3

The Journal of Technology Studies 2 Articles Articles functions inand affects society. erally regarded astheway inwhich technology Indeedthisisexpected andgen- not surprising. administration ofjusticew viathe and thereafter(hopefully) arrested mined throughprocessesofsocial constr sociall gy hasalways andinevitably beenusedfor ethics andlaws. Hence,thenotionthattechnolo- how they areusedinrelationtosocialnorms, ogy may resultingoodorevil by asdetermined understood thatsynergistic scienceandtechnol- functions inastoundingw modate humanpreferencesandenable societal rials, economics,andpoliticalprocesses)accom sib and theinteractive forceswhich make thesepos- across scholarl broadest meaningdenotessystematizedlearning sion. implementation, systemsinte processes,adoption, components, manufacturing evolves initsdesign,engineering,materials, and ser alized w technology. know Readersofthisarticle full andongoingdevelopmenthistory ofsocietyas Intr controlling . andsecuritymeasuresforpreventing and networks thatdefytraditional methodscriminal cybercrime, transnational crimeandterrorism threatsposedbyporary of emerging forms and securityper oftechnology-enabledtheory crime,policing predicted. These principlesunderscoreanew can theoreticall technology crimewaves, themagnitudeofwhich crimesemerge overand ordinary timetocreate unmanageable threatstosociety. New, adaptive results inrelatively confusingandtherefore complexperpetually crime,policingandsecurity fortechnological advantagepolicing officials possible. As criminalscompetewith securityand and co-evolve withtechnologies thatmake them Abstract Sam McQuade Technology-enabled Crime,PolicingandSecurity ell thattechnology may bevariously conceptu- le (e.g.,imagination,processingofra oduction Few thingsareasfundamentaltohuman Crime, policingandsecurityareenabled by When coupledwithscience,w , y cate v ab es seemingl usive asdeter- orcriminalpurposes gorized anddef y y tinent forunderstandingcontem- fields ofresearch,technology fields be measured, comparedand y inf inite pur a hen notpre ined; isubiquitous ys. Itisalsow g ration anddiffu- poses; and hich inits v ented is w uction ell mate - - Similarl sider thetheoreticalroleoftechnology incrime. (Williams didnotcon- andMcShane,1993)but regard forhumanrights,justice,orfairness nal behavior andpunishmentimposedwithout tures andcriticizedarbitrarily-designated crimi- for example, legal examined 18th-century struc- Theories oftheClassicalSchoolcriminology gy-related principles,processesandtheories. tion have consideredtechnolo- notsignificantly victimiza- ofcrimeandcorresponding correlates gists who have longsoughttoexplain causesand society, however, itissurprising thatcriminolo- countervailing policingandsecurityfunctions of in theenablement andevolution ofcrime,andin contrib hasbeendeveloped.ty purposes, This paper v about criminaluseoftechnolo absence ofcapable guardians,nounifyingtheory offenders who have suitable targets inthe are morelikely tobecommittedby motivated enced technolo 1966), even asCohenand Felson (1979)refer- 1985; Burgess & Akers, 1966;Burgess etal., along withotherscholars(seee.g., nal lear ple-to-complex techniques asanaspectofcrimi- Differential sim- Association identified Theory McShane, 1993). ty, andtreatmentofcriminals”(Williams & cation ofcriminaltypes,predictioncriminali- methodology, assumptionofpathology, classifi- sidering criminalbehavior, “useofscientific ignored theroleoftechnology even when con- technolo tools enabling accomplishmentoftasks, social technologies.” Whereas physical technologies are hard “ph impliesadistinctionbetween This definition methods, andmaterialstopracticear tion ofhardand/orsoftsciencekno Interplay Physical andSocialTechnology gies rangefrom beingsimple-to-complex, and interactions occur. Physical andsocialtechnolo- tohowpertain humanactivities, behaviors, and ailing useoftechnolo Given theobvious rolethattechnology has Technology astheapplica- canbedefined utes tothatprocess. ning processeslaterspecif y gies aremethodsortechniques w ysical technolo , 19th-centur gy whenthatcrimes observing And w y gy forpolicingandsecuri- gies” andsoft“social P hile Sutherland’ ositive Schooltheories gy, andcounter- ied by Akers Ak wledge, ts andskills. ers 1998; s (1947) hich The Journal of Technology Studies 33 e. ther, v lexity personnel y ving crime- poses. Fur and Comp , tion ganizational process- ganizational rise vation is intended to vation egra ying scientific, technological, ar or Enterp Time, Int to understand or operate, or not cost petual inno x chnology on, matters such as or nology vate Sect e ements are often unclear or subjecti Physical Te v v ial Tech Note that new technologies designed to technologies Note that new novati Soc elopment in v v In ailing policing and security pur and Pri and techniques. Essentially, it is the notion that it is the Essentially, and techniques. enterprises are competitive in involved people trying a little bit better. to do things just always of applies to the interplay innovation Perpetual public used by and social technologies physical enterprisesin competitive operating and private of products improvement Perpetual environments. within organizational and services developed spin- discoveries, to new lead may environments these. Hence, of and innovation inventions off be and techniques may combinations of tools their own in technologies transformed into new is creation of invention- effect The overall right. and physical in which to-obsolescence cycles more integrated become and social technologies 2. in Figure with time as shown complex related competitive implications (e.g., develop- related competitive of mass destruc- ment or acquisition of weapons terrorist and/or of pro- tion by organizations Thus, as prietary corporations). information by are technologies new acknowledged, previously as counter- adopted for illicit purposes as well v impro achieve competitive advantage may constitute may advantage competitive achieve and/or trade secrets, each ha although per