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City State Zip daytime phone (in case we have a question about your order) Volume 33, Number 1 Center for the Study of the First Americans Department of Anthropology January, 2018 Texas A&M University, 4352 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4352 ISSN 8755-6898

World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.com and http://anthropology.tamu.edu

5 Voila! Paleoamericans, we now find, wereartistes Previously unnoticed engravings on lithic artifacts at the Gault site get special attention, thanks to alert analysts and sophisticated photo enhancing. 8 Pushing back the time of the peopling of Brazil Initially attracted by stunning rock art at hundreds of sites, Niède Guidon now heads an international team of scientists who are confident they’ve found human presence at least 20,000 ISOLATED years ago. Part 1 of our series. 13 Earlier than Clovis at Wally’s The not-so-ancient extinction Beach in Alberta Evidence that horse and camel of a relict mammoth population were prey species for hunters at Wally’s Beach was news. Rigorous radiocarbon dating now finds housands of years ago our moth populations on the now separated that butchered remains antedate planet, gripped in the last of a American and Asian mainlands dwindled Clovis by 300 years. series of ice ages, began to warm. to extinction 14,000–10,500 years ago, T 16 A bright star in the constellation Water bound up in glaciers was released, with the bulk of the population vanishing raising the sea level and submerging 13,200 years ago, but the Ice Age giants of Argentine scientists great portions of continental margins. persisted on these islands, relict popula- The SAA Award for Excellence in Latin America and Caribbean The Bering Land Bridge, the isthmus that tions shielded by their isolation. Archaeology presented to Luis connected Asia and North America, was On Wrangel Island, north of Siberia, ­Borrero crowns years of praise drowned until only a few outcrops pro- the latest mammoth appearance date has from students and colleagues. truded above the surface. On at least two of been placed at 4,020 years ago. That’s these islands, dotted with volcanic cinder 6,000 years after the mainland extinction, cones, survived the last remnants of a herd within the realm of ancient history and for artifacts dating to this period of mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), civilizations. Wrangel Island mammoths have been found on the island. South cut off from their mainland relatives. Mam- may have had to contend with humans, of mainland Alaska, however, on the 2 Volume 33 n Number 1

much smaller island of St. Paul (110 km2, period, aboard pack ice. The St. Paul out proof they were only possibilities. compared with 7,600 km2 for Wrangel), mammoths had to share their sanctuary The island was a test case, a chance the relict mammoth population suffered only with the likes of foxes, rabbits, and to understand not only the timing and no human interference because people birds. So in this lost and tranquil sanctu- cause of mammoth extinction in this didn’t set up shop on the island until the ary, what caused their extinction on St. micro-environment, but also the ef- arrival of Russian whalers in 1787. Tiny, Paul? fects of the extinction. For such a cold and 450 km distant from Alaska and the Such agents as changing vegeta- case (just in case you thought we were Aleutians, St. Paul knows even today tion, increased snowpack, predation above a cheesy joke, we’re not), a team what isolation really means. It became by humans or polar bears, and volca- of scientists from diverse fields and in- an island 14,700–13,500 years ago, and nic activity were suspect causes of St. stitutions brought to bear their arsenals literally lost ground at a speedy pace Paul’s mammoth extinction, but with- of expertise on the problem. The plan to until 9,000 years ago. Then the sea-level rise slowed, but nevertheless continued until 6,000 years ago. Although mam- moths on St. Paul didn’t survive as long as those on Wrangel, they persisted until 5,600 years ago, give or take a century.

That first step into the pit was a doozy Long-standing knowledge of mammoth remains on St. Paul was confirmed when The Mammoth Trumpet (ISSN 8755-6898) is published quarterly by the Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, a pair of hunters almost stumbled into College Station, TX 77843-4352. Phone (979) 845-4046; fax (979) 845-4070; e-mail a pit cave. Though the hunters avoided [email protected]. Periodical postage paid at College Station, TX 77843-4352 and at ad- the 9-m drop into the pit, plenty of ani- ditional mailing offices. mals hadn’t been so lucky. The floor of POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: the cave was covered with the bones of Mammoth Trumpet animals, earning it the name Qagnax Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University (Aleut for bone) Cave. When researchers 4352 TAMU visited the cave in the early 2000s they College Station, TX 77843-4352 discovered the floor littered with the Copyright © 2018 Center for the Study of the First Americans. Permission is hereby remains of assorted animals including given to any non-profit or educational organization or institution toreproduce­ without cost any materials from the Mammoth Trumpet so long as they are then distributed at arctic fox, caribou, polar bear, and, of no more than actual cost. The Center further requests that notification of reproduction course, mammoth. of materials under these conditions be sent to the Center. Address correspondence to the Mammoth fossils had been found editor of Mammoth Trumpet, 2122 Scout Road, Lenoir, NC 28645. on the island as far back as the early Michael R. Waters Director and General Editor to middle 1800s. Discovering the cave e-mail: [email protected] opened a new avenue of research be- Ted Goebel Associate Director and Editor, PaleoAmerica cause scientists now had remains they e-mail: [email protected] could accurately date. When radio- James M. Chandler Editor, Mammoth Trumpet carbon dated, the St. Paul mammoths e-mail: [email protected] proved to be many millennia younger Christel Cooper Office Manager e-mail: [email protected] than those last known to have existed C & C Wordsmiths Layout and Design on the American and Asian mainlands Newman Printing Co.,Inc. Printing and mailing (MT 23-1, “Pribilof Islands mam- Web site: www.newmanprint.com moths: The last to fall”). World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.com This relict mammoth population most The Center for the Study of the First Americans is a non-profit organization. Subscrip- likely owed their survival to isolation, tion to the ­Mammoth Trumpet is by membership in the ­Center. which protected them from predators (including the human kind) and from Mammoth Trumpet, Statement of Our Policy the ecological helter-skelter caused by Many years may pass between the time an important discovery is made and the acceptance of research results by the scientific community. To facilitate communication among all parties interested in staying the changing climate. Caribou were abreast of breaking news in First Americans studies, the Mammoth Trumpet, a science news magazine, introduced to the island by humans in provides a forum for reporting and discussing new and potentially controversial information important to 1911. Bones of polar bears found in the understanding the peopling of the Americas. We encourage submission of articles to the Managing Editor cave date to 4,000–4,600 years ago, sug- and letters to the Editor. Views published in the Mammoth Trumpet are the views of contributors, and do not reflect the views of the editor or Center personnel. gesting they may have arrived on the –Michael R. Waters, Director island around this time, the Neoglacial January n 2018 3

attack the question on multiple fronts was conceived by Rus- Hunting mammoth in the lab—leave your spears at sell Graham of Pennsylvania State University, who headed the door the project. Had the investigation not been approached as In their labs, the scientists proceeded with their specialized an interdisciplinary study, the extinction would likely have analyses. All studies were independent, with a common mis- remained a mystery. Which goes to prove that good science sion: to find mammoth, or some indication of when and why means team work. they became extinct. The first task was to obtain new radiocarbon dates for St. What goes to the bottom of a lake stays at the bottom Paul mammoth remains by measuring the stable To build a strong case, the scientists followed five different isotopic composition of collagen extracts. The lines of evidence. First they had to youngest of 14 samples registered a calibrated St. Paul obtain refined radiocarbon dates Island radiocarbon date of 5,585–5,330 years ago, from the mammoth remains of Walrus I. which is 900 years younger than the previous OtterI. Qagnax Cave. The other four Nome Fairbanks date for St. Paul mammoths. proxies were sedimentary an- St.George I. Four experiments analyzed the core DryCreek cient dna (sedadna) and three samples taken from the lake. The Anchorage separate coprophilous fungal samples were first examined spores known to be associated with for mammoth sedadna, megafauna. The team intended to acquire which showed that mam- the last four from core samples taken from moth were present in a Lake Hill (quirky topography accounts for big way . . . well, at least as big as sedimentary its oxymoronic name: it’s a lake on a hill). ancient dna can be. Mammoth sedadna was found in In the 1960s Paul Colinvaux, whose every sample from the oldest (10,850 ± 150 calybp) until 2016 obituary describes him as “among 5650 ± 80 calybp. But in all samples dating later than 5650 ± 80 the last generation of ‘explorer’ scientists,” took core samples calybp, no trace was found. And no mammoth s­edadna from Lake Hill. Colinvaux was the first to publish a pollen means no mammoths. diagram from Beringia, which mapped the changing climate The other three analyses tested for the presence of three that contributed to the demise of so many species. Graham types of coprophilous fungal spores: Sordaria, Sporormi- and his colleagues decided their answers might also be found ella, and Podospora. These are usually associated with large beneath the lake, but new core samples would first have to animals, and on St. Paul, at the time leading up to the extinc- be taken. From these samples the team hoped to acquire a tion, there were mammoths and no runner up. The spore range of data to help count for Sordaria and Sporormi- them fine-tune the ella dropped during the period timing of St. Paul’s of 9,000–5,650 years ago, which mammoth extinction. suggests mammoth population A more accurate date decline. Sordaria disappears from of this event might the core records around 5650 ± 80 also answer ecologic calybp, exactly the same date as questions relating to the last appearance of mammoth the extinction. The expedition to Coring Lake Hill lake: (left–right) take core samples Kyungcheol Choy, University of from Lake Hill took Alaska Fairbanks; Soumaya Bel- place in spring 2013. mecheri (kneeling facing camera), Even in spring the Pennsylvania State University; work of driving pipe Nancy Bigelow (kneeling back to into the muddy bot- camera), UAF; Matthew Wooller, tom of the lake was UAF; Russ Graham, PSU. The ridge in complicated by formi- the background is the edge of the dable weather, freez- caldera.

ing water, de-icing WILLIAMS JACK tools with a blow torch, and taking care to prevent cores re- sedadna. Sporormiella likewise vanished at the same time, trieved from the bottom of the lake from freezing. Great care only to reappear 1890 ± 50 years ago, which coincides with the was taken to ship the numerous samples of ancient mud, a si- 1911 introduction of caribou. lent record, back to the continental United States, where they Podospora, the least numerous spores in the lake core were carefully sliced into thin sections and divvied among the samples, disappeared sooner, around 7020 ± 170 years ago. The scientists, who took them back to their respective labs across time ranges of all five analyses—mammoth remains, ­sedadna, the country. Sordaria, Sporormiella, and Podospora—overlap nicely and 4 Volume 33 n Number 1

point to 5600 ± 100 calybp as the time of the demise of St. Paul mammoths. The remarkable agreement of these independent tests makes this study one of the most pre- cise timings of a prehistoric extinction to date. So now we have our date. What was happening on St. Paul island 5,600 years ago?

