievement. Student participation was measured in two ways: positive on-task behavior and attempted responses. Academic achievement was measured through weekly quizzes and unit tests that were taken before and after interventions with response cards. On-task behavior was defined as looking and listening to the teachers, looking at the Interactive Promethean Board, hand-raising or writing an answer on a whiteboard when asked for a response by the teachers. Student data were collected at the end of five minute intervals during daily review sessions using a frequency recording. The data was reported as an average percentage of positive on-task behaviors observed in a seventy-five minute class period. During the review session, as one teacher conducted the question/answer segments the other teacher made tally marks of positive behaviors observed for target students. The number of tally marks was then noted on a data-collection sheet divided into 15 separate sessions, one for each five minute interval. A time sample recording was used for observances of on-task behavior. If the target students were academically engaged during the sample period a check mark was placed in the appropriate box on the data sheet. If the target student was observed displaying off-task behaviors an x was placed on the data sheet for that student during that time frame. Attempted responses were defined as using two criteria- one for hand-raising and one for response cards. For hand-raising, attempted responses were tallied each time a target student expressed a desire to answer a teacher’s question during instruction of the material, or any time a student attempted to answer a question when called upon by the teacher. During the response card phase, attempted responses were tallied each time a target student wrote an answer to a question posed by the teacher. The number of times a student responded was divided by the total number of times the student had an opportunity to respond. Quizzes were given every fifth day and were teacher-created questions similar to classroom instructional material or exact questions asked during the current weeks daily review sessions. Each quiz consisted of approximately 15 multiple choice questions. The answers were scored as a percentage of questions answered correctly out of the 15 questions possible to give a mean for the pre and post intervention analysis. Unit tests were given according to the Georgia Board of Education pacing guide. Each unit consisted of approximately 17 days and covered four different standards with each standard comprising two or three strands. Each unit test consisted of 25 standards-based questions. After a comprehensive review session, students were given a study guide with similar types of test questions to prepare them for the test. No pre-tests were given for either of the unit tests. Therefore, only data from the summative assessments were used for comparing increases or decreases in rates of the student’s academic achievement.

Results

Student Participation

Figure 1 shows the time spent on-task for the target students for each hand-raising and response card session. Data for on-task behavior was gathered through observations of desired behavior at the end of five minute intervals during the 75 minute class period. Mary’s average percentage of on-task behavior was 82.5% during the hand-raising phase and increased to 100% during the response card phase. David’s average percentage of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 54 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 on-task behavior was 49% during the hand-raising phase but increased to an average of 83% during the response card phase. Donald displayed a high level of consistency during both phases of the study. During the hand raising phase, he was observed to be on-task for an average of 83% of the sessions and remained on-task for 100% of the sessions during the response card intervention phase. For Steven, the average percentage of on- task behaviors displayed was 47.5% during the hand raising phase but increased to 96% during the response card phase. Rebecca proved to be the most consistent of all target students examined. During both phases of the study, hand-raising and response cards, she was observed to be on-task for 100% of the sessions.

Attempted Responses

Table 1 shows the number of student responses during each phase of the study. Opportunities to respond were measured for the five target students by noting the number of times students responded during each phase of the study. During the hand raising condition, the teacher asked an average of 18 questions per session (20, 15, 20, 19, 18, 20, 15), and he asked an average of 17 questions during the response cards phase (10, 12, 19, 25, 20, 17, 19, 16). Table 1. Attempted Student Responses Total Number of Student Responses Observed During Hand Raising and Response Card Phases Mary David Donald Steven Rebecca Condition Session #

Hand Raising 1 0 0 100 0 3 Hand Raising 2 0 0 100 0 3 Hand Raising 3 2 0 100 0 3 Hand Raising 4 3 0 100 0 2 Hand Raising 5 0 0 100 0 3 Hand Raising 6 6 0 100 0 3 Hand Raising 7 1 0 100 0 3 Response Cards 8 5 0 100 0 2 Response Cards 9 10 10 100 0 100 Response Cards 10 20 11 100 11 100 Response Cards 11 24 21 100 24 100 Response Cards 12 15 17 100 19 100 Response Cards 13 19 15 100 16 100 Response Cards 14 24 16 100 18 100 Response Cards 15 17 13 100 16 100

Mary infrequently raised her hand to respond to teachers’ questions during the hand raising phase. She volunteered to answer only 12 questions of the 127 total questions asked by the teacher resulting in an 11% average for the first phase. Her average increase dramatically during the response card phase as she responded to each question asked by the teacher for a rate of 100%. David did not volunteer to answer any teacher questions during the hand raising phase but increased his average to 85% during the response card phase. Donald raised his hand to respond to each question presented during the first phase of the study for a 100% response rate. He also wrote a response on his whiteboard 100% of the time during the intervention stage. Steven did not raise his hand to answer any questions during the hand raising sessions but his average increased greatly during the intervention phase due to the fact that he wrote responses on his board to 95% of the teacher’s

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 55 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 questions. Rebecca also demonstrated gains from the hand-raising to response card phase of the study. She volunteered to answer 15% of the questions asked during the hand raising phase and 100% during the response cards sessions. Four of the five students increased their response averages greatly following the implementation of the response card intervention. Steven demonstrated the greatest gains of all the target students with respect to the average number of responses during the two phases; he responded 0% of the time during the hand-raising phase but participated 95% of the time during the response card phase. The fifth student, Donald, demonstrated no gains in the response card phase because he responded to all of the teachers’ questions during both the hand- raising phase as well as the response card phase.

Weekly Quiz Scores

Table 2 lists the quiz scores of the target students after each phase of the study was completed. Data was collected after target students took three quizzes before and after the intervention strategy was introduced. The scores on the three quizzes (worth 100 points each) were added together and divided by 300 and then multiplied by 100% to arrive at an average percentage score for each target student. Mary improved her quiz scores by an average of 11% from the hand raising phase to the response card phase. Her three quiz average for the hand raising phase was 77.7%. She scored on average 88% after the intervention. David’s three quiz average during hand raising was 73.7%. His average scores after using the response cards was 80%. This resulted in a 6.3% increase in averages. During the hand raising phase, Donald averaged 77.3% for the three quizzes given. Following the use of response cards, his quiz average increased slightly to 81.7%, a 4% increase. Steven improved his scores slightly following implementation of the response card intervention. His pre intervention quiz average of 51% increased to 60% after using the response cards. Rebecca also improved her scores from the hand raising phase to the response card phase. Her three quiz average during hand-raising was 83% and following implementation of the response card strategy her average for the quizzes increased five percentage points to 88%.

Unit Tests

Figure 1 shows the scores that all five target students received on unit tests administered after the teacher used the traditional method of hand raising to conduct review sessions compared with the scores on assessments after response cards were used in the classroom. Mary scored a 52% on the unit test administered following the hand raising phase and a 79.5% after using response cards for an increase in achievement of 27.5%. David received a score of 66% after review sessions were conducted using hand raising methods. The score he received on his next unit test following the use of response cards during review sessions increased 7.5 percentage points to 73.5%. Donald increased his unit test average slightly as he realized an increase of 4 percentage points. His hand raising grade was a 67% and his grade following the use of response cards was 71%. Steven, although he did not demonstrate a high post-intervention score raised his test scores 12% from a pre-intervention grade of 16% to a post intervention score of 28%. During the hand raising phase, Rebecca scored an 86% on the unit test. Her scores following the introduction of response cards resulted in a score of 94% on the subsequent unit test for an eight percentage point increase in average.

Figure 1.Comparing Students’ Time On-Task Between Hand-Raising and Response Card Sessions

Mary David Hand-Raising Response Cards Hand Raising Response Cards 100 90 100 90 task 80 -

task 80 70 - 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 Percentof time on 0 Percentof tine on 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sessions Sessions

Donald Steven Hand Raising Response Cards Hand Raising Response Cards

100 100 90 90 80 80 task task - - 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40

30 30

20 20 Percentof tine on Percentof time on 10 10 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sessions Sessions

Rebecca

Hand Raising Response Cards 100 90

task 80 - 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percent of time on timeof Percent 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sessions

Discussion

The results of this study add to the literature base that response cards effectively increased student participation rates and academic achievement of sixth grade students in inclusive classrooms during whole class instruction. When response cards were used during the intervention phase, students were on task more often and participated more during class discussions. It was frequently noted that during hand-raising sessions, the students who were willing to actively participate and answer questions were primarily those students who raised their hands. Familiarity with the students’ characteristics allowed the teachers to note that these frequent responders were the higher-achieving, more self-assured students in the classroom. Other possible reasons are that students who did not raise their hands may have feared ridicule by their classmates, had been ridiculed in the past for giving the wrong answer, or failed to initiate a response because they were not prepared. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that averages of on-task behaviors for all students in the classroom were also lower during the hand-raising phase than during the response card intervention phase. The average percentage of on-task behaviors for the students was 95%. Three of the target students demonstrated positive on-task behaviors at each interval of the observation period for a 100% on-task rate. In contrast, during the hand-raising phase the rates of on-task behaviors for the target students revealed that the two students without disabilities and the lone ESL student were on-task 89% percent of the time while the two students with disabilities were on-task 52% of the time. The students who were observed to be off-task commented that they were getting more materials to take notes and were listening to the teacher even though they were not looking directly at him or the Promethean Board at the particular time. Nevertheless, those incidences were counted as off-task behaviors by the observer and recorded as such. During the hand-raising phase of the study (Phase A), each of the target students exhibited a reluctance to voluntarily answer questions, with the exception of Donald who raised his hand in an attempt to answer each question posed by the teacher. The use of response cards, however, increased the frequency of active student response during whole-class instruction. The pre-intervention average for the target students was 25.2%. Following the implementation of the response card intervention, however, the average percentage of attempted responses increased significantly. Three of the five target students attempted to answer every question posed by the teacher for an overall group response rate of 96%. The mean difference between responses made during hand-raising and response cards on average increase was 70.8% following the introduction of response cards. Response cards are very effective instruments for teachers in addition to students. The cards give educators the opportunity to perform formative assessments of student comprehension, provide feedback, and alter instruction immediately to clear up student misconceptions of classroom material. Traditional hand-raising instructional techniques limit the teacher’s ability to assess only a few students, usually the higher achieving students, during whole class instruction due to the fact that only one student at a time can respond to each question. In contrast, using the response cards allowed the instructor to rapidly scan responses from every student, assess their levels of comprehension, and provide immediate feedback to promote a deeper level of understanding. Findings from this research study further supports the available literature concerning the positive effects response cards have on active participation and academic achievement. Similar to other studies, active participation was associated with greater academic achievement gains than when other procedures were employed, and resulted in increased averages by all segments of the student population including student with disabilities and English Language Learners. The target students in this study, when separated into subgroups of students without disabilities and students with disabilities, showed average increases at roughly the same rate. The averages of the two students without disabilities and the ESL student increased on average 7% while the weekly quiz averages of the two students with disabilities increased on average 7.4%

Test scores also increased during the intervention phase of this study. Results from this study found that the average percentile scores for all target students increased after the intervention phase. Test scores increased on average 12% for the target group. Similar to averages on weekly quizzes, a comparison of the test scores of the two subgroups revealed increases along the same increments. While student participation and student responses increased during this study, an increased emphasis is placed on the gains garnered concerning academic achievement. The fact that all five target students increased their weekly quiz scores and unit test scores significantly after the intervention indicates that a positive correlation exists between the use of response cards and academic achievement. Based on the abundance of research indicating the positive effects of using response cards in the classroom, the results of this study corroborate other studies in that the target students in this inclusive classroom increased significantly on all variables studied. See table 3 below.

Table 2. Weekly Quiz Scores

Quiz Grades: Average Percentage Correct on 3 Quizzes for Each Student During Hand Raising and Response Cards

Percent Correct

Phase Mary David Donald Steven Rebecca

Hand Raising 77.3 73.7 77.3 60 83

Response Cards 88 80 85.6 60 86

Figure 1. Unit Test Scores

Recommendations

Findings from this study highlight the effectiveness of response cards; however, several limitations and recommendation for future research must be noted. The short time frame was one such limitation. Suggestion for future studies should include a second intervention and an ABAB design with a shorter time frame between interventions. This would allow for more data to be collected and offer a more thorough examination of the effects of the intervention on participation rates and academic achievement. Furthermore, using the ABAB design study would allow future researchers to establish if a correlation exists between long term recall abilities and the use of response cards. For instance, suggested time frames for future studies would include data taken from benchmark exams which typically divide a school year in half and assess students over a wide array of concepts rather than one or two units of instructional material. Although all students participated in the research activities in this study, another limitation is that only data collected on five target students was utilized to report the findings. While the students were randomly selected to represent the dynamics of the classroom population, the small sample number restricts the ability to generalize the findings to whole class populations across a wider spectrum. Therefore, the use of a small sample size, such as the one used in the present study, requires that future research on the dependent variables would need to be conducted in order to replicate the findings from this study. Consequently, future research should employ a larger number of sample students from a variety of backgrounds and different ability levels to establish if a correlation exists between the intervention and the hypothesized outcomes of increased student participation and academic achievement. Using different student groups of mixed ability levels to replicate the finding of this study would serve to strengthen the argument of the effectiveness of response cards as an intervention strategy for students of all ability levels. This study was conducted in one inclusive mathematics classroom at the eighth grade level. This narrow scope limits the ability of the research findings to be generalized across various content areas and grade levels. One recommendation for future research is to conduct simultaneous research in other disciplines such as social studies, science, and language arts in alternate grade levels in order to compare the effects to those in math classes. Additional research should also be conducted in math classrooms across grade levels to compare results in an interdisciplinary fashion. A study conducted across disciplines and grade levels would present researchers with a more in-depth understanding of the positive effects response cards can have on active student participation and academic achievement. Further replications of this study are desired so that researchers have an opportunity to generalize the results to other disciplines as well as to other classroom populations. It would be helpful to know if the results garnered from this study would be achieved from different students and with other teachers implementing the intervention. Although this study was conducted in an inclusive classroom, the available data for success rates of students with disabilities is limited. Therefore, future research using response cards should be conducted on students with mild to severe disabilities or extreme behavioral issues to surmise if the intervention would have the same positive effects reported in the present study. The use of response cards has been shown to positively influence student participation rates, increase on- task behaviors, and promote academic achievement in students of all ability levels. Additionally, students and teachers alike reported a strong preference for using the cards during classroom review session; the cards turned students into active participants in the learning process. Enjoyable, low cost, and ease of use make response cards an effective tool for every educators teaching repertoire.

References

[1] Berrong, A., Schuster. J., Mosrse, T., & Collins, B. (2007). The effects of response cards on active participation and social behavior of students with moderate and severe disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 19(3), 187-199. [2] Cavanaugh, R.A., Heward, W.L., & Donelson, F. (1996). Effects of response cards during lesson closure on the academic performance of secondary students an earth science course. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(3), 403-406. [3] Christle, C.A., & Schuster, J.W. (2003). The effects of using response cards on student participation, academic achievement, and on-task behavior during whole-class, math instruction. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12(3), 147-165. [4] Ducahine, E.L., (2011). Effects of response cards on academic outcomes (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from http://sccholarworks.gsu.edu/espe_diss. [5] Gardner, R., lll, Heward, W.L., & Grossi, T.A. (1994). Effects of response cards on studentparticipation and academic achievement: A systematic replication with inner-city students during whole-class science instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 63-71. [6] George, C.L., (2010). Effects of response cards on performance and participation in social studies for middle school students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 35(3), 200-213. [7] Heward, W. L. (1994). Three "low-tech" strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner 1lI, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T. A Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooke/Cole. [8] Randolph, J.J., (2007). Meta-analysis of the research on response cards: Effects on test achievement, quiz achievement, and off-task behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(2), 113- 128.

Dental Interns' Attitudes toward case-based learning (CBL). A Qualitative study.

Ammar A. AbuMostafa (BDS, MSc (Cons Dent), MSc (Med Edu), FHEA). Lecturer in the Restorative Department – Riyadh Colleges of Dentistry and Pharmacy Saudi Arabia. [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Introduction The regulatory bodies of dentistry have realized the importance to future dentists of acquiring the skills of teamwork, professionalism, critical thinking, lifelong learning, and problem solving. Those skills can be acquired in interactive student-centered learning approaches where students deal with real cases. Among those approaches is case-based learning (CBL), which was first introduced in colleges of business and law in the late decades of the 19th century? Methodology The aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions of dental interns about using a CBL approach. Focus groups in which different themes were discussed were used as a qualitative research tool. Four focus groups were conducted for a total of 31 interns. Results Our findings indicated general satisfaction among the dental interns with a student-centered small group teaching approach based on clinical scenarios. They indicated their preference for a CBL approach over the traditional lecture-based approach, mentioning greater independence, more joy, less stress, deeper thinking, better understanding, better teamwork, more student involvement, and an enhanced learning environment that was similar to the real context. Conclusion It can be concluded that adopting this teaching method positively influenced the learning process of the dental interns. In addition, using a qualitative research tool was appropriate in investigating learners' perceptions.

Keywords: Case-based learning, learners’ attitudes

Introduction

The regulatory bodies of dentistry in the United States, Europe, and the United Kingdom have realized the importance to future dentists of acquiring the skills of teamwork, professionalism, critical thinking, lifelong learning and problem solving. 1,2,3 In order to teach such skills while still in the classroom setting, a shift to interactive student-centered learning approaches where students wrestle with "real-world" scenarios is needed. 4 Among those approaches is case-based learning (CBL), in which learners discover knowledge by themselves rather than passively receiving it. Case-based learning has been used in colleges of business and law since the late decades of the 19th century. Clinical cases or scenarios are required in CBL pedagogy to teach about realistic patient care situations; learners draw from their previously attained knowledge to solve problems. 5 The case-based learning approach is underpinned by the concepts of social learning and contextual learning. Knowledge evolves through social negotiation; social factors also influence the individual’s behavior, which both influences and is influenced by the environment and characteristics of the person. In other words, a person’s behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. 6 According to the contextual learning concept, learning occurs when learners process new information in a way that makes sense to them in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 62 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 their own inner worlds of memory, experience, and response. This concept of learning assumes that the mind naturally seeks meaning in context, that is, in relation to the person's current environment, and that it does so by searching for relationships that make sense and appear useful. 7 Put simply, the basic premise of contextual learning is that when learners learn material in the context of how it will be used, learning and the ability to use the information are promoted. 4 These concepts, social and contextual learning, are clearly seen in CBL approaches. The learners’ exposure to alternative points of view is a real challenge to initial understanding. Students invoke their problem-solving methods and conceptual knowledge; they express their ideas and share responsibility in managing problem situations. 8 The clinical scenario or problem presented is always portrayed in the real-life context of a patient coming to visit a dentist. Thereby, learners are the constructors of their own knowledge in a context similar to that in which they will apply that attained knowledge. This encourages them to think more critically and creatively in order to solve clinical problems. Case-based learning is adopted as a teaching method with dental interns. The aim of this study was to evaluate the interns' attitudes toward this teaching method.

Methodology

Institutional Approval The committee of the Research Center at the institution approved conducting this study based on a proposal sent by the first author, thereafter the experiment was conducted.

Method The case-based learning approach was adopted in an endodontic diagnosis module introduced to dental interns in 2012. One case scenario was introduced and discussed in each module session for a total of five cases during the whole module; the cases were prepared and introduced by a member of the endodontic teaching staff. While the activity was being carried out, the interns were asked to divide into small groups of five to discuss the case. Then each group presented their findings on a flip chart. The objective of this module was to refresh the basic knowledge of the dental interns on the subject of endodontic diagnosis and help them utilize this knowledge to solve relevant clinical problems. Focus groups were used as a research method in this study; four focus groups were conducted, for a total of 31 interns who participate in the CBL module. The focus groups were all facilitated by the first author, who is trained in running focus groups. Focus groups represent a powerful tool for collecting qualitative information across many contexts. By definition, focus groups are structured or semi-structured meetings with small groups of individuals that allow the exchange of opinions, information, and feedback in relation to a single topic. Focus groups include, at a minimum, a meeting facilitator and informants. 9 Focus groups have unique strengths: discussion among participants in the group stimulates the exchange of ideas, so participants can feed off and share each other’s ideas and recall things that might not otherwise be recalled. Group participation and interaction might help participants define and frame their points of view by comparing them to others' perspectives. Additionally, people might not be aware of what they think unless they hear someone else discuss it. 10 On the other hand, a limitation of focus groups is lack of confidentiality. People may be reluctant to speak freely about their private feelings or ideas in the presence of other participants. This might result in a sort of misrepresentation, unless they feel reassured that others in the same group are also similar to them on relevant dimensions. 11

Analysis The Framework qualitative data analysis approach was adopted. It is an analytical approach that combines five distinct, though largely interconnected, stages. 12 The first stage is familiarization; the analyst carries out an overview of the body of the material and becomes familiar with its range and diversity. The second stage is identifying a thematic approach. Here the analyst makes notes and records the range of responses to questions, and then identifies the recurrent themes and issues that emerge as important to the respondents themselves. The third stage is indexing, when the thematic framework or "index" is applied to the data in its textual form. The fourth stage is charting. Data is extracted from its original context and reorganized according to the themes identified. The fifth and last stage is mapping and interpretation. Here the range and the nature of the experiences are mapped in the search for explanations and connections. Conversation in the focus groups was recorded using two recorders; this is recommended in case one of them fails. 11 The recordings were stored securely. The first author listened to the recordings and transcribed the comments verbatim.

Ethical Considerations In any social research, three ethical areas are to be considered: informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity. 13 In this study, all participants signed and returned informed consent letters. Confidentiality means protecting the identity of the participants; this implies keeping data and names separated by using, for example, codes that are only accessible to the researchers, and reporting data in a way that does not reveal the identity of the participants. 14 At the beginning of the focus groups, the interviewer reassured all of the participants that neither their names nor identities would be disclosed in any written document related to the study. Anonymity, in which researchers should not collect name data at all, goes further than confidentiality. This means that the researchers should not be able to identify which respondent the data came from. 15 To achieve this, the interviewer gave the participants numbers, which were used instead of names during discussion in the focus groups. These numbers were assigned randomly and didn’t represent the location of their seats.

Results

Upon analyzing data, the following themes were identified. The quotes of the participants are placed between brackets and in italics. Table 1 summarizes the identified themes.

1. Theme 1: Advantages of the Case-Based Learning Approach

There were a number of similar responses to the initial question posed to participants about the advantages of using such teaching methods. From their responses to this question and the examples they provided, the following dimensions were identified.  Sharing thoughts among learners  Enhanced attention and discussion  Less stressful environment  Teamwork.  Peer-to-peer learning

These are some participants’ quotes: "Sharing the information with the other members in the group, we can take more information, I take information from different colleagues in the group and we never forget the information, this is the biggest advantage for me". "Everyone in the group can give answers, no one will be ashamed of a wrong answer" "Informal, which is very good for us, you have a very good environment where you don’t feel stressed, a stress- free environment I mean, so you get the information much easier instead of having it in a formal way. . . you feel like. . . ehhh. . . you’re not under stress, not like there is somebody who is just looking for your mistakes to punish you."

Theme 2: Characteristics of an Effective Teacher

The participants in the focus groups identified the same teacher characteristics. They described a person who promotes critical thinking, induces confidence among learners, encourages debate, helps learners find the correct answer themselves, is an expert on the case, and is patient, friendly, motivated, and calm. Based on that, the characteristics of an effective teacher can be divided into two main categories: personal attributes and facilitation skills. The category of personal attributes includes being good listener, friendly, calm, patient, and enthusiastic about the case, "He should be really calm, he should be patient," "He should be excited; he should have some kind of passion towards the case itself". The second category is facilitation skills, which includes the following:  Help the learners find the correct answers themselves, rather than giving the answers directly  Encourage critical thinking  Have good communicative skills  Be familiar with the content of the case scenario.  Be familiar with the teaching method. "I need him to point me into the right direction, rather than giving me the answer directly without any effort," "He also should encourage critical thinking, so for example, make the groups reach the answer by themselves," "The teacher should have experience in the subject, also he should be familiar with teaching CBL".

Theme 3: Characteristics of an Effective Case Scenario

The first identified characteristic was the clarity of the case which, included the clarity of the clinical photos, radiographs and description of the case: "Good documentation, pictures and X-rays, good description of the cases. Since the participants cannot see the case with their own eyes they should be able to visualize it to the greatest extent possible without actually being with the patient." Additionally, it seems that the participating interns in this study preferred the cases to be tricky and interesting: "The cases should be interesting . . . should be difficult . . . so it doesn’t bore the participants, they should focus on matters or on cases that are not typical or not ordinary everyday cases”. The third and last characteristic identified by the participants was being a "multidisciplinary" case scenario: "In my opinion, I see that an interesting case should have more than one specialty. I mean a combination of endodontic, periodontic or restorative, something like that." "In response to my colleague’s point that cases must have multiple disciplines, as general practitioner that would be crucial . . . yes, multiple disciplines is definitely recommended".

Theme 4: Comparison of the CBL Teaching Method with the Traditional Lecture Teaching Method.

The responses of the participants on this theme limited the comparison to three aspects: learning mechanism, efficiency and attention. The mechanism of learning in the traditional lecture method is completely dependent on the teacher’s efforts in giving the information to the learners: "The traditional way is like spoon feeding, it gives you the information directly, you don’t need to search." In contrast, in CBL learners discover the knowledge themselves” "In case- based learning we are the ones (the learners) who must find a solution for the case, not sit in the class and take in the information, we are the ones who must give the solution. It’s not boring and you must think." Concerning the efficiency aspect, the participants highly ranked CBL teaching compared to the traditional lecture method. One participant described the traditional lecture: "It’s easier to be forgotten, it will not improve your thinking . . . also, it won't improve your skills in problem solving and managing your time." In contrast, knowledge retention was enhanced in the CBL teaching format: "We will not forget the cases easily, we will link the cases to this exciting time, to those pictures, then once we see the real case in the clinic we will get the answers directly." Finally, the learners' attention in the CBL sessions was higher than in traditional lecture-based methods. One of the dental interns presented funny example: "We all have noticed that during the small group activity based on case scenarios, no one picks up his mobile and plays with it. On the contrary, in the conventional lectures, some students are usually distracted and playing with their mobiles." Although the participants preferred CBL learning, they still believed that this teaching method wouldn’t be able to replace the need for lectures: "Regarding the conventional learning technique, I don’t think that CBL will be able to replace it, because most of the opinions that we express or the ideas that we give are based on the ideas that we got in the lecture." "I feel, no, it cannot replace. I mean especially in the early stages of our studies. I mean, how can students discuss possibilities and diagnosis if they haven’t even studied it? They should have the basis to build on their diagnosis or treatment modalities."

Theme 5: Learning of Problem-Solving Skills

All participants agreed that this teaching method helped them acquire problem solving skills, as learning occurs in a context similar to what would be faced in real practice: "These are clinical cases and very much similar to what we would face in a clinical setting, so they are highly valuable and they are highly applicable as opposed to traditional lectures focusing more on theories that may have no relevance at all to the clinical setting." Additionally, the participants learned how to solve similar clinical problems in the future by comparing them to the cases presented in CBL sessions: "Having these cases and the discussion about them will make them stick in students’ minds so later on when they face a similar case they’ll recall that situation and make comparisons, so they will remember the discussion, the diagnosis and the treatment in regard to the situation".

Discussion

The participants in this study expressed general satisfaction concerning the use of case-based learning, which is consistent with the findings of several other studies. 16-22 The students' satisfaction can be attributed to several factors. In such student-centered pedagogy, students actively participate in the learning process. The depth of learning attained is based on their participation, engagement and efforts, which supports learning as a dynamic, transformative and exciting process. The learning is like a passion they are responsible for rather than a chore. Additionally, learning is achieved in a stress-free environment while giving the students experience in managing real clinical problems similar to the real context,; which gives understanding at a holistic and applied level.

The participants identified the importance of peer learning as an advantage of CBL. Interestingly, in 2001 Botelho and Donnell 23 conducted a study and found that peer-to-peer explanations were understood just as well if not better than teacher-student explanations. This was attributed to the theory that, in comparison to experts, learners use language that novices can understand. This is more obvious when the medium of instruction is not the mother tongue of the learners. Expert tutors sometimes use technical, elaborate terminology that neophytes might not be able to understand. The participants in this study and others 16,20 preferred a teacher who was an expert on the case; however, this issue is a bit controversial. In the original McMaster PBL curriculum, the teachers were not required to have any particular knowledge about the case scenario or the problem being discussed by the students. Furthermore, it was believed that expert teachers wouldn’t be able to resist the temptation to lecture to the students, which negatively affects the critical thinking process of the learners. Since the development of the third PBL curriculum, which is known as COMPASS (concept-oriented, multidisciplinary, problem-based, practice for transfer, simulations in clerkship, streaming), the trend has changed. Greater emphasis has been put on selecting facilitators with content knowledge of the curriculum and facilitation skills. This was a response to increasing evidence that effective learning and knowledge transfer need feedback from the teachers. 24 The results indicated that participants felt they had learned problem-solving and critical thinking skills that would aid their clinical practice in the future. These findings were in line with ADEA CCI [1], who argued that comparing their findings with the teachers who work with them helps students develop the skills of problem solving and critical thinking. This learning mechanism is underpinned by the concept of case-based reasoning (CBR), in which the case scenario is stored as a holistic case with its solution rather than as scattered factual rules, which makes the retrieval of knowledge much easier. 25 As a qualitative study, the validity of this research can be established by a number of mechanisms, and the similarity of these results with other research offers some reassurance that the benefits are perceived by learners from multiple cultures and backgrounds [26]. It is also very impressive how the participants' comments in this study reflected on the underpinning educational theories of learning and teaching. For example, they identified teamwork and peer learning as strengths of these teaching approaches; they preferred multidisciplinary cases, as they are more similar to the real practice of health care; and they preferred a facilitator with content expertise to provide them with feedback on clinical care.