es, products, services, and profits etc., actual impro agrees that a new for example, Not everyone or that of doing things is better, or way gadget these will result in greater benefits com- when of the organization pared to costs at the level At the time much less within broader society. might be just technology of its adoption, a given too comple states of research and extant given effective de Figure 2. Perpetual innovation-to- Figure obsolescence cycles economic, and political environ- organizational, to devel- is affordable if technology ments. Even op, adopt, implement and master b involved it may nonetheless result in more harm it may involved inef- than good and be considered economically ficientAnd in the grand scheme of outcomes. c ubli - y y ve P tools etiti w omp C hich combine Social Physical lish reliability the gies w ties involved concurrent- ties involved taining to synthetic anal and adoption of ne gies estab Interplay y er Technology v yriad technolo m y adopt new tools or processes. “Perpetual adopt new occurs as all par , y Complex Simple When technolo xity emplo y innovation” (Kash, 1989; Kash and Rycroft, innovation” 1996) is a concept per and skills residing in indi- sis of tacit knowledge that enable viduals, groupsand organizations continual disco tend to be adopted. This is because human enter- tend to be adopted. and because seek to improve, prises generally Even at anything. to get worse nobody likes preferringthose persons or organizations to be may remain static in their use of technology or other forces, and forced to adapt to market thereb Figure 1. Dynamic intertwining and Figure substitution of simple to complex, physical and social technologies. Perpetually Complex Technology- enabled Competition complexity often has to do with the number of the number do with has to often complexity in technological systems involved or components used here, complexity As or processes. functions cannot be which use of technology refers to the or security expert an investigative by explained This expertsto similar distance. across time and from the original is adapted operationalization Kash and Rycroft (1997) definition by developed issues technology-related to address complex settings. In prac- and processes in organizational It is used conjunctively. are tice technologies social tech- and that both physical also notable facilitateand theory-building research nologies sciences such as criminol- in the hard and social of 1, combinations in Figure As shown ogy. physical simple-to-complex between interplay knowledge- that enable and social technologies building accomplishments are and other human infinite with respect to inputs, conceivably tech- processes, outputs and outcomes. Complete intertwining, and thus maximum com- nology ple l processes and components, systems, interactive to defy understanding among experts. effects diminishes as the uses and complexity time Over are better understood and of technology effects become more manageable. 3

The Journal of Technology Studies 4 Figure 3.Simple-to-complexcrimescommittedwithsimple-to-complextools. long overdue. aspectsofcrime,policingandsecurityis gral ing themexplicitly asinte- terms intheoretical technology-related principles,althoughconsider- prises, andthereisnothingnovel aboutthese are inherently competitive enter- anddistrusting capabilities. Crimeversus policingandsecurity orinvent toresurrect trying new threatening that theirwould-be opponentsarenotsecretly cal advantage iseitherfutileorundesirable, and involved mustbelieve thatachieving technologi- among competitors.For thistooccur, allparties technological andmaintained balanceisstruck ners andloserswilleventually emerge unlessa ly occursunderconditionsofcompetition,win- innovationbecause perpetual only andnecessari- w develop asatisfactory ment withexisting tools ortechniquesinorderto ing fellow criminals.Periodically they experi- howlearning todosofromotherpeopleinclud- tage ofnew technologies oftenastheresultof Security Technology asCrime,Policingand byproduct of perpetual technologybyproduct innovation ofperpetual commit theirillicitactivities. As anatural ing criminalsmay concoctnew ways inwhich to techniques, althoughonrareoccasionsenterpris- toolsor clined tochangeeithertheirpreferred ing theirM.O., successful criminalsaredisin- en who may beprowling aboutphysical andcyber technologies ofintendedtargets, aswell as them reasonab Single suspectusingamanualinstrument A frequent drug sales,andacomputerto frequent drug hich the to unla or gain entry toavehicleor gainstructure. entry vironments forsignsofcrime.Uponestablish- phone and pager to facilitate hisownphone andpagertofacilitate transactions, expenses, andincome. marijuana g Cunning criminalshave always taken advan- 1. SimpleCrimeCommitted 2. SimpleCrimeCommitted store digitizedrecordsofhis wfull Using Comple y Using Simple Tools are comfor y le adv ro threaten, har w er w antages o modus operandi ho usesacellular table andbelieve gives x T ools m, damage, v er thesecurity with gy, socanvarious methodsofpolicing. laundering) canbeconsideredasocialtechnolo social technologies areemployed. ph useof crime associaltechnology incorporating cavities arenotable exceptions. Conceiving of suchasthoseusedtopenetratebody instruments mitted withouttheuseofweapons orother tools), althoughrape,,andmurdercom- always involve useofphysical technologies (i.e., and cybercrimes. tional crimenetworks, celloperations, terrorist and technology-enabled organization oftransna- ing systemicchangesinthetechnological nature dering (1996,p.viii). Today we arealsowitness- the evolution ofthetechnology ofmoney laun- Graycar to andGrabosky forinstance,referred with itsown innovation-to-obsolescence cycles. poses canbeconceived ofassocialtechnology of gaining technological advantage forillicitpur- level. Thus crimeconsistingofmyriad methods of committingcrimecanchangeatthesocietal and criminaladoptionadaptation,methods binations ofrelati abo committed usingcomplex tools. As indicated ted