The usual and some unusual suspects As work went on, possible extinction drivers were elim- inated one by one. Changing vegetation was crossed off the list because all vegetation appears to have remained stable, at least until after the extinction. The snowpack theory also flew out the window: an increase in stable oxygen-isotope values contradicts the premise of a dense blanket of snow. Predation by humans was never a real contender in this case, since there’s no evidence that the island hosted human inhabitants until the end of the 19th century. Likewise, polar bears didn’t appear until long after the mammoths were gone, according to radiocarbon dates of polar bear remains in Qagnax Cave. Lastly, volcanic activity was crossed off the list. Telltale signs would have been found in the lake cores around the time of extinction, but none were found.

Reconstructing past environments Data from the core samples indicate that the water of the lake became shallower, murkier, and less drink- able between 7,850 and 5,600 years ago. At this time an

The entrance to Qagnax cave and the debris cone below it. GREG SMITH GREG increase in the numbers of diatoms (the siliceous skeletons of perhaps the result of decreased erosion after the mammoth algae) and cladocerans (think water fleas) that are tolerant to extinction. variations in water salinity was observed in the core samples. Coincidentally, organisms less tolerant of salinity decreased. A sanctuary turned u­ ninhabitable Lake shallowing between 8,500 and 5,300 years ago is shown Collectively these clues point to evaporation rates on the rise by an increase in stable oxygen-isotope values, which points to in a dwindling lake with increasingly cloudy water. It’s ironic loss of water due to evaporation. that after water had been Evaporation increased sharply consuming St. Paul Is- after 5,600 years ago. Drier soils land for millennia as sea and decreased rainfall between levels rose, there came a 9,500 and 5,500 years ago are time when there wasn’t also indicated by an increase enough drinking water in stable nitrogen-isotope values on the island to sustain in mammoth remains. Magnetic mammoth inhabitants. susceptibility drops suddenly at The extinction event on 5650 ± 80 calybp (exactly coin- St. Paul is one of a number ciding with the disappearance of of known instances where species on an island per- Landscape and vegetation of St. ished in time of drought Paul Island. The doppler-radar when fresh­water lakes tower (distant center) marks the became increasingly tur- rim of Lake Hill lake. Qagnax bid and brackish. Enor- Cave lies in the ridge to the left. mous mammoths were

LEENEWSOM especially susceptible to sedadna and Sordaria from the record), which suggests that water deprivation. An elephant requires 70 to 200 liters of less terrestrial sediment (dirt) was making its way into the lake, continued on page 20 January n 2018 5

magine you’re in the middle of excavating a prehistoric 1990 associated with a Clovis projectile point. At that time the site in North America and happen across a stone with a landowners offered access to collectors as pay-to-dig land, couple of parallel scratch marks on it. You take a closer and it was a collector who found these tablets. After they were look, but at the moment, with brought to the attention of dirt on the stone and sunlight To see, or not to see, that is the question Collins and his colleague in your eyes, it’s hard to tell To see, or not to see, that is the question Thomas Hester, a test ex- what caused the scratches. cavation was completed You drop it into a bag with in this same area, which other artifacts you’ve found, confirmed the presence of intending to take a better more incised stones along- look back in the lab. But as side Clovis artifacts. Wer- you continue your work, your necke explains that “we had mind keeps going back to always known that incised that stone. Prehistoric art ob- stones were found at Gault (it jects have never been uncovered wasn’t a surprise) because of at this site, but those scratches A. T. Jackson’s 1938 ‘Picture seemed so straight and deliber- Writing of the Texas Indians,’ ate. Do you assume those paral- in which he depicted a stone lel lines appeared like that by from Gault found by A. M. Wil- chance, or do you start to wonder son. The surprise wasn’t the if this is the first prehistoric art presence of stones at Gault but object found at the site? the fact that we had some in In 2015, Ashley Lemke, Clark Paleoindian-age strata, which Wernecke, and Mike Collins pub- had never been found before lished a paper in American Antiq- in Texas.” uity, “Early art in North America: As a result of these find- Clovis and Later Paleo­indian in- ings, a protocol for identifying cised artifacts from the Gault A B portable art was put into ser- 0 3 site, Texas (41BL323),” which cm vice during their most recent voices their conviction that hav- excavation at Gault. The first ing an open mind to the possibil- An engraved stone from the Gault site: step was to ensure that all ex- ity of finding early art during A, photographed with an SLR digital cavators were receptive to the excavations offers great promise camera; B, composite ptm image. possibility that they might find of discovering and identifying PREHISTORYRESEARCH PROJECT, TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY incised objects. They were in- art objects. In their paper they argue that the “expectation to structed to study every artifact for potential engraved marks. find such artifacts plays a principal role in their identification.” An artifact flagged as potentially engraved was individually In other words, if you assume you won’t find an art object at bagged and its exact provenience recorded. It was then sent to your site just because you’ve never found one in the past, you be inspected in the lab without being washed. risk the chance of failing Artifacts more difficult to analyze were in- to recognize an art object. spected microscopically at low and high magnifi- A closed mind, they warn, cation to detect unidirectional scoring, patterns, can lead to losing valuable and any fragments left behind by an engraving specimens. The authors tool. If evidence was found that the specimen put their doctrine into ac- had been culturally modified, it was then pho- tion when they created a tographed with Polynomial Texture Mapping systematic procedure for (ptm). The first set of artifacts that used the identifying art objects ptm technology was sent to Tom Malzbender at during their excavations HP Labs in Palo Alto; others were photographed at the Gault site. at Mercyhurst College in Erie, Pennsylvania. In this process, numerous digital photographs Keeping an open mind are taken of the artifact with varying lighting Prior to excavating at the conditions. A strobe of light flashes at a different Gault site in central Texas position with each photograph. All photos are (MT 20-1, -2, “Assault on then merged into a composite image made up of

Gault”), the authors knew 0 3 that incised limestone cm Incised chert flake found at the Folsom level

tablets had been found in PREHISTORYRESEARCH PROJECT, TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY of the Gault site. 6 Volume 33 n Number 1

texture pixels (texels). This file can then be manipulated to Finding art across the continent enhance specific parts of the image for better viewing. “ptm Lemke, Wernecke, and Collins credit their expectation of un- technology,” according to Wernecke, “is not so much for iden- covering incised artifacts for the rich results they have enjoyed. tification as it is for visualization of entire patterns.” If ptm Etchings in softer lithic material like limestone or sandstone technology isn’t available for analysis, Lemke and Wernecke may become worn over time and hard to recognize. Faint lines tell us that incised marks can still be viewed on a basic level engraved on chert stones are likewise difficult to recognize using raking natural light and either a at first glance. But low- or high-power microscope. the authors agree Using this protocol, the Gault team that they were was able to identify at the time of successful in rec- publication at least 11 incised stones ognizing mark- and one engraved bone, all dated as ings because they Paleoindian. The incised stones are were primed to be either chert or limestone, and all but on the lookout for two date to the Clovis period. Most them. After find- of the incised stones that date to the ing so many arti- facts that qualify Lemke preparing to photograph a unit as art, the Gault under excavation at the Gault site. Now team suggests an Assistant Professor of Anthropology at that these “en- the University of Texas at Arlington, her graved artifacts current research focuses on underwater can help clarify prehistoric sites, as well as early hunter- how we describe gatherer sites in Texas and North America. Paleoindian ‘art’ ”

ASHLEY LEMKE ASHLEY and encourage us Clovis period are engraved with parallel lines; one bears a to “revise our expectations for what may be found in early ar- triangle intersected by one long line. The Clovis bone artifact chaeological contexts in North America.” is engraved with multiple parallel and perpendicular lines They define art in a broad context as any etchings that could on both sides. Engravings on artifacts found by the Gault be interpreted as symbolic expression. They caution archae- team consist chiefly of straight lines in rigid patterns, with ologists, however, to walk a fine line in analyzing possible art no graceful curves or stylized designs like those seen on Pa- objects. An artifact with incised lines could possibly be art, leoindian petroglyphs (MT 29-2, “Oldest dated petroglyphs but the analyst must avoid trying to force the label “art” onto in North America”). Since the paper was published, the team an object that happens to bear natural markings or may have have completed their excava- been a utilitarian tool. Ar- tions and found at least eight chaeologists Lemke and more examples. Wernecke Wernecke emphasize the estimates more than 120 en- need for a broad under- standing of “art,” and they Wernecke digs through warn that an artifact may ­sediments at the Gault site. register in more than one Currently an Adjunct Faculty category, both art and and project director for the utilitarian. In analyzing Prehistory Research Project at artifacts for possible ex- Texas State University, as well amples of art, they “are as Executive Director of the not generally looking Gault School of Archaeological at single lines but use a Research, he is also involved in combination of factors; archaeological project manage- cut morphology, orienta- ment, early architecture, and tion, patterning, and rep- archaeology of the Mexican- etition to identify incised American War. stones.”

