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Discipleship in Oriental Orthodox and Evangelical Communities

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religions Article Discipleship in Oriental Orthodox and Evangelical Communities Ralph Lee Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, Oxford OX2 6HR, UK; [email protected] Abstract: In many countries with a strong Orthodox Christian presence there are tensions between Evangelicals and Orthodox Christians. These tensions are rooted in many theological, ecclesiological, and epistemological differences. In practice, one of the crucial causes of tension comes down to different practical understandings of what a Christian disciple looks like. This paper examines key aspects of discipleship as expressed in revival movements in Orthodox Churches Egypt, India and Ethiopia which are connected to the challenges presented by the huge expansion of Evangelical Protestant mission from the nineteenth century. Key aspects will be evaluated in comparison with aspects that are understood to characterize disciples in Evangelical expressions, including: differing understandings of the sacraments and their place in the life of a disciple; ways in which different traditions engage with the Bible and related literary works; contrasting outlooks on discipleship as an individual and a community way of life; and differing understanding of spiritual disciplines. Keywords: discipleship; Orthodox Christian; Oriental Christian; Coptic; Egypt; Ethiopia; India 1. Introduction Evangelical Christianity and non-Chalcedonian or Oriental Orthodox Christianity Citation: Lee, Ralph. 2021. have moved along very different historical trajectories. This divergence is marked by major Discipleship in Oriental Orthodox events including the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, the Great Schism of 1054 CE then the and Evangelical Communities. Reformation in the sixteenth century with later divisions within Protestant Christianity. Religions 12: 320. https://doi.org/ The non-Chalcedonian Orthodox Churches of Egypt, Ethiopia and India are embedded 10.3390/rel12050320 in diverse non-Western cultures which have passed by the specific religious challenges which the Enlightenment presented to Protestant and Catholic Christianity and have faced Academic Editors: Bradley Nassif their own intellectual and practical challenges. This study explores important observed and Tim Grass behaviors of those devoutly following Christ, that is ‘disciples’, and contrasts them with their Evangelical counterparts seeking to look at the reasons behind behaviors and tracing Received: 18 March 2021 them to a historical understanding discipleship. Accepted: 27 April 2021 Published: 30 April 2021 2. Historical Background Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE produced significant divisions in the Church. with regard to jurisdictional claims in Its Christological definition has been understood as the definition of middle ground published maps and institutional affil- between a perceived splitting of humanity and divinity attributed to Nestorius that was iations. condemned at Ephesus in 431 CE, and the teaching of Eutyches who was understood to argue that Christ was consubstantial only with the Father. This model does not serve well the Christology of Christian traditions that developed outside of the Roman Empire, exemplified by Severus of Antioch who presented a robust defense of the Oriental outlook and raised serious issues with the Chalcedonian definition (Chesnut 1976; Allen and Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Hayward 2004). Sebastian Brock, among others, has argued strongly for a distinction This article is an open access article between Eutyches’ ‘monophysite’ teaching and ‘miaphysite’ Christology which affirms full distributed under the terms and humanity and divinity in one nature of Christ without division or confusion, noting that conditions of the Creative Commons terms like ‘nature’ and ‘hypostasis’ had several different understandings which became Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// more ambiguous when translated into Syriac (Brock 1996). Similar problems may be creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ found with other ancient languages, such as the Classical Ethiopic. The outcome of the 4.0/). Council of Chalcedon left a painful split in the church and significant efforts were made Religions 2021, 12, 320. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12050320 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 Religions 2021, 12, 320 when translated into Syriac (Brock 1996). Similar problems may be found with other2 ofan- 12 cient languages, such as the Classical Ethiopic. The outcome of the Council of Chalcedon left a painful split in the church and significant efforts were made to reconcile the sides. Emperor Zeno (474-5, 476-91CE) authorized what became known as the Henoticon, or ‘act ofto union,’ reconcile which the sides. avoided Emperor criticism Zeno of Leo’s (474-5, To 476-91CE)me that had authorized caused difficulty what became for the known Alex- andrians,as the Henoticon but also, or rejected ‘act of union,’on one whichextreme avoided Nestoria criticismnism, which of Leo’s the Tome Egyptians, that had Palestini- caused ansdifficulty and Syrians for the had Alexandrians, felt was given but too also much rejected concession on one extreme at Chalcedon, Nestorianism, and Eutyches which and the hisEgyptians, monophysite Palestinians teaching and on Syrians the other, had feltbut wasalso given avoided too muchthe ‘two concession natures’ atformula Chalcedon, that theand Alexandrians Eutyches and opposed his monophysite strongly (Grillmeier teaching 1 on987, the pp. other, 247–317). but alsoThe Henoticon avoided thefailed ‘two as anatures’ compromise formula lacking that theclarity, Alexandrians and strong opposedopposition strongly endured (Grillmeier in Egypt, 1987Palestine, pp. a 247–317).nd Syria The(GrillmeierHenoticon 1987,failed p. 257). as a There compromise were concerted lacking clarity,efforts to and resolve strong the opposition differences, endured although in forEgypt, the opposers Palestine of and Chalcedon Syria (Grillmeier its outlook 1987 remained, p. 257). a concession There were to Nestorianism concerted efforts that they to resolve the differences, although for the opposers of Chalcedon its outlook remained a could not accept. A series of synods and documents aimed at clarifying and resolving concession to Nestorianism that they could not accept. A series of synods and documents differences, culminated in the 5th Ecumenical Council at Constantinople in 553 CE (noting aimed at clarifying and resolving differences, culminated in the 5th Ecumenical Council at that this Council is not accepted as ‘ecumenical’ by the Oriental Churches), which sought Constantinople in 553 CE (noting that this Council is not accepted as ‘ecumenical’ by the a Christological definition that was resolutely against Nestorianism, but all this was in- Oriental Churches), which sought a Christological definition that was resolutely against sufficient (Grillmeier 1995, pp. 443–61). The challenges of understanding Oriental Chris- Nestorianism, but all this was insufficient (Grillmeier 1995, pp. 443–61). The challenges of tology point to much broader challenges in understanding the beliefs and practices of understanding Oriental Christology point to much broader challenges in understanding these Christian expressions. Important developments were made in the 20th century and the beliefs and practices of these Christian expressions. Important developments were significant progress has been made in understanding the fundamental congruence be- made in the 20th century and significant progress has been made in understanding the tween Chalcedonian and Oriental views (Chaillot 2016) which must be understood as re- fundamental congruence between Chalcedonian and Oriental views (Chaillot 2016) which moving many perceived obstacles to good relations between these groups. Significant di- must be understood as removing many perceived obstacles to good relations between vergencethese groups. in exp Significanterience comes, divergence however, in experience from the comes,very different however, histories from the of verythe three different Ori- entalhistories traditions of the threein this Oriental study. traditions in this study. Coptic Christianity was formed in the very earliest years of the Christian Church. Coptic ChristiansChristians celebratecelebrate the the Holy Holy Family Family fleeing fleeing to to Egypt Egypt from from Herod’s Herod’s slaughter slaughter of the of theinnocents, innocents, and and the foundationthe foundation of their of their church church by St by Mark, St Mark, believed believed to have to have been been martyred mar- tyredin Alexandria in Alexandria perhaps perhaps in 68 in CE 68 ( PearsonCE (Pears 2006on ,2006, pp. 336–37).pp. 336–37). Alexandria Alexandria became became one one of ofthe the most most important important Christian Christian intellectual intellectual centers, centers, and and Egypt Egypt was was an an early early and and influential influen- tialcenter center for thefor the development development of monasticism of monasticism (Pearson (Pearson 2006 2006).). It was It was the the strong strong influence influence of ofthe the Egyptian Egyptian countryside countryside rather rather than than its its more more Hellenized Hellenized cities cities that that drove drove opposition opposition to toChalcedon, Chalcedon, rejection rejection of whichof which partly partly contributed contributed to theto the waning waning of Alexandrianof Alexandrian theological theolog- icalinfluence influence within within the
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