usingsimpletools;and(4)complex crime using complex tools;(3) complex crimecommit- using simpletools;(2)crimecommitted F differentiatingRycroft (1997),but asdepictedin a igure 3betw matrix similartothatusedby Kashand ysical technolo v Just asv Crime associaltechnology willalmost e, complex crimeoccurs totheextent com- generate, transmit, andstoreencrypted victims acrossmultiplejurisdictions using av violence, andmone Traditional racketeering, vice,and arious typesofcrime(e.g.,mone cor 4. Complex CrimesCommitted Combined dr 3. Comple een: (1)simplecrimecommitted r crime-related information. uption usingrelati gies allo v Using Comple el physical technologies. Using Simple Tools y ariety ofdigitalde comple x ws forconstr ug smuggling,g Crime Committed x y ph x laundering of ysical and v T el ools y uction of vices to simple ang y - The Journal of Technology Studies 35 - gy tain into crimi e y entually v olv v technolo x ond a cer y oidance b 3, and e v gy to investigate gy to investigate y gor over time. over imple Tools community. x S Complex Tools Complex wever, may prefer to remain may wever, ely simple ways they deem they simple ways ely v operation using electronic operation using electronic Undercover store-front sting Undercover they may be incapable of advanc- be incapable may they B. Complex Policing Using Policing Complex B. D. Complex Policing Using Policing Complex D. cellular phone theft and . community Police officer issuing Police community here detection a crime prevention seminares and crime prevention surveillance and GIS equipment tracking technolo wledge and skills be or stickers in the course of conducting in the course stickers A “hot spot” problem-solving within a “hot spot” problem-solving citizens Neighborhood Block Watch Block citizens Neighborhood , els of simple-to-comple y v 2, then into Cate vention, detection and apprehension vention, y more realistic conception of technologi- actor play and provides an example of hypothetical an example and provides play ve (i.e., the drive) of criminal groups and (i.e., the drive) ve Some crooks ho A gor anizations as well as individuals, and in envi- as individuals, anizations as well g arious le Categorycorresponding 4 with increases 3 depicts this Figure complexity. in technological inter 2 depicts Figure while crime(s) in each category, and social as intertwining physical technology used to commit crime , and that may technologies and integrated, thus crime itself being innovated, becoming more comple using a computer. Thus, and in reference to using a computer. 3, a Category 1 crime (i.e., simple crimes Figure committed with simple tools) might e Cate to commit various types of crimes while learn- types of crimes while to commit various also avoiding all the while ing from one another, police and security officers and/or overcoming crime pre technologies. operating in relati satisf ing their kno level of technological complexity. Collectively complexity. of technological level or of polic- levels ronments consisting of various ing/security w cally evolving crime would involve all four cate- involve crime would evolving cally with 3 co-evolving gories of the matrix in Figure increases in resources coupled with intensity of moti nals is also required. After all, individual crimi- After all, individual nals is also required. of criminals use networks nals and organized v ms race en entire vilian ar ention methods v v tnership with community Tools . anizations and e gies that are bound only by gies that are bound only imple g S police cruiser. Complex Tools Complex ws that crime and policing/security ysical and range from being relatively gues of crime and policing/security An officer patrol on foot at night with a flashlight. conducting buildingconducting checks C. Simple Policing Using C. Simple Policing Random preventative patrol Random preventative A. Simple Policing Using Policing A. Simple raduate to stealing from multiple victims roups, or using a modern, well-equipped using a modern, well-equipped lem-solving in par It follo igure 4. Categories, interplay, and examples of simple-to-complex policing of simple-to-complex and examples interplay, 4. Categories, igure is limited only by available resources broadly available by is limited only defined skills, (e.g., imagination, knowledge, 3 and 4 represent concep- time.). Figures money, tual analo combine tools and techniques (or meth- which ods) into practical functions that are subject to are developed, technologies change as new individu- adopted and implemented by learned, als, g or societies. Referring to crime for regions only conceptualize its evolution may the moment, we of an individ- and at the micro level sequentially thief might first a young example, learn ual. For to shoplift using her purse for concealment, and later g co-evolve with technology invented or adapted invented with technology co-evolve for these purposes and that as the result of com- petition in a manner akin to a ci Perpetually Complex Crime and Policing members to enhance crime pre Community policing for instance, often that emphasizes described as a philosophy prob be conceptualized as a social technology. may security and policing technologies Obviously are also ph simple to complex. Thus, analogous to crime as Thus, analogous simple to complex. of simple-to-complex the interplay technology, such as policing or security methods and tools 4 are also in Figure the examples described by social technolo human ingenuity F technology. physical and methods 3