Conclusion

This research reported on introducing an endodontic diagnosis module to dental interns in a case-based learning format. Such an active student-centered approach enhances problem-solving and critical thinking skills among learners, which is in accordance with the recommendations of the regulatory bodies of dentistry in the United States, Europe and the United Kingdom [1-3]. This CBL module simulates actual clinical cases and instills a sense of decision making and teamwork. After this successful experience, the CBL methodology can be applied in other areas of clinical education, which enhances the learners’ diagnostic and decision making skills.

Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Authors Contribution AAA conducted the experiment and participated in writing the manuscript. LAA participated in designing the study and editing the manuscript Abbreviations CBL – stands for Case Based Learning

Acknowledgements

I am very thankful to the Rector and Dean of Riyadh Colleges of Dentistry and Pharmacy for their encouragement and cooperation. Special thanks to the dental interns at Riyadh Colleges who participated in this study.

References

 Hendricson WD, Andrieu SC, Chadwick DG, Chmar JE, Cole JR, George MC, et al. Educational strategies associated with development of problem-solving, critical thinking, and self-directed learning. J Dent Educ. 2006;70(9):925–36.  Cowpe J, Plasschaert A, Harzer W, Vinkka-Puhakka H, and Walmsley AD. Profile and competences for the graduating European dentist – update 2009. European Journal of Dental Education. 2010;14:193-202.  General Dental Council. Standards for Dental Professions. London: General Dental Council; 2005  Swanwick, T. Understanding Medical Education. ASME, Wiley-Blackwell; 2010.  Nadershahi NA, Bender DJ, Beck L, Lyon C, and Blaseio A. An Overview of Case-Based and Problem-Based Learning Methodologies for Dental Education. Journal of Dental Education. 2013;77(10):1300-1305.  Pritchard A, Woollard J. Psychology for the Classroom: Constructivism and Social Learning. Routledge; 2010.  Lowenstein A, Bradshaw M. Innovative Teaching Strategies in Nursing and Related Health Professions. Jones & Bartlett Publishers; 2010.  Easterby-Smith M, Lyles MA. Handbook of organizational learning and knowledge management. Wiley Publishing; 2011.  Morgan DL, Krueger RA. The Focus Group Kit. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; 1998.  Kitzinger J. (1995). Qualitative Research: Introducing Focus Groups. British Medical Journal. 1995;311:45-91.  Huston SA, Hobson, EH. Review Article: Using focus groups to inform pharmacy research. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy. 2008;4:186–205.  Brayman A, Brugess RG. (1994). Analyzing Qualitative Data. London and New York: Routledge; 1994.  Burgess RG. (1989). The ethics of educational research. New York: Falmer Press; 1989.  Swanwick T. (2010). Understanding Medical Education. ASME, Wiley-Blackwell; 2010.

 Frankfort-Nachmias C, Nachmias D.. Research Methods in the Social Sciences. 3rd Edition. New York: Worth Publishers; 2008.  Kumar V, Gadbury-Amyot CC. (2012) A Case-Based and Team-Based Learning Model in Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology. Journal of Dental Education. 2012;76(3):330-337.  Haghparast N, Sedghizadeh PP, Shuler CF, Ferati D, Christersson C. Evaluation of student and faculty perceptions of the PBL curriculum at two dental schools from a student perspective: a cross-sectional survey. 2007;11:14–22.  Garvey MT, O’Sullivan M, Blake M. Multidisciplinary case-based learning for undergraduate students. European Journal of Dental Education. 2000;4:165–168.  Tack CJ, Plasschaert AJM. Student evaluation of a problem-oriented module of clinical medicine within a revised dental curriculum. European Journal of Dental Education. 2006;10:96–102.  Steinert Y. Student perceptions of effective small group teaching. Medical Education. 2004;38:286– 293.  Gray M, Aspland, T. Midwifery practice in the university context: Perspectives of postgraduate students on the effectiveness of case-based learning in preparation for the workplace. Teaching and Learning in Nursing. 2011;6:38–45.  Bearn DR, Chadwick SM. Problem-based learning in postgraduate dental education: a qualitative evaluation of students’ experience of an orthodontic problem-based postgraduate programme. European Journal of Dental Education. 2010;14:26-34.  Botelho MG, O’Donnell D. Assessment of the use of problemorientated, small-group discussion for learning of a fixed prosthodontic, simulation laboratory course. British Dental Journal. 2001;191(11):630-636.  Neville AJ, Norman GR. PBL in the Undergraduate MD Program at McMaster University: Three Iterations in Three Decades. Academic Medicine. 2007;82 (4):370-374.  Eshach H, Bitterman H. From Case-based Reasoning to Problem-based Learning. Academic Medicine. 2003;78(5):491-496.  Guba EG, Lincoln YS. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; 1994.

Table 1: summary of the identified themes Theme 1  Advantages of CBL  Sharing thoughts among learners  Enhanced attention and discussion  Less stressful environment  Teamwork  Peer-to-peer learning Theme 2  Characteristics of an Effective Teacher  Personal Attributes  Good listener  Friendly  Calm  Patient  Enthusiastic about the case  Facilitation Skills  Help the learners find the correct answers themselves  Encourage critical thinking  Have good communicative skills  Be familiar with the content of the case scenario  Be familiar with the teaching method Theme 3  Characteristics of an Effective Case Scenario  Clear radiographs and images  Interesting  Multidisciplinary Theme 4  Comparison of the CBL Teaching Method with the Traditional Lecture Teaching Method.  The comparison was limited to three aspects:  Learning mechanism  The mechanism of learning in the traditional lecture method is completely dependent on the teacher’s efforts in giving the information to the learners. This is in contrast to CBL, where learners discover the knowledge themselves.  Efficiency and retention  Efficiency of teaching and knowledge retention were enhanced in CBL compared to the traditional lectures.  Attention  The learners' attention in CBL sessions was higher than in the traditional lecture- based method. Theme 5  Learning of Problem-Solving Skills  All participants agreed that this teaching method helped them acquire the problem solving skills as learning occurs in a context similar to what would be faced in the real practice

Tobacco Smoking among Medical Students in the Middle East: Identifying Areas for Intervention

Salman Alzayani, MD, MSc*, Randah R. Hamadeh, BSc, MSc, DPhil(Oxon)** *,**Department of Family and Community Medicine College of Medicine and Medical Sciences Arabian Gulf University Address: P.O.Box: 22979, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain * [email protected], ** [email protected]

Abstract

A cross sectional study was conducted on medical students enrolled in the Arabian Gulf University in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The objective was to describe medical students’ tobacco smoking behavior and to provide recommendations for promoting a healthy lifestyle among them. A self administered anonymous questionnaire was used, which included questions on demography and tobacco smoking behavior. The study showed that 10.8% only of the medical students were current smokers, either on daily or occasional basis. However, 27.0% of the males were current smokers compared to 4.2% of the females (p<0.001). The mean and median ages of starting to smoke were 17.43±2.3 and 18 years, respectively. The prevalence of smoking was higher among students of years 3 and 4 than in years 1 and 2. Tobacco smoking behaviors cluster among students according to gender and medical year. Urgent interventions are needed to promote smoking cessation among medical students.

1. Introduction

Globally, tobacco is considered to be one of the leading causes of death (Jayakumary, Jayadevan, Ranade, & Mathew, 2010). Despite the good knowledge on the hazards of tobacco consumption, 24.8% male, and 9.1% female medical students in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia continue to smoke (Wali, 2011). The prevalence of smoking was higher among medical students than the general population as reported by a European survey (La Torre et al., 2011). Unlike medical students in the United States (U.S.), who are less likely to smoke than other young adults in the U.S., however, they are still more likely than U.S. physicians (Frank, Elon, Spencer, & Ernst, 2009). Studies in the Arabian Gulf region have addressed specific lifestyle behaviors of health professionals such as smoking behavior and health-promoting lifestyle (Al-Kandari & Vidal, 2007; Behbehani et al., 2004; Hamadeh, 1994). Grant, Gibbs, Naseeb, & Garf (2007) concluded that Arabian Gulf University (AGU) students were valuable advocates for families as they were able also to offer practical help in lifestyle behavior changes, communication, and community-resource use. Hamadeh (1994) concluded that smoking increased among AGU male medical students while they were at medical school as most of them took up the habit during their medical training. Furthermore, the percentage of current smokers was highest in the final year and ex-smokers the lowest. These results suggested that medical education and knowledge about the harmful health effects of smoking had relatively little impact on smoking behavior. Hamadeh (2007) concluded in her study about smoking among AGU medical students that smoking prevalence among males and females students were 35.2% and 7.5%, respectively. Hamadeh & Musaiger

(2000) reported that prevalence of smoking was 32.1% and 20.7% among men and women aged 30-79 years, respectively in Bahrain. A statistically significant association (p< 0.001) was observed with respect to smoking status and educational level in both sexes. Smoking was associated with less exercise and more television watching. The findings suggest that smokers should be counseled about their unhealthy lifestyle habits in addition to quitting smoking. Arabian Gulf University (AGU) is a regional university established in 1983 and based in the Kingdom of Bahrain. It has two colleges, the College of Medicine and Medical Sciences (CMMS) and the College of Graduate Studies. AGU hosts students of both genders from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, UAE and Qatar), where students are admitted based on their country’s quota. Thus, AGU provides a unique opportunity to suggest guidelines to medical schools in the GCC countries. The CMMS follows a problem-based, student-centered and community-oriented curriculum. The problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum integrates basic medical sciences with related professional skills training, and community health activities. The program is of six years duration divided into three phases: the basic Sciences Phase (Phase I: Year 1), Pre-clerkship Phase (Phase II: Years 2-4), Clinical Clerkships Phase (Phase III: Years 5 and 6). The students learn about the hazards of tobacco smoking throughout phase II and III due to the spiral nature of the medical curriculum. At CMMS, English is the language of instruction (Hamdy & Anderson, 2006). The objective of the study was to describe the Arabian Gulf University medical students tobacco smoking behavior and to provide recommendations for promoting a healthy lifestyle among them.

2. Methods

A cross sectional study was conducted among AGU Years 1 to 4 medical students, during May 2009. A census of all AGU Years 1 to 4 medical students (535) who were enrolled during the Academic Year 2008- 2009, was obtained from the Admission and Registration Unit. A self administered anonymous questionnaire in the English language was used. The questionnaire has been abridged from the adult questionnaire of the United Arab Emirates Health and Lifestyle Survey 2000 (Badrinath et al., 2002), which was validated and field tested. It was distributed to the students during May 2009 in the following manner: For Year 1 students, the questionnaire was distributed at the beginning of the Biostatistics class. As Years 2 to 4 students are divided into groups of 8-10 students in the tutorial sessions which are held twice per week, hence those students were given the questionnaires by their respective tutors during their first session. The respective tutors were briefed about this process by a covering letter which was kept along with the questionnaires in the tutorial boxes that contain the teaching materials. These boxes were collected from the medical education office by tutors before the tutorial sessions and returned back after the tutorial sessions. The completed questionnaires were put in sealed envelopes by the students and returned to the tutor who placed them in the tutorial boxes. The questionnaires were resent in the following week to the tutors for the students who were absent the day of data collection during the tutorial session. A covering letter was enclosed in the tutorial box to the respective tutors instructing them to distribute the questionnaires only to the students who were absent in the previous tutorial session. Data entry and analysis were done using the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS), Version 17.0. Descriptive statistics and the chi-square test was applied when appropriate.

3. Results

Of the 535 medical students who were enrolled in years 1-4 during the academic year 2008-2009, only 443 responded to the questionnaire resulting in an overall response rate of 82.8%. One hundred thirty one students

(29.6%) were from Year 1, 109 (24.6%) from Year 2, 90 (20.3%) from Year 3 and 113 (25.5%) from Year 4. The highest response rate was from Year 4 (90.4%) and the lowest from Year 3 (73.2%). The response rates for Years 1 and 2 were 82.9% and 84.5%, respectively. Eighty six percent of the female students responded to the questionnaire compared to 73.7% of the male students. Seventy one percent of the students were females, 45.4% in the age group 20-21 years, 26.5% in the age group 18-19 years, 26.3% in the age group 22-23 years, and only 1.8% were 24 years or older. Forty two percent of the students lived with their families, 33.8% in university housing, and the rest either living alone or with their friends (10.7% and 11.1%, respectively). Tables 1 - 2 show that 10.8% only of the medical students were current smokers, either on daily or occasional basis. However, 27.0% of the males were current smokers compared to 4.2% of the females (p<0.001). The mean and median ages of starting to smoke were 17.43±2.3 and 18 years, respectively. The minimum age of starting to smoke was 11 years and the maximum 20 years. Further analyses of smoking by medical year and gender showed that 11.3% of the male students were tobacco smokers in Year 1 compared to 35.5% in Year 2, 36.9% in Year 3 and 34.4% in Year 4. One percent of the female students were tobacco smokers in Year 1 compared to 1.4% in Year 2, 7% in Year 3 and 7.7% in Year 4. The prevalence of cigarette smoking among male students was 23.0% and that of female students 1.9%. The corresponding figures for Sheesha and pipe smoking were 23.8%, 4.5%, and 1.8%, 0.2% respectively. Two percent of male students smoked cigars compared to none of the female students. More male and female students smoked cigarettes and Sheesha than pipe and cigar. They smoked cigarettes and Sheesha on both daily and occasional basis but there were no daily of pipes and cigar smokers (Figures 1 - 2).

Table 1: Smoking Behavior of Medical Students by Gender and Medical Year

Daily Occasional Ex-Smoker Never Smoker Gender n=436* Male 12.7% 14.3% 4.8% 68.3% Female 0.3% 3.9% 1% 94.8% Total 3.9% 6.9% 2.1% 87.2% p value < 0.001 Medical Year n=436* Year 1 1.5% 3.1% 1.5% 93.9% Year 2 4.7% 6.6% 3.8% 84.9% Year 3 4.4% 8.9% 0% 86.7% Year 4 5.4% 9.8% 2.7% 82.1% p value 0.193 * missing data for 7 persons

Table 2: Smoking Behavior of Male and Female Medical Students by Medical Year

Male Female Daily Occasional Ex- Never Daily Occasional Ex- Never Smoker Smoker Smoker Smoker Medical Year n=436* Year 1 4.5% 6.8% 2.3% 86.4% 0% 1.1% 1.1% 97.7% Year 2 16.1% 19.4% 9.7% 54.8% 0% 1.4% 1.7% 97.3% Year 3 15.8% 21.1 0% 63.2% 1.4% 5.6% 0% 93% Year 4 18.8% 15.6% 0.3% 59.4% 0% 7.7% 1.3% 91% Total 12.7% 14.3% 4.8% 68.3% 0.3% 3.9% 1% 94.8% p 0.156 0.280 value * missing data for 7 persons

Figure 1: Frequency of cigarette smoking among current tobacco smokers by gender

Figure 2. Frequency of Sheesha smoking among current tobacco smokers by gender

4. Discussion and conclusion

About eleven percent of the medical students were current tobacco smokers, either on daily or occasional basis. 27% of the male students were current smokers, compared to 4.2% of the females. The prevalence of cigarettes smoking was 23% among male students and 1.9% among female students. The corresponding percentages for Sheesha smoking were 23.8% and 4.5% respectively. Similar findings were reported among health science university students in Saudi Arabia by Subhan, Al-Khlaiwi, & Ghandourah (2009) were one tenth of respondents smoked, and being more prevalent in males than females. Although Sheesha was smoked more occasionally than cigarettes, Sheesha smoking seems to be gaining popularity among university students. Al-Turki & Al-Rowais (2008) reported that the prevalence of active smoking among male (13%) and female (2.4%) students in the College of Medicine was lower than that of their counterparts in this study. Furthermore, Bassiony (2009) concluded that smoking behavior in Saudi Arabia is prevalent at different age groups and the prevalence of current smoking is much higher in males than in females at different ages. In United Arab Emirates, it was observed that smoking prevalence is on the rise among females in health related colleges especially Sheesha (Mandil et al., 2007). An earlier study on CMMS students, at AGU concluded that the prevalence of smoking among male medical students was relatively high and that the majority of male smokers started to smoke during their medical training (Hamadeh, 1994). Another study emphasized the importance of focusing on tobacco smoking intervention in addition to the tobacco smoking health impacts (Hamadeh, 1995). Results of the current study confirm the findings of Hamadeh (1995), since the majority of AGU medical students knew about the hazards of smoking but their attitude towards their preventive and exemplary role was ambivalent. Similar suggestions were made by Fadhil (2009) who noted that there were major training deficiencies in medical schools about smoking cessation interventions. Moreover, in the United States, gaps still exist within undergraduate medical education, including lack of integration of tobacco

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 75 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol. 3-2, 2015 dependence information throughout all 4 years of medical school curricula (Spangler, George, Foley, & Crandall, 2002). There should be caution in the generalization of the results as the study included years 1-4 students and the response rates varied according to gender and medical year, which might limit the generalization of the results. In addition the possibility of recall bias could not be excluded, as the questionnaire focused on events that happened during the past, ranging from the previous week to the previous six months. Thus, the prevalence of smoking of AGU medical students in this study are most likely underestimated. Urgent interventions are needed at AGU on promoting smoking cessation among medical students. Such interventions include modifying the university’s admission policy to include information on applicants smoking behavior to facilitate early intervention. In addition, reinforcing smoking cessation techniques in the medical curriculum, providing counseling services at the university for smoking cessation and continuously reinforcing the norm that AGU is a smoke free university for faculty, administrators and students. Further, students should be encouraged to actively participate in the health promotion and smoking control activities in Bahrain and their respective countries.

References

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[13] Subhan MM, Al-Khlaiwi T, Ghandourah SO. Smoking among health science university students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2009;30(12):1610-1612. [14] Al-Turki YA, Al-Rowais NA. Prevalence of smoking among female medical students in the College of Medicine, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2008;29(2):311-312. [15] Bassiony MM. Smoking in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2009;30(7):876-881. [16] Mandil A, Hussein A, Omer H, Turki G, Gaber I, Mandil A, et al. Characteristics and risk factors of tobacco consumption among University of Sharjah students, 2005. East Mediterr Health J 2007;13(6):1449-1458. [17] Hamadeh R. Knowledge and attitudes of medical students in Bahrain towards smoking. Health Educ Res 1995;10(4):479-486. [18] Fadhil I. Tobacco education in medical schools: survey among primary care physicians in Bahrain. East Mediterr Health J 2009;15:969-975. [19] Spangler JG, George G, Foley KL, Crandall SJ. Tobacco intervention training. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 2002;288(9):1102-1109.

Education Technology Policy In Teaching And Learning

Christina John Mohamad Bin Bilal Ali (Utm)

Abstract

This research is to develop a Education Policy Technology in teaching and learning. The process of developing policies work involves the Delphi technique works. The Delphi Technique implementation process chosen by the researcher which it involves five rounds? Seven qualified experts appointed by the expertise and have the criteria in the policy area. The policy was developed based on the standards ISO 27001 and Security Policy Information and Communication Technology for the Public Sector by MAMPU (Malaysia Administrative Modernization and Management Planning Unit) . Integrated Model Delaney in Development Policy adopted by researchers for the process of developing the policy area. Future policy development outcomes can be applied at the Institute of Teacher Education In Malaysia (ITEM) and indirectly provides a guide to future teachers who will be placed in primary schools as their guide in conducting teaching and learning in technology education. The final formulation of collecting data represent the opinions and comments of experts which will be used as a complete production of the draft policy.

Introduction

Effective use of information technology also depends on the openness educators receiving element of information technology in teaching and learning, planned by them. Teacher educators, for example, which is the heart and backbone that generates the effectiveness of education as a whole, we find more and more of them are already savvy. If five years ago, almost no teachers in Malaysia know what the Internet is what they use the Internet. Now the number of teachers who have access to the Internet is increasing but they have assumed that information technology is a need to simplify the process of teaching and learning, Kozma (2010). Rapid expansion in the use of information technology in education is one of the bright road to success world-class education. This statement is supported by Abdul Rahim Mohd Saad (2001) in his paper presentation Awareness of parents on the importance of the use of information technology has helped their children use this technology more effectively.

Teaching profession is directly involved as well as a trend to influence the ideology of the 21st century. Information Communication Technology (ICT) have a major impact on the displacement of the change management system and education in developing countries such as Malaysia. The information revolution that occurred due to advances Tecnologi Eduction (TE) gives new challenges to the teaching profession, as well as the progress that is taking place need to be utilized to enhance the prestige of the teaching profession who are facing changes in the 21st century. Development of new educational knowledge TE requires a fundamental shift in the role of education and the teaching profession. One shift plan for educational development in Malaysia, namely utilizing TE to improve the quality of learning in Malaysia. Developing countries need more teachers who have specialized knowledge of TE. Teacher education training also requires a change in the paradigm shift to produce teachers who are qualified and able to educate and develop the society and the state. Therefore Training Institute as a leading university education profession changes should develop a comprehensive

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 78 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 education management system, innovative and systematic use of Information Communication Technology to establish a policy of TE in teaching and learning. Study Design

Researcher

Pre-study 2 Expert

TERMS OF POLICY 2 expert

Expert interviews

Questionnaire snacking to

7 expert’s reviews a specialist

Reviews(policy area) analysed and forwarded to the approval of all the experts

Summary of researchers

PERNYATAAN MASALAH Figure Design Review Delphi Technique Performa kursus yang terdapat di IPGM merupakan satu panduan bagi pensyarah

Delphi technique by Cuhls / Blind / Grupp (1998 and 2002)

This profoma was first enacted in 2006 is the reference lecturers to conduct teaching and learning. Previously Syllabus subject TE is used as a guide by the lecturer. Profoma has been enacted since 2006 until now never updated or no improvement to improve their skills in terms of TE. Thus researchers expect with this study it will be able to improve in order to improve skills in the field of TE to balance in the current challenging technology. If there is only performing it means it will not be required to use or not required to the lecturers to follow. No action will be taken if the lecturers who do not follow the profoma. This is a weakness that is taken into account by the researcher. Therefore, with the development of a policy on teaching and learning, then it is obvious that policies are developed, which was approved by the MOE should be followed and shall not be denied by the lecturer or trainer.

The research

The aim of the study was to develop TP policies in teaching and learning for IPGM which plays an important role in achieving the mission of alerts and Educational Technology Division under the Ministry of Education to:

i. Ensure that the skills and techniques in teaching and learning TE can be used wisely and more systematic follow the policy formulated. iii. Ensure policies used by the lecturer in the Institute of Teacher Education In Malaysia (ITEM) constantly updated according to current developments. This policy will be monitored at least every three years. iv. Ensure that students have a level of competence commensurate with TE progress in the era of globalization.

Objectives i. Determine policy areas TP in teaching and learning needed for teachers in primary schools. ii. Teaching and learning to produce a policy adopted in the Primary School Teacher Training Program in Malaysia iii Getting feedback acceptance among stake holder policy

Model Framework

Delaney (2002) suggests an integrated model of policy development proposed is a method of development policy in the service of educational equity. For researchers, developing policies to newness model should be available. Integrated model produced by Delaney (2002) for the development of a systematic policy in Germany in 2000 was very successful, so the researchers chose this model to be adopted as a guide to develop the policy at the Institute of Teacher Education.

Identifying Areas / issues

Areas police Plan confirm

Draft Conduct Issue policy area Policy research /issues

MODEL DELANEY (2002)

Literature Review

The Delphi technique is a process shaped anonymous because no significant interaction between experts and it is done in several rounds. It usually consists of three or four rounds aims to get feedback in a systematic and subsequently received approval or consensus of all experts. This process is also a prediction that was made for something that will run next, namely as a result. This assertion is supported by Saedah Siraj (2008). In addition Custer (1999) explains that the Delphi technique was introduced in the United States in the early 1950s by the RAND Corporation is to predict the future defense needs. This technique aims to obtain information through the involvement of a group of experts whose views or feedback related to an issue they are needed. Lidqvist (1956) defines the Delphi technique as follows,

“The Delphi method is a method for the systematic solicitation and collection of judgments on a particular topic through a set of carefully designed sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions derived from earlier responses”.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

IDENTIFY NEEDS EVALUATION AND

DIAGNOSIS AND

IMPLEMENTATION SELECTED ALTERNATIVE

FORMATION ALTTERNATIVE

2.4 Kerangka Proses Membuat Keputusan SELECTION Catherine M. F. Bates, (2007 ) Brock University ALTERNATIVE

DECISION MAKING PROCESS IN DELPHI METHOD by

Lidqvist (1956 )

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015

Research Methodology

Samples teview sccording to Fowles (1978) he did not agree that the names listed expert. He affirms that all feedback from experts is difficult and controlled.

Summary Table of specialist expertise

Department / Ministry Experts Ministry of Education Malaysia 1 person ( Expert no.1) Institute of Teacher Education In 4 persons ( Expert no.2.3.4 and 5) Malaysia State Educational Technology 1 person ( Expert no.6) Division University 1 person ( Expert no.1)

Cuhls (2002) supports the view that the selection of experts appointed shall be in accordance with the criteria of expertise in the field of research and a basic guide to selecting the sample. The study of these individuals have the experience, knowledge and expertise in developing policies Technology at the Ministry of Education or the University and these skills at least more than 10 years. These individuals have experience working as an educator in the Ministry of Education or university for more than 10 years. These individuals willing to participate in the five round Delphi study. One memorindom understanding to the individual disediakah commitment by researchers to be signed by the experts

3.1 Study Design Researched

Design phase of the study in the order as follows:

PHASE I ROUND 1 Action and preliminary study -Use / Difference Malaysian IT policy and (Pre-Study) The findings of the Foreign countries - Appoint 2 expert formulated -Proforma IT courses Experts (Mean frequency) in the institute and universities -questionnaire -Use Instruments Reviews - Validity of instruments ROUND 2, 3, 4

PHASE II The preparation process involves 7 policy 7 appoint experts experts using Field surveys -Soal Policy Delphi technique (five rounds) -5 Round in work processes Using the Delphi Technique Assessment Instruments Integrated model by Delaney - Questionnaire -To determine the progress - The expert consensus, consensus 7 development field (Mean frequency) -Progress

ROUND 5

- The validity of the policy (10 people) PHASE III Summary of the agreement - Policy IT in teaching and learning by all experts Provided to complete all the experts. - Guest reception "stakeholder"

- Conference

Figure 3.1 Study Design

Research to develop the field of IT policy in the teaching and learning process of working with researchers using delphi technique in which they involve five rounds. The researcher has designed a round in the picture below.

Research Instruments Implementation of this research involves two main phases: Phase I is the interviews with experts who have been appointed to identify areas of policy development in teaching and learning. While Phase II is a questionnaire identifying policy areas to be developed

Data Collection Procedures Review Use descriptive statistics median and interquartile range used to obtain the results. All feedback from the experts for all three rounds will be analyzed to obtain a consensus with respect to expectations when developing ICT

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 83 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 policies in teaching and learning. Some of the data analysis will be done thematically. Data collected in this study conducted in two stages First and second stage. Data will be analyzed statistically The median score for the approval of the effect: Strongly agree = 3.5 - 5.00 Agree moderate level = 2.5 - 3:49 Disagree = 1:00 to 2:49 Interquartile range calculation used to determine the relationship of each item with each expert to enable interpretation of consensus for each item done. Determined by the level of consensus score interquartile range is as follows: Height = consensus interquartile ranges between 0 to 1 Simple consensus interquartile range = 1:01 to 1.99 No consensus interquartile range = 2.0 and up

Rating Analysis (Analysis) Before the policy was developed, some of the analysis should be made to facilitate the development process and timetable for this process will be a guide for researchers to carry out in accordance with the statutes kaljian following table: -

Schedule construction process with an expert questionnaire

implementation Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Round 5 period

deadline 2 Jun 18Aug 2013 30 Nov 2 Jan 1Mac

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS handover 2013 2013 2014 2014 Conclusion

Expectations draft policy area that is formulated by the word kepakatan of seven people appointed experts are tabulated below

Table 1: draft policy No Matter Page Content 1 1. Introduction 3 2. definition 3-5 3 objectives 6-7 3.1 - Philosophy 3.2 - Vision 3.3 - Mission 4. scope 8-14 4.1- Development, Design and Review curriculum

4.2- curriculum delivery system 4.3- Teaching Evaluation System 4.4- Infrastructure, Equipment and Environment Teaching and Learning 4.5- IT in Teaching and Learning Performance Communities based on EDU 3105 performance – Visitor in Teaching and Learning 5 Security policy in the teaching and learning of IT 15 6 Operations Management Communication 15 7 Curriculum Design Review 17 8. Continuous Improvement 18 9. Others -other (Guest) 19

Recommendations Advanced Studies This study could also lead to further research related to policy development Institute of Teacher Education In Malaysia for teaching and learning. The researcher suggested that use this policy approved by the MOE. It is based on suitability and agreement obtained by researchers from a survey conducted on behalf of the Director Teacher Education In Malaysia , Lecturer , Principals, Headmasters and ICT Teachers . In addition, researchers also engage individuals such as parents and ICT lecturer at universities in Malaysia.