THEGAULT SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH The Gault archaeolo- graved stones from varying time periods lie in their inventory gists argue that although a single site may produce only a few from the larger Gault site. Any future specimens will have to art objects, the possible yield from all North American Paleo- be discovered in existing collections of roughly 2.6 million indian sites begs that we rethink the notion that art objects are artifacts because no excavations are currently underway at rare. Pursuing this idea, the team studied Paleoindian artifacts the site. from other sites around the continent and compiled a list of arti- January n 2018 7

facts that have already been identified as art as well as artifacts “It is my belief that the data must be collected first, then they believe could potentially be categorized as Paleoindian analyzed to the best of our abilities,” says Crawford of the art objects from North America. These artifacts span various excavations done at Blackwater Draw. “My extensive excava- categories of art, including petroglyphs, painted bone, incised tion experience has taught that preconceptions may skew stones, engraved bone or ivory, and ornamentation. “I do believe empirical work (e.g., over-labeling function or temporal affili- that artistic objects, particularly in early time periods, and spe- ation before form).” The Gault team’s recommended course cifically in the Paleoindian sites from the Americas, have been of action differs from Crawford’s only slightly; recovering ob- traditionally overlooked,” jects in situ, then following says Lemke. “I think one of through with their step-by- the archaeological record’s step procedure for detecting greatest strengths is its ability to surprise us—and Collins (center) in the lab show us things about the adresses students and other past we may not expect. It’s archaeologists about different these surprises that give lithic finds. He is a Research us something to explain as Professor of Anthropology at scientists—and we should Texas State University in San embrace these challenges.” Marcos, Texas. Specializing in Their American Antiq- the study of lithic technology, uity paper sparked encour- he has worked with prehistoric aging feedback for Lemke collections of North America, and Wernecke. One of their Central America, South main goals for writing the America, the Near East, and paper, according to Lemke, southwestern Europe.

was to bring awareness of THEGAULT SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH these types of artistic objects to a larger audience, and she be- possible art (without trying to infer what these objects may lieves they’ve succeeded. Wernecke has also received a number have actually meant to their original owners) offers the best of queries from collectors asking for him to look at their own ar- promise of enlarging our understanding of the social aspects tifacts. Others requested more information on ptm technology. of early hunter-gatherer cultures in North America. “The documentation of these objects,” they state in their paper, An early artifact revisited “allows for more detailed discussions of the creation, mainte- An artifact that may be a Paleoindian art object is a stone re- nance, and use of engraved art across the globe and enhances covered from Folsom levels at the our understanding of shared patterns of Blackwater Draw site in eastern symbolic behavior over vast amounts of New Mexico, described in a 1972 time and space.” paper by Hester James, Ernest Lundelius, Jr., and Roald Fryxell Not as rare as it may seem? as an edge grinder or abrader. Re- Lemke, Wernecke, and Collins believe viewing the image of this artifact, that their excavations at the Gault site Lemke and her colleagues recog- and their recommended protocol for ap- nized etched parallel and perpen- proaching Paleoindian excavations with dicular lines similar to engravings an open mind will expand the collective they had found on some Gault arti- database of Paleoindian art artifacts. facts. George Crawford, Director North America lags behind the rest of the of the Blackwater Draw National globe in numbers of recovered art objects Historic Landmark, agrees that of the entire collection housed This incised chert flake found at the Dalton with the site, only one stone shows level of the Gault site is the most richly possible evidence for intentional ­engraved artifact from the team’s excavation. etching. The rest of the collection Two groups of parallel lines intersect 0 3 was closely reexamined in the late cm diagonally in a herringbone-like pattern.

1990s, and no other artifacts were PREHISTORYRESEARCH PROJECT, TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY re-classified as art. The Blackwater Draw team admits the pos- from prehistoric cultures, owing to the meager numbers of art sibility that more art-related artifacts might still lie buried at objects compared with other types of lithic or faunal artifacts. the site or in collections taken from the site through unauthor- Wernecke finds it fascinating that “the geometrical patterns ized removal or looting, but they’re confident that the current that we see on our stones are similar to stones found on every collection has been thoroughly scrutinized. continued on page 20 8 Volume 33 n Number 1

national park boasts the highest concentration of rock art in the Part 1: The trailblazer, la grande dame world, a distinction Guidon championed throughout the course of her archaeological career. And although Piauí is one of the he closing ceremony of the 2016 summer Olympic poorest and most underdeveloped states in Brazil, it contains Games, hosted in Rio de Janeiro, paid tribute to the “art one of the richest prehistoric archaeological assemblages in the of the people,” alluding to the cave art of the first South world. Pedra Furada, one of the most controversial sites in the Americans. The sequence began with the figure of a woman Americas, threatens to rewrite the history of the first human searching through the dark, cavernous expanse of the arena; as colonization of the Americas. Not by coincidence, the site also she explored its space, images of cave paintings flickered onto divides archaeologists into two emotionally charged camps. the arena floor. The phantasmagoria of lights glowing bright red and orange summoned images of Reevaluating the paradigm the blazing sun striking the hills of Serra “Here in the forbidding thorn forests of the Piauí da Capivara, which lies in the southeast of state, archaeologists say their discoveries are Piauí State. contributing to a pivotal reevaluation of the In the drama presented on the Olympic peopling of the Americas,” says New stage, the heroine represented estimable York Times Brazil bureau chief Niède Guidon, an extraordinary Brazilian Pedra Furada, Simon Romero. What archaeolo- Parque Nacional da Serra pioneer who at 84 continues to work in the da Capivara (FUMDHAM) gists have found in this remote northern state of Piauí despite her unfortunate Brazil site is evidence of human habita- run-in with the Zika virus. Her home property tion going back tens of thousands lies in the Serra da Capivara National Park, an of years, which upends previous the- area where she first discovered the Serra da Capivara ories of human migration across the cave paintings and where she has identified more than Bering Strait, across North America, 800 sites. Guidon dates human settlement in the region across the Amazon rain forest, and into to 32,000 years ago, perhaps more than 40,000 years this part of Brazil. ago, tens of thousands of years older than conventional One model embedded in the minds of archaeological thinking would have it. North American archaeologists, Clovis-First, maintains that humans first arrived in the Ameri- Beginning at Piauí cas about 13,000 years ago after crossing the Ber- Situated in the northeast region of Brazil, Piauí State ing Land Bridge linking Asia and Alaska and then has the shortest Atlantic coastline (66 km) of any of the rapidly spread southward. Named the Clovis cul- non-landlocked Brazilian states. In its southeast corner ture after flint spearheads found in the 1930s at lies the Serra da Capivara National Park, a UNESCO a site in Clovis, New Mexico, they occupied sites World Heritage Site. In 1978, Guidon petitioned the Brazilian spanning the breadth of North America and from Canada to government to create the park and has since been responsible Mexico. Clovis archaeological sites, which date to the period for the area’s preservation, development and management. The 13,250–12,800 calybp, are considered in most publications January n 2018 9

the first evidence of human occupation in the Americas. University and co-PI Mike Waters recovered from a cushion of In recent years, however, many archaeological assemblages mastodon digesta a bifacial fragment of a blade that bears no that predate Clovis have been identified. evidence of Clovis toolmaking technology. Vegetal matter in the Geoarchaeologist Mike Waters, Director of the Center for digesta returned a calibrated radiocarbon date of 14,550 calybp, the Study of the First fully 1,500 years before the birth of the Americans, and his Clovis culture. team unearthed more Interestingly, the toolkit used by these than 15,000 stone ar- pre-Clovis individuals is lighter than that tifacts at the Debra L. used by Clovis, which suggests they were Friedkin site in Texas (MT 27-2, “Butter- Cave paintings from Boqueirão da Pedra milk Creek”). Using Furada: (left) two anthropomorphs (­human optically stimulated figures) face each other in a vignette that luminescence (osl), has become known as the “kiss scene”; which dates the depo- (below) polychromatic (red, gray, yellow, and sition of sedimentary white) paintings represent anthropomorphs levels by calculating and zoomorphs (animal figures), including the time elapsed since ­lizards, cervids, and felines. the quartz grains within the sediments mobile hunter-gatherers moving across were last exposed to the landscape and left only small ephem- light (MT 18-3, “Lu- eral campsites and workshops, unlike minescence dating of the larger campsites we find in Clovis Quaternary sediments: and later cultures.“I think we’re moving New methods for dating toward understanding that the peopling archaeological compo- of the Americas was not a singular event nents”), the researchers like the Clovis-First model would have dated these artifacts us believe,” says Waters. Instead, it “was to between 13,200 and a process with people probably arriving 15,500 years old. The at different times and taking different CSFA team found no routes and potentially coming from dif- evidence that the arti- ferent places.”