The Journal of Technology Studies 6 Figure 5.Dynamiccrimeandpolicingtechnologyco-evolution security of c And ascrimeinagiven geographic locationor plushumaningenuity.function ofthesefactors via securityandpolicinge cal andeconomicconditionsconstraints. distance subjecttobroadsocial,cultural,politi- opers respondaccordingl the aredynamically intertwined,enterprises and physical andsocialtechnologies usedby these F tionally shown inthehopelessly complicated the otherthroughouttimeandsociety. As inten- and by extension co-evolves eachperpetually tions drive policingandsecurityinnovations, ble, dynamicandco-evolving. Criminalinnova- cally competitive thatareinextrica- enterprises regarding theirown technological capabilities. crime, andbothwell resourcedandexpert knowledge andunderstandingofemerging muststay intheir and securityofficials current tounderstandandmanage. difficult Thus police them alsobecomeincreasingly complex and use oftechnology, ofcrimecommittedby forms As criminalsbecomemoresophisticatedintheir technologies.tion, adoptionanduseofparticular organizations becomestaticintheirown inven- innovates even ifindividual criminalsorcriminal crime aswell aspolicing/security)perpetually however, competitive society(andtherefore, yber realmemer igure 5belo y Thus, crimeandmethodsforpreventing it Crime andpolicing/securityaretechnologi- become morecomple f icials inclusi w , the g ges inane amut ofsimple-to-comple Committed UsingSimpleTools 4. 1. v 3. SimpleCrimeCommitted y. Who incomputerized e Complex CrimeCommitted Simple CrimesCommitted v x Using ComplexTools of technolo Using ComplexTools olv Using SimpleTools w over timeand 2. Complex Crimes way, policeand e to gether asa gy devel- x cials shouldstopobsessingwithcrimerates,and ted. Inotherwords, policing andsecurityoffi- less oftherelative complexity ofcrimescommit- placing existing capabilities ofcriminalsregard- ing, interdicting,suppressingorotherwisedis policing w ation ofrelatively sophisticatedsecurityand realm, ratherreasonable innovation andperpetu- within agiven geographic locationorcyber of crimemeasuredinincidenceorprevalence ultimatel using theirtechnolo and orderly society, securityandpoliceforces Yet, whenasafe,secure itcomestopreserving against, occursnaturally given humannature. however socially andlegislated constructed After all,theseprocessesareinevitable —crime, game, thereisrelatively littlecauseforalarm. andpolicearewinningtheoverallofficials oreveninjury death.Butaslongthesecurity ofproperty, destruction physicalin significant resources, andperiodically mayculminate also may involve andother considerable financial advantages. gameThis insidiouscatandmouse adjust theiractivities toreclaimtechnological tactics and/oremploy new tools,criminalswill inagivenor policeofficials realmdevelop new tion andremoval code?Conversely, ifsecurity arecontinually writingprevention, detec- firms worms, Trojans, spyware andadware) forwhich and releaseofmalware (i.e.,computerviruses, creation technological competitionsurrounding societies doesnotcontinually experience the What mattersmostisnotthetypeoramount B. ComplexPolicingUsing D. ComplexPolicingUsing C. SimplePolicingUsing y hich iscapab triumph o Complex Tools Complex Tools Simple Tools gical capabilitiesmust v er criminals. le of deterring, prevent-le ofdeterring, A. SimplePolicingUsing Simple Tools - The Journal of Technology Studies 37 , y y glar ur are con- ford clear xperiences ined criminal will af w def al at the time of y speaking, ordinary g even though they may they though even y all y radical innovative use radical innovative ille g arieties of theft, b e y Ordinary crimes Ordinary are new technological technological are new gicall olv and case la v to broader social e y in frequentl m y hat is happening. Since new crime hat is happening. Since new el constitute le icials, the media and members of the ted by a body of case albeit with a body of ted by v f y crimes w ms of crime or security threats, and the ince crime is technologically dynamic and is technologically ince crime Adaptive crimes Ne S nment of hich is not necessaril authority if not ample precedence based on simi- lar case facts. and ). crime can be prose- As such, adaptive behavior. crime legisla- cuted in its essence under existing tion suppor varying precision and success. It may not be and success. It may precision varying adaptive necessary technologically to prosecute because strategy crimes via an untested legal adequate statutor can become increasingly complex over time and time over complex increasingly can become accordance with supportingdistance in resources constraining culture versus or such as money or culture, it is factors of money such as lack of perpetual the evolution useful to categorize as it applies to potential crime and innovation each denoted three ways, security breaches in with a technical term. places, occur in many routinely They ventional. understood in their vari- well and are recognized investigated, prevented, ations, and are actively that crime is A clear indication and prosecuted. ordinary of defining is the existence body of an accompanying criminal behavior, prosecu- developing to reference when case law before a and making arguments tion strategies , and police or security record-keeping and location of track frequency systems which by all crimes tracked example, occurrences. For Uniform Reporting Crime (UCR) the FBI’s system are, technolo crimes (e.g., common v manifested are They of ordinary crime. variations use of tech- through incremental and innovative subsume one or more exist- As such they nology. ing for occur relati not initiall Ordinary, Adaptive, and New Forms and Adaptive, of Ordinary, Crime of technology to commit an act of social abuse of technology w first occurrence. Truly new forms of social abuse first new Truly occurrence. initially and may crimes) happen rarely (i.e., new because unrecognized go undetected or even police and security officials will typically have to little or no training and no basis of experience understand w does not confor to other gov- and complex it seems mysterious er or e v ed of in v lems. F gy relative to gy relative as concei policy makers who makers policy e v ti estments and pass v vice, w rorist attacks of September led crime prob iscal in f e ainst the World Trade Center towers Trade World ainst the gy-enab gan investigating emerging interstate emerging investigating gan wing the ter med and suppor ollo forms security and police capabil- of crime, F Happily, in the game of perpetuallythe