Implications of Findings The findings of this study can provide certain benefits to the community of educators in general and in particular to the lecturer or lecturer and students.

Lecturer or Educators The findings of this study are expected to function as a lecturer in the future no longer be an agent of science communicators but more to the task of being a mentor or coach who led the students meneari information or knowledge. These phenomena are consistent with future developments that support learning system tech, global concept and focuses on developing students actively and meaningfully.

Teachers and Trainers The development of this policy can be used as a guide and also help teachers to plan lessons and higher skills.

Closing

The overall goal of this study was to achieve its objective of developing policies Technology eduction in teaching and learning by using the Delphi technique. Any resistance encountered while conducting this study for researchers is an experience that can be used as a guide to achieve a goal. In the era of globalization that centers on the development of information and communication technologies, the development of education and mastery Technology eduction conscious culture among trainees . Updates in technology have made in this era of globalization. Many challenges need to be implemented to ensure the success of these reforms. Among the lecturers should constantly strive to improve themselves, always make reflection in teaching and learning process, encourage pupils to be more independent, and implement the spirit of cooperation and collaboration in the classroom. Lecturer together with the trainees must foster lifelong learning to ensure the construction of critical thinking and technology skills are always integrated within the policies developed.

References

Adams, S. J. (2001). Projecting the next decade in safety management: A Delphi technique study. Professional Safety, 46 (10), 26-29. Abdul Rahim Mohd Saad (2001). Teknologi Pendidikan dan Teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi: Keperluan pertimbangan semula program pendidikan tinggi. Kertas kerja dibentang di Seminar Dinamika Perubahan Pengurusan Menuju Era Komunikasi Teknologi pada 20 & 21 September 2001. Cuhls, Kerstin; Blind, Knut and Grupp, Hariolf (eds., 1998): Delphi '98 Umfrage. Zukunft nachgefragt. Studie zur globalen Entwicklung von Wissenschaft und Technik, Karlsruhe. Custer, R. L., Scarcella, J. A., & Stewart, B. R. (1999). The modified Delphi technique: A rotational modification. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 15 (2), 1-10. Cyphert, F. R., & Gant, W. L. (1971). The Delphi technique: A case study. Phi Delta Kappan, 52, 272- 273. Delaney, J. (2002). Educational policy studies: A practical approach. Calgary, AB: Detselig Enterprises. Fitzsimmons, J.A. and Fitzsimmons, M.J. (eds.) (2001) Service management: Operations, Strategy and Information Technology (4th Edition) Boston, McGraw- Hill Kozma, R. (2003a). Summary and implications for ICT-based educational change. In R. Kozma (Ed.), Technology, innovation, and educational change: A global perspective. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Kozma, R. (2003b). Technology and classroom practices: An international study. Journal of Research on Computers in Education, 36(1), 1-14. Ludwig, B. (1997). Predicting the future: Have you considered using the Delphi methodology? Journal of Extension, 35(5), 233-239. Dimuat turun pada 12 November, 2006, daripada http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/tt2.html Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (eds.) (1975) The Delphi Method Techniques and Applications. Massachusetts, Reading: Addison-Wesley. Martino, J.P. (1983): Technological Forecasting for Decision Making, 2nd edition, North Holland, New York, Amsterdam, Oxford. Taylor, R. E., & Judd, L. L. (2001). Delphi method applied to tourism. In S. Witt, & L. Moutinho, (Eds.). Tourism marketing and management handbook. New York: Prentice Hall. Saedah Siraj (1999). Kurikulum ke arah pembentukan golongan pemuda, perekacipta dan profesional. Jurnal Kurikulum, 1(2), 42-56. __(2000). Intelek sebagai tumpuan pembinaan kurikulum. Dimuat turun pada November 8,2000, daripada http://www.planetklik. com.my _(2008). Polisi dan halatuju dasar kurikulum masa depan. Dim. Sufean Hussin (Ed.), Inovasi dasar pendidikan: Amalan perspektif sistem dan inovasi (hh.67-79). Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

The Rrelationship Between Perceived Quality Dimensions and Growth in Distance Education: The Case of External Degree Programme of the University of Nairobi, Kenya

Peter K. Nzuki* Department of Educational Studies Email: [email protected]

Omondi Bowa Department of Educational Studies Email: [email protected]

Prof. Samson O. Gunga Department of Educational Foundations Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Shrinking resources from the exchequer, the demand for a more cost-effective education and competition among Kenyan Public Universities has motivated academic administrators in these universities to launch distance education programmes. However, one major concern has been quality. This study sought to determine the relationship between perceived tangibles dimension of a degree programme and its growth. Further, the study intended to establish the relationship between perceived responsiveness dimension and growth of the programmes. A questionnaire was employed to collect data from students, Distance Education administrators and lecturers. The findings showed that there was no significant relationship between the two quality dimensions and the growth of Distance Education Programme. It was observed that growth occurred in spite of perceived quality dimension deficiencies due to career driven demand for higher education. However, quality variables that were considered as key consisted of adequacy and responsibility of teaching and support staff, clarity of course objectives, and flexibility of programmes. The study recommends that Universities engage sufficient and responsible support staff and lecturers to provide learner support services. Similarly, course objectives should be clear, while programmes should be as flexible as possible for learners.

Introduction

One of the most significant trends in the education marketplace in recent times is the rapid growth in distance education. Mowen and Parks (1997) argue that this growth is due to the fact that academic administrators often view distance education institutions as revenue centers. Other reasons have ranged from the realization that there are many people not reached by classroom-based mode of delivery due to cost and distance constraints.

Distance education is a mode of study that takes place when a content provider and a learner are separated by physical distance. Technology acts as an interface simulating face-to-face communication thereby bridging the instructional gap (Smith and Debenham, 1998). The definition by Hedge (1982) treats distance education as learning in an environment in which tutors and learners are not, for the most part, in a face-to-face situation. According to Hedge, this definition challenges the traditional ‘talk and chalk’ model of learning.

As distance education becomes more accepted as a legitimate form of education and as colleges and universities attempt to meet the growing demand for courses and programmes for distance learners, one major concern is the aspect of quality. According to Dharanajan (2002), the primary issue for distance learning institutions, like for conventional ones, is quality and the assurance that students are being provided with the best possible education or training with the highest possible standards. The quality of distance education varies, like any other form of education. Its quality can be the result of a variety of factors, some internal and others external to distance education organizations. Some of these factors include the levels of skills and expertise of staff, the amount of resources available, weak or strong leadership, efficiency of its administration systems, or the communications infrastructure in a country (Robinson, 1995).

Quality in open and distance learning (ODL) is often judged in terms of the learning materials whatever the medium (Robinson, 1995). However, a programme is more than just the materials; it is also the totality of experience of the learner. Mowen and Parks (1997) argue that there are serious questions about the integrity of distance education programmes and how students perceive their overall quality. Robinson (1995) argues that the success of distance education programme depends on how well the course production, delivery and student support sub-systems function.

However, an institution’s claims to quality may fail to match the performance observed or experienced by those outside and inside of it such as learners, professional bodies and policy makers. For example, excellent materials may be of little help to a learner if not delivered to him/her on time.

In spite of the criticisms cited, the University of Nairobi through its Department of Educational Studies intends to boost its ability to provide distance education through such strategies as the increase in enrolment and extending access to unexploited geographical areas. This implies a growth strategy that is likely to occur during the growth phase of a product lifecycle. A review of the literature shows that the number of students admitted in a semester has been declining. However, the student numbers started rising in the 2009/2010 academic year. The student enrollment for the period 2005 to 2012 is as shown in Table 1. Table Error! No text of specified style in document.: Student Enrolment for the Period 2005 – 2012 ______Academic Year Enrollment ______2005/2006 747 2006/2007 835 2007/2008 702 2008/2009 687 2009/2010 1,328 2010/2011 995 2011/2012 2,121 ______(Source: umis/smis.uonbi.ac.ke)

However, the actual number of students admitted over the same period increased from 747 in the academic year of 2005/2006 to 2,121 in the academic year of 2011/2012. The number declined dramatically from a high of 835 to 702 in the academic years 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 respectively. The number dropped further to 687 in the 2008/2009 academic year but picked up in the following year (Umis, 2011). The department responsible for the provision of distance education at the University of Nairobi recognizes that it has certain weaknesses

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 88 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 such as shortage of teaching staff, shortage of physical facilities, and delays in releasing examination results to students (Strategic Plan, 2008-2013). Indeed, the Vice-chancellor of the University of Nairobi has noted that one of the major problems experienced in the external degree programme is perennial delay in the delivery of study materials to students. Added to these weaknesses is the issue of the total cost (measured by the total fees payable by a student per semester). Whereas a growth strategy calls for reduced costs (Best, 2005), the total cost of the external degree programme has been rising over time (UoN, 2011).

As Universities embark on growth strategy, it is not clear whether they have identified the external degree programme characteristics that are most valued by stakeholders and how the Universities perform against the characteristics. Indeed, these are quality issues that the Universities ought to be concerned about in order to function effectively and efficiently in a highly competitive environment (DiDomenico and Bonnici, 1996). While it is important to understand the variables that affect student satisfaction with distance education courses as it leads to significant programme improvements to meet the student needs (Kelsey, Linder and Dooley, 2002), it is equally necessary to measure students’ perceptions and make recommendations on the overall quality of a distance education programme. This is also important as it leads to lower student attrition and a greater number of referrals from enrolled students.

A review of the literature shows that the University of Nairobi has pursued a growth strategy. This has been demonstrated by the opening up of four more study centres in the year 2006 to offer support services to the learners. Best (2005) notes that there is need for the analysis of target market, organizational capabilities, and current and projected environmental forces before a final strategic decision can be made. Similarly, Suganthi and Anand (2004) posit that quality of education has to be evaluated before an organization adopts its strategies. Nevertheless, available literature indicates that no study has been conducted to show the level of students’ satisfaction with the University’s distance education programme before any strategy was made. Murphy (1997) also posits that before any strategic option is adopted for a programme, an institution must systematically evaluate how consumers are satisfied with the programme.

This paper seeks to answer the question: Is there a relationship between the quality dimensions of a distance education programme and strategy choice for an educational institution or does a distance education programme’s quality dimensions influence an educational institution’s growth strategy? It was guided by the following objectives: to determine the relationship between tangibles dimension of a degree programme and growth of the External Degree Programme and to determine the relationship between responsiveness of a degree programme and growth of the External Degree Programme

Research Hypothesis

This paper was premised on the following null hypotheses:

H1. There is no significant relationship between tangibles of a programme and growth of the External Degree Programme. H2. There is no significant relationship between programme’s responsiveness and growth of the External Degree Programme.

Literature Review

Researchers in distance education in the past ten years have concentrated on rigorous studies that are based on theoretical foundations in the field. Among the researchers are Fulford and Zhang’s (1993), and Sherry, Fulford and Zhang’s (1998) studies on learner perception of interaction, Gunawardena’s (1995) and Gunawardena and Zittle’s (1995) study on the implications of social presence theory for community building in computer conferencing at the University of Hong Kong. Other researchers have dealt on interaction in asynchronous video-conferencing environment (Chen and Willit, 1999). A common theme in the studies cited and other distance education research in the past 10 years is the concept of “interaction”, which indicates its centrality in conceptualizing the process of teaching and learning. Still, researches have been conducted on access and equity, especially in India (Dutt, 2003).

Recent trends in distance education research indicate a shift in focus from interaction to assessment of student learning at distance campuses (Hu and Kuh, 2002), use of instructional technologies (Brown, 2003; Benson, et al. 2002; Lucal, et al, 2003; Weiss, et al. 2002) and accessibility (Habel, 2010). Other researchers have conducted studies on the relationships between assessment and instruction preferences (Menucha, 2007), assessment of student and faculty satisfaction with DE programmes (Palmer, 2002). It is evident that these studies have focused on online environment.

An emerging trend is the attempt by distance education researchers to understand the good practices in DE and their application to professional education and training in the field of psychology (APA, 2002). In 2006, the United States Department of Education sought to identify some guidelines that would lead to more consistent and thorough assessment of DE programmes. The aim was to formulate some form of best practices to be used by accrediting agencies. More recently, studies have focused on students’ perception of academic quality and approaches to study in distance education (Richardson, 2003). However, these attempts have been bedeviled by limitations of the research instruments and the problem of aggregating students’ perceptions across different course units.

Studies on quality dimensions emerged around 1980’s with Garvin’s study on “quality on the line” in 1983. Soon after, a number of studies followed. These were Bell’s (1990) study on the management of service quality in education, descriptions of Open and Distance Learning in Developing countries (Daranajan, 2002), evaluative parameters of web-based courses (Brown, et al. 2002), quality indicators for distance education (Chaney, 2007) and quality of Distance Education in preschool teacher training (Gultekin, 2009). These studies have been concentrated in the more developed countries and based on online courses. The countries covered by the studies have well established infrastructure and have a more literate society than is the case in the developing countries.

In Africa and the Commonwealth Countries, studies have been on the achievement of quality in Distance Education (Daniel, et al. 2008) and quality of higher education from the perspective of the university graduates (Abdolrahim, 2009). However, recent developments have seen a shift towards evaluative studies on distance education. In Zimbabwe, a study on students’ perceptions on the quality and effectiveness of guidance and counseling services as a support service (Kangai, 2011) found that those students who lived and worked in the rural areas needed quality and effective guidance and counseling and general academic support in the following areas: distribution of learning materials (modules), management of coursework (assignments), tutorials, processing of examinations, communication, and individualized counseling. While this study is instrumental in identifying some of the indicators of the dimensions of quality, it does not define the relationship between the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 90 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 dimensions of quality and growth (as a strategy). Africa and the rest of developing countries like Kenya are more concerned with strategies to help in addressing the ever increasing problem of large student numbers who fail to secure University admission due to limited bed capacity. It is in this regard that Baraza (2008) carried out a study to determine the challenges of implementing Distance Education in Uganda.

The trend in research towards quality may be explained by the realization that distance education has caused a serious concern to governments and the quality assurance agencies all over the world about the safety of the national systems, legitimacy of the providers, protecting the public from fake providers, quality of the offerings and so on, the common element being 'concern for quality' (Stella and Gnanam, 2004). Many quality assurance agencies have responded to this need and there is considerable dialogue about ensuring quality in distance education.

Studies on quality of distance education have focused on student satisfaction with distance education and the identification of quality indicators of distance education (Kelsey, Linder and Dooley, 2002; DiDomenico and Bonnici, 1996; Chaney, et al, 2007; Hirner, 2008). Garrison (1987) found that immediate and regular interaction with instructors was associated with student satisfaction. Wilkinson and Sherman (1991) shared a similar view when they argued that satisfaction is related to the ability of distance education to meet individual goals and is a strong motivator for student retention. However, an exploratory student satisfaction study by St. Pierre and Olsen (1989) found that constructive and positive feedback, opportunities to apply learning to real situations, accessible and comprehensible learning materials, the relevance and helpfulness of the study guides, and interaction with support staff were positive determinants of satisfaction in an independent learning programme. Their study further established that the most important single variable for predicting student satisfaction was whether or not students would enroll in another distance education course. This variable accounted for up to 50% of the variance in determining satisfaction with distance education. A follow-up study by Tallman (1994) used a similar satisfaction instrument and found that pre-enrolment sessions, communication with support staff, course materials, timely return of assignments, and personnel/processes were the most influential in explaining levels of student satisfaction. However, these studies did not provide an operational definition of the satisfaction concept in distance education.

Using the student satisfaction construct as the students’ contentedness with several components of a course and therefore as a measure of the effectiveness of distance courses, Biner, et al (1994) found five variables that predicted student satisfaction: course management, at-site personnel, promptness of material delivery, instructor, quality of instruction and out-of-class communication with the instructor. Other variables that have been found to influence students’ satisfaction with distance education programmes are technology (Pilcher and Miller, 2000), interaction with the instructor on a face-to-face basis rather than through technology (Miller,et al, 1993). Holdford and Anuprita (2003) studied the service quality dimensions of pharmaceutical education provided through distance education. A 37-item educational service quality instrument and a seven-item satisfaction scale were administered to 372 students in their final year of education. Using factor analysis, they identified five dimensions of service quality that were important in determining student satisfaction with pharmaceutical education. The dimensions were administration, resources, faculty member communication, and faculty member expertise. However, a faculty member’s interpersonal behaviour was the most important factor in student satisfaction with a programme offered entirely at a distance.

In a study to determine the dimensions of programme quality in web-based adult education, Pamela (2006) found that six factors determined student satisfaction. These were quality of instruction, administration

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 91 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 recognition, advisement, technical support, advance information and quality of course evaluation. These factors captured 65% of the variance observed in the 41 variables that were studied.

Nunan and Calvert (1992) examined quality and standards in distance education using the perceptions of particular stakeholders. Relying solely on documentation provided by institutions studied, their findings showed that development and the use of appropriate technologies, encouragement of excellence in distance teaching, course materials and interaction among lecturers and students were indicators that would foster the achievement of quality in distance education.

In a study to determine the quality indicators of courses and programmes in the field of health education, Chaney, et al (2007) found several indicators. Using desk research, the study focused on recent articles (1987 – 2005) regarding quality of distance education. The search yielded 165 articles and 12 books that were reviewed to gather information on the quality indicators and benchmarks of distance education. The indicators were student-teacher interaction, prompt feedback, student support services, course structure and appropriate tools and media. Myers (2008), in a study to determine the quality indicators within asynchronous distance education courses at accredited institutions, found that technical issues, course design, class procedures and expectations, interaction, and content delivery were factors that identify quality in distance education courses. Hirner (2008) too, carried out a study to determine the quality indicators specific to distance education programmes at community colleges as well as stakeholder’s perceived importance of the indicators. He employed the Delphi technique to identify potential indicators. Twenty distance education programme administrators from community colleges and four- year institutions were used for the study. The study’s findings identified eight quality indicators, chief among them being timeliness of communication with faculty and feedback on course work, reliability of technology and amount of support. It is important to note that these studies focused on online programmes.

Although the studies aforementioned do not fit the quality dimensions into the categories suggested by Parasuraman, et al (1991), the study by Bell and Shieff (1990) revealed thirteen quality dimensions that determined the nature of service quality at the University of Auckland graduate school of business. The dimensions were tangibles, understanding the client, peer group, qualification credibility, visibility of the school and its programmes, staff academic credibility, staff professional credibility, competence, access, reliability, networking, course content/curriculum, and course process. DiDomenico and Bonnici (1996) used the gap analysis to assess service quality within an educational environment in Midwestern University. Using a three part questionnaire, students were asked in the first part, to mark down on a Likert scale what they expected from an ideal university. The second part, a constant sum scale was used to probe students about ten categories in which they were to rate each category to the service experience by distributing one hundred points between the categories. The third and final part examined the university’s actual services using a 1 to 7 scale. Twenty students were used for the study. The results showed that students appreciated tangibility of the university (as measured by the architecture). The other variables scored negative. These variables were reliability, responsiveness and competence.

The works of Bell (2003) identified the dimensions that are critical in higher education institutions and labeled them as critical factors. This study and that of DiDomenico and Bonnici (1996) matched the critical factors against those of the servqual model dimensions (gap model) developed by Parasuraman, et al (1991). The critical factors were physical facilities, course materials and personal presentation of staff. These dimensions were linked to the tangibles as a quality dimension. Course content, course processes, course delivery and assessment were associated with reliability. The researcher further fitted staff competence, courtesy and security

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 92 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 into the assurance dimension. Support services, understanding the customer, feedback and access were linked to empathy as a quality dimension. However, the researcher failed to capture the aspect of responsiveness of a programme as a dimension of quality in distance education.

Gultekin (2009) carried out a study to evaluate Anadolu University’s Preschool Teacher Training Programme in Turkey to obtain student opinions. A total of 1,026 senior students enrolled in the Preschool Education major at the Open Education Faculty in the University were used as the study subjects. A questionnaire was administered to the students and means (χ) and standard deviation (σ) were calculated to analyze the survey data. The results showed that the opinions of the students were positive on textbooks, television programmes, teaching practices and academic assistance services.

The studies cited in this review have focused on quality in distance education in the developed countries. More importantly, the studies relied on programmes offered online and not those offered using the print media, the commonly used media in the Developing Countries in Africa and Kenya in particular. Webster (1989) argues that measuring service quality in a distance education programme is a prerequisite for delivering action plans such as a growth strategy. However, little is known about the influence that the level of student satisfaction with a programme (as measured by its quality dimensions) delivered entirely at a distance has on the programme’s growth. Whereas in India research has been carried out on a wide range of issues such as policy, planning and management, programmes offered, distance learners, instructional processes, and media (Dutt, 2003), research in Kenya is limited.

Most of the studies in Kenya and at the University of Nairobi have focused on learner support services (Bowa, 2008), perceptions on the affordability of distance learning programmes (Rambo and Odundo, 2007), lecturer’s attitude towards adoption of DE and the use of e – Learning in teaching (Gakuu, 2007), comparison studies on the performance between DE students and traditional orthodoxy (Mboroki, 2008) and the challenges of quality assurance in the integration of ICT in Open and Distance learning (Kidombo, 2008). No study has been conducted in Kenya on the quality of Distance Education, let alone the measurement of student satisfaction with a distance education program.

Conceptual Framework

Literature review has demonstrated that there are certain factors that students use to evaluate the quality of a degree offered at a distance. It has emerged that tangibles and responsiveness dimensions are some of the critical factors to the success of an external degree programme. Students’ experiences of the said factors can be useful to a distance education institution in pursuing a growth strategy such as increasing enrolments, support centres and support staff. The relationships are illustrated in Figure 1.

Programme Dimension Growth

Tangibles 1. Teaching / Learning Aids 2. Residential session facilitators 3. Teaching facilities 4. Study materials 5. Lectures  No. of Students admitted per year  No. of Support Service Centres Responsiveness  No. of Support Staff 1. Clarity of course objectives 2. Flexibility of programme 3. Teaching excellence 4. Responsive support staff 5. Constructive feedback on assignments

Figure 1: Model for Quality Dimension and Growth

Methodology

The sample consisted of 327 students enrolled in the Bachelor of Education degree (Arts) by distance learning at the University of Nairobi and in their second and third year of study. The students were first stratified in accordance to study centres and then randomly selected. Two administrators were also targeted. In addition, 92 lecturers constituted another population. Two categories of lecturers formed part of this population: staff formally attached to distance education centres (resident lecturers) and subject coordinators. The lecturers were purposively sampled.

A self – administered questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The questionnaire was divided into three sections: A, B, and C. Section A was for the students while sections B and C were for the Regional staff and lecturers and administrators respectively. An observation schedule was also used to capture the key variables of study.

To ensure that the instrument did not lead to misleading measurement, pre-testing the instrument among a representative group of 30 students was done to ensure face validity. Coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951) was computed in accordance with Churchill (1979) recommendation. Because of the multidimensionality of the service – quality construct, coefficient alpha was computed for each of the dimensions to ascertain the extent to which items making up a dimension shared a common score. The lecturers’ questionnaire had a coefficient of 0.938 and that of learners was slightly lower than 0.7 as it stood at 0.62. Cronbach alpha values are, however, quite sensitive to the number of items in a scale. With short scales (scales with fewer than thirty items), it is common to find quite low Cronbach values such as 0.5. The items making up the student questionnaire were only twenty-two and thus the coefficient of 0.6 2 was acceptable.

To ensure reliability of the questionnaire, split-half method was used. The two piles were then correlated and the correlation coefficient of the two sets of data was computed. The correlation coefficient was 0.828 for the lecturer’s questionnaire and that of students’ questionnaire stood at 0.556.

The data was analyzed using the Pearson’s product – moment correlation to test the hypotheses. The findings are presented in tables.

Research Findings

The findings are presented in two thematic areas in accordance with the objectives of the study.

Tangibles and Growth

It had been postulated that if the tangibles dimension does not satisfy the learners, then growth cannot be realized since the learners would neither register for a programme nor recommend a colleague/friend to join in the programme. The following null hypothesis was formulated to aid in the achievement of the stated objective: Ho: There is no significant relationship between tangibles dimension of an External Degree Programme and its growth. From this key hypothesis, three other sub-hypotheses were generated based on the number of growth strategy variables. The test results of these sub-hypotheses are presented and described in the sections that follow.

The first sub - hypothesis was to determine whether there was a relationship between the tangibles dimension of the External Degree Programme and the number of students registered in the programme.

Data was collected to test this research hypothesis from the study materials, availability of learning facilities, learning aids, support staff and lecturers. A five-point scale was used to determine the extent to which these indicators of the tangibles dimension were rated by the lecturers or tutors as either being excellent or failing to meet criterion. The learners too, were to rate the extent to which the variables were adequate or inadequate in the provision of the degree programme at the University. The relationship between the tangibles and growth strategy (as measured by the number of students) was investigated using Pearson’s product – moment correlation. It had been hypothesized that there was no significant relationship between tangibles and the growth as measured by the number of students enrolled. A significance level of p<0 .05 was utilized. The results of this regression analysis are as shown in Table 4.1

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..1: Regression for Tangibles and the Number of Students Registered. ______Lecturers Support Learning Learning Study Staff Aids Facilities Units ______

Pearson’s Correlation .102 .010 .062 -.060 .047

Sig. (2-tailed) .076 .861 .280 .302 .418 n 302 302 302 302 302 ______

Table 4.1 shows that there was a weak positive relationship between the number of students registered in the programme and the lecturers employed (r = .102, n = 302, p=.076), support staff (r = .010, n = 302, p = .861), learning aids (r = .062, n = 302, p = .280) and study units (r = .047, n = 302, p = .418). However, there was a weak negative correlation between the number of students and the learning facilities (r = -.060, n = 302, p = .302). The total correlation coefficient was 0.161 at 95% significance level. This implies that the number of students registered in the programme explains only 2 per cent of the variance in respondents’ scores on the tangibles dimension scale. Thus, at the statistical significance level of p<.05, it can be concluded that there is no significant relationship between the students registered into the External Degree Programme and the tangibles dimension.

The relationship between the tangibles dimension (as measured by the adequacy of lecturers, support staff, learning aids, learning facilities and study units) and the growth of External Degree Programme (measured by the number of regional centres) was evaluated to test the following null hypothesis. Ho: There is no significant relationship between the tangibles dimension of the External Degree Programme and the number of regional centres. The result of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient is as presented in Table 4.2.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..2: Regression results for Tangibles and Number of Regional Centres

______Lecturers Support Learning Learning Study Staff Aids Facilities Units ______Pearson’s Correlation -.047 .060 -.062 -.102 -.010

Sig. (2-tailed) .418 .302 .280 .076 .861 n 302 302 302 302 302 ______

The correlation coefficient for study units (r = -.047, p =.418), learning aids (r = -.062, p = .280), lecturers (r = -.102, p = .076) and support staff (r = -.010, p = .861) is negative but very weak. The coefficient for learning facilities is positive but also weak (r = 060, p = .280). The implication is that there is a weak relationship between the number of regional centres that have been established to offer support services to students registered in the External Degree Programme and each of the tangibles dimension variable at the p<.05 significance level. Hence it can be implied that there is no significant relationship between the tangible dimension and the number of regional centres established to offer support services to students.

The relationship between the tangibles dimension and the number of resident lecturers employed to offer academic support to students was also investigated using the Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient to test the following hypothesis.

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the tangibles dimension and the number of resident lecturers employed to offer academic support.

This hypothesis was stated to help in determining whether there was a significant relationship between the tangibles dimension and growth (measured using the number of resident lecturers. There was a weak negative relationship between the number of resident lecturers employed at the regional centres and the tangibles dimensions of study units, learning aids, support staff and lecturers. There was also a weak positive relationship between the number of resident lecturers and the tangibles dimension of learning facilities. The results are as shown in Table 4.3.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3: Regression results for the Tangibles and Number of Resident Lecturers ______Lecturers Support Learning Learning Study Staff Aids Facilities Units ______Pearson’s Correlation -.047 .060 -.062 -.010 -.102

Sig. (2-tailed) .418 .302 .280 .861 .076 n 302 302 302 302 302 ______

Table 4.3 shows that the significance test values for all the growth variables fall below 0.5 except for the support staff. Since the strength of the relationship between the tangibles dimension variables and growth at p<.05 significance level is weak, we conclude that there is no significant relationship between the tangibles dimension and the number of resident lecturers employed to offer academic support services at the regional centres.

