SOCIETY OF Philip Barker

he provision of a legacy is at the forefront for every Tcontemporary Olympic host city but when Moscow made ready to host the Olympic Games thirty years ago, the priorities were very different. As the first games held Games of the in a Communist country, the organising committee and XXII Olympiad government were determined to put on a games which showed the regime to the best advantage. Even so, they did Moscow leave a mark which went beyond the bricks and mortar of facilities. Many aspects have not yet been fully realised. 1980

A Cultural Legacy The Soviet regime was determined these would be the greatest games in history. In order to promote them and Programme by extension their regime, they launched an unprecedented of the Olympic public relations campaign. Soviet sport magazines and torch relay books became more widely available in Western countries. In 1979 they threw open the Spartakiade (traditionally a domestic competition) to competitors from the west. This event not only gave a foretaste of the competition and facilities but also the standard of ceremonies and spec­ tacle that would accompany the Olympics. The flip side of their campaign was that communist party publications suggested the reason Moscow was awarded the Olympics in the first place was in tribute to the correctness of the Socialist system. It was further ammunition for those who would later boycott. IOC President Lord Killanin outlined the difficulties created by such propaganda in meetings with Soviet leader Leonid Breshnev. Spectacle and pageantry were already a well established aspect of Soviet life. The parades in Red Square to mark May Day were carefully choreographed and brilliantly staged. In addition the country already had a very rich cultural tradition in music and dance. It was therefore a short step to marry these elements in a spectacular event to welcome the world. There had been cultural displays at the ceremonies for previous games but nothing like the Moscow Olympic Torch Relay Brochure. Archive Philip Barker scale of those in Moscow. On July 19th 1980, the chimes of the most famous clock in Moscow signalled four o’clock the Festive Overture by Shostakovitch as the symbol of the in the afternoon. Moscow Games was displayed in Giant Mosaic cards. The third movement of Tchaikovsky’s Symphonie Pathétique “So this opening ceremony o f the 22nd Olympiad was played as a group of young men dressed in white and begins simply but dramatically. With the striking o f gold costumes in the style of ancient Greece walked ahead the Kremlin clock some seven miles away from here of the arrival of a giant structure which carried a three in Red Square. President Breshnev is received by dimensional representation of the Olympic rings. Behind Lord Killanin president of the IOC and president them came a group of women in light blue togas and then of the Organising Committee Ignati Novikov, and and horse drawn chariots. There were Impressive gymnastic that fanfare means the Olympic opening ceremony displays and folk dances and these were accompanied by is underway. ”] changing tableaux of the card mosaic.