game in complex Happily, wn be w are willing in the midst of uncertainty (i.e., lack crime prob- of understanding about complex lems) to mak adequate crime before the onset of adequate crime legislation police with The danger lies in providing crises. to crime-fighting relative too little technology needs, or with too much technolo adequate controls on their power. ities within society loose their competiti On this point there is no substitute advantage. for infor prostitution under authority granted by the White the prostitution under authority granted by the This is how Act. Traffic (Mann) Slave in policing became involved Government Federal until onset of interstate crime which, organized long the automobile combined with ubiquitous distance telephone ser example, in 1909 a new unit officially named the in 1909 a new example, then as the FBI was Bureau of Investigation kno local crime. as merely the public the press and by 11, 2001, ag Congress acted with unprecedent- and Pentagon, ed speed to authorize creation of the new Department Security to combat, of Homeland and interdict terrorism in all its formsprevent, in concertintelligence and with compo- as in as well nents of the federal government, cooperation with state and local policing agen- sector security firms.cies and private Problems of during the emergence when arise however ne with the help of researchers, develop practical develop researchers, the help of with playing the level how to measure which in ways rethink- requires systematic This field is. really and organiz- training, equipping, ing, education, to some extent and security forces ing of police rec- anticipate and continually may so that they formulate threats, and then crime and ognize and prevention implement forward-looking with their resource consistent control strategies limits. the “good guys” crime and policing/security, For advantages. many have (and girls!) usually trained, well are generally they example, often lend and they organized, and equipped, in inter/multi- work assistance and interagency forces in order to address complex task agency the Federal etc. Historically, crime problems, policing and has created huge new Government in order to address emerg- security organizations ing technolo 3

The Journal of Technology Studies 8 l thereof)may portions beextreme- (or significant asbeingcriminal, theconsummateact defined socially abusive, becausethey arenotinitially ofairtime. or advertising While new crimesare throughdirect salesofpublications mote profits understandab areoftencreatedbyterms themediawhich suchas“datarape”(Szwak,terms 1995).Such often labeledinsensationalalbeitconfusing rage oncethey arediscovered. They arealso ment, perhapseven shock,disbelief,and/orout- New crimescauseconsiderable public amaze- many geopoliticaljurisdictionsorcyberspace. ty threat;and(f)diffuse atvarying ratesacross not respondingadequately tothecrimeorsecuri- for alsoagainstbut policeorsecurityofficials rage notonly against theactanditsperpetrators, ofpublic(e) generateintensityintheform out- preventionto formulate andcontrolstrategies; tive acrosstimeanddistancesufficiently experts able by investigative tootherinvestiga- experts and/oradaptivenary crime;(d)notbeexplain- and/orloss;(c)subsumevarietiesharm ofordi- , victims,andconsiderable amountsof complicated technologies; (b)involve many complex becauseitmay: (a)involve relatively public. Mysteriousbecauseitisnotunderstood; 1988 w worm in Internet Jr. forhisreleasingofthefirst puter ab were unable tosuccessfully prosecuteearly com- instance, many statesandthefederalgovernment to repor computer crimelaws under which cybercriminals least oneandinman stateshavethe federalgovernment at andallfifty Computer F T y able 1.Aspectsandexamplesofor Crime Type: dif New Crime Ordinary Adapti Feature/ f Crime Crime icult ifnotimpossib as difficult underthethen newlyas difficult passed t use. Ev and thereaftercreateheadlinestopro v e raud and Abuse Act. Today however, l y en prosecutionofRober is al ways seekingsomethingnew Occurrence y frequently Relatively Routinely Rarely cases several specific le toprosecute.F No innovation Technology Incremental innovation innovation Radical Use of t Morris or - dinar y as Cooper’ la orlabel,muchlessacrime there existed noterm gorge ontheborderof Washington andOregon, (possibly tosafety)over theColumbiaRiver it tolandinSeattle,andthereafterparachuted Nor strapped D. B. Coopercommandeereda Similarly,purposes. in1971when bomb- of proper suicide, massmurderandincredible amounts an aircraftinordertosimultaneously commit against theconsummateactofhijacking crime ist threat,andthereexisted nospecific immediately comprehendthenatureofterror- eties (notlimitedtotheUnitedStates)didnot involvedinto buildings) radicalinnovation, soci- technological means(crashinghijacked airliners the crimeitself,, previously existed, the sidered examples ofnew crimebecausealthough bombings ofSeptember11,2001,may becon- airliner sanctions. Notethatthesuicidalterrorist andunderstanding),legalobserve-ability vative useoftechnology, socialcognizance (i.e., evolution inno- withrespecttotheiroccurrence, distinguishes between thethreestagesofcrime tive crimeandeventually crime. ordinary Table 1 phenomena (Pease &Love, 1984)becomeadap- acts. can beprosecutedforspecific by many mediasourcesassensationalevents. frequency thatthey weresufficient notfeatured ous andupsetting,the hijacking incidentsw Notethatalthough committed by terrorists. adaptive crimeandeventually crime ordinary technologically tobecome copied andmodified Cognizance but notwellbut Recognized Reco Not widely understood understood understood recognized crime, adaptiveandnewcrime. w and well and not Social thw ag Obviously new crimesviathecopycat crime gnized ainst hijacking.Obviously thatallchanged est Airlines 727inPortland, commanded ty damageforpoliticalorreligious s original for existing crimelaw respects anddoes and Prosecution Legal Sanctions V Consummate act criminal offense does notviolate Clearly violates prosecute