facts had migrated from BOTH:FUMDHAM (THE NATIONAL PARK OF SERRA DA CAPIVARA) younger sediment levels and thereby confirmed that the arti- Non-Asian immigrants? Boat people? facts date to a time before Clovis people came on the scene. Contrary to a fundamental precept of Clovis-First, Guidon con- The discovery doesn’t suggest Clovis started earlier in North tends that the First Americans probably weren’t all of Asian ori- America than previously thought. Instead, it suggests that gin. One piece of evidence comes from David Reich’s genetics lab people using different tool types were present before Clovis ap- at Harvard. While analyzing the genomes from cultures in Cen- peared on the landscape and that this tral and South America, Pon- early technology could have evolved tus Skoglund, a researcher into the classic tools we see in Clovis in Reich’s lab, noticed that assemblages. the Surui and Karitiana peo- Some critical members of the scien- ple of the Amazon share with tific community withhold accepting the Aleutian Islanders and Atha- Friedkin assemblage as pre-Clovis on bascans a genetic affinity to the grounds that osl dating technology indigenous groups in Aus- lacks the bona fides of time-tested ra- tralasia—Australians, New diocarbon dating. At the Friedkin site, Guineans, and Andaman where sediments are starved of carbon- Islanders (MT 32-1, “Ge- bearing materials, no other method of netic clues answers funda- dating could be used. No such reserva- mental questions about the tions can be brought to bear, however, peopling of the Americas”). on indisputable pre-Clovis artifacts found by fieldwork in 2012–2014 at Guidon. the submerged Page-Ladson site in the Florida Panhandle (MT 32-2, “The Page-Ladson site”). Supporting evidence comes from Walter Neves, an evolutionary Here underwater archaeologist Jessi Halli­gan of Florida State anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, who reports that 10 Volume 33 n Number 1

an 11,000-year-old skull found in Brazil resembles aboriginal the University of Colorado (MT 20-4, “Exploring the Northwest Australians more than Asians. (Gruhn cautions, however, coast: E. James Dixon and the peopling of the New World”). against putting too much weight into craniometric data without a confirming genetic profile.) The importance of Monte Verde A recent discovery likewise refutes the migration route of The Coastal Migration model garnered support from the the First Americans proposed by the Clovis-First model. Ac- ground-breaking findings at Monte Verde in southern Chile, cording to the model that dominated Peopling of the Ameri- the earliest site on the Pacific coast. The idea that people en- cas thought for half a century, immigrants from Northern tered the Americas in watercraft and migrated south along the Asia via the Bering Land Bridge entered the lower regions Pacific coast was supported by the presence of this early site in of North America by way of the Ice-Free Corridor, a passage the southernmost portion of South America. At this site, struc- between the Cordilleran and Laurentide Ice Sheets. Before tures, lithic artifacts, perishable materials, and many other they separated, the consolidated glaciers barred overland artifacts show that people were occupying the site 14,500 years travel from Beringia to North ago. The discoveries made at and South America. Research Monte Verde, the first to shatter by paleogeneticist Eske Willer- the Clovis-First model so en- slev of the University of Copen- Meio trenched in the minds of North hagen, however, disputes the American archaeologists, of- time when the Ice-Free Corri- fered an alternative view of hu- dor became a habitable passage man colonization. for humans (MT 32-4, “Was From 1977 to 1985, Tom Dille- Boqueirão da Livierac the Ice-Free Corridor the route Pedra Furada hay of the University of Kentucky followed by the First Ameri- Vale da Pedra excavated at Monte Verde. Radio- cans?”). To construct a pic- carbon dates on water-saturated ture of the environment as it deposits, which account for the emerged from the Ice Age, Will- excellent preservation of organic erslev’s team analyzed en- remains, placed the level (desig- vironmental dna (edna) in nated MV-II) at 12,500 rcybp (about cores taken from beneath 14,500 calybp). This date precedes two lakes in what was the Antonião nord Clovis sites in North America by a last stretch of the corri- full millennium. Moreover, the site dor to melt. The first plant Antonião sud lies about 15,000 km from the Ber- life—thin grasses and ing Strait, the place according to the sedges—appears 12,600 La Pena traditional model where immigrants years ago. The region grad- entered the Americas from Asia. Tira Peia ually became lusher and Artifacts identified at Monte Verde have raised questions of Aerial views of the sites of when and how people reached the Serra da Capivara. Pedrinho tip of South America without leav-

BOTH:FROM ERIC BOËDA ing much other evidence in the New attracted mammals. Not until around 12,500 years ago did the World. In “Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the corridor accumulate the resources needed to sustain hunter- Peopling of South America,” Dillehay examines the remains of gatherers on the 1,500-km journey. That’s nearly 1,000 years nine species of marine algae recovered from hearths and other after the formation of the Clovis culture, and even longer after features at Monte Verde II. These findings, which indicate other, pre-Clovis cultures settled the Americas. that the occupants used seaweed from distant beaches and The dates calculated by Willerslev rule out the corridor as a estuarine environments for food and medicine, corroborate possible avenue of entry by Clovis people and earlier colonizers Dillehay’s contention that early settlement of South America of the Americas. Instead, the first emigrants from Beringia were was along the Pacific coast and that seaweeds were important probably boat people who skirted the Pacific coast in search of to the diet and health of early humans in the Americas. a fruitful, less brutal environment. Thus has been reinvigorated the Coastal Migration model of the Peopling of the Americas, Pedra Furada first introduced by Simon Fraser archaeologist Knut Fladmark Although Monte Verde may be the earliest site on the Pacific in the mid 1970s and pursued in recent years by such notable coast, Pedra Furada is the earliest on the Atlantic, dated to more anthropologists as Jon Erlandson of the University of Oregon than 40,000 years ago. In 1963, while Guidon was still working (MT 26-4, “A story of ancient mariners”), Loren Davis of Or- for the Paulista Museum in São Paulo, a visitor to the exposition egon State University (MT 24-3, “Putting muscle into coastal- on rock art in Brazil (at that time only the sites in Minas Gerais entry research”), Alan Bryan and Ruth Gruhn of the University had been discovered) showed her photos of paintings that he of Alberta (M T 17-2, “The Baja connection”), and Jim Dixon of claimed existed in the south of the State of Piauí. “He gave me UNLESS NOTED, ALL PHOTOS: FUMDHAM COLLECTION 12 Volume 33 n Number 1

the name of the town close to these sites,” Guidon recalls. “In That allows us to formulate the hypothesis that Homo sapiens, as December of that same year, I tried to drive to Piauí, but the rains a single species, has an identical genome regardless of where he had flooded a bridge over the São Francisco River, and I couldn’t settled in the world. Therefore, during his evolution and adapta- pass.” In fact, when she started in the 1970s, the largest obstacle tion to the environment, he created the elements necessary for was a lack of roads to access the sites. Further hindrances were his survival. We cannot continue to claim that one technology a lack of electricity and other modern conveniences. was created in a certain region and then migrated to other areas In 1970, Guidon joined a French mission to the natives of from there.” Goiás and took that opportunity to visit the south of Piauí. Vil- Although Guidon is now retired from active research, others lagers of Várzea Grande, when continue her work. As scholars asked about the paintings, advance beyond Clovis-First, guided her on a tour of five sites this long-impoverished region with abundant renderings of is now emerging as a flash point pictographs, which she photo- for research and discovery. graphed. In 1973 she received ­FUMDHAM (the National Park funding for a research mis- of Serra da Capivara) now boasts sion from the French National a museum, laboratories, and Center for Scientific Research a public university that trains (Le Centre National de la Re- young archaeologists, many of whom come from areas near How is this for a nimble octo­ the stunning park. Christelle genarian! Guidon scaling a rocky Lahaye, Associate Professor outcrop in the Serra Branca near in Archaeometry at Bordeaux the Toca do ­Conflito Den( of Montaigne University and a ­Conflict) archaeological site. key member of Guidon’s cur-

COLLECTION FUMDHAM COLLECTION rent research team, says that cherche Scientifique). Within a month she had discovered and if you “take a coffee with Guidon, you learn all about not only photographed 50 sites with paintings. Her team also did ground archaeology but the history of Brazil, her stay in France. All surveys at some of the sites. Her initial efforts still bear fruit about life.” today: The permanent mission to Piauí, created by the French –Katy Dycus Ministry of Foreign Affairs, continues to pursue research in the region. How to contact the principals of this article: “Because of the large number of paintings at Pedra Furada,” Ruth Gruhn Guidon explains, “we started excavations there that lasted 10 Professor Emerita of Anthropology years.” When her team finally hit rock at a depth of 12 m, they had Department of Anthropology obtained samples of charcoal and heated quartzites whose dat- University of Alberta ing suggests that humans may have arrived in the region more e-mail: [email protected] than 60,000 years ago. The diversity of the lithics industry, ce- Niède Guidon ramics, burials, and other evidence of human occupation today e-mail: [email protected] still attract Brazilian and foreign researchers. Guidon rejoices that “every excavation brings new discoveries!” Christelle Lahaye Associate Professor in Archaeometry An impressive legacy Department of Archaeology Guidon says that what surprised her most during her 30 years University of Bordeaux Montaigne of excavating at these sites has been the remarkably advanced e-mail: [email protected] technology evident in lithic and ceramic artifacts, and “the fact Eric Boëda that we have proven that the rock art is as old as that of Europe, Professor of Anthropology that it has several different perspectives and a wide variety of Department of Anthropology colors and subjects. Here, the ceramics industry also started University of Paris to be practiced around the same time as in Africa and Europe. e-mail: [email protected]