Responsiveness and Growth

The third objective of the study was achieved by answering the question on whether there is a relationship between the responsiveness dimension and the growth of EDP. From this research question, hypotheses were generated as presented in the sections that follow.

The first hypothesis to be tested is stated as follows. Ho: There is no significant relationship between the number of students registered in the External Degree Programme and the responsiveness dimension. Data for this hypothesis was collected on course objectives, course flexibility, teaching excellence, responsiveness of support staff and feedback on assignments. The results of the Pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis are as shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Correlation between Responsiveness and Number of Students ______Clarity of Flexibility Teaching Responsiveness Feed- Course of Course Excellence of staff back Objectives ______

Pearson’s .011 -.118 -.022 -.008 .095 Correlation

Sig. (2 – tailed) .845 .041 .701 .885 .100 n 302 302 302 302 302 ______

For all the responsiveness dimension variables, only constructive feedback and course objectives had a positive relationship with the number of students enrolled in the programme although it was weak (r = .095 and r = 0.011 respectively). These variables explained only 2.2% of the number of students. The other responsiveness dimensions variables had a weak negative relationship to the number of students enrolled in the programme and explained only 2.2% of the number of students registered in the programme. The weak relationship as demonstrated by the significance value of less than .5 at the significant level of p<0.05 shows that the number of students enrolled in the programme is not influenced by the course objectives, course flexibility, teaching excellence, support staff responsiveness to the provision of services and feedback on assignments. We therefore conclude that there is no significant relationship between the responsiveness dimension variables and growth as measured by the number of students registered in the programme. The second hypothesis was tested to determine whether there was any relationship between the numbers of regional centres established to offer support services to learners at a distance and their responsiveness in providing services, teaching excellence and constructive feedback on assignments. The hypothesis was stated as follows Ho: There is no relationship between the number of Regional Centres and the responsiveness dimension.

Regional Centres are the points located in the country to offer academic services among other services to the distance learner. As such, it is assumed that the fewer the number of Regional Centres, the lower is the quality of the Distance Education Programme as measured by the responsiveness dimension. Similarly, the higher the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 98 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 quality of the responsiveness dimension, the more the number of Regional Centres to be established to cater for the increasing number of students. The correlation analysis results are depicted in Table 4.5.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..5: Correlation between Number of Regional Centres and Responsiveness ______Clarity of Flexibility Teaching Responsiveness Feedback Course of Course Excellence of staff Objectives ______

Pearson’s .011 .118 .022 .008 -.095 Correlation

Sig. (2 – tailed) .845 .041 .701 .885 .100 n 302 302 302 302 302 ______

The Pearson’s product – moment correlation coefficient for all the five indicators of responsiveness is positive except for the clarity of objectives and feedback on assignments. The relationship between these two variables and the number of regional centres is negative and weak (r = -0.011 and r = -0.095 respectively). There was a positive and weak relationship between the number of regional centres and the responsiveness dimension variables of flexibility of programme (r = 0.118), teaching excellence (r = 0.022) and support staff responsiveness to students’ enquiries (r = 0.008). The weak relationship as demonstrated by values that are less than p<0.05 implies that there is no significant relationship between the number of regional centres and the responsiveness dimension.

The third and final hypothesis on the responsiveness indicators tested was: Ho: There is significant relationship between the number of support staff employed and the responsiveness dimension

The relationship between the responsiveness dimension (as measured by the clarity of course objectives, flexibility of the course, teaching excellence, responsiveness of support staff and constructive feedback) and the growth strategy (as measured by the number of resident lecturers employed) was investigated using Pearson’s product – moment correlation technique. The result of this analysis is as shown in Table 4.6.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..6: Correlation between Responsiveness and Number of Resident Lecturers ______Clarity of Flexibility Teaching Responsiveness Feed- Course of Course Excellence of staff back Objectives ______Pearson’s .011 .118 .022 .008 - .095 Correlation

Sig. (2 – tailed) .845 .041 .701 .885 .100

N 302 302 302 302 302 ______

The results show that there was a weak negative relationship between the number of resident lecturers and the clarity of objectives (r = -0.011) as well as the between the number of resident lecturers and constructive feedback (r = -0.095). However, the relationship between the numbers of resident lecturers employed at the regional centres is positive though weak for course flexibility (r = 0.118), teaching excellence (r = 0.022) and support staff responsiveness (r = 0.008). The weak relationship as shown by the values at the p<0.05 significance level means that there is no significant relationship between the responsiveness dimension of an External Degree Programme and the number of resident lecturers employed at the regional centres to offer support services to the distance learner.

Discussion of the Findings

The results of this study have reinforced much of the previous research findings in distance education surveys of students and faculty staff (Gultekin, 2009; Hirner, 2008; Chaney, et al, 2007; Koul, 1988; Nunan & Calvert, 1992). In addition, the perceptions of student and staff (tutors and resident lecturers) were similar to those identified in previous studies (Stevenson, MacKeogh & Sander, 2006; Kelsey, Linder & Dooley, 2002; DiDemenico, 1996). The following sections describe the results of the study and the literature. The dimensions of tangibles and responsiveness are discussed. Research on the dimensions of quality in distance education has concentrated on the identification of the indicators of quality.

Tangibles and Growth

Previous studies on tangibles have shown that students placed a great deal of importance on course materials (Bell and Shieff, 1990; Nunan and Calvert, 1992; Tallman, 1994), instructor (Biner, et al, 1994), resources (Holdford and Anuprita, 2003), technology, appropriate technologies and appropriate tools and media (Nunan and Calvert, 1992; Pilcher and Miller, 2000; Chaney, 2007) and physical facilities (Bell, 2003). This study has confirmed that tangibles contribute to the quality of a distance education programme. Indeed, among the other dimensions of quality, it was highly ranked with a mean score of 4.43. Tangibles dimension had one of the minimal perceived-expected service gap as assessed by students.

The respondents indicated that study materials were inadequate or unsatisfactory and that learning facilities were inadequate. Learning aids were also said to be unsatisfactorily provided in the External Degree Programme. However, support staff and the number of tutors employed to offer tutorials during the face-to-face residential sessions were found to be adequate.

The findings on the question of whether there was a relationship between the tangibles dimension indicators and growth of the programme showed that there was a weak and insignificant relationship between each of the tangible dimension indicator and the number of students registered, the number of regional centres and the number of resident lecturers. This finding is not supported by literature. Past studies have shown that when students are dissatisfied with a programme (quality of a programme), they drop out. This implies that the number of registered students has to go down and subsequently low enrolment leading to fewer regional centres and resident lecturers. The finding may be attributed to the need for promotion by the learners at their places of work.

Responsiveness and Growth

The third objective was to determine the relationship between responsiveness of a degree programme and its growth. This study utilized clarity of course objectives, flexibility and customization of programme to individual needs, teaching excellence, support staff responsiveness in offering services and constructive feedback on assignments. The findings showed that responsiveness was ranked the most important quality dimension valued by students in the provision of distance education programme. The respondents found this dimension as producing the lowest gap on the perceived-expected service scale. This was reinforced by the high percentage of respondents who observed that the clarity of objectives was good as well as the flexibility of the programme structure. Similarly, the learning or teaching methods were found to be excellent. The responsiveness of staff to student enquiries was rated good as well as the constructiveness of the feedback on assignments.

Past studies have also found that these quality indicators provide satisfaction to students. For instance, constructive and positive feedback (St. Pierre and Olsen, 1989), course management, quality of instruction and promptness of material delivery (Biner, et al, 1994), quality of instruction (Pamela, 2006), course structure (Chaney, 2007), course design and content delivery (Myers, 2008), feedback on coursework (Hirner, 2008) and support services, feedback and understanding customer (Bell, 2003).

Conclusions

This study tested the conceptual model on the relationship between perceived quality dimensions of an External Degree Programme and its growth factors. The data was collected from a cross-section of students, tutors and resident lecturers. The results showed that the most important quality dimensions in the external degree programme stated by students include responsiveness and reliability. The findings revealed that there is a weak relationship between all the quality dimensions and the growth measures such as the number of students registered in the programme, the number of resident lecturers employed to offer support services and the number of regional study centres that have been established. The results do not lend themselves to theory since the dimensions of a programme are considered as key factors in its growth. This could be due to the overwhelming desire of distance learners to obtain a qualification which will enhance their chances for upward mobility in their places of work.

Recommendations

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between perceived quality dimensions of the External Degree Programme and its growth. Although the measures for the characteristics of effective quality dimensions have not been developed, this study has made a step towards establishing measurement scales for future research. This study has made use of the various indicators for a distance education prgramme offered through face-to-face tutorials and independent study as well as those used for the web-based programmes in higher education. The results are of important practical value to managers of distance education at higher institutions for evaluation of growth of distance education programmes.

The evidence presented by the data implies that there is no significant relationship between a programme’s quality dimensions and its growth. This has implications to managers of distance education. The managers of distance education realize increased student numbers irrespective of the quality dimensions of the programme. Arising from these findings this study offers the following recommendations.

First, the education regulatory body(ies) and education managers of distance education should not take increased enrolments as evidence of quality of a programme as this can happen even when there is insufficient learning materials and insufficient learning aids.

Secondly, the regulatory bodies and education managers also note that increased enrolments in distance education programmes may be realized as long as the institution has sufficient support staff and lecturers. It is important to consider learning materials as perceptions of inadequate study materials seemed to cause dissatisfaction among learners as demonstrated in this study.

Thirdly, institution of higher learning should take cognizance of prompt marking of assignments and currency of learning materials. The findings from the study have shown that there was a weak positive relationship between the numbers of students enrolled in the distance education programme.

Fourthly, distance education programme providers should ensure that the course objectives are clearly spelled out, programme is made as flexible as possible and the staff is responsible to student enquiries. The study has established that there is a positive relationship between these responsiveness quality dimension variables and the growth indicators.

While the results of this study have expanded the knowledge that distance learners are not influenced by the perceived quality dimensions, it is important to find out what motivates learners to pursue a distance education programme – professional advancement, the need to ensure their jobs are safe, and so on.

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Education: The Retooling Challenge

J’Anne Affeld and Martha Affeld, Mother-daughter team 5434 E. Lincoln Drive Paradise Valley, Arizona 85253 (480)625-4652 [email protected]

Children are born learning and press for chances to push abilities as long as they feel safe and have a hope of succeeding at the demands of the day. It is the whole child that comes to school and whose needs, desires and aptitudes, varied and exciting, need to be honored. Children crave attention, affection, safety, growth, companionship, knowledge, success. They thrive in social situations where they feel honored and sense they belong. They are energized with stimulation and the opportunity to press forward at the developmental tasks that call, individually, to them for completion. Curriculum that springs from this natural essence of children is motivating and supports academic gains. When the needs of the child are part of the focus, the youngster cares about learning and the self and excels at personal potentials. When it is the whole child who is nurtured, seen for strengths and gifts, it is exhilarating, challenging, potentiating and the child yearns, strives and presses with energy and hope. Children are the heart of schools, the raison d'être for building curriculum, for preparing teachers. It is important to look at the needs of the country, business, to benchmark our successes compared to others, but we cannot let that derail us from the critical outcomes. We are preparing human beings. We are caring for youth, our progeny, and our human race and taking the great capital that is ours, and determining the future, based on how successful we are at recognizing the talent and ability offered us. Then we honor the responsibility. From the most self-driven position, we can see that youth are an extension of us, that they represent our genes, our presentation of just how civilized we actually are, how humane we have become. We want more for them than we could accomplish for ourselves and we band together, using our resources to provide direction, opportunity, drive. Schooling that holds to these principles, holds forth this promise, and in some ways provides these outcomes, holds our attention and pulls us to action in support of the work. Succeeding at tying together and accomplishing these goals, needs and drives is more significant than the medal count at the Olympics or the winners of the SAT score-athon. This is our beingness and our future. This is the US, and this is us.

Retooling

Retooling education is about getting the right focus and the right blend of critical elements identified, addressed, and working. This is a primary focus in any scientific challenge. To make progress, it is critical to determine how to recognize and then quantify what we seek. We are seeking an educational system that honors what a student can give and do, that prepares each child to fully actualize personal potential in a positive manner, strengthening the child, the family, the community, and focusing that time, energy and support to build common good through individual actualization. Schools, when they succeed, truly serve youngsters and vouchsafe the future.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #1 Learning is discrete and distinctive to each student. All children have special needs and all children need special help and support to learn. The brain is complex and candidly, each

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 106 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 child has a singular, one of a kind way of putting facts, ideas and sensations together. Further, each does it as the mind makes its unique connections with meaning and meaningfulness. Connotatively, then, education cannot be an assembly line. Every child on the same page in the same book, even explained on a smart board is not going to accomplish long-term intellectual connection. Yes, half the class may be able to do the assignment, and in doing so, will take a personal path through the ideas, if they own it enough to put thought into it and consider it, but when was 50% efficiency our goal? And how many of the 50% will internalize the information or ideas and be able to build on them? Learning is complex and involves building schemas, internalizing content, facts, principles with depth, creativity and meaningfulness to the learner. It is a dynamic process and it requires ownership, with intensely personal timing. We currently measure the tip of what the mind is doing with our tests and worksheets. Thinking, reasoning, creating connections and the other deep cognitive processes do not reveal themselves so easily as to be calculated from multiple choice exams. Our use of long and short cycle tests to reveal learning are a good beginning, but we need better ways to measure progress, and the intention to dig for what occurs.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #2 Each child is valuable and unique. Human beings are complex and every person is an individual and invaluable. Genetics and environment come together to deliver a newborn who already has a personality, discreet skills, strengths, traits. The child is neither a blank tablet nor a belonging; rather a singular entity of inestimable value. That child will be a challenge to loving parents, to self, and to the teacher who opens the school door for the first time. It will take work, perseverance, care and support to understand the critical pieces that come together to address and elevate who that individual child is and what he or she child is about.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #3 Human Science is a basic foundation for teaching. The repository of research and knowledge about how human beings grow and become is called Child or Human Development. It is the study of the individual and the species from conception to death. It looks at multiple areas, processes, ages and stages. It contains information and research in many dimension, including physical, emotional, social, moral and philosophical development, cognitive growth, including brain development, learning and language processes and acquisition. This is a powerful base for understanding and teaching the whole child. Fortunately, the research continues and early childhood experts utilize the concepts and constructs in educational best practice. These are basic building blocks for teaching, yet coursework no longer fosters mastery in these areas. We need teachers to understand the way children, think, learn, and grow. The material exists, is one of the stronger pieces of teaching, is quantifiable and has a strong scientific basis. The child, the human being, human nature, human learning is the well spring for deep, constructive teaching and learning.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #4 Match outcome goals to student potential. High school graduation and attendance at college are not the benchmark we want or deserve. We should be educating the child, based on who he is, what she needs, what accords a sense of well-being and joy. Each student needs support to recognize and use his unique potential intelligently. The goal is knowing each child and then setting her on the path to establish the right skill strengths and hone concomitant abilities. Some students will be artists, mechanics, sailors, gardeners, parents, clerics, soldiers. We have a complex society filled with niches. We do not need the bar raised that says every person needs 16+ years of school. We need each person to fully explore and explicate the gifts and passion that belong in that unique blend of personality to a sense of fulfillment and worthiness for that person. It is not college that makes the person. Each child who is being treated in a fully human manner already has a sense of self, works to find the things he or she loves to do and seeks to do those things that are fulfilling and enriching. It is the recognition of society that must come to more sane conclusions.

The denouement of education, the measure of its success is that it will strengthen each of us. We want to help each individual to feel empowered to enlighten and maximize self, and in the life shared with others, to find ways to take part in building family, community, country. It is a sham to waste the great human capital we have, year after year, once school is not that venue. We are a complex country and should not get lost in the focus or pursuit of only rigorously preparing quantitative and verbal IQ while ignoring all of the other facets of individual potential. We have so many positions, needs, future work slots that we have not even dreamed of needing or imagine emerging, and are not and cannot be addressed through traditional educational means. Generalist, creative, insightful, process driven minds with a passion for learning, thinking, synthesizing could be our goal. Certainly that is much more difficult to ascertain than a number of credits and a GPA. It makes us nimble, allows a wider pool of potential positions and jobs for economic success and honors the abilities and capacity as well as the passion of the person. It does not lock people into certificates and labels that prevent mobility and ingenuity. Education becomes life-long, renewing, enduring.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #5 America is and can remain the bastion of hope and greatness. When did the US stop being the beacon, lighting the future for the rest of the world and copied by the best? When did we decide we wanted to compete with the world in educational prowess when our system is actually head and shoulders above almost every other system, focused on educating all students, differentiating instruction, providing free appropriate education to every youngster from 5 to 22? We seem to have lost our understanding of the beauty of the individual and his or her contributions to the whole. What happens when we test away the creative vision that defines America? We are enterprising and worthy of copying. It is the quirky, American tinker who develops ideas, who writes the script for “Saturday Night Live” or joins the Peace Corps. We just successfully engaged in a bloodless revolution in special needs education, and made laws to protect the rights of children that have not been written or followed in recorded history. If we get the vision for how to serve all children, nothing need stop us from cobbling together a brilliant concept, then putting our collective feet to the fire and honoring it. Compete? Why are we running around collecting scores and looking to see who is catching up? We built the stadium, we financed the refreshment stand, and we coached and costumed the cheerleaders. Put on the colors and run the ball!

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #6 Curricula flow from and build on how we learn. The focus of education can be to prepare each student and to hone the skills, abilities, strengths, and academic excellence to the highest point possible for that person. The triumvirate, reading, writing and arithmetic is only one key to success. Reading, writing, speaking, listening, and ciphering are tools. One does not consider assembling basic tools to be adequate preparation. The tools of the trade are the starting point, not the culmination of 8 or 12 years of apprenticeship or study. Curriculum ideas come and go, but they are still tied to traditional constructs and narrow practices. The current curriculum concentration is STEM, science, technology, engineering and math and ELA, English Language Arts. A decade ago it was ecology, and before that civics, humanities, liberal arts. Facts and knowledge do not an education make. Our world is so much more complex than our educational processes. Our expansive knowledge base and explosion of information, facts, skills sets and options for retrieval show up our educational approach as somewhere between lugubrious and humorous. We are adept, inventive, and insightful. We can scale this challenge. Recent advances in understanding the brain and the concomitant full involvement of the body in learning, thinking, processing and remembering should revolutionize our approach to students. What can our human minds do at their best, and how do we get there? Identifying and preparing education that honors these processes and potentials is worthy of a national shift, new tests, retooling teaching, rethinking what we are doing and how we can step out of the shallows and really educate for the future.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #7 Outcome for students steers curriculum. Education, to be focused and successful selects a curriculum that serves students and the future. When we choose standards and determine that texts and tests will be developed to enhance and support growth in those standards, it excludes a vast array of content, processes, ideas, and skill sets. Each discipline has experts that map out idealized arrays of information that assure understanding of their content. Curriculum experts then comb through those options and maps and determine the scope and sequence that will be mandated by State or as a National Course of school study. For bright, strong candidates or students, it is close to ideal. Youngsters with a bent for math often thrive and develop strength in the material in a sequential and clear manner that can be assessed and quantified. Those with little quantitative intelligence continue to struggle and interestingly, may get a burst of understanding about mathematical use and reasoning as adults, utilizing numbers as part of a job skill set. Language Arts, reading foremost, is much more complex and the scope and sequence is diced, reviewed and redistributed every few years to try new ways to help youngsters succeed. Students with strong verbal IQ tend to move quickly and successfully through the process, while those with different learning strengths struggle. Reading is much more an art, less easily measured. Children who get lost early in the process often do not gain mastery, and even in graduate studies, presentation in texts is still teaching facility in comprehension and depth of understanding. Making meaning through reading and conversation is complex and imprecise. Clearly, these are critical studies, especially in our everyday reading intensive use of computers, tablets, news media and our monetary society. So we focus time and testing consistently. “The fight is on” so to speak, with generalist additions: Computer literacy, humanities, science, physical education, social studies, language acquisition, all useful with popularity waxing and waning. This is an area that needs to fit with the student interests and gifts and support student functional expertise in core content as well as offering elevation to students who show ability and interest. The array certainly can be expanded and is often truncated from lack of teacher expertise. Gifts and personal abilities provide the map for educational progress….. How does a student learn to want to be an artist, a musician, plumber, racer, or performer? Who has these gifts, talent arrays, or promise that needs to be supported? It is interesting that we honor Olympians, understand the passion, the need for specific coaching and dedication of time to the craft. Similar accommodations are made for actors, with on-site schools. Young people have a multitude of gifts, talents, passions and interests and in recognizing this we can be better stewards of the future and our youth. It is honorable to see the discreet strengths and help the child and family build them as a part of the educational path. Our gifted youngsters are being short-changed. Not just our brightest, who can no longer get AP courses in most schools, but those who are reaching benchmark and proficient on their exams, then shutting down and no longer trying so they can appear average. This pattern is occurring nationally, particularly in rural communities and small schools. What is keeping us from attending to this? Why are these opportunities to mine talent, to find ways to support these strengths left to parents and coaches, and why is dedicated external interest primarily reserved for athletes? Is it because of funding, the cadre of talent scouts, the promise of fame and fortune that acts as the Pied Piper to families? Can we ascertain, with our own version of talent scouts, who will blossom with a different set of parameters, different programs? Is it because of a haunting set of dark tales about the Plus 11 testing in Europe, and missing youth who blossom late? Is it because other countries, notably the Soviets and Chinese, rob the cradle and make hard and fast decisions about who will dance, who will sculpt, who gets musical training, athletic coaching? Is it the Draconian testing schedule we read about that rigorously and with precision, culls through academic progress and responds to failure by removing those from studies based on performance standards? Instead, is it more honest to drag youngsters through 6 to 8 more years of lackluster performance, constantly pressing them to work at things they do not care about, may not be able to learn, or do not find satisfying? A young life of proven failure is no legacy for our children when we could provide them with

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 109 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 honorable pursuits they can accomplish, and make a future for themselves. By spending time on things that are not rewarding to them, we waste opportunities when they could be learning things that are meaningful and that give them pleasure, a sense of success and completion. We can be creative in our approach to skills and trades education and training. It will need to be supported with much better testing than we have been using, and the three pronged approach, matching future expected needs with skill sets that are generic enough to optimize the range of options. It needs to optimize the individual student’s abilities using a strength based assessment process, second, be matched with student “bent” interest and passion. Third, it needs to follow similar guidelines and utilization of professional expertise that transition plans and IEPs require, with planning including the student, the family, a professional assessment and committed school professionals connected with community resources. Unwieldy? Perhaps now, but we are clever and can streamline.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #8 Supporting learning for the whole child, including life skills and functional skills. Disposition, functional and life skills, learning and thinking processes also need to be taught. Schools move in and out of this area, dipping in to provide breakfast and tooth brushing, then some cultural conventions like getting along and being polite to others. It is not consistent, set up in a curriculum (those do exist and often include measurement strategies) and sporadically given time in the day. The use of process and enculturation tends to be a reflection of the teacher who takes time to teach them and are spotty in presentation. These pieces can be folded into existing curriculum. In teaching we have content, and concomitant with that content is an array of processes and skills that promote the learning expected. Examples are study skills, communications, pre-reading, problem solving, reflection. Jerome Bruner called them the active pieces of the learning process. This is also the inculcation of skills for the world of work, for partnering and parenting. They explicate civility, social assurance, collaboration, citizenship. They also help students recognize strengths, build esteem and honor personal strengths and gifts, promoting an important missing part of current curriculum. This explication of social norms and clear teaching of social connection will diminish behavioral issues like bullying and increase the safety of the school. Focused attention to respect, responsibility and safety and taking time to expand on this way of behaving is instructive for youngsters. It also acts as a preventive and supportive approach to student actions rather than a punitive and reactionary climate. It is one example of a myriad of options for developing powers of reason and judgment.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #9 Testing and evaluating are vital formative and summative processes and we need better tools. To use data correctly and get real use from the billions of dollars spent, we must reform testing practices based on the target guiding principles we establish and hope to measure. The cluster of information based on statistics and data could provide clarity and widening of the prospects of what the real needs are for students, teachers, and what is actually being achieved, including what needs we are not addressing and what might support the missing elements in teaching and learning. It is not the use of quantitative data that is the error, it is that we are measuring the wrong things and then using inappropriate data to prove points and launch a statement of accomplishment. Assessing content, reading and math attainment, graduation rates and attendance at school, are quantifiable, certainly, but how much do they reveal about children, teachers, and the success of educational efforts? We have data on what is easy to quantify rather than developing tools that identify, enumerate, and explicate what matters. Scientific inquiry bemoans the difficulty in finding ways to measure what researchers seek to find. Many forms of inquiry are stalled in the hard sciences, awaiting tools sophisticated enough to pursue an area of inquiry. Education, a soft science at best, is in that quandary. Yes we are measuring and reporting, hiring and firing, financing and perpetuating. Our current grading and testing system is based on the bell curve, a defining and nominative process much too clumsy to provide discreet information. Only a few may be at the top and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 110 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 almost everyone is perpetually in the middle providing a set of scores, not disaggregated in meaningful ways. It does give indications, of course, so we continue to use the measures and massage the data. Further, the achievement tests we use are so closely aligned to IQ that they are basically twin measures, which does little to increase accuracy or provide more detail about the success or failure of educational processes. It supports grouping decisions and it feels safe, so we continue to perpetuate the myth that grouping is grading is proof that learning is occurring because of our efforts. The unsavory side of this set of practices is two-fold. The youngster with an IQ or 125 will learn no matter how apt the teacher or dismaying the teaching. The child with an IQ of 85 will learn much more with a very fine teacher, as will the student with an IQ of 65. The scores will only alter slightly, but real learning and thinking and consolidating will be more likely to take place. Of course, the student with the 125 IQ with a great teacher will also learn much more, but the scores are not going to tip the teacher’s end-of-year results dramatically because of all the average youngsters being measured. Thus, part two is that we are measuring teacher success, not based on teaching ability, but on how luck arrays the class. We are not accurately increasing information about individual students and how their work is going. We want research based best practice, but our efforts to establish what does or does not work is weak and carries little validity. We need a sweeping look at what we are measuring and how well it is defining our process and our outcomes. Once we determine what education can and will accomplish, we need testing processes that incisively measure that progress. Recent work to move students with learning issues from intensive to strategic and into benchmark learning categories did not make a sweeping difference. This is not due to lack of effort. The various models are creative, thoughtful and have been implemented in diverse ways. They point out three critical issues with current assessment and data collection. The first is that the tests we are using do not provide rapid enough turn- around to support the individual learner who is flailing, and the second is that they provide a score, but no connection to the actual set of specific details and issues that are preventing success for the discrete learner. Finally, when a student has a learning block it only makes sense to have one-on-one time with that youngster to determine what is missing. If the child is ready or able to learn the concept at that time, then applying expertise as a specialist in that subject, may move the learning to the next level. Our present models do not support that kind of teaching and learning. Individual assessment, in-depth, at the right moment is priceless if we want a thwarted student to gain forward momentum. Einstein made a cogent point when he noted that just because we can measure something does not mean we should, and just because we cannot measure something does not mean it does not matter.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #10 School staffing needs to work differently. Teaching based on recent scientific information about how children learn and honoring developmental ages and stages is a critical component in the science of teaching. The way we teach will alter dramatically as students grow and the learning strengths diversify. The cadre of professionals needs a very different presentation and milieu, grade to grade. Many teachers have about average intelligence, making them fine generalists, and if they are nurturing and love being with children they have a natural place in teaching. It is an onerous number of youngsters who need competent care and attention as well as instruction. We tried several placement approaches in the past, with mixed success. We know young children need support, relationship and strong adults who maintain consistency and structure. We have not yet sorted students in meaningful and valid ways to work out the flow despite many different attempts to match ages and stages with curriculum. We also do not routinely test teaching strengths and gifts to determine best fit for teachers. We tend to let self-selection and open positions determine who teaches various age groups. So, in schools with staffing issues, we may select a teacher for sixth grade who does not have consolidated skills in math that will allow real teaching of concepts or creative problem solving to occur. Instead, the teacher will go page-by-page,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 111 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 through texts, able to maintain content for 2/3 of the students, but not clear enough in the content to stretch more capable students’ understanding or answer viable questions. This is a clear disruption in the education of 1/3 of the class. This happens repeatedly, grade-to-grade and in all subjects. It fails to stretch capacity and means our best and brightest are learning poor work and study habits because they are not challenged and do not pressure themselves for excellence. In urban communities there is redress in charter programs and home schooling. Each of these program options drains about 4% of the school population and about 1/3 of all schools are private. With a graduation rate at just about 77%, there are indicators that system is not meeting individual student scholastic aptitude. A recent study showing that students who were home schooled fared better on entrance exams also points to justification for concern. In addressing this we do not want to focus on homogeneity to the exclusion of Least Restrictive Environment and student connections to one another. Concurrently, we cannot afford to waste academic talent and time. We tend to see the classroom as the discrete property of a teacher rather than a mutual learning community with professionals responding as facilitators instead of controllers. Rethinking the roles of teachers and students will support a critical review. A pool of generalists and specialists that mutually share facilitation in a more flexible and meaningful array for pursuit of goals and content delivery could also promote student ownership, supporting learners working more effectively through content, learning blocks, individual insights and synthesis, and pressing the upper limits of inquiry rather than sitting lock step in a grade and wading through narrow content constructs. The teacher is the accelerator, the focuser, the support and adds fuel or energy to enhance the teaching and learning process. In ideal situations, the teacher and student can play both roles interchangeably, helping both stay connected to the dynamics and the relationship. This is another format for establishing student interest and expertise, helping students recognize their gifts, strengths and interests, and moving toward focused personal direction for study. This may be technical, arts, sports, service industry, armed forces, husbandry, or collegiate work. Generalist studies will be continued so a path does not become exclusionary, but wasting time and ineffective review, particularly after third grade must not be allowed to be the consistent path of the majority of students.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #11 Teacher preparation will also retool. We need bright, talented teachers. It is important for them to have a gift for teaching, and a love and tolerance for youngsters and the developmental processes they go through in learning. There are discrete dispositional traits for successful teachers that we recognized as early as the 1940’s and then that research submerged. It is vital to realize that our problem is not only 50% of the teachers who quit teaching in the first years, but that children and classrooms are not at peak during that time. We would not keep a nanny for a child for a couple of years, hoping she would figure it out eventually. It is too costly to the children and the family. We quantify the cost at universities, in school loans, in districts where the turn-over is so high, but our focus must also be on the children in the classrooms who are not being adequately served. Further, it is time to strengthen our recognition of who is a good teacher and who does not belong in teaching. It is dastardly for parents to go to a school and request that a bad teacher not have their child, only to be told that she is a widower and needs the position, or that his uncle is Mayor, and it is just not politically smart to dismiss him. It is also not wise to run teachers out of schools because of personality conflicts with administrators and theoretical conflicts in the head shed. If we do not have fine tooled processes and instruments to help us ascertain who belongs in teaching and who belongs in the classrooms at various levels, then it is another place that must be addressed. We cannot rely on a few observations, political needs or the connection between leader and teacher.