“It was without doubt the most grandiose opening “The only jarring moment came with the goose step­ ceremony in Olympic history” said the respected ping march o f the young Soviet athletes who carried British journalist Ian Wooldridge.2 Television critic the Olympicflag” wrote Norman Harris in the Sunday Russel Davies equated the ceremony with the Times.4 thirties productions of Busby Berkeley.3 A colour party of eight marched into the stadium into the The Lenin stadium was the setting for a show which stadium to the strains of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony with began with the Soviet anthem and then the fanfare from a further escort of 22 for the 22nd Olympiad. As they reached the flag pole, the orchestra began to play the Olympic anthem Committee. In Great Britain for example, the matter was which was sung in Russian. Pigeons were released. even debated in parliament. The arrival of the Olympic flame was another great set piece. When it reached the stadium, carried by Triple Jumper “As far as the British Olympic Association was con­ Viktor Saneev, the Basketball star Sergei Belov waited to cerned, that question was never an issue” wrote play his part in a final dramatic moment. Sir Denis Follows, BOA Chairman and Team Commandant in Moscow. “Suddenly, suddenly a pathway appears, and Sergei Belov will actually run up a pathway that’s carried on “We had decided as long ago as 1978 that whether the heads o f the sportsmen. He holds the torch up, the one went to the Games or not was solely a matter flame now shines and burns against a grey sky here in for the individual competitor. It was not for the com­ Moscow and the 1980 Olympic Games are now really mittee to be the keeper o fany individual s conscience, here, in this city. ”s to boycott nor deny the opportunity, nor equally to coerce or persuade. ”10 The like of Moscow’s Opening Ceremony had never been seen before. After Moscow it was inevitable that the Los Killanin noted the agreement made at the IOC Session Angeles would stage a comparable spectacular, if only to before the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid, which try and eclipse the efforts of Moscow. Hollywood producer David Wolper was appointed commissioner of ceremonies “made it possible for each National Olympic for 19846. That appointment alone seemed to set the tone. Committee to use during the Olympic ceremonies The set pieces in their ceremony included a card stunt per­ the flag and anthem o f its choice and thus assist the formed in Los Angeles when spectators created the flags of athletes for whom the games are held. ”u the nations. It was a deliberate comparison with the displays seen in Moscow.7 The position adopted by the British Olympic Association galvanised others and went a long way towards ensuring The Political Legacy their participation. At the Annual General Meeting of the The theme of World Peace was constantly emphasised in British Olympic Association, Lord Noel-Baker spoke in Moscow’s ceremony. There was a message of greeting from favour of attending the Games.12 the Cosmonauts and Coubertin’s ode O Sport You Are Peace On 4th May 1980,18 European national Olympic com­ was set to music. Olympic publications cast the Soviet mittees met in Rome and came up with an eight point plan Union as the righteous defenders of Olympism. There designed to allow participation and issued a declaration was no mention of course that Soviet tanks had rolled into that was published in the Olympic Review. Afghanistan in the final days of 1979. Soon, the Washington administration was calling for a boycott of the Olympics. “They stress that their mission is to defend the American President Jimmy Carter despatched his represen­ Olympic movement whose principles are fraternity tatives to lobby other nations and his envoy Lloyd Cutler and universal friendship [...] that it is their duty to travelled to Dublin to meet IOC President Killanin. The poli­ permit participation in the Games by their athletes ticking continued through the Olympic Winter Games held who have prepared a long time for them [...] that in Lake Placid. US Secretary of State Cyrus Vance gave a this participation is even more important in a speech at the Opening ceremony of the IOC Session. period of international conflict and tension [...] Killanin later described this address as “outrageously any forgoing of the 1980 Olympic Games, besides political.”8 It was one of the most difficult periods in failing to provide a solution to the present con­ Olympic history. flicts would have disastrous consequences on inter­ The Olympic flame was kindled in Olympia according national sport. ”13 to tradition. It travelled to Moscow by a more or less direct route and left Northern Greece by land. It journeyed through The statement set out the conditions under which the Bulgaria described as NOCs would take part in Moscow. These included the use of the Olympic rings and an abbreviated arrange­ “a nation which has courageously defended its free­ ment of the Olympic anthem instead of national symbols dom and national dignity from enemies and over­ and flags, kept participation in the Opening and Closing thrown the foreign yoke [...] today the country is Ceremonies to a minimum and also resolved not to par­ carrying out its programme to build a developed ticipate in the Olympic Youth Camp.14 socialist society.,K) Such rhetoric was common in the Soviet bloc. “They underline that participation can not in any way be taken to imply acceptance o f any ideology or Meanwhile in many western nations, the position of the political behaviour. government was at odds with that of the National Olympic They appeal therefore to the Olympic committees o fall W