20,000 BC: The Toca da Tira Peia site, Piaui, Brazil. Journal of Suggested Readings Archaeological Science, pp. 2840–47. Boëda, E., et al. 2013 The late-Pleistocene industries of Piaui, Meltzer, D. J., J. M. Adovasio, and T. D. Dillehay 1994 On a Pleis- Brazil: New data. Paleoamerican Odyssey, editors K. E. Graf, C. V. tocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil. Antiquity, pp. Ketron, and M. R. Waters. pp. 445–65. Center for the Study of the 695–714. First Americans, College Station, Tx. Website FUMDHAM (the National Park of Serra da Capivara): ht t p:// Lahaye, C., et al. 2013 Human occupation in South America by www.fumdham.org.br/?lang=en January n 2018 13

Camels and Wild Horses of Canada

Yesterday’s Camel (Camelops hesternus)

ntil about 20 years ago, we had absolutely no idea unvegetated sediments that composed the lake bottom. The whether the First Americans preyed on horses and wind immediately began removing thousands of years’ worth camels. That may sound odd, since the bones of both of sediments, exposing the treasures entombed within. Local have been found at many Paleoamerican campsites; but there resident Shayne Tolman and his children soon discovered an was no “smoking gun” proving they actively hunted those spe- area where up to 2 m of those sediments had gone with the cies. That changed when dam repairs in the 1990s drastically wind, leaving behind a variety of interesting artifacts. Tolman lowered the level of a reservoir near Calgary, Canada, enabling reported their finds, and later investigations by archaeologist the wind to carry away deposits that had sealed an ancient Brian Kooyman, geologist Leonard Hills, and geology grad watering hole for 12,000–13,000 years. The erosion peeled student Paul McNeil of the University of Calgary, with Tol- back the pages of time to expose hundreds of preserved animal man’s help, soon yielded much more: not just Early American tracks—as well as the well-preserved bones of many extinct artifacts, but intact trackways of mammoth, camel, horse, and mammals, including seven horses and a camel that had clearly other animals, and the remains of animals local or globally been hunted and butchered by humans. extinct for more than 10,000 rcybp—including To this day, Wally’s Beach (DgPg-8) is still the horse, bison, camel, muskox, and caribou. only proof that Paleoamericans hunted horses and Seven of the horses had clearly been butchered camels. And now that a series of carefully prepared by human hands. Although the horse kills weren’t radiocarbon ages has been performed on those directly dated, nearby animal bones yielded bones, we know that those animals were killed radiocarbon ages dating as far back as 11,000– 300 years before Clovis—adding yet another stone 11,350 rcybp, suggesting a Clovis exploitation of to the rising bulwark of evidence for a pre-Clovis the local game. Several Clovis points, found on ­occupation of the Americas. the surface hundreds of meters away, seemed to Edmonton clinch the Clovis conclusion. They eat horses, don’t they? The Clovis evidence was exciting, but the true Horses and camels provide a significant amount value of Wally’s Beach was that it provided the of meat when slaughtered, making them well worth Calgary first indisputable evidence that Paleoamericans hunting—at least as much as bison, a well-known hunted horses for food. Later, close examination Paleoamerican food source. Although the meat of camel Medicine of other Wally’s Beach remains added to the and horse may not be to everyone’s taste, it’s prized in some Hat Paleoamerican diet another large animal genus: Wally’s parts of the modern world. It seems some of the First Ameri- Beach the camel, in the form of a single butchered cans enjoyed this food source, too. skeleton. Its fate was made abundantly clear At the end of the Pleistocene, as the ice receded and disap- not only by the presence of cutmarks on the bones, but also by peared, Wally’s Beach was an island on the south side of the St. the fact that the ribs had been deliberately severed from the Mary’s River. Today it lies near Cardston in southwest Alberta, vertebrae. Counting the Firelands Sloth from Ohio, an old find normally inundated by the St. Mary’s River Reservoir. Repairs recently discovered to bear cutmarks of pre-Clovis butchering made on the spillway and dam in the 1990s required the engi- (MT 28-1, “Pre-Clovis butchered ground sloth in Ohio”), that neers to lower the reservoir by over 9 m, exposing fine-grained, brings to six the total genera of now-extinct megafauna proven 14 Volume 33 n Number 1

to have been hunted by the First stances. More precise dat- Americans. ing seemed a good way to begin assessing these A second look possibilities.” A multidisciplinary team of scien- Kooyman, Waters, and tific big guns recently re-dated the geochronologist Tom Wally’s Beach kills, for several rea- Stafford then conducted a very careful round of

Camel vertebrae and one of the s new radiocarbon dating,

lithic tools in situ. in which they dated not The remains of a horse, showing a s only the eight clear kills cobble and utilized flake associated but also the remains of a with the find. The cobble may have nearby muskox that may been a cache marker. have died a natural death. As Dr. Kooyman points sons. First, the original dates out, “It is possible that the weren’t from the butchered musk ox was also hunted, horses themselves, but from the based on the finding of a bones of bison, muskox, horse, flake tool near it. But overall and caribou from the same eo- the evidence for hunting is lian deposits. Second, the ma- weak; if you look just at the terial dated in the 1990s was evidence, it is more likely unpurified bone collagen, the that it was not hunted.” Ulti- organic fraction of bone. CSFA mately, they were rewarded Director Mike Waters was a with a series of 27 radio­ member of the team that re- carbon ages, 23 of them cently dated the kills. He empha- tightly grouped, placing the sizes the importance of quality ages of all 8 animal kills at

dating. “Looking at the original KOOYMAN BRIAN about 11,445 ± 10 rcybp, or ages presented for the Wally’s Beach site,” he says, “I realized 13,270–13,310 calybp—about 300 years before the accepted that none of the horse bones from the kill sites had been directly age range for Clovis, as established by Waters and Stafford in dated and that the dates presented were on unpurified collagen. 2007 (MT 22-3, -4, “Clovis Dethroned: A New Perspective on As a consequence, there could be contaminants present. Thus, the First Americans’). the ages initially presented were minimum ages; the bones could The new radiocarbon ages haven’t changed their overall inter- be that age or older. When I saw that, I thought those remains pretation of what happened at Wally’s Beach, but they obviously needed to be dated using proper techniques.” changed the significance of the site and pushed it further back in Brian Kooyman was equally concerned about the dates. “They time. Kooyman suggests that “this is hunting of large game in its had always seemed unexpected for earlier development, before set- Clovis, as the animals hunted were tling on a focus on mammoth and quite different: not mammoth and bison. It may represent more of bison as usual in Clovis, but instead a broad-spectrum hunting, em- horse and camel. We had assumed it ploying game more opportunisti- was most likely that they were very cally—although still, obviously, late or very early Clovis, or even in a systematic and repeated pre-Clovis, and hence a transitional pattern using a known ambush period into or out of the typical Clo- A B location.” By opportunistically, vis patterns. We also thought it was he means “any good game in 0 5 possible Wally’s Beach represented A–B cm the area was taken. The high a unique pattern in Clovis culture, 0 5 incidence of horse makes sense something happening at the edge C–E cm if they were such a common, per- of Clovis distribution in different haps the most abundant, game environmental and cultural circum- animal in the landscape.”

Lithic artifacts associated with the One hunt, or several? horse kills: A, large biface; B, chopper; The tight grouping of dates C–E, flake tools (the edge of E C D E brings up the intriguing pos- has been modified). sibility that the horses, at least, January n 2018 15

were killed and processed during a single hunting episode. the bones display no cutmarks; nor are they distributed in a “They could have been, but that would be hard to say,” says pattern that indicates a human kill rather than the activity of Waters. “The dates are so tight, in terms of their overlap in age, scavengers or other carnivores, unlike the seven horses and that if you were so inclined, the camel. you could interpret this as The other locale is a group of shed a single hunting event—by caribou antlers. “Caribou don’t shed which I mean the horses left and right antlers at the same time,” may have been killed on Kooyman notes, “and since this group- the same day, in the same ing has both, it’s likely not just a natural week, month, or season. shedding of antlers. This may be a cache When the dates are cali- of antlers left by people.” Both sets of brated, they give you a 40- remains are compelling, but First Ameri- year time window for the cans archaeologists tend to be cautious hunting event.” That’s tiny by nature—and neither locale has of- for radiocarbon dates that fered up a smoking gun thus far. old. So many kills found in One thing we do know is that even such a small area is rather after more than 20 years, Wally’s dramatic, but then, it’s hard Beach remains unique. No other unde- to tell how representative niable horse or camel kills have been the sample we have is, given found anywhere else in the Americas, the vagaries of preserva- and not for lack of looking. “We know tion. Other killed animals may have decomposed Kooyman excavating the butchered camel.