Fixing the areas of weakness that arise as administrative concerns while teachers are in the classroom is not effective. Unfortunately, few teachers actually change in a meaningful manner from in-service or instruction, once they have completed their coursework. Our preparation programs have to continue the best practices we already know on a cyclical basis. Teachers need to be taught, coached, and turned into professionals and then reinserted into educational processes periodically to enhance best practice and infuse new skill sets and practices. Training is not considered learning. We can utilize the coaching model if coaches with enough skills and objectivity observe potential changes and only signify success when it is evident. This is not different for the programs that prepare teachers by having them teach. Job-site teacher training is a powerful way of learning if there is enough oversight. With little oversight and infrequent contact, which is certainly occurring at times, the teachers in training grab what support they can get to stay afloat and learn a great number of coping mechanisms that are old school and only partially effective. Yes, teaching is an art and craft as much as a science, and it can be ‘learned by doing’ but not with support for an hour every six weeks, or through phone calls. Coaching is needed weekly, and through more than one iteration. The coaching model can be effective in conjunction with classwork. Research on praxis models shows the highest success rate in continuing teachers and in effective practices once candidates are teaching.

CRITICAL PRINCIPLE #12 Laws are in place to promote best practice. It is time to take a dispassionate look at how we can serve youngsters individually, based on four decades of laws and court decisions and realize that we are reserving this individualized attention to personal needs and strengths only for those with the most difficulty in school. In one way it is exemplary and honorable as it asserts that all children are to be served, based on individual educational plans but this cannot just apply to youngsters identified in special education. These principles need to be applied rigorously for every student. We address progress and add direction, based on individual student progression. As the individual student strengths and direction becomes apparent, the progress through school is personally tailored, based on ability, student understanding and consensus and clarity with parents about the directions the student is suited to pursue. Support can follow the team decisions about best use of strengths and honoring of the capacity and interests. This will be most successful if paths chosen include rigor, individual attention from able instructors, and commitment from the student. Full testing protocols, repeatedly practiced with strengths based focus will support the intention to address and apply individual programs of study based on strengths and needs. Summative annual testing and short cycle tests, with results scrutinized by the team will help assure that a change of plans and path is easily available and that the future is not locked in. This is an honorable approach as student strengths, needs and maturity provide insights into the best educational process and goals.

In summary, we love and honor education and have great hope for what it can afford our children and our future. It has changed little in the past two hundred years. It cycles, but the rudiments seem hard-wired and fixed. Society, on the other hand has changed dramatically. Little is left of those motives that focused the classrooms in Roosevelt’s United States. Much of life has changed dramatically in the past two generations. It is time for schools to reflect, honor and support the needs of students who will not walk into their father’s future. It is not a bandage that is needed. it is not a cast. Education is not ailing or broken. It is time for it to retool, leaving a legacy of greatness, and clarity that it is ready to grow into new charges, new visions, and new directions.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Coping, Connectedness and Psychological Distress among University Students

1. Tara S. Bales 2. Aileen M. Pidgeon School of Psychology School of Psychology Bond University Bond University

3. Barbara C. Y. Lo 4. Peta Stapleton 5. Heidi B. Magyar University of Hong Kong Bond University University of Florida

Corresponding Author: Aileen M. Pidgeon School of Psychology Bond University Gold Coast Australia. Tel: +617 55952510. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Globally the high prevalence of psychological distress among university students is concerning. Two factors associated with low psychological distress among university students are adaptive coping strategies and campus connectedness. The current study examines the cross-cultural differences among university students across three countries, Australia, United States of America and Hong Kong in the utilization of academic coping strategies, levels of campus connectedness and psychological distress. Cross-cultural differences were examined using the theory of cultural orientations; individualism and collectivism. Participants consisted of 217 university students. The results indicated no significant differences between the countries on individualism or collectivism or on the reported use of academic coping strategies and levels of campus connectedness. Lower use of avoidance coping and higher levels of campus connectedness predicted significantly lower psychological distress for university students in all countries. The implications of the results are discussed along with limitations and future directions.

Key words: psychological distress; coping; campus connectedness; cross-cultural differences

1. Introduction

Recent research suggests that university students compared to the general community are at significantly greater risk of mental health concerns (Stallman, 2010). The presence of academic demands, work commitments, financial concerns and adjustments to new living arrangements and social environments are associated with psychological distress among university students globally (Gall, Evans, & Bellerose, 2000; Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Wong, Cheung, Chang, & Tang, 2006). Two key factors associated with reduced psychological distress in university students are adaptive coping strategies and social connectedness between peers (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2009; Park & Adler, 2003; Struthers, Perry, & Menec, 2000). Research suggests the differences in coping strategies and social connectedness between Eastern and Western cultures can be explained by the individual orientation of the university students in the West and collective orientation of university students in the East (Chun, Moos, & Cronkite, 2006; Dykstra, 2009). Although these factors are shown to be important in the university context, no study to date has examined the cross-cultural differences in the use of coping strategies and levels of social connectedness associated with individualism and collectivism. Therefore, this study

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 114 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 conducted such an investigation with university students from Australia, the United States of America (USA) and Hong Kong.

1.1. Individualism and Collectivism

The evidence for cross-cultural differences in the use of coping strategies and levels of social connectedness is grounded in the theory of cultural orientations (Triandis, 1995). Culture, which is defined as communal values, beliefs and ideas resulting from collective past experiences, can significantly influence an individual’s view of themselves, behaviour and attitudes. Triandis (1995) identified two primary cultural orientations: individualism and collectivism. Individualism focuses on autonomy and prioritising the self, whereas collectivism focuses on the needs of the group and places those above the needs of the self (Triandis, 1995). Western countries tend to uphold individual orientations, whereas Eastern countries tend to uphold collective orientations (Triandis, 1995). For example, USA university students compared to Asian university students report significantly higher levels of individualism (Chiou, 2010; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002), whilst Hong Kong university students compared to USA university students report significantly higher levels of collectivism (Hwang, Francesco, & Kessler, 2003; Oyserman et al., 2002). Furthermore, compared to Asian university students, Australian university students report significantly higher levels of individualism and lower levels of collectivism (Noordin & Jusoff, 2010; Teoh, Serang, & Lim, 1999). The degree of individualism or collectivism adopted by university students influences how students engage in social interactions and the strategies adopted to cope with stress (Lykes & Kemmelmeier, 2013; Yeh, Arora, & Wu, 2006). Based on this theory of cultural orientations, it is expected that in the present study Australian and USA university students will report similar experiences of coping, connectedness and the relationship to psychological distress. Predicted differences are expected to occur between Hong Kong university students and Australian and USA university students.

1.2. Academic Coping Strategies Across Cultures

Coping is broadly defined as the process used by individuals to manage internal and external demands and stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The choice of strategies that university students’ choose to deal with stressors is important as coping responses have been found to predict variability in psychological responses (e.g., distress) to stressful situations (Chang, 2001). Sullivan (2010) identified three distinct coping strategies used by university students in response to academic stressors; approach, avoidance and seeking support and refers to these as academic coping strategies. Approach coping refers to active and direct attempts to manage or fix the problem; avoidance coping refers to behavioural or cognitive avoidance, disengagement and distraction from the problem; while seeking support coping which can be either emotional or instrumental by seeking support from family, friends and other students (Sullivan, 2010). The coping strategy of seeking support from others is distinct from the concept of perceived social support, which relates to an individual’s perception of available support rather than the active seeking of it (Wethington & Kesller, 1986). Cultural beliefs and values inherently affect the ways in which situational stressors are perceived and the coping strategies an individual uses to address these stressors. The theory of individualism and collectivism postulates that individuals high in collectivism are less inclined to disrupt group harmony and draw attention to themselves in order to seek help or vent emotions (Feng & Burleson, 2006). Therefore, according to the theory of individualism and collectivism depending on the cultural setting, certain coping strategies may be more or less appropriate than others (Chun et al., 2006). For example, individuals from cultures high in individualism tend to use approach strategies because they prefer to exercise control over the external environment. Whereas, individuals from cultures high in collectivism are more likely to use avoidance coping strategies to regulate their emotions and exercise secondary control over the problem by changing their thoughts or perceptions (Chun

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 115 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 et al., 2006; Kuo, 2011). Evidence from research with university students supports this notion with university students of Asian descent compared to Caucasian students are less likely to seek support from others as a means of coping (Chang, 2001; Feng & Burleson, 2006; Taylor et al., 2004). The present study extends previous research by comparing coping strategies used by students living in Australia, USA and Hong Kong, whilst also examining levels of individualism and collectivism.

1.3. Campus Connectedness across Cultures

Social connectedness defined as an individual’s experience of interpersonal closeness and belonging within their social network is associated with improved mental health and well-being (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010; Lee & Robbins, 1995). Understanding the influence of social connectedness in an academic context in relation to university students’ mental well-being is important. Campus connectedness is the specific aspect of social connectedness relating to students’ connectedness and feelings of belonging with their peers at university (Lee et al., 2002). Research into the phenomenon of campus connectedness among university students in USA found that high levels of campus connectedness was associated with a lower experience of stress (Lee et al., 2002). As no research to date has examined cross-cultural differences in campus connectedness among university students, the present study addresses this gap by comparing levels of campus connectedness between university students in Australia, USA and Hong Kong.

1.4. Academic Coping Strategies, Campus Connectedness and their Relationship to Psychological Distress

The prevalence of psychological distress in university samples highlights the importance of identifying and understanding adaptive behaviours which prevents and reduces such distress. In line with previous research, the present study measured psychological distress as the cumulative experience of depression, anxiety and stress (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Stallman, 2010; Wong et al., 2006). Coping has been defined as the cognitive and behavioral approaches used to manage stressful life events and is related to mental health outcomes (Chang, 2001). Research has suggested that some coping strategies are more effective than others in reducing psychological distress. For example, Park and Adler (2003) found that higher avoidance coping predicted significantly lower psychological wellbeing, and approach coping predicted significantly higher psychological wellbeing. Research into seeking support as a coping strategy amongst USA university students (N = 64) found that seeking support coping resulted in significantly reduced negative psychological symptoms (Compas, Wagner, Slavin, & Vannatta, 1986). Coping strategies, which are identified as adaptive amongst cultures high in individualism, are not necessarily adaptive in cultures high in collectivism (Kuo, 2011). Only a few studies have investigated cross-cultural differences in the relationship between coping strategies and mental health. For example, Chang (1996) examined the use of approach coping amongst Caucasian and Asian American university students (N = 674) and found that approach coping was significantly negatively related to pessimism for Caucasian students, and positively related to pessimism for Asian American students. Levels of pessimism were found to significantly predict depressive symptoms for all students, suggesting that approach coping was more adaptive for Caucasian students compared to Asian students. Similarly, in a subsequent study, Chang (2001) measured differences in the relationship between coping strategies and psychological adjustment (N = 94) among university students. The results indicated that Asian American students’ use of avoidance coping did not result in significantly increased depression or decreased life satisfaction, whereas, Caucasian students using avoidance coping reported significant increased depression and decreased life satisfaction.

Whilst there are differences in levels of social connectedness between countries, it appears that high levels of social connectedness are adaptive for both individualist and collectivist countries. Roberts and Burleson’s (2013) study examined differences in social connectedness between a sample of Caucasian and Hispanic female USA university students (N = 316). Caucasian students reported high in individualism and Hispanic students reported high in collectivism. The results found that lower levels of social connectedness predicted higher levels of depression and anxiety for both Caucasian and Hispanic participants (Roberts & Burleson, 2013). Lee et al. (2002) found that higher levels of campus connectedness predicted lower levels of perceived stress for male and female university students in USA. Lee et al. (2002) assessed the impact of independent versus interdependent self-construals on the relationship between campus connectedness and perceived stress. These self-construals can be seen to reflect individualistic versus collectivistic cultural orientations. The results found that the impact of campus connectedness on perceived stress was stronger for university students with an interdependent self-construal compared to those with an independent self-construal (Lee et al., 2002). Therefore it could be suggested that the effect of campus connectedness on psychological distress would be stronger for Hong Kong compared to Australian and USA university students, due to their expected elevated levels of collectivism.

1.5. Hypotheses

The present study aimed to increase our knowledge address limitations of previous research, which conducted cross-cultural comparisons of students within a single country. No study to date has measured cross-cultural differences in the effects of academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress within the individualism and collectivism framework. It was predicted that: H1. Australian and USA university students compared to Hong Kong university students would report significantly higher individualism and significantly lower collectivism. H2. Australian and USA university students compared to Hong Kong university students would report significantly higher use of approach and support seeking coping strategies and campus connectedness and significantly lower use of avoidance coping. H3. Across all universities, higher levels of avoidance coping and lower levels of approach coping, seeking support coping and campus connectedness would predict significantly higher psychological distress. H4. Country (Hong Kong compared to Australia and USA combined) would moderate the effects of academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress. More specifically: 1. Avoidance coping was expected to be more maladaptive (predict a greater increase in psychological distress) for Australian and USA university students compared to Hong Kong university students. 2. Approach and seeking support coping were expected to be more adaptive (predict a greater decrease in psychological distress) for Australian and USA university students compared to Hong Kong university students. 3. Campus connectedness was expected to be more predictive of psychological distress (predict a stronger negative association) for Hong Kong university students compared to Australian and USA university students.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

A total of 217 university students aged 18 to 59 (M = 22.26, SD = .39) participated in the current study, 86 Bond University students, 63 University of Hong Kong students and 68 University of Florida students. Inclusion criteria required participants to be aged 18 years and over and students who identified with a nationality other

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 117 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 than the country where the survey was completed and exclusion criteria of international students at the respective universities. All participants in the current study were fluent in English, therefore the survey was presented to all three universities in English to increase internal validity of the study.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Cultural Orientation Scale (COS; Triandis, & Gelfand, 1998). The COS is a 16-item self-report scale designed to measure the constructs of individualism and collectivism. Scores are obtained by summing the items for each subscale with higher scores indicating higher agreement with the cultural orientation.

2.2.2. Academic Coping Strategies Scale (ACSS; Sullivan, 2010). The ACSS is a 34-item self-report scale measuring three coping strategy subscales; approach, avoidance and seeking support. A total score for each subscale is calculated by summing each of the items, with higher scores indicating greater use of the coping strategy.

2.2.3. Campus Connectedness Scale (CCS: Lee, Keough, & Sexton, 2002). The CCS is a 14-item self-report scale designed to measure the degree of social connectedness experienced by individuals within a university context. Higher scores indicate higher levels of campus connectedness.

2.2.4. Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The DASS is a 21-item self- report scale designed to measure the negative affective states of depression, anxiety and stress. A total score for the DASS was used in the present study to refer to psychological distress, with higher scores indicating greater distress.

3. Results

The data was cleaned prior to running the main analysis. The statistical assumptions were met and the internal consistency of the scales was adequate for each country’s sample and overall. Means and standard deviations for each variable are presented in Table 1. Due to the nature of the international sample, the psychometric properties of the scales used in the present study have not been tested in each respective country. Therefore, reliability analyses were conducted to demonstrate the internal consistency of the scales in each country’s sample and overall. Cronbach’s alpha for each scale ranged from .70 to .94, well exceeded the recommended value of .40 by Tabacknick and Fidell (2013). This suggests that internal consistency was adequate both within each country and across the sample.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Dependent Variables Across Countries.

Variable Australia USA Hong Kong (n = 86) (n = 68) (n = 63) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Individualism 46.71 (8.75) 47.22 (7.43) 48.60 (8.15) Collectivism 52.28 (9.25) 50.63 (9.34) 50.67 (7.23) Approach 57.51 (8.43) 57.84 (8.66) 56.33 (7.50) Avoidance 27.22 (7.83) 27.68 (6.48) 28.24 (5.91)

Seeking Support 26.74 (5.26) 26.82 (6.69) 27.48 (5.56) CC 61.80 (13.83) 62.56 (15.57) 58.52 (11.55) N = 217. CC = Campus Connectedness.

A one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there were any differences in cultural orientations between the countries. Contrary to the hypothesis, the multivariate analysis revealed no significant main effect of country on individualism and collectivism, F(4, 426) = 1.322, p = .261, indicating that there were no differences between Australia, USA and Hong Kong students on individualism or collectivism. A second one-way between-groups MANOVA was conducted to determine whether there were any differences in the use of academic coping strategies and reported levels of campus connectedness between the countries. Contrary to the second hypothesis, the multivariate analysis revealed no significant main effect of country on academic coping strategies and campus connectedness, F(10, 420) = 1.316, p = .219 suggesting that they were equal across the countries. A moderated hierarchical regression was conducted to determine the predictive weights of each academic coping strategy and campus connectedness on psychological distress. The continuous predictors were centered and entered in the regression in step one. The regression revealed that the academic coping strategies and campus connectedness in combination were significant predictors of psychological distress, F(4, 212) = 24.211, p < .001 and accounted for approximately 31% of variance. As predicted, higher scores on avoidance coping predicted significantly higher scores on psychological distress and higher scores on campus connectedness predicted significantly lower scores on psychological distress. Contrary to the hypothesis, approach coping and seeking support coping did not have a unique contribution to psychological distress. Country differences were predicted between Hong Kong and the other two countries therefore country was dummy coded as Hong Kong = 1 and Australia and USA = 0. Country was added into the regression in step two, F(5, 211) = 19.360, p < .001 however the addition of country did not predict psychological distress over and above the effects of academic coping and campus connectedness, ΔF(1, 211) = .284, p = .595. Interaction terms between country and each of the centered predictors; approach coping, avoidance coping, seeking support coping and campus connectedness, were entered into the regression in step three to determine whether the predictors’ effects on psychological distress differed between Hong Kong and the other two countries. The overall regression remained significant after the addition of the interaction terms in step three, F(9, 207) = 10.754, p < .001, however the interactions did not have a unique contribution to psychological distress, ΔF(4, 207) = .311, p = .870. Contrary to the hypothesis, the results suggest that the effects of the academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress were the same for university students in Hong Kong compared to Australia and USA. Table 2 displays the unstandardised and standardised coefficients from step three of the regression.

Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Coefficients Predicting Psychological Distress. R Adjusted R2 ∆R2 B SEB β .56*** .29 .00 (Constant) 22.12*** 2.66 Approach .08 .20 .04 Avoidance .78*** .21 .28 Seeking Support .45 .27 .14 Campus Connectedness -.58*** .10 -.42 Country -1.83 5.72 -.04

Country x Approach -.29 .40 -.06 Country x Avoidance -.19 .47 -.03 Country x Seeking Support .29 .54 .08 Country x Campus Connectedness -.17 .24 -.06 N = 217. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001. Due to this unexpected similarities in cultural orientations between the counties, a follow up analysis was conducted to determine whether individualism or collectivism interacted with the effects of the academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress across all three counties. This would reveal whether individualist or collectivist orientations impacted on the adaptiveness of academic coping strategies and campus connectedness across the sample. Based on the theory of cultural orientations, it was expected that for individuals high in collectivism compared to low in collectivism, greater use of approach and seeking support coping strategies would result in greater psychological distress, greater use of avoidance coping would result in decreased psychological distress and campus connectedness would have a stronger negative relationship with psychological distress. The opposite was predicted for individuals high in individualism compared to low in individualism. A follow up hierarchical regression was conducted which included the academic coping strategies and campus connectedness as predictors of psychological distress in step one. Individualism and collectivism were centered and entered as continuous predictors into the regression in step two, F(6, 210) = 16.646, p < .001. Individualism and collectivism in combination did not have a unique contribute to psychological distress ΔF(2, 210) = 1.354, p = .260. Interaction terms were created between each of the coping strategies and campus connectedness and both individualism and collectivism. The interactive effects of individualism were assessed in step three of the regression, F(10, 206) = 10.002, p < .001, and revealed no significant interaction between the predictors and individualism, ΔF(4, 06) = .347, p = .846. The interactive effects of collectivism were assessed in step four of the regression, F(14, 202) = 7.222, p < .001, and revealed no significant interaction for any of the predictors with collectivism, ΔF(4, 202) = .509, p = .729. Contrary to expectations, across all countries, neither individualist nor collectivist cultural orientations appeared to affect the relationship between the coping strategies and psychological distress. Table 3 displays the unstandardised and standardised coefficients from step four of the regression.

Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Coefficients Predicting Psychological Distress. R Adjusted R2 ∆R2 B SEB β .58*** .29 .01 (Constant) 20.33*** 2.62 Approach -.06 .19 -.02 Avoidance -.59*** .10 -.43 Seeking Support .71 .20 .26 Campus Connectedness .67*** .25 .20 Individualism .17 .27 .07 Collectivism .16 .24 .07 Individualism x Approach -.01 .02 -.05 Individualism x Avoidance -.02 .02 -.07 Individualism x Seek Support .01 .03 .03 Individualism x Campus -.00 .01 -.02 Connectedness Collectivism x Approach .01 .02 .02 Collectivism x Avoidance .02 .02 .08

Collectivism x Seek Support -.03 .03 -.14 Collectivism x Campus .01 .01 .10 Connectedness N = 217. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001. 4. Discussion

The present study aimed to increase the understanding of cross-cultural differences in academic coping strategies and campus connectedness and their effects on psychological distress in university students. Individualism and collectivism were measured to determine whether cross-cultural differences could be attributed to differences in cultural orientations. Hypothesis one predicting that Hong Kong university students compared to Australian and USA university students would report higher levels of collectivism and lower levels of individualism was not supported. This finding conflicts previous research which found USA and Australian university students to be higher in individualism and lower in collectivism compared to Hong Kong university students (Noordin & Jusoff, 2010; Oyserman et al., 2002). A potential explanation for this finding could be due to the measure of individualism and collectivism. The individualism subscale of the COS in the present study has been shown to have a significant positive correlation with measures of competitiveness and several of the items appear competitive in nature, for example ‘winning is everything’ and ‘it is important that I do my job better than others’ (Oyserman et al., 2002). Further, the collectivism subscale of the COS appears to reflect values of cooperation, for example, ‘I feel good when I cooperate with others’ (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998). Research has demonstrated differences between Chinese and USA university students on academic values of competitiveness and cooperation therefore it is plausible that the results reflect cross-cultural differences in academic values rather than cultural orientation (Tang, 1999). Further, Chinese university students are under a lot of pressure to obtain good grades and compete with their peers, therefore this factor could have also primed higher than expected levels of individualism for Hong Kong university students in an academic context. Hypothesis two predicting that Hong Kong university students compared to Australian and USA university students would report higher utilisation of avoidance coping, lower utilisation of approach and seeking support coping and lower levels of campus connectedness was not supported. The results suggested that Australian, USA and Hong Kong university students are alike in their use of academic coping strategies and experience of campus connectedness. This finding conflicts previous research which found students of Asian background compared to Caucasian university students to report greater use of avoidance coping and lower use of approach and seeking support coping (Taylor et al., 2004) and lower levels of social connectedness (Lykes & Kemmelmeier, 2013). Although the results in the present study revealed no cross-cultural differences, previous research attributed cross-cultural differences to varying levels of individualism and collectivism (Chun et al., 2006; Kuo, 2011) The present study found that Hong Kong university students compared to Australian and USA university students were alike in their reported levels of individualism and collectivism, therefore this may explain why they were no less likely to use approach and seeking support coping strategies and no more likely to use avoidance coping or report lower levels of campus connectedness. Hypothesis three predicting that lower use of avoidance coping, higher use of approach and seeking support coping and higher levels of campus connectedness would predict decreased psychological distress across the three universities was partially supported. Avoidance coping and campus connectedness both predicted psychological distress in the expected direction, whereas approach coping and seeking support did not. The significant results reflect findings from previous research, which found that higher use of avoidance coping and lower levels of social connectedness resulted in poorer mental health outcomes (Park & Adler, 2003; Roberts & Burleson, 2013). The non-significant predictive weights of the use of approach coping and seeking support

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 121 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 coping on psychological distress for any of the universities conflict previous research which found the use of both of these coping strategies to result in decreased psychological distress (Kim, Sherman, & Taylor, 2008; Park & Adler, 2003). This is an important finding to note since approach coping and seeking support from others are generally promoted as adaptive ways to cope. Although non-significant, the results of the present study revealed a trend in the opposite direction suggesting that higher support seeking led to higher psychological distress. A potential explanation for this finding could be that the direction of causality between the two variables is opposite to what was proposed, with individuals who experience more psychological distress being more likely to ask others for help. Hypothesis four predicting that country (Hong Kong compared to Australia and USA) would interact with academic coping strategies and campus connectedness to predict psychological distress was not supported. The results suggested that the effects of academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress were equivalent for Australian and USA compared to Hong Kong university students. This finding conflicts with previous research, which found cross-cultural differences in the effectiveness of coping strategies on psychological distress (Chang, 2003). Contrary to expectations, avoidance coping and low campus connectedness was equally detrimental for Hong Kong compared to Australian and USA university students. The equivalent levels of individualism and collectivism for university students in all three countries may explain why the effects of academic coping strategies and campus connectedness on psychological distress were alike. However individual agreement with individualism or collectivism also did not alter the relationship between the academic coping strategies, campus connectedness and psychological distress. A trend of cross-cultural similarities is apparent in all the analyses suggesting that the present study revealed consistent results.

4.1. Limitations and Future Research

When interpreting the results it is important to note the limitations. Although presenting the survey in English for all three countries increased the internal validity of the study, Hong Kong participants were completing it in their second language whereas Australian and USA participants completed it in their first. Although students at the University of Hong Kong demonstrate a high proficiency of English, their birth language is Cantonese. It is possible that presenting the survey in English acted as a prime for a Westernised cultural identity (Yip, 2005). Future research should assess whether individual and collective orientations are still relevant when classifying these particular Eastern and Western populations and whether agreement with either cultural orientation predicts differences in the use of academic coping strategies and levels of campus connectedness. The sample consisted of predominantly female private university students therefore reducing the generalisability of the findings. Future studies should aim to clarify the relationship between approach coping, seeking support coping and psychological distress, which are generally viewed as adaptive coping strategies.

4.2. Conclusions

This study revealed two important factors, which contributed significantly to psychological distress for university students in Australia, USA and Hong Kong. The results suggest that interventions which aim to decrease avoidance coping and increase campus connectedness would promote positive mental health outcomes for university students across all three countries. University campuses in Australia, USA and Hong Kong should emphasize a community environment to ensure that students do not feel isolated from their peers. Further, the study did not provide evidence that approach coping and seeking support coping were associated with reduced psychological distress for university students in Hong Kong or Australia and USA. Therefore universities should be cautious in their promotion of these coping strategies until further research is conducted. The unexpected similarities in cultural orientations between the countries are an important finding. Eastern

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 122 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 countries, especially ones such as Hong Kong where English is commonly spoken, are becoming increasingly Westernised, therefore it is important not to categorise cultures as discretely individualist or collectivist. The present study provides preliminary evidence for an increasingly universal academic experience and sheds light on an increasingly relevant topic of cross-cultural variation, setting the scene for future research into factors that influence mental health for university students across the globe.