asan e Impossible to iolates e laws insome overarching prosecution xisting la not require innovative Str e xplicit ere al y ategy m e xisting v entually occurred with entually occurred ws; of socialab ways extremely seri- Human Molotov Releasing ane Contemporary Common theft, computer virus Sept. 11,2001 , etc. missiles of Examples onto the Inter use w net as w The Journal of Technology Studies 39 travel at travel , crime, adap- Specific Crime Legislation gy w Ordinary Crime Phase: Recognized and Understood crime results. Each of y and Dissipation elop more ener Time, Diffusion, v m, three technology stages each m, three technology Police Technology ves in the ocean, technology crime waves ocean, technology in the ves Countervailing a w small and de As shown in Figure 6, technology crime 6, technology in Figure As shown crime, and ordinar t e e aves, such that only general wave patterns are general wave such that only aves, v buse numbers than rather is not understood that Crime Phase: different rates, overlap, and collide. In the real rates, overlap, different within larger exist multiple smaller waves world, w a single tech- depicts how 6 Figure measurable. abuse, originates with social crime wave nology formforms of crime, picks up energy into a new and crime, becoming adaptive via copycatting star ti in duration depending these stages/phases varies of incidences, on the number and frequency intensity involved, of technology complexity and dissipation. and rate of diffusion generated, Lik a with an original incident of begin always waves unusual social abuse and increase in the fre- similar incidences of technologically quency similar and still- As the number of time. over the intensity of the unusual incidents increase, (i.e., social concern, or disdain, wave emerging use of outrage surrounding radical innovative purposes) also increases. for abusive technology In the long ter phases further corre-corresponding to cognitive sponding to the continuum of ne of conventional crimes. The time period between The time crimes. of conventional development crime and new of a the emergence security of countervailing and implementation formula- by as signaled technologies and police consum- prohibiting the legislation tion of crime development represents policy act mate illegal lag time. and implementation But Not Adaptive Understood Recognized gy gy crime Policy Lag elopment of coun- begins to form to begins (see v or Technology Crime Wave ve” which typically refers typically which ve” New a Crime Social Abuse Phase: Not Understood Recognized related to de y

gy crime wave with the conventional gy crime wave ersel

y t i s n e t n I d n a , y t i x e l p m o C , y c n e u q e r v F els of force, and spread and dissipate at eople who commit crime use technology commit eople who v technology crime wave technology P rime Waves rime oncealment, value storage, to inflict harm storage, to and value oncealment, xpression “crime w urveillance, planning/record-keeping, commu- urveillance, planning/record-keeping, or ten core technology-enabled purposes: technology-enabled or ten core to a rash of similar crimes in a particular loca- a neighbor- in tion (e.g., a rash of wave crime hood). In contrast, a technology comes about as the result of unique technolo e wave. Here also, do not confuse the concept of a Here also, do not confuse the concept wave. technolo tervailing understanding and implementation of tervailing factors Other security and policing technologies. political including social, cultural, economic and and conditions, coupled with media attention also contribute to the perhaps other forces may spread or dissipation of a technolo rates in Figure 6). Such waves occur periodically, strike occur periodically, 6). Such waves Figure vary- across geopolitical and with ing le f s nication, transportation, protection, coercion, c These purposes their operations. to expand per- intent or with legal should not be confused are crime, which for committing sonal motives and socially radical new Whenever different. of occurs for any of technology use abusive When these core purposes, crime emerges. new (and arbitrary)an increasing minimum number crime occurs within a new of the same kind of slight varia- certain period of time (e.g., seven within thirty crime a months) tions of a new new Criminal Purposes and Technology and Purposes Criminal C Figure 6. Technology crime wave 6. Technology Figure 4

The Journal of Technology Studies 0 controlled forin researchstudies.Nonetheless, w ends andadaptive crimebegins withina wave waves, when althoughdetermining new crime demonstrate theexistence oftechnology crime e crime). Obviously suchdata,totheextent it asnew (operationallyof socialabuse defined police andmediarepor gathered and/orestimatedfromcombinationsof Data oneachofthesef f across different jurisdictions,andwithinaspeci- factor age couldalsobedeveloped. Finally a based potentially ontheamountofmediacover- ofdollars)andtheextent ofpublicterms outrage lossin (i.e.,death,injuries,andproperty harm factor capable ofbeingusedtoestablish a dents arecalculable andthereforetheoretically systems relieduponb jurisdictions, andsomemeasureoftechnolo number ofsuspects,victims,andgeopolitical and policingresources. useful fromthestandpointofallocatingsecurity able andalsopotentially tosocietyis harmful andcrimearemorecomplex,abuse lessmanage- which new oftechnology-enabled forms social less manageab understanding andtechnological capabilitiesare are complex relative tosecurityandpolicing crime? How technologically complex isagiven typeof and dissipationwould be extremely challenging. stances which combinetoaffect itsemergence andundervarying circum- constraining factors, crime wave relative tovarious and contributing themagnitudeofatechnologyDetermining poses vary initially andover timeanddistances. techniques usedby criminalsforinnovative pur- andsimple-to-complex toolsand nal purposes crime waves onthebasisofcorecrimi- defined howbe usefultodetermine different technology use