completely. HILLS LEN Kooyman is less sanguine about the possibility of a sin- of no other kill sites like Wally’s Beach, here or elsewhere,” gular event. “Honestly, it’s hard to be certain one way or the Dr. Kooyman declares. “The coulee country around the area other. The fact that the individual kill localities are well sepa- could certainly have provided other good kill locations, and rated from each other suggests it’s more there are other locations where rapid burial might likely that this is a series of individual have preserved such sites—but we know of none.” kills . . . multiple events seems most likely.” Rereading the pages of history The lithic technology from the kills Although the Wally’s Beach kills predate Clovis only is frustratingly non-definitive. It seems by about 300 years, they are nonetheless pre-Clovis; likely that the 29 lithic flakes, cores, core and, as Kooyman points out, that makes Wally’s tools, and biface associated with the re- Beach significant, since we know so little about the mains must have been used in the butch- pre-Clovis occupation of the Americas. ering, and that anything truly useful was “The radiocarbon ages speak for themselves,” taken along with the meat. All we have is Waters agrees. He goes on to say that there are also a few leftovers, and sadly, the cutmarks important lesson to be learned about accurately on the bones are too short and shallow and precisely dating such finds. It’s crucial when to make a convincing argument that they dating bone to date chemically pure samples. Col- were made by any of the lithics found. One lagen must be purified to remove all contaminants, large stone found among the remains of and only amino acids derived from the bone should one horse was probably an anchor stone be dated. “Accurate and precise dating is funda- for a cache, “perhaps holding down the mental to interpreting archaeological sites and skin laid over the bones and meat,” Kooy- building a solid empirical foundation to explain the man theorizes. peopling of the Americas. Without properly dating samples, erroneous ages will result and the impor- Any other treasures out there? tance of such sites as Wally’s Beach will be hidden. Might Wally’s Beach hide other kills in Accurate dating changed our understanding of this its sandy deposits? It’s possible, though no definite kills have been identified yet. Well-preserved mammoth trackway at Wally’s Beach, “Two other sets of faunal remains are consisting of nine consecutive tracks.

suggestive, but not conclusive,” reports BRIANB. KOOYMAN Kooyman. “[The aforementioned] group of muskox bones important site,” explains Waters. “I think this is one of the key was recovered in the same area as the horses and camel, and takeaways from this site.” a utilized flake was found within a meter of the remains.” But continued on page 19 16 Volume 33 n Number 1

sometimes regrettably divert atten- a model of excellence in tion into needless disagreements. latin american archaeology Most archaeologists accept that ages obtained at the most secure South American sites represent minimal dates for when the continent was colo- Luis Borrero nized. Borrero remarks that “since the Paleoamerican Odyssey conference in Santa Fe, New Mexico, in 2013, the discussion concerning the peopling of the Americas has changed direction. Beyond the classic discussion of how much time before Clovis is acceptable, we are more often discussing the spe- cific adaptations of the early peoples.” Chronology, in Borrero’s opinion, is only one of many important variables to be considered in explaining the pro- cesses of exploration and colonization. The momentum of research today is toward developing more complex mod- els and theories about the spread of Borrero in Death Valley, Nevada, 2013. Paleoamericans across South America.

FABIANA MARTIN FABIANA The classical model of the peopling of South America is straining to resist the offshoots of new theories about the first hrough his contributions to Latin American colonizers of North America—notably a Solutrean migration archaeology, especially in the context of the peopling (MT 17-1, “Immigrants from the other side?”) and a Pacific Tof South America, Luis Borrero has set a high standard coastal route (MT 26-4, “A story of ancient mariners”). Even for himself and fellow South American scientists. His unswerv- more exotic theories beg rethinking early models of the peopling ing focus on zooarchaeology and taphonomy has raised the bar of South America, such as independent colonization from Austra- in these disciplines. “The work of a quite famous late archaeolo- lia (MT 16-2, “The First Americans: Were they Australians?”), gist, Lewis Binford, on the process of exploration-colonization possible human origin from the Pampas, and south-to-north was a big influence on me (as on most of the archaeologists of dispersal. Borrero finds these old theories, interesting in their my generation),” Borrero says. time, now of value only for the history of research. Born in the Patagonian city of Rio Gallegos and raised in The chronology of the most discussed South American sites Azul (Buenos Aires Province), Borrero completed his under- is less important to Borrero than the methods their occupants graduate studies in anthropology in 1978 and his Ph.D. in 1986 used to adapt to the region and to reshape the environment to at the University of Buenos Aires, moving from student to pro- support their subsistence strategy, as reflected in their tools. fessor at the university immediately upon receiving his degree. Of especial interest to today’s archaeologists are the systems He has been there ever since. Paleoamericans used to acquire and distribute raw materials. “In a world full of people,” Borrero says, “I am fascinated South American sites yield scant evidence of megamammals, by stories of entering empty lands like Australia or the Ameri- and toolkits from early sites are of generalized rather than spe- cas, even other planets. I read a lot of science fiction and find cialized nature. Even when megamammal remains are found, especially attractive stories of human survivors dealing with as at Arroyo Seco 2, La Moderna, and Campo Laborde, what larger spaces and new social and subsistence resources.” emerges from associated artifacts is a regional pattern of simple lithic technologies with minimal bifacial work. Borrero finds Debates on the peopling of South America nothing wrong with comparing South American toolmaking Borrero finds that debate about the peopling of America has with that of other continents, but he insists that at some point the experienced significant change in the last few years, owing local history of adaptations must be considered in isolation. in large measure to the increased reliance on sophisticated analytical techniques at the molecular level, more sharply Investigating a unique prehistory focused fieldwork, and the gradual acceptance of human pres- “Long-term continuity of a simple technology certainly needs to ence earlier than 14,000 calendar years ago. New site excava- be explained,” Borrero emphasizes. “The evidence from archaeo- tions foster new research problems, particularly in cases of logical cultures in east Asia is not relevant for South American ambiguous archaeological sites, which, alongside well-estab- industries because they explain nothing about their occurrence lished claims for early human occupations in South America, and persistence in Argentina, Brazil, or other southern sites. January n 2018 17

Our evidence for the early peopling of Argentina is minimal; new A test case: Ultima ­Esperanza, Chile evidence should be pursued. Archaeology is not in a position to The dispersal of humans can be understood, Borrero explains, ignore such evidence even when the context is not good.” by studying biogeographical corridors and barriers. Although Borrero’s single-minded pursuit of unequivocal evidence mapping and dating critical resources and archaeological has won him accolades from colleagues across the continent. “I remains are sometimes successful, quite often this approach was never officially one of Luis’s students,” says César Méndez is unworkable because most early South American cultures Melgar of Chile. “However, for a long time I have felt like one. had low populations that left sparse evidence. The evidence for Having read his works in detail, I have come to consider him Ultima Esperanza, for example, is limited to two sites, Cueva among the most insightful scholars I have been acquainted del Medio and Cueva Lago Sofia, both located on the western with. His perspective on the archaeological record is perhaps fringe of southern Patagonia. Tools from these sites share a one of the most sound and solid and I must say I feel comfortable bifacial lithic technology with older sites in Fuego-Patagonia. trying to understand the past as I think Luis Borrero does. He The geography of Fuego-Patagonia at the end of the Pleis- is also one of the most ethical professionals I have ever encoun- tocene differed dramatically from today. Tierra del Fuego was tered in this line of work. He has systematically (and with an part of the continent during the Pleistocene, but it was severed enormous judgment) acknowledged the work of students and by the Strait of Magellan, which was formed during the early highly renowned peers, alike. Holocene. In the Southern Hemisphere the continental ice cap “I remember once Luis participated in one of our field sea- presented a formidable barrier, separating the eastern steppes sons in the area of Balmaceda, in central western Patagonia, from the southern archipelagos. and after several days of surveying enormous fields and hav- Borrero believes that the initial radiation of humans into the ing recorded nothing, he left us cheering and gave us hope; empty southern continent probably followed less resistant routes, highlighting that negative evidence we recorded was as mean- perhaps by boat people that skirted the coast, and settlement ingful as any when we wanted to understand the differences took place at resource-rich locations. Standard radiocarbon dat- in the regional distribution of the archaeological evidence.” ing indicates that the western fringe of Patagonia was most likely explored ca. 11,580 calybp or before; if only AMS dates are used, Tricky formation processes and taphonomy however, the oldest dates are ca. 11,100 calybp. For Borrero this Although Borrero con- discrepancy means “that older cedes that most sites standard dates must be replicated in South America were with modern dating techniques. carefully excavated, he The existence of archaeological doesn’t exclude the pos- sites of similar age, older than sibility of misinterpret- 10,000 radiocarbon years, in Ul- ing evidence for human tima Esperanza at the western presence, particularly in reaches of Fuego-Patagonia leads identifying lithic tools. to questions of the conditions un- The perennial bugbear of der which that region was incor- archaeologists is distin- porated within the human range.” guishing artifacts from Does archaeological evidence geofacts. Some sites known for more than a (Left–right) Fabiana Martin, Erik decade have yielded arti- Lukoviek Bontes, Borrero, and José fact assemblages whose Díaz digging a late-Pleistocene provenance is suspect. ­accumulation of carnivore droppings Ambiguous evidence is and bones in Cueva Escondida, widespread in archaeo- Ultima Esperanza, Chile, 2014.