5. References

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Remote Sensing and Topographic Information in a GIS environment for Urban Growth and Change: Case Study Amman the Capital of Jordan

Mahmoud M. S. Albattah Vice-Dean Academic Affair at the Faculty of Graduate Studies The University of Jordan

Abstract—Urbanization results in the expansion of administrative boundaries, mainly at the periphery, ultimately leading to changes in landcover. Agricultural land, naturally vegetated land, and other land types are converted into residential areas with a high density of constructs, such as transportation systems and housing. In urban regions of rapid growth and change, urban planners need regular information on up to date ground change. Amman (the capital of Jordan) is growing at unprecedented rates, creating extensive urban landscapes. Planners interact with these changes without having a global view of their impact. The use of aerial photographs and satellite images data combined with topographic information and field survey could provide effective information to develop urban change and growth inventory which could be explored towards producing a very important signature for the built-up area changes.

Keywords—Urban growth, aerial photographs, remote sensing, urban inventory, Amman.

I. Introduction

The world has experienced a dramatic growth of its urban population for over the last 50 years. In addition, the rate of the urban population growth is more than that of the rural population (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1999). Urban population was estimated at 3 billion in 2003, and is expected to rise to 5 billion by 2030. By then; almost two thirds of the world population will be living in towns and cities. More importantly, the speed and scale of this growth have usually been concentrated in developing countries which are characterized by larger metropolitan areas and great number of mega cities. Cities are expanding in all directions resulting in large-scale urban sprawl and changes in urban land use. With the development and infrastructure initiatives mostly around the urban centers, the impacts of urbanization and sprawl would be on the environment and the natural resources. According to misuse of urban land along with urban sprawl improperly concentrating activities in one region and leaving much waste land, results in environment deterioration problem (e.g. increase of air and water pollution). Transport is a significant source of air pollution and, for some pollutants, the main contributor. 90 per cent of total emissions of Carbon monoxide (CO) in Arab countries are due to vehicular transportation. Arab countries emit 16 million tons/year* of CO (World Bank, 1994). CO can also indirectly contribute to the increase of “greenhouse gases” which are the cause of global climate warming. The Arab world’s motor vehicles emit 1.1 million tons/year* of Nitrogen oxides (NOx) (40% of total-60% originates from the energy and industry sectors). A combination of Nitrogen oxides and Sulfur oxides (SOx) contributes to a large extent (about one third) to acid deposition on soil, vegetation and water, thus causing damage to crops, forest, fish, etc. Most importantly, NOx are a cause (or “precursor”) of the photochemical smog often observed in large conurbations, particularly during the summer (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd14/escwaRIM_bp1.pdf) The spatial pattern of such changes is more clearly noticeable on the urban fringes or city peripheral rural areas, than in the city center. Inadvertently this results in an increase in the built up area and associated changes in the spatial urban land use patterns.

This urban expansion causes loss of productive agricultural lands, other forms of greenery, loss in surface water bodies, reduction in ground water aquifers and increasing levels of air and water pollution. Further, it is widely agreed that fragmentation of land use is also harmful to biological conservation. There has been lot of debates on how to confine urban sprawl and conserve agricultural land resources. There is a demand to constantly monitor such urban changes and understand the processes for taking effective and corrective measures towards a planned and healthy development of urban areas. Over 50% of the world population lives in urbanized areas. Recent developments of population growth, urban regional migration, and increasing ecological problems require advanced methods for city planners, economists, ecologists and resource managers to support sustainable development of these fast-changing regions. In order to make intelligent decisions and take timely and effective action, planners need extensive, comprehensive knowledge about the causes, chronology, and effects of these processes. In recent years, cities all over the world have experienced rapid growth because of the rapid increase in world population and the irreversible flow of people from rural to urban areas. Specifically, in the larger towns and cities of the developing world the rate of population increase has been constant and nowadays, many of them are facing unplanned and uncontrolled settlements at the densely populated sites or fringes. To prevent from such occasions urban planners need detailed updated data for thorough planning and management. However, most city planners have a lack of such data and often they possess old data which is not relevant for current decision making. Even if they do not hold detailed updated data of the city area regularly updated data with an acceptable accuracy (urban planners and decision-makers need to have the detailed integrated spatial data sets compiled within a geographical information system (GIS). However, most city planners, especially from developing countries, have a lack of the integrated spatial information relevant for current decision-making) can at least give them an impression about the changes in the city area. While the global population has grown dramatically during the last century, we also have witnessed a ‘population implosion’: the unprecedented concentration of humans into urban areas around the globe. Since 1800 the number of urban dwellers has jumped by a factor of 100 to 2.5 billion individuals, or nearly one-half of the world’s population (Fig. 1). Once confined to the industrialized regions of Europe and North America, the trend is now global, with cities in developing nations growing by up to 7% per year. For this reason the global change that most of Earth’s inhabitants will experience during the next decades may well be dominated by the changing demographic, economic, and environmental conditions of the world’s cities, rather than by comparatively subtle shifts in climate (Amarsaikhan D, Ganzorig M, Moon TH , 2005), ( Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2009)

Fig. 1 Global trends in urbanization since 1700, showing the total global urban population

From a broader perspective urbanization is just one of many ways in which humans are altering the landcover of the globe. Most of these landscape transformations occur within a regional context, but the specific, year-to- year changes occur at local scales, often distributed in a seemingly random pattern. Although these human induced land transformations may seem of relatively minor impact considered against the vast reaches of the planet, these changes are estimated to have significantly altered more than 80% of the Earth’s land area over the last several centuries. Of critical importance is linking these observed changes in landcover to the driving socio-economic or environmental origins. In particular, the geography of urban growth offers a graphic depiction of the interplay between economics, political systems, and the environment. While the growth of cities may appear inexorable and monolithic, it reflects a multitude of conscious choices made by individuals and institutions reconciling these competing factors for their own ‘best interests’. The sum of these choices appears as the suburbs, shopping complexes, and industrial centers that now populate the globe. It is also true that urban development usually does not follow any simple plan. Early urban growth models based on the steady outward expansion from an intact urban core have yielded to a reality that is far more varied and complex. The spatial organization of cities varies widely, and in part reflects the culture and economic standing of the host region. Viewed through time, urban areas rarely remain static and changes in urban infrastructure, the reallocation of capital, and land conversion can all alter the fabric of the urban plan. Taken in sum the modern urban plan looks less like clockwork, and more the result of a complex, dynamic system, responding to competing forces. Assessment and monitoring of urbanization and other localized land transformation is exceptionally difficult at regional and global scales (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, Hottier Ph.,199). For some regions of the world, where sophisticated government agencies maintain accurate records for taxation and development purposes, it is often possible to extract at least region-level statistics. However, even in these cases there is rarely specific geographical information to support such figures. In many regions of the world there are no regionally accurate figures on land transformations. This information simply is not gathered, or even when gathered, made publicly available. One technology which offers considerable promise for monitoring landcover change is satellite remote sensing and aerial photographs. This observation technology provides globally consistent, repetitive measurements of earth surface conditions relevant to climatology, hydrology, oceanography and land cover monitoring. One mission in particular, the Landsat series begun in 1972, was designed and continues to operate with the objective of tracking changes in landcover conditions. The high spatial resolution and regular revisit times of the Landsat mission are well suited to studies of regional, national, and global urbanization. While census data provide a statistical view of demographics and economics, the actual spatial patterns of urban infrastructure only emerge from remotely sensed imagery. Furthermore, the frequent revisit times of satellite sensors constantly update our view of the urban landscape, creating a detailed time-series of urban growth. Rather than simply showing the gross change over a long period, these satellite time-series can record the variability of urban development in space and time, thus permitting a rigorous comparison with economic and demographic data (Mahmoud M. Albattah, Hottier Ph.,1990). Jordan, as many of the developing countries has a problem with the urban expansion and the growth of population in the main cities especially in the capital Amman. For example, over the last decades Amman, the capital city of Jordan has significantly expanded due to different development activities and migration of people after the Gulf wars in 1990 and in 2004. Various changes have been and are occurring in the city but there are no regularly updated urban data to indicate those changes.

II. Study Area And Population Of Amman

A. Population of Amman Amman has growth rapidly through a combination of natural population increase, rural-urban migration, influx of migrant labours and Palestinian settlement. Following Israeli occupation of the West Bank of Jordan, many Palestinians settled east the river of Jordan and were further bolstered by 300000 leaving Kuwait after the Gulf War. Combining with very high rates of natural population with in-migration the population of Jordan as a whole has risen dramatically between 1954 and 1994. About half of the population lives within the urban area of Amman and its satellites towns Zarqa and Suwaeleh. The rapid growth of a low density city has not only changes the balance of urban-rural population but has consumed land which is capable of sustaining rain-fed agriculture which is a rare commodity in Jordan. Water demand has increased with population and has required ground water to be exploited and pumped to Amman. In general, it should be interesting to study the urban growth in the capital city comparing the growths occurred before 1990 with the changes occurred after this date. B. Study Area Amman is located on the undulating plateau that makes up the north-west of Jordan (see Figs. 2 and 3 for a general location map). The original site of the city occupied seven hills or ‘jabals’ around the Wadi ‘Ras el Ain which flows north-east from the plateau toward the River Zarqa basin (see photograph Fig. 4). The original central part of the city was at an altitude of between 725 and 800m. Expansion of the city in the past 25 years has resulted in the occupation of some 19 hills in total with an altitudinal extension to 875m and above. The topography of the city consists of a series of steep hills and deep and sometimes narrow valleys. Most of the districts of Amman take their names from the jabals on which they are situated. While initially development was principally on the upper slopes and crests and the lower slopes of this hill–valley system, the upsurge in urban development over the last 60 years has seen extensive development on the frequently steeper mid-slope locations.

Fig. 2 Map of Jordan from Google

Fig. 3 Amman: general location map from Municipality of Greater Amman (2010)

Fig. 4 Amman: Wadi Ras el Ain from Municipality of Greater Amman (2010)

III. Urban Growth Systems

Urban development is one kind of emergent phenomenon of urban system, which is very complex and hard to measure.

A. Urban Growth Urban growth indicates a transformation of the vacant land or natural environment to construction of urban fabrics including residential, industrial and infrastructure development. It mostly happens in the fringe urban areas. This process can be regarded as the spatial representation of the economic structural shift of labor away

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 130 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 from agricultural to industrial-based activities. Crucial to this shift are the output gains associated with resource transfers from the low-productivity agricultural sector to the high productivity industrial sector. From systematic view, we can divide urban growth into spontaneous and self-organization process. Spontaneous growth results in a homogeneous and sparse spatial pattern, which contains more random components, whereas self-organizational growth result in spatial agglomeration pattern, which is combined with more socio-economic activities. Clearly, urban growth is one complex spatial changing phenomenon in urban system.

B. Urban Growth Complexity Modeling urban growth aims to support urban development planning and sustainable growth management. Scientific planning and management must be based on the proper understanding of the dynamic process of urban growth, i.e. from past to present to future. Such understanding enables planners to experimentally simulate "what-if" decision making based on various scenarios. However, the dynamic process involves various socioeconomic, physical and ecological components at varied spatial and temporal scales, which result in such a complex and dynamic system. Consequently, it requires a systematic perspective to understand this complexity. Cities can be understood as complex systems considering their intrinsic characteristics of emergence, selforganizing, self- similarity and non-linear behavior of land use dynamics. As a result of the operation of complex urban system, there exist some spatial processes, like urban expansion, urban pattern change, land use conversion, urban population growth, social development, economic development, etc (Arnold C. L., Gibbons J. C., 1996), (Barros, J. and Sobreira, F., 2002). Among all these items, some are presented as spatial and temporal changes.

C. Projection of Complexity in Urban Growth Urban growth consists of the various scales of new projects. Large-scale projects are characterized by heavy investment, long-term construction and the number of actors involved; examples include airports, industrial parks and universities. By contrast, small scale projects are characterized by rapid construction, light investment and few actors; examples can be a private house and a small shop. Urban growth results in various land uses with different levels of social, economic and environmental values. This is a higher dimension of heterogeneity, indicated in the attributes of spatial objects. New development units are the spatial entities carrying heterogeneous social, economic and environmental activities (Clarke, K. C., and Gaydos, J., 1998), (Cheng, J. and Masser, I. (2003)), (W. D. Doyle, 1987).

D. Spatial Complexity A frequently cited shortcoming of GIS and most spatial analysis tools is their difficulty in dealing with dynamic processes over landscapes. This is not because of a lack of people thinking about dynamic processes in space, nor is it from a lack of talent or technology. It has more to do with the fact that space is inherently complex, and dynamic processes often become complex when they are regarded in a spatial context. As a result, the first step to spatial modeling is to recognize the spatial complexity in the study. Spatial complexity may include spatial interdependence, multi-scale issues and structural or functional complexity (Benfield, F. K., Raimi, M., and Chen D., 1999), (Batty, M., 1981), (Helton D., Gall, M., 1998). Spatial dependence is defined as a functional relationship between what happens at one point in space and what happens at a neighboring point. In urban growth, spatial dependence is indicated by the impacts of neighboring sites on land conversion of any site which is the result of a causal relationship among neighboring entities, e.g. interaction. The impacts can be twofold: positive (stimulation) or negative (constraint) from three systems. Examples of positive impacts may include transport infrastructure or developed urban area; in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 131 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 particular fringe growth is highly dependent on transport infrastructure. Examples of negative impacts may be steep terrain (slope) and non-developable land such as deep lakes. The complexity lies in the following facts: - The impacts are determined by an unknown number of factors and their spatial relationships are nonlinear. - The intensity of spatial dependence or neighborhood size is spatially and locally variable. - Land conversion includes probability (occurred or not), density (scale), intensity (floor number), function (land use) and structure (shape or morphology); each may have distinguished spatial dependence (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2004), (Cohen, J., 1995), (Yeh A G, Li X, 2001), (ESRI, 2006). Urban growth involves a number of hierarchical structures. In the spatial dimension, U includes different levels of shopping centers and road networks; system N includes different levels of ecological units; system P contains different levels of urban planning (general plan, district plan and zoning plan). As a result, urban growth G may be related to more complex spatial hierarchies as interacting with three systems. Urban growth involves both; structure is more linked with pattern and function rather than with process. The representation or semantics understanding of a spatial system is diverse. The spatial representation of structure and function may influence the spatial understanding of urban growth pattern and process. Its complexity lies in the following: - The self-organized process of urban growth has complex spatial representation and understanding. - The interaction between pattern and process is dynamic and non-linear.

E. Temporal Complexity Urban growth means only increasing the number of new units transformed from nonurban resources. Urban growth is largely controlled or impacted by its economic development scale and environmental protection strategy. Or rather it is controlled by the systematic coordination between the three systems. For example, when system N is not influential and strong, more agricultural land might be lost. Economic development is not predictive, in particular in the long term, due to numerous uncertain factors. The nonlinear interactions between the three systems lead to a non-linear curve of urban growth (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2008), (Wu, F., and Webester, C. J., 2000).

F. Decision-Making Complexity Decision-making complexity is indicated in the unit and process of decision-making, and actors or decision- makers. The decision-making unit and process of large-scale projects are relatively more complicated than those of small-scale ones. They involve more actors or decision-makers. However, a small building only needs the decision-making of one private developer. Large-scale projects are limited in quantity and their decision-making is more certain and well planned if compared with others. The latter are large in quantity and their decision- making is more uncertain, dynamic and less organized. However, the collective behaviors of small-scale projects can be emergent, which are controlled or guided by various management and urban development policies. From the perspective of self-organizing theory, all of these small-scale and large-scale projects are spatially and temporally self-organized into an ordering system. The decision-making behaviors of different functions of projects are also disparate, e.g. commercial and residential.

IV. Methodology

In this study we will use data from Remote Sensing (RS) images, Photogrammetry (aerial photographs) combined with topographic data with ArcGis software in urban planning, in order to be able to accurately simulate and model the urban sprawl phenomena in developing countries in general and more precisely in the Jordanian context and thus assess the effect of such urban expansion (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2004), (Mahmoud

M. Albattah, and H. Kharabsheh, 2000), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1988), (Bryant,C.R., Russwarm, L.H. and McLellan, A.G., 1982). Land use/cover patterns for 1989, 1996 and 2007 were mapped by the use of Multi-date Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data, SPOT XS and panchromatic images, aerial photographs, Topographic maps scaled 1:50000, Geologic maps scaled 1:100000, Soil maps scaled 1:50000 and field information about the study area have been collected from several resources such as Royal Jordanian Geographic Center (RJGC), Ministry of public works, Natural resource authority (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2003), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2003). Landsat thematic mapper and SPOT XS images have been corrected (Image to Map), as follows: • Four sheets of topographic maps scaled to 1:50000 are used to cover the entire study area, these sheets are called Amman, Sahab, Swaileh, Al-zarqa and they are used as a reference for the image correction. • Polynomial interpolation using 42 ground control points to get the relationship image-map • Corrected image are then derived by a resampling process Features has been enhanced by radiometric correction of Spot XS and Landsat images SPOT XS and panchromatic images are combined by geometric correction and resampled to derive 10-m resolution SPOT XS images (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1988), (Hottier Ph., Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1990), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997). The geometric center of Greater Amman is defined as the intersection point between Princess Basma Street and Wadi Abdoon Street (35°54’ E and 31°56N)

Fig. 5 Amman: Geometric center of Greater Amman location map from RJGC (2007)

Nine land use and land cover types are identified and used in this study, including: (1) Water area, (2) Built-up area, (3) Cultivated areas, (4) Woods, brushwood, scrub areas, (5) Distorted surface, (6) Quarry or mines, (7) Grassy areas, (8) plowed areas, and (9) Cemeteries. With the aid of Erdas Imagine computer software, each image was enhanced using histogram equalization (in order to gain a higher contrast in the ‘peaks’ of the original histogram) to increase the volume of visible information. This procedure is important for helping identify ground control points in rectification (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2000), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1999). As previously stated, all images are rectified to a common UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system based on the 50 000 topographic maps of Greater Amman. Each image was then radiometrically corrected using relative radiometric correction method. A supervised classification with the maximum likelihood algorithm was conducted to classify the Landsat images using bands 2 (green), 3 (red) and 4 (near- infrared). The accuracy of the classification was verified by field checking or comparing with existing land uses and cover maps that have been field-checked. In performing land use/cover change detection, a cross-tabulation detection method was employed. A change matrix was produced with the help of Erdas Imagine software.

Quantitative areal data of the overall land use/cover changes as well as gains and losses in each category between 1989 and 2007 were then compiled (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1988), (Daniels,T. L., 1997), (Cheng, J. and Masser, I., 2003). In order to analyze the nature, rate, and location of urban land change, an image of urban and built-up land was extracted from each original land cover image extracted images were then overlaid and recoded to obtain an urban land change (expansion) image. The urban expansion image was further overlaid with several geographic reference images to help analyze the patterns of urban expansion, including an image of the city boundary, major roads, and major urban centers. These layers were constructed in a vector GIS environment and converted into a raster format (grid size=30m) (Bertuglia, C. S., Leonardi, G. and Wilson, A. G., 1990), (Bockstael, N. E., 1996). The city boundary image can be utilized to find urban land change information within the city. Because proximity to a certain object, such as major roads, has an important implication in urban land development, urban expansion processes often show an intimate relationship with distance from these geographic objects. Using the buffer function in GIS, a buffer image was generated, showing the proximity to the major roads of the study area. Local conditions have been taken into account in selecting the buffer widths. The buffer image was overlaid with the urban expansion image to calculate the amount of urban expansion in each zone. The density of urban expansion was then calculated by dividing the amount of urban expansion by the total amount of land in each buffer zone. These values of density can be used to construct a distance decay function of urban expansion [28], (Brockerhoff, M.P., 2000), (G. R. Faulhaber, 1995), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, and H. Kharabsheh, 2000).

Satellite High Resolution Image Classification

1-Principle of Classification:

The basic principle of the classification is to assign a label to each instance, which is for remote sensing images either a pixel or a region. Each label corresponds to a class having its own properties. The algorithm that assigns these labels is called classifier. The classifier, which can be supervised or not, uses extracted features from the data to choose the labels.

Each region must be characterized by some values to perform a classification that is why we need to extract features from these regions. The following part will present the features that we extracted. Let r be a region Pr  ,...pp I of the segmented image and ,,1rkr be the set of pixels of size K belonging to the region r. ,bp is the intensity of the pixel p in the band b.

The intensity is defined as the mean of the intensity of the pixels belonging to the same region. With multi- spectral data the mean can be computed on each band. The mean intensity for a region r in the band b is given by K

 I pi ,, br i1 I ,, brmean  K

Two features can also be interesting when using multi-spectral data: the red-infrared and red-green ratios. The first one is useful to detect the wooded areas, since vegetation has a low intensity in the red band but is very sensitive in the near infrared band. The second one can be helpful in the recognition of some farming areas.

The red-infrared ratio is computed with the following equation:

I Ratio  ,,Rrmean ,,rPIRRI ,,PIRrmean and the red-green ratio is given by I Ratio  ,,Rrmean ,,rGR I ,,Grmean

The standard deviation of intensity is given by

K 2 ( pi ,,br  II ,,brmean) i1 I ,,brstd K 2-Classifiers:

There is a wide range of classifiers. It is beyond the scope of this work to describe all of them in details. That is why we will first present an overview of some of the most known classifiers. Next, the advantages or disadvantages of each classifier will be discussed. Finally the classifiers that we used in our study will be presented.

Note that we make the difference between unsupervised classifiers, which only need samples to perform automatic classification, and supervised classifiers, which have to be trained with a set of samples whose labels are known, called the training set.

3-Unsupervised classifiers include • K-means algorithm. This starts with arbitrary clusters in the feature space, each of them defined by its centre. The first step consists in assigning the nearest cluster to each sample. In the second step the centers are recomputed with the new clusters. These two steps are repeated until convergence.

• The second algorithm is the Finite Gaussian Mixture Model. The model can also be applied to the classification step. In this case each component of the created mixture corresponds to a label

4-Supervised classifiers include: • Finite Gaussian Mixture Model. This is the supervised version of the FGMM. In the first step, the distribution of the training instances for each class is approximated with a mixture of Gaussian probability density functions. Then for each testing sample the best distribution in terms of maximum likelihood is selected and the corresponding label is assigned to the sample.

• The second classier is the Mahalanobis Distance. For each class the mean and the covariance matrix are computed according to the training instances. Then for each testing sample we compute the Mahalanobis Distance to each class. The nearest class is then assigned to each testing sample.

• The third classifier is the K-nearest Neighbors. For each testing sample we search the K nearest training instances and the most represented label among these instances is selected.

• Neural network. This is a classifier which tries to find nonlinear separating surfaces in the feature space.

• Support Vector Machine. The basic principle of a support vector machine in a two-class case is to locate a linear hyper plane that maximizes the distance from the members of each class to the optimal hyper plane. As it is sometimes not possible to separate classes with a linear hyper plane without misclassification, the support vector machine tries to find the optimal nonlinear transformation to apply to the data in order to find a linear separating plane without misclassification. Finally, each testing instance is transformed and the class is chosen depending on which side of the hyper plane this instance lies. This can be easily extended to multi-class cases.

5-Unsupervised FGMM

The FGMM assumes that the data are generated by Gaussian distributions, each of it characterized by its center μ, its covariance matrix  and its prior probability .

This algorithm is implemented as follows:

1. Initialization of parameters g 2. For each component k of the mixture, compute g xp )(g xkp g  rk k k r ),( M xp g g  rk k )( k k1 R xkp  g  r ),( new r1  k  R

R xkpx  g  r r ),( new r1 k  R xkp  g  r ),( r1

R g new xxxkp   Tnew  r (),( kr )( kr ) new r1 k  R xkp  g  r ),( r1

3. Repeat step 2 until convergence of g. 4. For each sample xr compute the corresponding label lr given by l  xp )((maxarg r rkk k

For the classification step, the number of components is simply equal to the number of classes that the user needs to extract from the satellite image. As for the GHMRF algorithm used for the segmentation step, the initialization is very critical because the FGMM is only able to converge to a local minimum. We also suggest to use the k-means algorithm to approximate the components of the mixture. The stopping criterion is fixed around 0.1 percent (Albattah M.M.S., 2014)

V. Results And Discussion

The magnitude of the urban sprawl depicts the state of land use and urbanization process at a particular point of time. Using a combination of different data types and formats in monitoring urban development makes the study difficult. The main problem encountered during the study is using the data in different coordinate systems (scale, screwing, etc.) and structure (raster, vector). The changes on residential areas obtained via aerial photographs, satellite images, and field data between 1989 – 1996 and 1996-2007 as periods, using effective techniques of Remote Sensing and GIS (ArcGIS software)

TABLE I PER CENT PROPORTION OF LAND USE TO TOTAL LAND, YEAR 1989 No of Per cent Proportion Land Use Area in Land Use of Land Use to Categories pixels Categories Total Land 1 Wood , Scrub 1197808 7 2 Distorted area 1381163 8 3 Quarry or Mine 1614610 10 4 Plowed areas 2206507 13 5 Grassy areas 7247914 43 6 Cultivated areas 2223111 13 7 Built-up areas 752134 5 8 Water Surfaces 8953 0 9 Unclassified 247585 1 Total 16879785 100

Table I depicts that the year 1989 has 5 per cent of built-up areas, 13 per cent of cultivated areas, 13 per cent of plowed areas and 43 per cent of grassy areas

TABLE II PER CENT PROPORTION OF LAND USE TO TOTAL LAND, YEAR 1996 No of Per cent Land Use Land Use Area in pixels Proportion of Land Categories Categories Use to Total Land 1 Wood , Scrub 1173146 7 2 Distorted area 1301246 8 3 Quarry or Mine 1713245 10 4 Plowed areas 1996401 12 5 Grassy areas 6993215 42 6 Cultivated areas 1924768 12 7 Built-up areas 1375381 8 8 Water Surfaces 8623 0 9 Unclassified 194561 1 Total 16680586 100

Table II depicts that the year 1996 has 8 per cent of built-up areas, 12 per cent of cultivated areas, 12 per cent of plowed areas and 42 per cent of grassy areas. This depicts how the process of land acquisition has taken place by engulfing these areas under the built-up.

TABLE III PER CENT PROPORTION OF LAND USE TO TOTAL LAND, YEAR 2006 No of Land Per cent Proportion of Use Land Use Categories Land Use to Total Land Categories 1 Wood , Scrub 7 2 Distorted area 7 3 Quarry or Mine 10 4 Plowed areas 11 5 Grassy areas 41 6 Cultivated areas 10 7 Built-up areas 13 8 Water Surfaces 0 9 Unclassified 1 Total 100

Table III depicts that the year 2006 has 13 per cent of built-up areas, 10 per cent of cultivated areas, 11 per cent of plowed areas and 41 per cent of grassy areas. This depicts how the process of land acquisition continues to engulfing mainly the cultivated and plowed areas under the barren domain and built-up areas. During this period the built-up area extended along the main high-ways connecting the capital the major cities of the Kingdom.

The growth and trend of urban sprawl can be analyzed by the determination of the change in the per cent of various land use categories during the periods 1989-1996 and 1996-2006. We can notice an increase of 8 per cent (from the total area) in the built-up land and to compensate a strong decline in the cultivated and plowed areas (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997), (Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997), ([22] Wu, F., and Webester, C. J., 2000).

VI. Conclusion

Jordan, as many of the developing countries has a problem with the urban expansion and the growth of population in the main cities especially in the capital Amman. For example, over the last decades Amman, the capital city of Jordan has significantly expanded due to different development activities and migration of people after the Gulf wars in 1990 and in 2004. Various changes have been and are being occurred in the city but there are no regularly updated urban data to indicate those changes. In this study we presented and applied a methodology for the use of the latest computing and information technology trends (Geographic Information Systems (GIS), combined with Remote sensing (RS), Photogrammetry in urban planning, in order to be able to accurately simulate and model the urban sprawl phenomena in developing countries in general and more precisely in the Jordanian context and thus assess the effect of such urban expansion. The urban expansion in Amman (the study region) is governed by the transport network. The main arteries along which the sprawl is taking place include, the downtown, Swaileh, Naour, and along the national highways connecting the major cities of the Kingdom. Results and analysis depict how the process of land acquisition has taken place by engulfing the cultivated and the plowed areas under the built-up and barren domain.