anddiffusion. itmayAs apointofdeparture adoption, procurement,implementation,routine tices involving technology invention, innovation, to criminaljusticeandsecuritypoliciesprac- crime waves tocriminology couldcontribute and for law andorderprevail. security, policing,prosecutionandotherforces eventually crimeas intoordinary transforms ied periodoftimecouldalsobedetermined. xists orcouldbegenerated ould necessarily besubjective andneedtobe To thisendconsiderthatestimatesofthe Research exploring thenatureoftechnology . consisting offrequency ofincidences, Similarly, an The ans le. w er mattersbecausecrimesw Thus, determining theextent to Thus, determining intensity factor y ts describingincidences actors couldpossib criminals ingiven inci- , w ould empiricall complexity estimating diffusion ly be gical hich y v accounts ofne of crimelegislation enactment andmedia threats tosocietymay alsobepossible. Analysis the magnitudeofnew crime/security-related known emerging crime,alongwithestimatesof tion ofapredictionmodelforpotentialcrimeor wavesseparate orintegrated examined, formula- and periodoftime.Dependingonthenumber crime wave place(orcyber realm) foraspecified represents themagnitudeofasingletechnology lowing (McQuade,1998): generalformula and understanding(U)arecombinedintothefol- (I), diffusion (D),recognition ofnew crime(R), andcomplexityunder thecurve), (C),intensity is theoverall magnitudeofthecrimewave (area types ofemerging inwhich: socialabuse, (Mw) of technology crimewavesrepresenting different be usedtomeasureandcomparethemagnitude suchdatacould when combinedandquantified crime andattendant managementproblems, time anddistance. Faced withrelatively complex technologies tootherinvestigative across experts to beable toexplain how criminalsareusing complex, becauseinvestigative tendnot experts is notw innovative useoftechnology. Initially new crime crime, thatisne purposes. a als employ a fullrangeoftechnologies thatare tions. Criminals,policeandsecurityprofession- andapplica- tion, technical/systemsintegration processes,adoption,socialimplementa- facturing andmanu- their design,materials,construction techniques rangingfromsimple-to-comple Propositions Summar and theirne well asmodelpotentialnew strainsofdisease and volcanicalthoughimprecisely, eruptions as can predicttheonsetandintensityofearthquakes crime, policingandsecurity. Byanalogy, ifwe of technology-enabled theory foraformal port ille ab unreliably) theonsetandmagnitudeofsocial it isalsopossible toestimate(albeitinitially v alidity totheseconceptsthereb ailable tothem forsimilarandcountervailing uses thatareinherentl g al andthreatensociety Thus, the area under the curve (seeFigureThus, theareaundercurve 6) Ne Technologies arecombinationsoftoolsand w ell understood for y: GeneralTheoretical g ms ofdeviance, or socialabuse ati Mw =(C*ID)/(R*U). w v 1 w e crime couldpro pub crimes, arecommittedthrough , lic healthimpacts,perhaps and isthereforerelati y illicit ifnotinitiall . y vide e bolstering sup xternal x y in v el y - The Journal of Technology Studies 41 - y indings petuall xtent that crim- led crime, ely stable techno- stable ely v ersus those of secu gy-enab arious research f along with per , upt relati xcept to the e of the concepts described in y ell as v le, e man , ts. The result is a series of new, adap- The result is a series of new, ts. ations disr v ut not supplant, existing theories of crime ut not supplant, existing xper led social abuse are usually and crime Concepts of technolo hat is happening across time and distance to policing and security Conclusion inal inno abidance and law competitions between logical violating forces of society. policing and security management — a never- management and security policing security police and in which competition ending react to crimino- will, in general, professionals once and techniques Tools innovation. logical tend to and understood adopted, developed, and security criminals, police use by remain in continuing func- because of their professionals devel- to technology tionality and/or constraints The result is a full range opment or adoption. com- simple (ordinary) to relatively of relatively forms of crimes and countervailing (new) plex Concerned methods. and protective investigation about wondering are always criminals and police and each group may activities, their adversary’s the consequences of their understand not fully This technology). operations (i.e., use of own and negative positive can result in unintended time, technology Over effects. spin-off in crime, policing and security man- employed less thus relatively agement is better understood, and in the case of crime (hopefully) complex, more manageab causality and technology development and diffu- development causality and technology sion. Indeed and technology to do with crime, security, having tive and ordinary crimes groundedtive in technologi- cal capabilities of criminals v rity and policing officials. General hypotheses concerning a formal theory of technology- crime, policing and security were enabled that incorporateadvanced the concepts of tech- crime and technology complexity nological These concepts are intended to comple- waves. ment, b upon long-held and draw this paper are not new of experienced wisdom and conventional views practitioners as w inevitable negative spin-offs of technology R&D, of technology spin-offs negative inevitable more com- crimes are relatively new and initially because investigative and less manageable plex to explain and other experts tend not to be able w other e complex aspects of these concepts, and technolo- complex of been described as a way have gy crime waves innova- technology-enabled understanding how emerges, social abuse and criminal behavior tive Technology- impacts society and then diffuses. enab gnized and reco The result is y elop, adopt, and v gy capabilities are de routinel y , the cycle of technological the cycle reater manageability of the w ge sequentially to form a ge sequentially ms race. Crime and policing gical