logical sites across BORRERO LUIS North and South America, but Borrero refuses to admit that as define the first exploration of a region or its permanent coloniza- an excuse for abandoning further study. “Experimental and ta- tion? Cueva Lago Sofia 1 yielded 37 lithics, all made of local raw phonomic work is required,” he tells us, “to construct adequate materials abundant near the cave. Lithic tools recovered at Cueva frameworks for separating tools from pseudo-tools and for dis- del Medio are only partially described, but were also taken from tinguishing physical from behavioral associations.” glacial deposits nearby. These assemblages are evidence for Bor- Such ground-breaking work has in fact produced exciting rero that these sites may have been way stations of short-term discoveries. Borrero points to high-altitude sites like Cuncai- seasonal circuits, after which the sites weren’t revisited for centu- cha cave and Pucuncho lithic workshop in Peru (MT 30-4, ries. The region of Cerro Benitez–Lago Sofia area may have seen 31-1, “Reaching new heights in the Peruvian Andes”) and the sporadic use, perhaps for big-game hunting forays. insightful application of predictive models, based on paleoeco- logical data on the availability of water during the late Pleisto- Making the case for human-megafauna association cene, that led to site discoveries in northern Chile. Although South American megafauna are rarely covered in detail 18 Volume 33 n Number 1

during a discussion of Pleistocene extinctions, megamammals Contagious enthusiasm made their homes in South America in surprising numbers. The “I have known Luis since we were students,” says Nora Flegen- Pampas alone were once home to 38 species of herbivores weigh- heimer, an Argentinean colleague. “Although we studied at dif- ing more than 100 kg (MT 29-2, “Footprints of the Pampas: A ferent universities, we met often. What I remember most is his past worth saving”), thus making South America a noteworthy passion, passion for archaeology, for mountain climbing, for the case of megamammal extinction worthy of in-depth study. Al- Rolling Stones. Listening to him address the audience in the last though the literature registers a few claims for the presence of SAA meeting, I could recognize that same passion which has been humans as long as 40,000 years ago, no site provides irrefutable the driving force of his career. And although I never attended his evidence for human occupation, much less in association with classes, through his students I know he transmits this passion Pleistocene megafauna. and his wide-reaching knowledge of bibliography; he is an avid Available evidence for the migration route for human colo- and thorough reader. The ´70s were a time when in Argentina nization of South America points toward Panama, which ap- we had little access to international bibliography. As I was work- peared as a bridge around 3 million years ago. An assemblage ing with agronomist Ingeniero Augusto Cardich, I had access to of fluted projectile points discovered at Cueva de los Vampiros the reprints he received; I still remember Luis´s exclamations of is one of the few bits of evidence from the region. enthusiasm whenever I brought a new reprint from the lab.” Borrero distinguishes between two approaches for studying the association of humans and megafauna: Inseparable: Evolutionary theory and ­the colonizing ■ physical association—bones and tools found side by side; of South America Borrero believes that when modeling the peopling of the ■ behavioral association—demonstrated human activities di- Americas, scientists place too little emphasis on human skel- rectly related to megafauna. etal remains. The fault for this lies, first, when the primacy To observe this distinction requires taking into account the of megamammals is exaggerated in subsistence strategies, taphonomic history of the deposits. The lithics analyst must and second, when the importance of rockshelters and caves is remain alert to a multiplicity of natural agents that can mimic overemphasized in human occupations. These biases obscure human actions and must therefore exercise caution before ac- the mission of anthropologists: to understand why settlement cepting evidence on which to base interpretations. Eliminating occurred, and how it was accomplished. cases that merely present physical associations is a safeguard Biological, biogeographical, and archaeological data stand that places the burden of evidence on sites out in stark relief when viewed for which a behavioral interpretation can be against the backdrop of evo- established. lutionary theory and the two Borrero cites numerous discoveries of Pleis- pillars that support it, human tocene colonization in Colombia, Venezuela, behavioral ecology and natural Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Brazil. selection. To fathom the process Most of these sites, however, only demonstrate of human colonization, Borrero physical association of artifacts with megafau- urges scientists not to ignore the nal bones and therefore cry for further investi- wealth of evidence encoded in gation. A notable exception is the Taguatagua 2 human bones, for they speak vol- site in Chile, where Fell Cave projectile points umes about human adaptation at were discovered with the remains of several the individual level. Only when mastodonts, including a fragment of tusk scored data from genetics, paleoecol- with geometric designs. Cutmarks on 7.6% of the ogy, archaeology, and paleon­ bones rank among the best evidence for behav- tol ­ogy are integrated, Borrero ioral association in South American sites. preaches, can scientists detect For Borrero, this is conclusive evidence that and understand variations in the humans and Pleistocene fauna coexisted and archaeological record. interacted in South America. More difficult to The answer to precisely determine, however, is whether megafaunal when and how South America remains are the product of hunting or scaveng- was peopled is elusive. Borrero is confident, however, that eco- Borrero relaxing inside the crater of a logically disparate regions of volcano in the Pali Aike lava field in southern the continent were occupied by ­Patagonia, the region where the oldest 11,200–12,200 calybp and that evidence for humans was found. the process surely involved gen-

FABIANA MARTIN FABIANA eralist hunter-gatherers with ing. At any rate, such distinctions cease to matter at the end of the flexibility to seek and exploit different ecological niches. the Pleistocene: By then, megafauna were extinct and humans In deciding which habitats Paleoamericans were likely sought other prey. to prefer, early archaeologists typically considered only January n 2018 19

the quality and availability of raw materials and basic sub- Central issues for his work “are constructing an evolutionary sistence needs. Borrero pursues a taphonomic approach to framework within which to derive hypotheses and implications archaeology, discovering preserved pockets in the landscape, to study and understand the process of exploration and colo- often in unexpected lo- nization of new land, particularly cations, and deciphering in South America. The process of the mechanisms that ac- extinction of Pleistocene megama- cumulate and preserve mmals is an important part of what materials. He readily ad- I have wished to understand since mits that “the construc- my student days. Most of my field tion of a continental-scale work is related to that subject.” taphonomy is a difficult As for his future work, Borrero task. The basic idea is to intends to continue his search for apply this approach at the late-Pleistocene archaeological same geographical scale and paleontological sites in unex- at which archaeological pected locations, while avoiding projects work. The goal obvious locales like large caves or is a better definition of the archaeological prob- Jeff Altschul, President of the lems implicated in the Society for American Archaeology, processes of exploration presenting Borrero the SAA Award and colonization.” Bor- for Excellence in Latin America and rero is convinced that Caribbean Archaeology, 2014.

only by considering the CLARAOTAOLA full archaeological record will we understand the motives that sites characterized by megafaunal remains. He is convinced energized the first immigrants. that “First Americans studies call for well-organized field work on a wide continental scale.” Praise supremely warranted –Martha Deeringer Log onto website www.academia.edu and prepare to be dazzled by 30 years of Luis Borrero’s contributions to more than a How to contact the principal of this article: hundred major publications and praise from his peers for his Luis Alberto Borrero service in furthering the academic underpinnings for archaeo- IMHICIHU, CONICET logical research, capped by the Excellence in Latin American Saavedra 15, Piso 5 (1083 ACA) and Caribbean Archaeology Award bestowed by the Society for Buenos Aires, Argentina American Archaeology for his scholarship. e-mail: [email protected]

have served as a river ford. “The hunting shows repeated use Wally’s Beach of a good locality, and that the hunting is intercept hunting— a strategy based on knowledge of the animals and the local continued from page 15 landscape,” Kooyman states. “This is not random encounter Kooyman states that the hunting of species different from hunting, but is planned and clearly successful.” those favored in later eras is also important, and may suggest –Floyd Largent a logical progression from hunting a broad spectrum of prey to a more focused and perhaps more efficient hunting strategy. How to contact the principals of this article: That is, the pre-Clovis hunters at Wally’s Beach may have Michael R. Waters, Director killed horses and camels only because they were common, Center for the Study of the First Americans rather than specifically stalking elephantids and bison as their Department of Anthropology descendants did. Texas A&M University Another significant contribution of Wally’s Beach is that we College Station, Texas 77843-4352 can use the location and patterning in the kills to reconstruct e-mail: [email protected] the hunting strategy to some extent—something not always Brian P. Kooyman, Professor Emeritus possible from kill localities of any era. Kooyman points out University of Calgary that this location on the bluffs along the river had easy access Department of Anthropology and Archaeology to the river. Before the reservoir was built, this location—still 2500 University Drive NW visible during draw-down of the reservoir—had a gradual slope Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4 down to the river that was used by local farmers. It may even e-mail: [email protected] 20 Volume 33 n Number 1