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[12] Cheng, J. and Masser, I., 2003. Urban growth pattern modelling: a case study of Wuhan city, PR China. Landscape and Urban Planning 62(4): 199-217. [13] Clarke, K. C., and Gaydos, J., 1998. Loose-coupling a cellular automaton model and GIS: long-term urban growth prediction for San Francisco and Washington/Baltimore., International Journal of Geographic Information Science, 12, 699–714. [14] Daniels,T. L., 1997. Where Does Cluster Zoning Fit in Farmland Protection?, Journal of the American Planning Association P.129-137.204 [15] ESRI, 2006, Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., Redlands, California, www.ESRI.com [16] Yeh A G, Li X, 2001. A constrained CA model for the simulation and planning of sustainable urban forms by using GIS. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 28 733 - 753 [17] Cheng, J. and Masser, I. (2003) Urban Growth Pattern Modelling: A Case Study of Wuhan City, PR China, Landscape and Urban Planning, 52, pp. 199 - 217. [18] G. R. Faulhaber, “Design of service systems with priority reservation,” in Conf. Rec. 1995 IEEE Int. Conf. Communications, pp. 3–8. [19] Kam,W.C. 1994. Cities with invisible walls: reinterpresenting urbanization in post-1949 china. Hong Kong, Oxford University Press. [20] Shenghe, L. and Sylvia, P. 2002. Spatial Patterns and Dynamic Mechanisms of Urban Land Use Growth in China: Case study in Beijing and Shanghai. [21] W. D. Doyle, “Magnetization reversal in films with biaxial anisotropy,” in 1987 Proc. INTERMAG Conf., pp. 2.2-1–2.2-6. [22] Wu, F., and Webester, C. J., 2000. Simulating artificial cities in a GIS environment: urban growth under alternative regulation regimes. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 14, 625–648. [23] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2009, “Landslides Mechanical behavior Study and Analysis Using Geodetic Observations” Advanced Technologies ” SBN 978-953-7619-XX ” [24] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2008, “Optimization of The Characteristic Straight Line Method by a “Best Estimate” of Observed Normal Orthometric Elevation Differences” International Journal of Computer, Information, and System Science, and Engineering Technology” Volume 2, Number 2, Spring 2008 [25] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2008, “The Characteristic Straight Line Method for Soil Displacement Monitoring”, Proceedings Of World Academy Of Science, Engineering And Technology Volume 30 July 2008 ISSN 1307-6884 [26] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2004, “Accuracy Assessment of Photogrammetric Triangulation with and without the Integration of Absolute GPS-Inertial Measurements”, Dirasat : Engineering Sciences, Vol. 31, No 1, pp 126-135 [27] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2003, “Landslide Monitoring Using Precise Leveling Observations ”, Survey Review , Vol. 37, 288 [28] Mahmoud M. Albattah, and H. Kharabsheh, 2000, “Topographic and Satellite Information for Preliminary Route Location”, Photogrammetric Record: 16 (96) pp 987-996. [29] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997, “Transformation of Cartographic Coordinates in to Three-Dimensional Coordinates via a Stereographic Projection. Application in Space Triangulation with SPOT”, Dirasat: Natural and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 24, No 3, pp. 642-651. [30] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997, “Correction of The Atmospheric Refraction Effect in The Case of Spatial SPOT Imagery”, C.R. de L’Academie Des Sciences Française (French Academy of Sciences) , Vol. 324, Series II a, pp. 173-179. (In French with Abridged English Version)

[31] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997, “Study of the Impact of Daylight Saving Time on the Energy Preservation in Jordan and Neighboring Countries”, Dirasat : Natural and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 22 B, No 6, pp. 219-235. (In Arabic, English Abstract). [32] Hottier Ph., Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1990, “SPOT and the Analytical Photogrammetry: Solution for Somme Problems”, S.F.P.T, Vol. 117, No 1990-1, pp. 10-18. (Bulletin of the French Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, In French). [33] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1997, “Study of Traffic Kinematics by Using Terrestrial Stereophotogrammetry”, First Jordanian Conference on Traffic Engineering and Environment, Amman, Jordan, 13-15 May 1997. [34] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1988, “SPOT imagery and some problems in analytical photogrammetry” a technical report (pp. 150), IGN-France (2, Ave.Pasteur, 94160 St. Mandé, Paris). [35] Mahmoud M. Albattah, Hottier Ph.,1991, “Computation of the spatial image coordinates in less than 60 elementary operations without the voluminous auxiliary data required in the current techniques”, S.F.P.T, Vol. 123, No 1991, pp 19-23 [36] Mahmoud M. Albattah, Hottier Ph.,1991, “Transformation of a stereo pair of SPOT images into a stereo pair of epipolar images allowing all stereo plotting techniques without terrain-relief deformation ”,S.F.P.T, Vol.123, No1991, pp 13-19 [37] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2004, “ Improving the Reliability of DTMs Generated from High Resolution Satellite Imagery by Enhancing the Automatic Stereoscopic Matching ”, Mu’tah Lil-Buhuth wad-Dirasat : Vol. 19, No 2, pp. 169-182. [38] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2000, “Possibilities Offered by SPOT Satellite Remote Sensing Data for GIS Feeding and Thematic Cartography”, The International Conference On Geoenvironment 2000, Muscat, 4- 7 March, 2000. [39] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 2003, “Parametric Equations of Vehicle Time-Space Trajectories in Traffic Flow Monitoring Using Dynamic Photogrammetry”, Dirasat: Engineering Sciences, Vol. 30, No 2, pp. 249-257. [40] Mahmoud M. Albattah, 1999, “Analog Stereorestitution of Spatial Spot Imagery”, Dirasat: Natural and Engineering Sciences, Vol.26, No1. [41] Barney Cohen, 2006, “Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends,future projections, and key challenges for sustainability” [42] http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd14/escwaRIM_bp1.pdf [43] Amarsaikhan D, Ganzorig M, Moon TH (2005). Application of multitemporal RS and GIS data for urban change studies. In: Proceedings of the Korean GIS Conference, Busan, Korea pp.190-215. [44] Albattah M.M.S., 2014, Optimum Highway Design And Site Location Using Spatial Geoinformatics Engineering (under publication)

Mahmoud M. S. Albattah, Vice-Dean for Academic Affair at the Faculty of Graduate Studies at the University of Jordan Dr Albattah obtained a BSc in Civil Engineering from ENSG Paris- France in 1985, and a MSc in Civil Engineering/ Spatial Geodesy and Spatial Techniques from the University of Paris VI, and a PhD in Civil Engineering/ Spatial Geodesy and Spatial Techniques from the University of Paris VI and Paris Astronomical Observatory. He then worked at the ENSG/Paris as Assistant Professor and Research Fellow on Satellite Remote Sensing/ SPOT5 program. In 1992 he was appointed as an Assistant professor at the University of Jordan Civil Engineering Department/ Faculty of Engineering and Technology. In 2005, he was promoted to a full Professor, Chair of Civil Engineering Department, and member of the more than 5 central committees at the University of Jordan. From Sept. 2010 to Sept. 2012 he was working as Dean of Engineering at Fahad Bin Sultan University. Currently he is the Chairman of the Civil Engineering Department at the University of Jordan.

Professor Albattah is the author and co-author of over 55 publications in peer reviewed, refereed journals and proceedings of international conferences in Civil and Geomatics Engineering. He is the inventor of patents relating Satellite Remote Sensing Stereo restitution.

The Impact of Quality Management Practices on the Extended Curriculum Programme at a University of Technology

Felicity Harris Professor CM Moll Cape Peninsula University of Technology Head of Prostgraduate Programme in Quality Bellville, Cape Town, South Africa Cape Peninsula University of Technology [email protected] Bellville, Cape Town, South Africa [email protected]

Abstract

Academic Development Programmes such as Extended Curriculum Programmes (ECP’S) at higher education institutions in South Africa were implemented and funded in 2004 by the Department of Higher Education and Training as an initiative to address low throughput rate and low graduation output. The objective of this study was to look at whether ECP’s were effective in improving throughput rates and graduation output and whether there were quality management practices in place to gauge the effectiveness of ECP’s. The ECP in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at a university of technology was used as a sample. Academic histories of the ECP and Mainstream students of the 2007 cohort were analyzed to draw comparisons graduation output of the two programmes. A questionnaire to graduates of the 2007 ECP cohort who were now in the workplace was administered and interviews were conducted with lecturers teaching on the ECP. It was found that the ECP was successful in improving graduation output and that graduates were well placed in industry. It was also found that although quality management practices were in place in the programme, it was not formalized and the results were not properly recorded.

Introduction

Crosby (1984) defines quality as getting it right the first time and conformance to requirements. Crosby (1984) and Juran & Godfrey (1999) further define quality as fit for purpose and meeting customer requirements. The question of quality in higher education is one that requires a more expansive approach as there are various stakeholders in higher education. The emphasis on quality in higher education is placed on accountability. The question is who should be held accountable for what aspect of education. In education there are both internal and external stakeholders who will have different views and different expectations of quality. Quality in education is therefore difficult to define. External stakeholders in education have concerned themselves mainly with quality assurance in the processes implemented to provide an adequate service. Quality assurance mechanisms are usually used by management to focus on course or programme accreditation. This then places a focus on compliance of higher education institutions from external stakeholders rather than the enhancement of what happens at student-lecturer level. The question is: who focuses on the quality of teaching and learning that happens in the classroom? Internal stakeholders are the providers of the education and the receivers of the education. Internal stakeholders should be focused on quality enhancement rather than quality assurance. Quality enhancement is the practice of focusing on quality teaching and learning through innovative practices (McKay and Kember, 1999). Harvey and Knight (1996) have identified 5 approaches to quality for higher education that are linked to the industry definitions of quality and state that these approaches or dimensions are different but related. These approaches are: quality as exceptional (excellence and high standards); quality as performance or consistency

(zero defects); quality as fitness for purpose (meeting requirements and customer satisfaction); quality as value for money (efficient, effective and affordable) and quality as transformation (enhancing and empowering the participant). With the definition for quality set above, the study looks at what aspects of teaching and learning could be used as measures for determining if an academic programme meets these definitions. Three aspects for the programme in the study were used. These are firstly, academic histories for determining statistics regarding graduation rate, secondly, questionnaires to graduates of the programmes who are currently employed, and lastly interviews with academics who teach on the programme.

Background to the study

Prior to the democratically elected government of South Africa in 1994, the overall policy of education in South Africa was that of segregation and huge disparity in the provision of education to the various race groups. This was during the apartheid years of 1948 to 1994. This segregation applied to universities as well. The Extension of the University Education Act (45 of 1959) provided for the provision of racially exclusive universities for Africans, Indians and Coloureds (Blumfield, 2008). This inequality in the provision of education at Primary, Secondary and Tertiary school level was to be felt for many years, even after the election of a democratic government in 1994. Three important steps in the restructuring of the higher education system in South Africa were the White Paper 3 from the Department of Education in 1997, recommendations from the Council on Higher Education (CHE) in 2000 and the National Plan from the Minister of Education in 2001. All three steps clearly speak of a need to reform the higher education system in South Africa to meet the social and economic needs of the 21st century. In 1995 the Department of Education released the First White Paper on Education and Training (Blumfield, 2008). The aim of this White Paper was to address the inequality of education in South Africa and lay forth the new plan for education in this country. The First White Paper stated that at the time (1995) 1 in 5 Black students chose Physical Science and Mathematics in Standard 8 (Grade 10). This was as a result of poor teacher preparation, inadequate facilities and materials and inadequate preparation for students for examinations and entry to higher education (South Africa. Department of Education, 1995). The First White Paper and subsequent Second White Paper (1996) led to the development of the National Education Policy Act of 1996 and this defined the roles and duties of national and provincial education authorities. The Education White Paper 3: A Programme for the Transformation of Higher Education (1997) was released and its main purpose was to look at transforming any of the past inequalities in terms of skills and social order in higher education and to meet the “moral, political, social and economic demands” (South Africa. Department of Education, 1997) and opportunities of a democratic South Africa.

Based on the needs and challenges, the Education White Paper 3 lists several principles that should guide transformation in higher education. These are equity and redress, democratisastion, development, effectiveness and efficiency, academic freedom, institutional autonomy, public accountability and quality. (South Africa. Department of Education, 1997).With reference to quality, the White Paper 3 spoke to “maintaining and applying academic and educational standards” and a constant desire to achieve excellence.

In a report to the minister of Higher Education and Training, the CHE stated clearly that all the challenges of the higher education system cannot be solved by individual higher education institutions but will have to be approached in a systematic way. The CHE identified certain challenges facing higher education:

• To increase the number of graduates and diplomats to meet the high-level skills shortage, especially in the Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) field; • To reduce repeat, drop-out and failure rates of students. This is seen as a challenge to refine quality measures at an institutional and system level and an improved information communication technology (ICT) system to collect and process data is a challenge; and • To increase the race, gender and social distribution of students in all fields of study (CHE, 2000).

In order to meet the responsibility of quality assurance in higher education, the CHE established a permanent committee, The Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) in 2001. This was at the same time as the publication of the National Plan for Higher Education.

The National Plan for Higher Education was released in 2001 by the then Minister of Education, Professor Kader Asmal. The National Plan for Higher Education is a strategic plan that attempts to realise the policy goals of the Education White Paper 3 and the recommendations made by the CHE. One of the goals of the National Plan for Higher Education was the opening up for enrolment at all higher education institutions for all races. Another goal was the retention of registered students at higher education institutions. The number of students who initially enrolled for a course did not match the number of students who progressed to the next year of study. It was suggested that the possible cause for this could be due to financial and/or academic exclusions or students simply not remaining in the higher education system to graduate or move on to postgraduate studies due to an inability to cope academically. Several benchmarks were put in place to meet the goals mentioned above. The table below outlines these benchmarks as stated in the National Plan for Higher Education.

Table 1: Benchmarks for Graduation Rates (South Africa, Ministry of Education, 2001)

Graduation rate Qualification-type Contact Distance

Up to 3-years: Undergraduate 25% 15%

4 years or more: Undergraduate 20% 10%

Postgraduate: up to honours 60% 30%

Masters 33% 25%

Doctoral 20% 20%

In addition to benchmarking the number of graduates per institution, the Ministry had also established “national student planning targets” which specify the expected graduate outputs per field of study. Several fields were identified: Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Engineering and other Applied Sciences, Health Sciences, Business/Commerce, Education, Social Sciences and Applied Humanities and finally Humanities (South Africa, Ministry of Education, 2001). With the number of under-prepared students entering higher education in mind, funding was made available for development programmes in the form of extended programmes to assist in addressing the educational

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 145 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 disadvantage that many students enter higher education with. An example of an Academic Development Programme is the Extended Curriculum Programme (ECP) where the length of the mainstream course is extended by 6 months to 1 year to allow for additional assistance in individual subjects and the offering of courses/programmes to assist students with basic life skills in adapting to the higher education environment.

Quality Management in Higher Education

Higher education prepares citizens of a country for becoming distinguished contributors to their country’s well- being. Higher education is not just a process of gaining academic knowledge in a chosen field but it is meant to be a transformation of a person into one who has grown both socially and intellectually. Several teaching and learning models have been written about but can generally be placed within three models, namely: Transmission Model, Generative Model and Transformative Model. These are the models of teaching and learning as best described by Wink (2005) in which she states that teaching and learning styles have had to change over time to meet the needs of a changing society. The transmission model of teaching and learning relies on the educator imparting knowledge to the learners. The learners are seen as the vessels in need of the knowledge and the educator clearly plays a role of authority in the learning environment. In the generative model of teaching and learning the communication flow between teacher and student is two-way. The student is allowed more opportunity for asking questions to gain clarity. Limitations to this method however is still the fact that although there is real-world application of knowledge through for example, case-studies, there is very little actual exposure to real world experiences and the student could still have an unrealistic visualization of the knowledge (Wink, 2005). As a more modern approach to teaching and learning, the transformative model allows for students to learn through participating in real-world activities. Communication flows freely from learner to learner and the lecturer is a partner in the learning process (Wink, 2005). The lecturer plays the role of facilitator and ensures that opportunities are made available for learning, but the actual learning and discovering is done by the learner. This is seen as a more lasting way of learning than the learner listening to the lecturer and trying to write down as much information as possible where the information does not necessarily mean anything to the learner. Many researchers have termed transformative learning as “life-long learning” as the retention of knowledge becomes the responsibility of the learner. When learners take responsibility for their learning, the knowledge gained is not only relevant but also stays with the learner as he or she participates in the working world. Harvey and Knight (1996: 21) describe transformation in education as a “process of transmutation of one form into another”. They go on to describe the transformation where the learner develops independence, commits to continued learning through the process of reflection, uses all his or her frames of references to empower and develops critical, dialectical thinking. And as stated above, Harvey and Knight (1996) identify transformation as one of their 5 approaches to quality in higher education. Deming (1993:98) states that “a service or a product possesses quality if it helps somebody”. Good quality education must therefore be a process where the students can be seen as the inputs, good teaching and learning practices can be seen as the transformation that produces good outputs who in this case are the graduates who are able to make a valuable contribution to the country’s economy and to society as a whole.

Methodology Applied in the Study

After much consideration on what aspects of the ECP to focus on in order to determine if the programme is meeting the original objective of its initiation, it was decided that graduation output, employability of graduates and an analysis of classroom practices were what could be used as markers for the success of the programme. Primary information for this research was gathered using mixed methods which are both quantitative and qualitative methods. It was decided to focus the research on the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Technology. The motivation for choosing the Department of Mechanical Engineering was the fact that statistics on student success indicate a definite shortage of skills in the Science, Engineering and Technology field (SET) as pointed out by the CHE (2000) in its recommendation to the Minister of Education in 2000. The Department of Mechanical Engineering would therefore be used as a sample of a course that would contribute to addressing some of the skills shortages in the SET field. The quantitative research component in this study was conducted by collecting and analyzing historical data on the 2007 intake of first-time students (both in ECP and Mainstream studies) in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at a University of Technology. The 2007 cohort was specifically chosen for several reasons. The first reason is that students in both ECP and mainstream would by the end of 2013 have had 1½ times the regulation time to complete their National Diploma. Regulation time refers to the minimum required time to complete the qualification. In the case of the Extended Curriculum Programme, regulation time for the National Diploma is four years and regulation time for the Mainstream is three years. The second reason is that the data would reflect how many students have gone on to further studies i.e. B-Tech or M-Tech. The final reason is the fact that students who have entered the workplace would have had some time to establish themselves in their chosen field.

The qualitative research component in this study was conducted by doing a survey with a sample of the 2007 ECP cohort who had graduated with a National Diploma in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Technology and who had now entered the world of work. The survey was aimed at determining the employment prospects for students who had graduated through doing the ECP course in Mechanical Engineering and the kinds of positions they hold in industry.

Another qualitative component of the research was interviews conducted with staff members who teach on the ECP at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Technology. The aim of the interviews was to gauge the extent to which quality management practices are in place in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and to determine how this is related to success in the ECP.

Findings and Discussion on Quality Management Practices at the University of Technology

44 students had enrolled for the ECP in 2007 and 77 first-time entering students had enrolled for the Mainstream in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. Scott, Yeld and Hendry (2007) report that of all the first-time entering students of the 2000 intake cohort at higher education institutions in South Africa only 30% graduated within 5 years (i.e. 2005), 14% are still registered after 5 years and 56% leave without graduating. With specific reference to technikons (now universities of technology), 32% graduates within 5 years, 10% are still registered after 5 years and 58% leave the system (Scott, Yeld and Hendry, 2007). With an even more narrowed down look at the specific Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) categories i.e. Business/Management, Computer Science, Engineering, and Social Services/Public

Administration at technikons, Scott, Yeld and Hendry (2007) report that only 17% of first time entering students in Engineering graduate within 5 years and 14% are still registered after 5 years. The graph below is the graduation rate for ECP and Mainstream of the Department of Mechanical Engineering students of the 2007 cohort of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at a University of Technology.

13% of ECP students graduated within regulation time (4 years) and 12% of Mainstream students graduated in regulation time. Graduation rate after 7 years is 45% for both ECP and Mainstream. With consideration for the reasons for the implementation of the ECP, students in ECP have done better under the circumstances under which they were recruited into the programme. Students in ECP in 2007 were recruited with less than the minimum entrance requirements for a National Diploma in Mechanical Engineering. But with effective interventions to bridge the gap, students were able to bring their academic performance to the same level as mainstream. The number of graduates in the ECP 2007 cohort at the end of 2013 was 20 students. 8 students of the 2007 ECP cohort had registered for B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering studies. This could be represented as 18% of the cohort or more significantly it represents 40% of those who have graduated thus far. How soon graduates find employment in their field of study can also be seen as an indication of the relevance and effectiveness of the programme offered. 12 recipients of the questionnaire (ECP Graduates of 2007 cohort) had responded. The majority of the students (62%) were able to secure employment immediately after graduating but 30% however were unemployed for six months or more. The pie chart below illustrates the unemployment statistics for the 2007 ECP cohort in the Department of Mechanical Engineering.

The above results are in contrast to the City Press (2012) that states that a study by Dr Haroon Bhorat from the Development Policy Research Unit indicate that those with diplomas and not degrees only have a 50% chance of finding employment compared to 17% for those with degrees. The Centre for Development and Enterprise (2013) however report that research done by Professor Servaas van der Berg and Hendrik van Broekhuizen does not agree with the City Press. It was found that the unemployment rate for degree holders was just under 5%. They do however distinguish between degree holders and other non-degree tertiary qualifications and state that the unemployment rate for non-degree tertiary qualification holders was 16%. The low unemployment rate is attributed to the need for skilled labour in the country and the demand for universities to produce such graduates. Tied in with the employability of graduates, Bennet (2002) speaks about the importance of a course of study to not only teach discipline specific skills but also generic skills and refers to these generic skills as “transferable skills” and go on to describe them as the skills which enable people to participate in a flexible and adaptive workforce. They include personal skills such as the ability to work well with others, the ability to organise, self- motivation, communication skills, initiative, creativity, the capacity to solve problems and leadership (Bennet, 2002: 457). Respondents were asked three questions regarding generic transferrable skills parted to them in the ECP. The three questions looked at the skill of critical analysis and solving problems, interpersonal skills, and communication skills. The graph below represents the results as elicited by the thirteen graduates.

Graduate Attributes 100 % 80 % 60 % 40 % 20 % 0 % Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Agree Disagree I am able to complete all written communication with ease. I am able to communicate with my colleagues and employer/s. I am able to critically analyse and solve problems in the workplace.

Figure 3 : Generic Skills acquired

It was found that the ECP in the Department of Mechanical Engineering ran integrated projects twice a year. The integrated project is a task that requires students to work in groups to solve an engineering related problem. Students are required to go through the whole process from conceptualisation to drawing to manufacturing, testing and communicating both orally and in written form. Projects are an effective teaching method to integrate generic skills with professional skills. The two kinds of skills are sometimes referred to as context dependent skills (professional skills) and context independent skills (generic skills). Finally, interviews were conducted on a one-on-one basis with four lecturers who teach on the ECP and the length of the interview was approximately 30 minutes each. Some significant findings with regard to quality management practices were made. All the lecturers interviewed mentioned the fact that the ECP allowed for different classroom practices than mainstream in that lecturers had more time to give the students examples to work through and move around the class. Lecturers saw this as invaluable as it gave them an opportunity to draw out students who were struggling and work with them individually or design an activity or another lecture if most of the class was struggling. Other practices involved extensive monitoring of attendance, punctuality and progress marks. Two lecturers mentioned that this was effective if students were given regular feedback on their progress, attendance and punctuality and the matter was dealt with before it became too difficult to repair. Interviewees were asked to comment on practices that were in place for the programme as a whole, over and above individual classroom practices. Regular progress reports are distributed to students so that they can be aware of their progress at all times. Lecturers also have regular marks discussions to look at students who are at-risk of failing some subjects and discuss ways of dealing with this. The Department of Mechanical Engineering usually runs a 3-day orientation programme with new students where students are shown around campus and made aware of the facilities available to them. Over and above this, the ECP continue to draw students’ attention to what is on offer at the institution by taking them on a more detailed tour of the library and regular talks on empowerment to give the students a sense of belonging. Site visits are organised either in the programme or in specific subjects. This allows students to see qualified mechanical engineers at work and brings what happens in the classroom a lot closer to home. The ECP makes use of the Step-Up programme run by the Faculty of Engineering. This is a two-day course that students attend where they are taken through the understanding of why and how one learns and then are required

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 150 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 to set goals for their performance in that year. These goals are then closely monitored by the students and their lecturers to determine if they are on track. The above findings are indicative of a learning programme that has put some measures in place to ensure quality delivery of an education that speaks to the development of the whole being.

Conclusions

The reality of the situation in South Africa is the fact that the education sector is still recovering from the inequalities of the Apartheid system and the long lasting effects that Apartheid has had on the delivery of quality education that will prepare its citizens for the 21st century. It can be concluded that the ECP has contributed to increasing the graduation output of the Department of Mechanical Engineering and doing so in regulation time. This is an indication of their commitment to “getting it right the first time”. It can also be concluded that ECP’s have given many students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds the opportunity to have access to higher education and have resources available to them to succeed in higher education. It can therefore be concluded that ECP’s are there to “meet customer requirements”. Finally it can be concluded that the ECP at the University of Technology has aligned itself with the institution’s mission and vision and has so proved itself to be “fit for purpose”.

References

Bennet, R. 2002. Employers’ Demands for Personal Transferable Skills in Graduates: A Content Analysis of 1000 Job Advertisements and an Associated Empirical Study. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 54(4) : 457-476. Blumfield, B. 2008. A Timeline of South African Events in Education in the Twentieth Century: 1900-199. http://sahistoryofeducation.webs.com/SA%20timeline.pdf [16 May 2013]. Centre for Development and Enterprise. 2013. Graduate Unemployment in South Africa. A much exaggerated problem. CDE Enterprise, April. CHE. 2000. Towards a New Higher Education Landscape: Meeting the Equity, Quality and Social Development Imperatives of South Africa in the 21st Century. [28 May 2013]. City Press. 2012. Young, Jobless and desperate – Degrees with no guarantee. 16 June, Johannesburg. Crosby, P B. 1984. Quality Without Tears. The Art of Hassle-Free Management. New York: McGraw Hill Inc. Deming, WE. 1993. The New Economics for Industry, Government, Education. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute for Technology, Centre for Advanced Engineering Study. Harvey, L. and Knight, P. 1996. Transforming Higher Education. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Juran, J & Godfrey, A B. 1999. Juran’s Quality Handbook. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. McKay, J and Kember, D. 1999. Quality Assurance Systems and Educational Development: Part1- The Limitations of Quality Control. Quality Assurance in Education, 7(1): 25-29. Scott,I., Yeld, N and Hendry,J. 2007. A Case for Improving Teaching and Learning in South African Higher Education. Higher Education Monitor No.6: Council on Higher Education, October.

South Africa. Department of Education. 1995. White Paper on Education and Training. Cape Town: Government Printer. South Africa. Department of Education. 1997. Education White Paper 3. A Programme for the Transformation of Higher Education. Notice 1196 of 1997. Pretoria: Government Printer. South Africa. Ministry of Education. 2001. National Plan for Higher Education. Pretoria: Government Printer. Wink, J. 2005. Critical Pedagogy: Notes From the Real World. http://www.joanwink.com/cp3/3perspectives.php [11 September 2013].

A Case Study of Teaching Integrated Marketing Communication Using an Innovative Group Internship Project

Subir Bandyopadhyay Professor of Marketing School of Business & Economics Indiana University Northwest 3400 Broadway, Gary, IN 46408 Phone No: (219) 980-6900 Fax No: (219) 980-6916 Email: [email protected]

The author acknowledges the financial support from Indiana University Northwest Research Support Grant and the Byron Root Foundation. He acknowledges the assistance of Aishariya Bandyopadhyay in background research. The author also thanks his students enrolled in his Consumer Behavior class who participated in the Chevrolet project. Finally, the author gratefully acknowledges the support of the management of Mike Anderson Chevrolet dealership and EdVenture Partners.

Abstract

In recent years, many college campuses have moved to implement experiential learning projects in many disciplines. It is generally accepted that experiential learning projects or client projects (we will be using these two terms interchangeably throughout the paper) help students to communicate effectively, perform well in teams, solve problems, and acquire functional knowledge. We describe our experience of implementing an innovative experiential learning project that required students to form a company, and plan and execute an integrated marketing communication (IMC) plan for a real-life company on a tight budget. Finally, we compare the student assessment for this group internship project with traditional client projects that typically do not involve a full-fledged execution of an IMC plan.

Key words: Group internship, teaching integrated marketing communication; teaching advertising.

Introduction

In recent years, many college campuses have moved to implement experiential learning projects in many disciplines. It is generally accepted that experiential learning projects or client projects (we will be using these two terms interchangeably throughout the paper) help students to communicate effectively, perform well in teams, solve problems, and acquire functional knowledge (Parsons and Lepkowska-White 2009). These benefits are critical to succeed in a business environment. Hence many business schools have incorporated experiential learning projects in their curriculum (Gaumer, Cotleur and Arnone 2012, Bove and Davies 2009). However, effective implementation of an experiential learning project requires that the project is not too complex, can be completed within a reasonable time, and is interesting yet challenging to students (McCale 2008).