capabilities exceed those gical capabilities exceed ford g gins ane -understood vilian ar crime emer y enforcement and security professionals. This be With increased understanding and law increased understanding With Over time, recurringOver criminal and police w eloped to af ay with ordinary crime to adopt new technolo- with ordinary crime to adopt new ay v w police, security professionals and professionals security police, and technologies with countervailing innovate stay and if possible to overcome strategies legal criminals. made by gains ahead of technological crimes transform interdiction, new enforcement crimes, and laws adaptive into better-understood explicitly behaviors adaptive making criminally The process of for- to be enacted. begin illegal regu- and crime laws new mulating and enacting of crime problems awareness lations raises public Combined with media atten- threatening society. attitudinal and behavioral tion about these issues, that precipitate in ways changes emerge crimes. Eventually, of adaptive and prevention and dif- adopted are widely adaptations of laws that fused as a form technology of legal/social and prosecution. leads to increased investigation adaptive and then When this happens, once new crime transforms into ordinary crime that is much better de responded to, and may be systematically targeted be systematically responded to, and may crime and crime, adaptive New for prevention. ordinar technological in which crime wave technological increases across time and distance complexity awareness, unless and until countervailing and understanding and attendant knowledge security/policing technolo enforcement, com- Enhanced crime problem. in advances bined with continual technological compel smart criminals intent on getting society, a gies. criminals and the police competition between abuse, of deviance/social (i.e., the emergence crime, and ordinary crime). crime, adaptive new technologies Criminals that do not adopt new are at greater of being caught unless and risk until their technolo of la enforcement and security profes- law Similarly, sionals must consistentl as a function of complex become increasingly tools and/or techniques complex increasingly criminals, by and employed in society available police or security professionals. crime, technology-enabled perpetually complex, diffuse new technologies or risk falling behind technologies new diffuse in their crime fighting capabilities. a ratcheting-up effect have cycles innovation akin to a ci 4

The Journal of Technology Studies 2 cud,S 20) hoeia n oilprpcie fcbrrm.Chapter5in, McQuade, S.(2005). Theoretical andsocialperspectives ofcybercrime. Kash, D McQuade, S.(2001). Akers, R.L.(1998). 1 Notes Williams, F. P. & McShane,M.D. (1993). U.S. ofJustice(1980). Department Szwak, D. A. (1995).Datarape:Hightechtheftofcreditidentities. Pease, S.E.,&Love, C.T. (1984).Copycat crimephenomenon.In,Ray Surette(Ed) McQuade, S.(1998). Kash, D. E.,&Rycroft,R.(1997). Technology How policy inthe21stcentury: willwe adaptto Kash, D. E.(1996).Complexity. Chapter4,unpublished manuscript. Graycar, A., &Grabosky, P. (1996). Cohen, L.E.,&Felson, M.(1979).Socialchangeandcrime: A routineactivity approach.InJosephE. Burgess, R.L.,& Akers, R.L.(1966). A differential ofcriminal association-reinforcementtheory Akers, R.L.(1985). References Sutherland, E.H.(1947).Differential associationtheory. In, Frank P. Williams IIIandMarilyn D. cally, conceptually, andmethodologically bound liminarily presentedherecanbemoretheoreti- whether thesomewhat conceptspre- amorphous are:(a) erations intakingthetopicfurther socially undesirable behaviors. consid- Important ing, displacingorotherwisecontrollingthese preventing,ing resourcesfordeterring, interdict- andpotentially forallocat- crime andterrorism, nature, extent andpotentialthreatsposedby issues arerelevant forassessingthetechnological respect toinnovative useoftechnology. These ratherhowcrime occurs,but itmay occurwith Accordingly, thispaperdidnotfocusonwhy competition withinmany sectorsofsociety. (McQuade, 1998; McQuade,2001; 2005) Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. Wadsworth. Cincinnati: J-LEAA-007-80). Washington, DC:BureauofJusticeStatistics. (20), 18. media and managing cybercrime. of inf Science, Seattle, Washington, February 13-18. complexity? Presented at theannualmeeting, American Association forthe Advancement of Waveland Press,Inc. Jacoby (Ed.), Prospect Heights,Illinois: Waveland Press,Inc. InJosephE. Jacoby (Ed.), behavior. UniversityBoston: Northeastern Press. McShane (Eds.), . E. (1989). ormation technologies andmoney laundering (pp. 199-211).Springfield,Illinois:CharlesC. Thomas. Anderson. Classics ofcriminology P Social learningandsocialstructure: A general theoryofcrimeanddeviance. Deviant behavior: A sociallearningapproach (3rd ed). erpetual inno Cops versus crooks: Technological competitionandcomplexityintheco-evolution T Criminology theory:SelectedReadings o w ards atheoryoftechnology enabled crime. Boston: Allyn &Bacon. vation : Computer crime:Legislative resource manual. Money laundering Classics ofcriminology, , Criminology theory: Selectedclassic readings The ne 2nd, 1994 w world ofcompetition. Technology. of CriminalJustice attheRochester Instituteof cognitive phases. new, adaptive crimestagesand andordinary fortestinghypothesesfusion factors relatedto dataoncomplexity,sufficient intensity, anddif- security; and(b)theabilitytocollectorgenerate oftechnology-enabledtheory crime,policingand crime waves thereby amoregeneral supporting case fortheexistence andutilityoftechnology in ordertologically andconvincingly make the edition, . . iny utainIsiueo Criminology. Sidney: Australian Instituteof Geor Dr. SamMcQuadeisan Assistant Professor , ge MasonUniversity, Fairfax, Virginia (pp. 66-74).ProspectHeights,Illinois: (pp. 54-59). Anderson: Cincinnati. 2nd, 1994 National LawJournal Unpub Ne lished manuscript.Geor edition, Belmont, California: w Y ork: Basic. (BJS ContractNo. (pp. 228-235). Justice andthe Understanding . , 17, ge