Isolated Suggested Readings Colinvaux, P. 1981 Historical ecology in Beringia: The south land bridge coast at St. Paul Island. Quaternary Research 16.1 continued from page 4 (18–36). water a day, and a mammoth, if anything, needed even more. Graham, R. W., Belmecheria, S., Choy, K., Culleton, B. J., Davies, Elephants, today’s proxies for mammoths, will excavate wells L. J., Froese, D., Heintzman, P. D., Hritz. C., Kapp, J. D., Newsom, near a lake margin, but these are very inefficient sources of L. A., Rawcliffe, R., Saulnier-Talbot, É., Shapiro, B., Wang, Y., drinking water. Williams, J. W. , and Wooller, M. J. 2016 Timing and causes With today’s rising oceans, St. Paul hasn’t started slipping of mid-Holocene mammoth extinction on St. Paul Island, Alaska. below again just yet. Ample freshwater may, however, again Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113:33 (9310–14). become a problem. The island’s freshwater supply is provided Marshall, J. 2016 Mammoth Island. Discovery Magazine, by groundwater that literally floats on top of a saltwater wedge. ­November (38–45). But the wedge is swelling, and the ancient ecological disaster that caused the demise of one of the last groups of mammoths on Earth may become tomorrow’s problem. The collective group of scientists aren’t done with St. Paul. According to Graham this is only one study that will spring from Lake Hill cores. Scientists including Yue Wang (University of Wisconsin–Madison) will revisit Colinvaux’s earlier studies of isotopes, plant macrofossils, and data from other organisms to clarify the picture of the late-Pleistocene paleoenvironment and its changing climate. Perhaps what they learn from the ancient changing climate will help us deal with today’s. –K. Hill How to contact the principal of this article: Russell Graham Leaving Lake Hill after a day of coring. e-mail: [email protected]

e-mail: [email protected] Paleoamerican Art Objects http://www.gaultschool.org Michael B. Collins continued from page 7 Research Professor of Anthropology continent except Antarctica going back some 450,000 years. Texas State University, While people at different times and in different places may San Marcos, Texas have given them different meanings, the patterns are some- e-mail: [email protected] thing that all humans share.” –Jessy Schroeder Suggested Readings Aveleyra, L. A. de A. 1965 The Pleistocene carved bone from How to contact the principals of this article: Tequix ­quiac, Mexico: A reappraisal. American Antiquity Ashley Lemke 30:261–77. Assistant Professor Benson, L. V., E. M. Hattori, J. Southon, and B. Aleck 2013 Dating Department of Sociology and Anthropology North America’s oldest petroglyphs, Winnemucca Lake subbasin, University of Texas at Arlington Nevada. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:4466–76. Director, Advisory Council for Underwater Archaeology Collins, M. B. 2002 The Gault site, Texas and Clovis research. Box 19599 Athena Review 3(2):24-36. 430 University Hall Hester, J. J., E. L. Lundelius, Jr., and R. Fryxell 1972 Blackwater 601 S. Nedderman Drive Locality No. 1: A stratified, early man site in eastern New Mexico. Arlington, Texas 76019 Fort Burgwin Research Center, Ranchero de Taos, New Mexico. e-mail: [email protected] Potter, V. 2005 An inventory of Paleoindian ornamentation. Cur- D. Clark Wernecke, Executive Director rent Research in the Pleistocene 22:94–96. Center for the Study of The Gault School of Archaeological Research the First Americans, College Station, Tx. PO Box 2620 Polynomial Texture Mapping (ptm) service provided by HP Labs of San Marcos, TX 78667 Hewlett-Packard, http://www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm/ A Journal of Early Human ­Migration and Dispersal Electronic and print editions The Center for the Study of the First Americans, in partnership several long reports on new scientific discoveries; brief reports with Taylor & Francis publishers, present PaleoAmerica–a on new research; and one or two observations written from peer-reviewed, quarterly journal focused on the Pleistocene the perspective of leaders in their fields. In other words, each human colonization of the New World. issue is full of news, views, and reviews. PaleoAmerica is an interdisciplinary journal that covers all Special Pricing for CSFA Members only! aspects of the study of the peopling of the Americas, including Center members receive a significant discount on this archaeology, genetics, paleoanthropology, linguistics, and publication–up to 78% off the subscription prices offered paleoenvironmental sciences. PaleoAmerica’s geographic directly from Taylor & Francis publishers. focus includes North and South America, the Caribbean, ■ Print version is $35 (Exclusive to CSFA members.) northeast Asia (Siberia, Japan, China, Korea, and Mongolia), and southwest Europe. Moreover, PaleoAmerica reports on ■ Electronic version is $22 (Subscribers to the electronic the study of the dispersal of modern humans in other parts of version have access to the current and all past issues.) the world such as Australia and southeast Asia. All PaleoAmerica subscriptions are for one calendar year and Each issue of PaleoAmerica provides at least one robust include four issues. summary of current knowledge about major research into Order your subscription using the Order Form on the inside front a specific avenue of scientific inquiry or geographic region; cover of this issue or online at www.centerfirstamericans.com

Volume 3, Issue 4 ■ October, 2017 approx. 105 pp. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Perspective Sub-Regional Patterning of Paleoindian Sites with Paleoindian Peoples and Landscapes of Northeastern Michaud–Neponset Points in New England and the North America: An Introduction, Jonathan C. Lothrop Canadian Maritimes, Zachary L. F. Singer and Zachary L. F. Singer Paleoindian Landscapes in Southeastern and Central Research Reports New York, Jonathan C. Lothrop, Michael L. Beardsley, Rhyolite Use during the Fluted Point Period in New Mark L. Clymer, Joseph E. Diamond, Philip C. LaPorta, England and Southern Québec, Nathaniel Kitchel Meredith H. Younge, and Susan Winchell-Sweeney Middle and Late Paleoindian Adaptation to the A Landscape Approach to Reconstructing Territorial Landscapes of Southeastern Québec, Claude Chapdelaine Mobility during the Parkhill Phase in Southern Michigan and Pierre J. H. Richard and Ontario, Dillon H. Carr Paleoindian Adaptation to the Landscape of Northern The Seasonality of Prehistoric Caribou Hunting in New Hampshire, Richard A. Boisvert, Tanya Krajcik, and Northeastern North America, Ashley Lemke and John Mark Greenly O’Shea Early and Middle Paleoindian Settlement Patterns and Terminal Pleistocene Depositional Patterns and the Late-Pleistocene Environment along the Champlain Their Relationship to the Paleoindian Occupation of Sea, Francis “Jess” Robinson IV, George E. Springston, and Drainage Basins in the Middle Atlantic Region, USA, John G. Crock Joseph A. M. Gingerich and Daniel P. Wagner

To submit a manuscript, contact editor Ted Goebel at [email protected]

Other CSFA Publications CSFA publications available in limited quantities include: ■ Past issues of Mammoth Trumpet ■ Past issues of Current Research in the Pleistocene ■ Southbound Visit www.centerfirstamericans.com for price and availability, or e-mail us at [email protected], or call us at 979-845-4046. Dry Creek: Archaeology and Paleo- Geoarcheology and Radiocarbon ecology of a Late Pleistocene Alaskan Chronology of Stone Age North Hunting Camp,W. Roger Powers, R. Dale East Asia, Vladimir V. Pitul’ko and Guthrie, and John F. Hoffecker; edited by Elena Yu. Pavlova; Richard L. Bland, Ted Goebel. 2017. 344 pages. Hardback trans. 2016. 256 pages. Hardback (ISBN (ISBN 978-1-62349-538-1). 978-1-62349-330-1). Reg. price $50.00 Reg. price $60.00 CSFA members $40.00 CSFA members $48.00

The Hogeye Clovis Cache, Michael From the Yenisei to the Yukon: These books can only be ordered through R. Waters and Thomas A. Jennings. Interpreting Lithic Assemblage TAMU Press. To order these publications, 2015. 159 pages. Hardback or e-book Variability in Late Pleistocene/ phone 800-826-8911, go online at (ISBN 978-1-62349-214-4). Early Holocene Beringia, Ted www.tamupress.com, or use the form below. Reg. price $30.00 Goebel and Ian Buvit, editors. 2011. CSFA members $24.00 408 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN Other titles are available on the TAMU 978-1-60344-321-0). Press website. Reg. price $80.00 CSFA members $64.00 Emergence and Diversity of Modern Clovis: On the Edge of a New Paleoamerican Origins: Beyond Human Behavior in Paleolithic ­Understanding, Ashley M. Smallwood Clovis, Robson Bonnichsen, Bradley T. Asia, Yousuke Kaifu, Masami Izuho, and Thomas A. Jennings, editors. 2014. Lepper, Dennis Stanford, and Michael Ted Goebel, Hiroyuki Sato, and Akira 376 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN R. Waters, editors. 2005. 384 pages. Ono. 2014. 230 pages/ Hardback (ISBN 978-1-62349-201-4). Paperback (ISBN 978-1-603448-12-3). 978-1-62349-276-2). Reg. price $50.00 Reg. price $45.00 Reg. price $65.00 CSFA members $40.00 CSFA members $36.00 CSFA members $52.00

Paleoamerican Odyssey, Kelly E. Kennewick Man: The Scientific Late Pleistocene Archaeology Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael Investigation of an Ancient and Ecology in the Far Northeast, R. Waters, editors. 2014. 584 pages. American Skeleton, Douglas W. Owsley Claude Chapdelaine, editor. 2012. Paperback (ISBN 978-1-62349-192-5) and Richard L. Jantz, editors. 2014. 600 264 pages. Hardback or e-book (ISBN Reg. price $45.00 pages. Hard­back (ISBN 978-1-62349- 978-1-60344-790-4). CSFA members $36.00 200-7). Reg. price $75.00 Reg. price $68.00 CSFA members $60.00 CSFA members $54.40

Ice Age Peoples of North America: Clovis Lithic Technology: Arch Lake Woman: Environments, Origins, and Investigation of a Stratified Physical Anthropology and Adaptations of the First Americans, Workshop at the Gault Site, Texas, Geoarchaeology, Douglas W. Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Michael R. Waters, Charlotte D. Pevny, Owsley, Margaret A. Jodry, Thomas W. Turnmire, editors. 2005. 565 pages. and David L. Carlson. 2011. 224 pages. Stafford, C. Vance Haynes, and Dennis Hardback (ISBN 978-1-585443-68-0). Hardback or e-book (ISBN 978-1-60344- J. Stanford. 2010. 93 pages. Hardback Reg. price $60.00 278-7). Reg. price $45.00 (ISBN 978-1-60344-208-4). CSFA members $48.00 CSFA members $36.00 Reg. price $30.00 CSFA members $24.00

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