Description of the Problem

In my undergraduate Consumer Behavior class, I have incorporated a major group project wherein student groups develop an Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) plan for a number of local clients who need help in developing an implementable IMC plan. Each group is assigned to one client. Students interact with their designated client to learn about their products or services, target markets, and current promotional strategies. Traditionally, we select the clients who have a tangible marketing communication challenge, are willing to interact with student groups on a regular basis, and agree to attend the final presentation by the student groups. For last several years, this system has worked reasonably well in giving students the opportunity to work on a real-life project. However, these client projects have their share of limitations as well. I have outlined below a few of the key limitations: 1. Despite their commitment to regular contacts with students, several clients fail to interact with students on a regular basis. This can happen for a number of reasons. The contact persons may get busy with important assignments, may be on tour for a prolonged period, or simply lose interest in the project. 2. The final recommendations by the student group are not implemented regularly, in full or in part. As a result, the project becomes simply an academic exercise, which defeats the very purpose of the project. 3. Student groups generally focus simply on developing an IMC plan and developing a few communication tools (such as print ads, flyers, posters etc.) and hardly get any chance to implement the plan. As a result, they do not get the opportunity to demonstrate critical managerial skills such as project management, leadership, teamwork, interpersonal communication etc. 4. Most student projects do not involve actual implementation hence no budgeting and accounting are involved. I believe the limitations outlined above leave a significant gap in the learning experience of our students. Thus I have been looking for a new experiential learning model that address these limitations.

Background of the Innovation

Because of the problem outlined above, I explored opportunities to design a project that involves a client who is in need of a real marketing communication campaign for its products or services. I got in touch with an educational consulting company, EdVenture Partners (http://www.edventurepartners.com/). In collaboration with EdVenture Partners, I developed an appropriate project that addressed the limitations mentioned above. This arrangement (henceforth called Group Internship Project) works well when the target market consists of young people in the age group of 18-24. Table 1 outlines the key differences between the group internship project and the traditional client project. It offers the students the opportunity to form an agency, plan and executive a real marketing campaign. Finally, we needed to identify a partner company who wanted to plan and implement an IMC campaign. We short listed 5 companies as potential partners, and finally selected Mike Anderson Chevrolet, the largest selling Chevrolet dealer in Indiana. We wanted to select a company that (1) has a national reputation, (2) has a strong presence in Northwest Indiana, and (3) was planning to execute an IMC plan during the semester when the course was offered. Mike Anderson Chevrolet satisfied all these criteria better than other alternatives. They agreed to work with us to develop a marketing campaign for four Chevrolet brands: Sonic, Spark, Cruze and Camero. Specifically, their business objectives were three-fold: 1. Increase awareness and consideration of featured models 2. Improve awareness and overall perception of Mike Anderson Chevrolet 3. Inform the target market of the Chevy College Discount Program

Mike Anderson Chevrolet expected two deliverables from this group internship project: (1) organize a promotional event at the campus where all four featured automobile models are to be showcased, take pictures and videos of the promotional activities, record the reactions of participants, and (2) conduct pre-campaign and post-campaign surveys to ascertain changes, if any, in target market’s opinion about their brands.

Description of the Innovation

This innovation called for students in a marketing class to develop and implement an integrated marketing communication campaign for Mike Anderson Chevrolet located in Merrillville, Indiana. The program was designed to train students in the basics of a marketing campaign including marketing research, leadership, teamwork, client relations, oral and written communication, project management, and organizational skills. Students managed the marketing agency independently. As the instructor, I did not get directly involved in the planning and execution of the project. Before the planning process began, students had to create an agency, form the departments, and deploy individuals in each department.

Creation of the Marketing Agency

Creating a marketing agency involved a number of important steps. Students started with selecting a name for the agency. I helped them conduct an opinion survey to select the name. The most popular name, Redhawk

Marketing Company, was chosen as the agency name. All athletic teams at the university played under the banner of Redhawk. Thus it was expected to help students, the target market of the client, to identify with the company. Once the agency name was finalized, agency departments were formed and students were assigned responsibilities. Six departments were formed: research, campaign strategy and implementation, public relations, advertising, finance, and reports & presentations. I polled students to find out their preferences for a department and willingness to serve as a chair of a department or serve as one of the two the agency coordinators. Students were asked to choose at least two departments to serve. This was done to give each student an opportunity to learn at least two sets of skills. The agency coordinator positions were critical because they had to coordinate with the sponsoring agency EdVenture Partners, the client Mike Anderson Chevrolet, manage interpersonal communication, facilitate meetings, and coordinate with the university Facilities Department to organize a promotional event at the campus. Four students applied for the agency coordinator position. After careful consideration, I selected one student who ran his own lawn care company, and another student who was an executive member of the campus student organization.

Functions of Various Departments

Research Department

The research department was responsible for designing a research plan to help the agency formulate a marketing strategy. In particular, it ran a pre-event survey to understand the attitudes and beliefs of the target market about the four featured models. The team analyzed the data and reported the results to the entire group. During the promotional event, the research team conducted another survey to ascertain the change in attitude, if any, of participants at the event.

Campaign Strategy & Implementation Department

Members of this department were responsible for formulating and implementing the marketing strategy. This department is principally involved in planning and executing the promotional event. As a result, there were responsible for coordinating with and securing necessary permits from university departments, coordinating with Mike Anderson Chevrolet, and coordinating with all departments to get their members involved in organizing the promotional event.

Public Relations Department

The public relations department was responsible for all publicity related activities including media coverage, press releases, news clips etc. They also coordinated efforts with University’s Marketing and Communication department to generate media interest in the promotional event at the campus.

Advertising Department

Members of this department were responsible for planning and executing the entire advertising campaign. They planned and developed both traditional and nontraditional advertising tactics including print ads, flyers, posters, yard signs etc. Print ads were placed in local newspapers, student newspapers and newsletters. In addition, they created a new Facebook page to publicize the event.

Finance Department

The finance department was led by a budget coordinator. Students were given $3,000 to execute the entire project. The budget coordinator was responsible to manage the fund. Specifically, he was responsible for opening a bank account, developing a budget, writing checks and collecting all receipts from all other members. Finally, members of this department prepared the Statement of Account for the client.

Presentations and Reports Department

Members of this department were responsible for preparing the final report and the presentation slides. They coordinated with all other departments to get their sections and incorporated them in the final report. They also selected the presenters, in coordination with the agency coordinators.

Details of the Promotional Event

Students organized a planned promotional event for four featured Chevrolet brands at the campus. All four brands were on display. Students prepared flyers, street signs, and yard signs. They created a special Facebook page to advertise the event (please visit https://www.facebook.com/RedhawkMarketingCompany for more details about the promotional event). They encouraged participants to complete a survey. In total, 498 people completed the survey after reviewing all four featured automobile models. They were offered giveaways (e.g., car air fresheners and tire gauzes), free pizzas and soft drinks for their feedback. Pre- and at-event surveys revealed a 19% increase (10% vs. 29%) in awareness of the Chevrolet Student Discount Program. Finally, students made a presentation to the instructor, executives of Mike Anderson Chevrolet and members of the local media. The Sales Manager Al Kutcher of Mike Anderson Chevrolet expressed deep

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 156 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 satisfaction with the overall performance of the team. In his interview with a local newspaper Northwest Indiana Times, he mentioned that students did “a wonderful job” in creating interest about the event. (Please visit http://www.nwitimes.com/news/local/lake/gary/iun-students-put-marketing-strategy-to- work/article_bfc6d5c7-bacf-5388-93d3-a937f9d8acce.html for details about the news brief.)

Adaptability of the Group Internship Project to other Marketing Courses

The group internship project involves many business functions including research, advertising, public relation, budgeting, and project execution. While I incorporated group internship for an integrated marketing communication project in my Consumer Behavior class, it is easily applicable to many other marketing and business courses, including marketing strategy, business strategy, advertising & sales promotion, and project management.

Effectiveness of the Innovation

We used multiple assessment tools to measure the effectiveness of the group internship project. First, we compared the student evaluation scores for two consecutive years (2011 and 2012) of the Consumer Behavior class. We used traditional client projects in 2011 and the group internship project in 2012. The class design and class content were identical except the type of client project. Results are outlined in Table 2. We also noted the written comments of the students to get a sense of their opinion about the experience. Finally, we evaluated the comments of the representative of Mike Anderson Chevrolet made during the oral presentation.

Table 2 compares the student ratings of a few critical questions relevant to the client projects from 2011 and 2012. Results are presented in percentages. The percent ratings include only ratings of Strongly Agree (SA) and Agree (A). Thus, 92.85% rating for the question “Overall, I would rate the quality of this course as excellent” means that 92.85% of respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree” with the statement.

As mentioned earlier, client projects in 2011 involved a number of small businesses (both for-profit and non-profit) while that in 2012 featured the group internship project involving EdVenture and Mike Anderson Chevrolet. It is evident from Table 2 that students rated the “quality of the course” better (100% vs. 92.85%) and found the project “more challenging” (95.12% vs. 92%) when it involved the group internship rather than the traditional client project. Interestingly, students also found “the quality of the instructor” better (94.12% vs. 92.86%) when the course involved the Chevrolet project. Since the sample size for both years was small, the statistical significance test would yield unreliable results. Hence they are not reported in Table 2.

The written comments of students on the Chevrolet project were generally positive. A few of the comments were “great class”, “the Chevrolet Project was cool”, and “it was fun working with others on the same project”. We also received a few comments such as “wish everybody pulled their weights” and “difficult to organize meeting with group members with different schedule”. Since these comments are optional and only a few students responded, we unfortunately do not have a large set of comments. This precluded us from making an accurate judgment of student opinion.

Lessons Learnt

As an instructor, I learnt many important lessons from this project. First of all, it is difficult to get a large number of students (in our case 17 students) to work smoothly on a single project. Chances of friction between students are quite probable in such a situation. They did happen. Most of the issues though were minor, and the Department Chairs were able to manage them without my intervention. Second, the level of motivation varied from one student to another, thus the potential of dysfunctional departments was present. Since students chose to serve on a given department rather than getting assigned to it, we did not have a thoroughly demotivated student in any department.

The selection of two agency coordinators was very critical. As mentioned earlier, I selected a student who ran a lawn care company and another student who was an officer of the university student government. I selected the first student because of his experience in delegating tasks to others, managing employees, and handling money. I also appointed him as the Budget Coordinator. I selected the second student because he knew the key officials at the University Facility Planning who issued the permits to stage the promotional event at the campus. Fortunately, both selections worked very well. The agency coordinators executed their tasks with aplomb. I did not receive a single complaint against them from any other student, university officials or the representatives of Mike Anderson Chevrolet and EdVenture Partners.

Concluding Comments

As an instructor, it takes a lot effort to organize a group internship program like the Chevrolet promotion program. One may argue that the time spent in developing and implementing this project may be better spent in research which is generally more rewarded by the administration. My experience with this project, however, was very satisfying. It was evident that students learned a great deal from this project. On my part, I enjoyed working closely with the students, and representatives of EdVenture Partners and Mike Anderson Chevrolet. I felt that I made a significant contribution to student learning. That is precisely the reason I will not hesitate in implementing similar group internship projects in my marketing classes in future. It is my hope that my colleagues not only in my university but also in other universities will try this innovative teaching method to enhance student learning.

Table 1: A Comparison of Traditional Client Project and Group Internship Project

Criteria Traditional Client Project Group internship project

Group Size Small (2-6 students) Large (15-20 students) Opportunity to Limited Extensive implement project Scope of work Mostly planning and strategy Planning, strategy and implementation Exposure to different Limited Extensive marketing functions Exposure to different Limited Extensive business functions Potential of soft skill Limited Extensive development (leadership, team work etc.) Opportunity to work Limited Extensive on a budget

Table 2: Comparison of Student Ratings between Traditional Client Project and Group Internship Project

Survey Question Traditional Client Project Group Internship Project 2011 2012 N Rating (%) N Rating (%) Overall, I would rate the quality of this 14 92.85 17 100 course as excellent The course has received more of my time 14 76.92 17 75 and effort than most other courses at this level The final project challenged me a great 14 92.00 17 95.12 deal Overall, I would rate the quality of this 14 92.86 17 94.12 instructor as excellent

References

Bove, L. L., & Davies, W. M. (2009). A case study of teaching marketing research using client- sponsored projects. Journal of Marketing Education, 31 (3), 230-239. EdVenture Partners: http://www.edventurepartners.com/ Gaumer, C. J., Cotleur, C. A., & Arnone, C. (2012). Use of client-based projects in business education: A comparison of undergraduate and graduate pedagogy. The Coastal Business Journal, 11 (1), 70-81. McCale, C. (2008). It’s hard work learning soft skills: Can client based projects teach the soft skills students need and employers want? The Journal of Effective Teaching, 8(2), 50-60. Parsons, A. L., & lepkowska-White, E. (2009). Group projects using clients versus not using clients: do students perceive any differences? Journal of Marketing Education, 31 (2), 154-159. Red Hawk Marketing Company: https://www.facebook.com/RedhawkMarketingCompany

Education in the 21st Century

doc. PhDr. Oľga Bočáková, PhD. PhDr. Darina Kubíčková, PhD. The University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Social Services and Counselling Bučianska 4/A 917 01 Trnava Slovakia [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

This paper deals with the issues of education in Slovakia in the 21st century. The focus has been oriented on the system of higher education and on its current problems. At the present time there prevails an opinion that the quality, standard and demands of the university education is decreasing. In our paper we have carried out an empiric research mapping the opinions of employers of university lecturers and individual students of universities with regard to various aspects connected with university education. We have taken into regard the development of system of education after 1989 and the changes connected with it. The aim of the paper is to identify the current problems of higher education in Slovakia. The research question reads: What problems does the university education have at the present time? From the point of view of used methods we have selected work with literature and its analysis and also the questionnaire method. Subsequently we have analysed and evaluated the results of our survey.

1. Introduction

What should education in the 21st century be like? The educational process is developing on continuous basis, just as the whole society changes, because the system of education is to prepare an individual for the current conditions on the labour market at the given time. It is generally possible to observe that the system of education does not anticipate the future development on the labour market, but it is exactly the opposite case, it reacts to this development with delay. In our paper we research into the problems of higher education in Slovakia, with regard to the changes, which took place in connection with the transformation process after 1989. The transformation processes probably evoked changes in all sector policies in Slovakia and did not avoid the educational system. The principle change rests in quantitative increase in the number of universities and in the development of private education. The aim of our paper is to identify the problems of higher education. The research question reads: What problems does the system of higher education have at the present time?

2. The current trends in the educational policy

In our conditions it has not been true for a long time that the human being worked in the course of his/her whole productive life in one and the same company or even also in the same position. The present time is becoming

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 160 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 faster and more flexible. It is not enough to graduate from a field of study at the secondary school or at the university to be able to earn one's living the whole life long, but it requires systematic learning. 21st century will be a century of learning. After having graduated from a 5-year study the required knowledge is not up-to- date any more and therefore the process of learning is becoming more and more significant. This can be seen in the conditions of the present labour market, in the form of the so-called education of retraining, which in its essence is a kind of a “crash course” in the duration of several months that cannot compete with learning programs of 4 or 5 years at the secondary specialised schools. Highly specialised learning programs at the secondary schools or fields of study at the universities turn out not to be needed on the labour market, based on the reason that because of substantial flexibility the employees have to be capable to reorient themselves to new tasks and employment challenges. This gives rise to the significance of general education, which provides the biggest world horizon, however it brings with itself a certain amount of shallowness. The present trends in the policy of education result in the situation, when the graduates are not prepared for the present conditions of the market and this again results in the situation, when the firms have to provide them additional training within their educational programs to get them into the shape, in which they need them. We often come across a feature called degradation of education, which means that employees are doing jobs not corresponding to their qualification degree of education. From the above mentioned it results that exclusivity of education is getting lost, because people from all walks of life are obtaining access to it. On the one hand it leads to increase of education of the population, on the other hand to the education becoming average. In the past a secondary school leaving certificate had a relatively great significance on the labour market, at the present time it is not the case any more, because the second level of university education is becoming quite a common case. Therefore the demand for the third level of education (PhD.), or as the case may be for other alternative forms of education such as MBA, LL.M., MPH etc. is increasing. The university puts other demands on the university lecturer than it is in the case of a secondary or elementary school. The lecturer at the university is becoming to be more a partner and not a mentor [6]. A university lecturer should be above all a specialist in his/her field with qualifications for scientific and pedagogical work [9]. A university lecturer is a complex personality, who should have the required pedagogical-psychological, specialised scientific as well as a moral profile [7]. However regrettably not all people have inborn aptitude to be a teacher and this is even less expected from specialists, who are oriented into high spheres of theoretical thinking and research, but some techniques and methods can be learnt [5]. What makes the work of a university lecturer difficult and devalues the university educational processes is a great number of universities and also a great number of university students as well as graduates. So the question that should be asked is, why there is an inadequate number of universities in the small Slovakia [1]. Mainly in the nineties there was a great interest in university education mainly among the adult population, one part of which could not study during the period of socialism [4]. The university students can be divided into two basic groups and these are the full time students and the students of other forms of studies [8]. Some universities have not risen evolutionarily in the cities, in which a long-term tradition was being created, but often as a consequence of an artificial political decision. The other side of the imaginable coin is an educational and intellectual potential of development with attractiveness of the given region, which the existence of a university brings with itself.These universities were formed as a result of local patriotism of a politician or a group of politicians, who wanted to do something for their city. The next reason was creation of parallel influence centres and such centres can be represented by the universities. This claims proves the personal interconnection between the universities and the political entities, and we cannot hold this against anybody, because everybody has a right to become involved in politics.Another cause why new faculties or fields of study or programs were formed was the vacuum of specialists social sciences after the changes in

1989. However this vacuum has already been filled in, even overfilled.One cannot forget the European integration processes, which have been for a long time determining the line of direction in various resort policies and which are also followed by the Slovak Republic. Harmonisation of Slovakia with the EU can also be seen in an artificial increase of population with university education [1]. The consequence of the present situation is the fact that the faculties literally fight for the students, therefore candidates with disastrous low knowledge get to the universities [2]. In this connection J. Keller and J. Tvrdý have stated that the whole system of education is functioning so that when a certain field of study ceases to be reserved for the privileged social groups a new prestigious form of studies is sooner or later created for them [3].

3. Empirical research

3.1 The aim of the survey

The aim of our empirical survey is to identify the key problems of university education in Slovakia at the present time.

3.2 The tasks of the survey

Our survey has the following tasks: Task 1: What problems the university education has at the present time from the point of view of the students. Task 2: What problems the university education has at the present time from the point of view of the teachers. Task 3: What problems the university education has at the present time from the point of view of the employers.

3.3 The methodology and characteristics of a sample

We have chosen a questionnaire as a method. We have sent out 193 sheets. 150 of them came back to us. On the basis of filtration question, which is analysed in table 4, we have filtered 3 groups of respondents, which we have needed from the point of view of set tasks.

Table 1 Sample of respondents according to their sex Sex % number male 54 81 female 46 69

Table 2 Sample of respondents according to the region Region % number Bratislava 16.67 25 Trnava 13.33 20 Nitra 10.67 16 Trenčín 12 18 Žilina 11.33 17 Banská Bystrica 10 15 Košice 13.33 21 Prešov 12 18

Table 3 Sample of respondents according to the age categories Age categories % number 18 – 30 34 51 30 – 40 17.33 26 40 – 50 18 27 50 – 62 13.33 20 62 and more 17.33 26

Table 4 Sample of respondents according to the social and professional status Social and professional status % number university student 30.67 46 university teacher 16.67 25 employer 14 21 other 38.67 58

3.4 Processing and analysis of survey results

Table 5 Reasons of selection of the field of study in % reasons % number Interest in the field of study 15.22 7 Recommendation of the parents 4.35 2 Finding a job in the labour 6 market 13.04 I was not admitted anywhere else 21.74 10 Salaries of the graduates 19.57 9 Easy to study field 26.09 12

Graph 1 Satisfaction and dissatisfaction in %with the field of study at the university

Yes No I don´t know

As it results from graph 1, so the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the students with their study is approximately the same.

Graph 2 Fears to find a job according to the fields of study in %

Zdravotníctvo

Pôdohospodráske a veterinárne

Technické vedy

Prírodné vedy

Sociálne vedy, ekonómia

Humanitné vedy a umenia

Pedagogické vedy

0 2 4 6 8 10

Yes No I don´t know

Graph 2 indicates that the students of technical fields have fewer concerns with regard to finding a job in comparison with the students of humanities.

Graph 2: Health care Agricultural and veterinary fields Technical sciences Natural science Social science, economy Humanities and arts Pedagogical sciences

Table 6 Problems of university education from the point of view of the students in %

% number Unprofessional approach of the teachers 8.7 4 Insufficiently furnished library 15.22 7 Lack of practice, too much useless theory 19.57 9 Fixtures and fittings of the hostels 13.04 6 High fees connected with the study 17.39 8 A great number of students at the universities 13.04 6 Unfair marking 10.87 5 Level of difficulty of the study program 2.17 1

If we analyse individual replies so we can state that individual teachers do not consider their occupation to be a mission, but mainly to be a source of certain income notwithstanding what performance they provide in the lectures, seminars, etc. The students often point out the fact that the university teachers even do not come to the classes without an excuse. From the above mentioned it results that some teachers approach their occupation

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 164 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 to a certain degree with complete indifference and they are not afraid of any recourse on the part of management of the department, faculty or the university.Unprofessionalism of university lecturers can also be seen in cases, when a certain lecturer has several teaching loads at the universities or jobs in other organisations and as a consequence of this it happens that in several cases s/he is more or less a number at the school without real contribution for the students. On the other hand they are often the young graduates of masters' studies, who start in the position of university lecturers and their publication and research and scientific activity is almost zero. How can such a lecturer have any demands on the quality of students, if he s/has almost no demands on himself/herself...? The other problem mentioned in the above mentioned table is insufficiently equipped library. Among the basic preconditions for formation of new fields of study should be: 1. Personnel cover, 2. Material means, Under personnel cover we understand the guarantors, who would be able to guarantee the given programs of study as well as other personnel, i.e. professors, associate professors and university lecturers with a PhD. degree. Under material means we understand mainly the library and technical support.

Table 7 Problems of university education from the point of view of the teachers in %

% number Financing for a head 32 8 Low salaries 20 5 Many students 36 9 Little time for scientific and research activities 12 3

The problem of relatively high number of universities in Slovakia is connected with several circumstances and according to table 7 a great number of students can be considered to be a key problem.

Table 8 Assessment of university graduates from the point of view of employers in %

% number Absence of experience 23.81 5 Much theoretical knowledge 14.29 3 Expectations of unrealistic salaries 14.29 3 Absence of social competence 4.76 1 Absence of knowledge of foreign languages 9.52 2 Absence of foreign experience 4.76 1 Absence of work habits 4.76 1 Insufficiently developed will qualities 4.76 (responsibility...) 1 Absence of graduates of the technical fields 19.05 4

The absent experience is probably the key problem of the university graduates, because university education in Slovakia has mostly technical character, in particular in the case of theoretically tuned fields of study. From the above mentioned it results that the so called verbal learning causes increase of the so called education in the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2015 pg. 165 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol.3-2, 2015 academic sense of the word, but on the other hand it leads to useless and inappropriate overloading by useless and often unusable knowledge, which will be forgotten by the graduates in the end. In this context it is necessary to ask a question how to solve this problem. At the secondary specialised schools we are coming back to the so called dual education, which enables better connection of theoretical teaching of specialised subjects at secondary specialised schools with practice in the firms and the firms can train their future employees in this way. This model has already been successful in the period of socialism, but as a consequence of casting away everything what was connected with the previous regime this model was cancelled and only with the benefit of hindsight we are coming back to some positive elements of the previous social-economic formation. If we move from the secondary specialised schools to the universities, so we can see here several possibilities how to achieve the required experience: 1. Temporary employment, partial employment already in the course of the studies at the university, 2. Educational stay. Implementation of the study visits for the university students requires certain umbrella institutional coverage on the part of the university or faculty and the corresponding signing of the contracts between the firm and the learning institution. This process is taking place already at the present time in the sense that the students of technical fields of the universities carry out practical part of their final works (bachelor, diploma or dissertation) directly during their practice in the firm. From the point of view of the firm this makes it possible to select the best trainees as future employees. As we have already indicated on another place, in most cases the school provides a relatively large amount of knowledge, on the basis of which the graduates acquire an overview corresponding to that and its corresponding width and depth. The project teaching represents a principle change from the present manner of Slovak education, which goes more or less into the width, which results in a broad overview, however this kind of teaching is superficial. Contrary to that project teaching is focussed on one problem only, which is being researched from various aspects. In some western countries the education takes place in the form of essays, enabling the training in the following academic skills: - academic writing, - creative thinking, - critical thinking, - Analysis of information. Also one should not forget the financial literacy. Financial literacy results in knowing financial operations, knowing the products not only of the banks and saving institutions but also of insurance companies and other financial institutions that are active in the financial market. Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of financial products results in making a correct decision when choosing among them and enables not to succumb to financial agents. In the U.S.A. financial literacy has substantially higher standard than in the Slovak Republic, which is given by financial education from the lowest levels of the educational system, which lags behind in the conditions of the Slovak Republic. This requires preparation of the concept of the development of financial literacy on the basis of appropriate age.In addition to this the next challenge the Slovak system of education is in for is the development of medial literacy. Another problem from the point of view of the employers is unrealistic financial remuneration for the provided work. As far as the absent social competencies are concerned, neither they are a focal point of educational system. In this context the key social competencies can be considered to be mainly: 1. Project management – management of the project, of the so called certain work task, which represents a certain process consisting of several steps, and in which several participants take part,

2. Team management – represents management of a team, i.e. a collective of colleagues, who cooperate within a certain (permanent or temporary) organisational unit; in addition to other things it requires also knowledge of several areas, such as e.g. group dynamic processes or personal typology, 3. Presentation abilities – include positive presentation of a certain product, 4. Verbal communication – includes handling of words up to the degree required by the audience, 5. Non-verbal communication – includes body contacts, facial expressions, posturology, gestures, 6. Discussions, negotiations and conclusion of compromises – are necessary conditions of coexistence with other people not only in the private relations but also in the working environment. If we look at the knowledge of foreign languages, so we can see here several dimensions of this issue. First of all this competence is to a certain extent determined by the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, which decides about the facts, when, how much and how many hours a week the pupils of elementary and secondary schools will be learning foreign languages. The results of this decision can be observed only in the course of several years, e.g. during the transition from the elementary school to the secondary school, when it is possible to state that a certain age group, which is strong or weak in foreign languages is taking up studies. It was mainly after 1989 when relatively significant acceleration of the development in language teaching at elementary schools took place, however at the present time there is certain decline in this area. Because of this reason it is possible to assume that in the future it will be necessary for the school graduates to take additional independent studies either in the form of courses for the public or in the company courses. Another dimension of language teaching is the question of degree of generality of the language or as the case may be of the language for special purposes or of the specialised professional language. A command of general language can be considered to be a certain broader basis, which makes it possible to learn basic principles, by which a certain language is governed and to acquire grammatical structure and vocabulary and subsequently on this basis it is possible to go deeper in specialised language. In connection with the needs of the employers in the area of the specialised language it is mainly the technical and business terminology that is required. Its acquisition should be one part of the curriculum at the secondary specialised schools or of the curriculum at the universities in such a degree, so that the graduates were prepared to communicate in the foreign language not only on the general level, but also on the level of specialised language. If we move to the next item, which is insufficient foreign experience of the graduates, so in this context it is necessary to look for the reasons of this situation: 1. Fear of unknown and alien environment – this fear may result from the life style or as the case may be from the manner of upbringing and it can evoke the conditions of anxiety when leaving the nearest family, 2. Language barrier – a study or exchange stay requires certain knowledge of a foreign language, without which the student is not capable to include himself/herself into normal functioning in the course of his/her foreign studies, 3. Finances – travelling and a study in a foreign country can be connected with substantial financial demands in the case that the scholarship and the expenses associated with it do not cover the whole amount of the stay, 4. Usual lack of interest without an apparent reason – results from indifferent attitude to the study, when the student studies only for one reason, i.e. to acquire the required qualifications without deeper interest in the field of study. Also one cannot forget the absent work habits, or insufficiently developed will qualities. The mentioned shortcomings have certainly connection to the fact that the demands on the university students are getting lower and lower and because of this reason they spend less time for their study duties and more time for the free time and recreational activities. The result of this is that they are not used to systematic work, which they are in for in their employment and they miss the qualities, such as:

- ambitiousness, - industriousness, - accuracy at work, - efficiency, - patience, - persistence.

3.5 Summary of the conclusions of our survey

Within our survey have arrived at several facts: 1. The students are satisfied or not satisfied with their studies approximately in the same extent. 2. The students of technical fields have the smallest concerns concerning their jobs. 3. They consider the biggest problem within their studies to be insufficient practice. 4. The biggest problem from the point of view of university teachers is a great number of students. 5. The biggest problem from the point of view of employers is few graduates of technical fields.

Conclusion

At the end we can state that approximately in the course of the last quarter of the century the Slovak university education went through the principle changes as a result of transformation processes, which had been launched in 1989. The result of these changes is Slovak mass higher education, i.e. mass admittance of candidates to university studies, decrease of their standards and degradation of higher education connected with it. The key problems of the present situation in the university education can be considered to be absence of practice, a great number of university students and few graduates in technical fields.

References

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