INTERNATIONALIISOHfi SOCIETY OF OLYMPIC HISTORIANS

the countries o f the world to take part in the Olympic Written in white lettering in Cyrillic and English was the Games in accordance with the above principles. ” name of the delegation. Great Britain were introduced as the “British Olympic Association”. They had decided For those that did attend, the Moscow Games unwittingly that none of their athletes would march in the parade of left a legacy of unusual Olympic ceremonies. nations. Their only participant was Richard Palmer, then According to tradition Greece began the parade with General Secretary of the British Olympic Association. their familiar blue and white national flag. Eighteen other Television coverage did not highlight the gesture made European nations acted in accordance with their Rome by these nations. In fact the cameras offered an extreme declaration. Australia followed this example and two close up of the flag bearer whenever an Olympic or NOC Australians, Denise Boyd (athletics) and Max Metzker flag was used. (Swimming) carried the Olympic flag. In addition, a When Killanin made his traditional speech of welcome, sizeable contingent of Australians did march in the he alluded to the boycott campaign. opening ceremony.15 New Zealand had a much smaller team than normal and paraded the flag of their National “I would like to welcome all the athletes and officials Olympic Committee, the national emblem a silver fern set here today especially those who have shown their above the Olympic rings on a black background. It was complete independence to travel to compete despite carried by Modern Pentathlete Brian Newth, followed by many pressures placed on them. ” 16 a competitor from Canoeing and team officials. The black flag made a striking spectacle. It was misinterpreted as an The oath was sworn by gymnast Nikolai Adrianov who additional protest by some who did not realise that Black grasped the red flag of the Soviet Union17. This was the is a traditional sporting colour in New Zealand worn by last such ceremony performed with a national flag.18 athletes, rowers and the New Zealand Rugby Union team The medal ceremonies in Moscow had a distinct and the “All Blacks.” The Spanish carried their NOC flag in unusual character which reflected the decisions made red and gold on a white background. earlier in Lake Placid and Rome. The effect was most The flag bearers were preceded by a name board in blue. strikingly displayed at the Cycling Arena. In the 4000m individual pursuit final Robert Dill-Bundi took gold for Director Monique Berlioux and LAAOC Chairman Peter Switzerland ahead of a Frenchman and a Dane. Three Ueberroth at the IOC session which preceded the Games. Olympic flags flew instead of national flags and the Mayor Tom Bradley gave approval for this to be flown to Olympic anthem was played. Moscow. IOC President Lord Killanin agreed in principle In the Swimming pool when Duncan Goodhew (GBR) to a change in protocol. When it was put to the session, won his gold medal, he told the BBC they charged the Executive Board with making a deci­ sion. The change was approved.22 “Ifeel it is necessaryfor the sake o fsport to become At a press conference to announce the decision Moscow devoid of politics and I personally am prepared to 80 spokesman Vladimir Popov had said they were pleased forfeit the Union Jack and national anthem for the to follow the Olympic charter and rules of the IOC. A sake of sports and I think and I hope that other spokesman for the American embassy in Moscow also athletes will agree with me on that point. ”19 issued a statement which described the move as

In his post games assessment for The Times, John “an appropriate and responsible action which has Hennessey wrote: taken account o f our wishes. ”23

“The use of the Olympic flag and hymn by some This was done by courier as the LAAOC were unwilling to countries as a compromise to full scale boycott have a visible presence at the games.24 seemed not to diminish the occasion and would no Incidentally a similar ceremony of the three flags had doubt have been encouraged by Lord Killanin had been planned at the conclusion of the Olympic sailing regatta he decided to offer himselffor re-election. ”20 in the Estonian port of Tallinn, but organisers eventually took the decision not to raise any of the three flags.25 The Soviet media chose not to explain the protests in Back in Moscow, the Olympic Games came to an end their reports from the Games. on Sunday 3rd August, 1980 and the closing ceremony took place in the Lenin Stadium. When it came to the handover, “A feature of the games singled out by Pravda the Los Angeles city flag was raised. The Olympic Anthem was the participation of athletes from many Afro was played in an instrumental version to accompany this, the Asian and Latin American countries. It is a general first and only time that this had happened. opinion that the atmosphere at the games was a There was one final sting in the tail as a consequence of festive atmosphere of good will and the people of the Moscow boycott and this did not become clear until four Moscow gave the athletes a remarkably warm wel­ years later. In those days the ceremonial “Antwerp flag” was come. The Olympics contributed to mutual under­ transported to the Olympic stadium by the mayor of the pre­ standing and trust among nations. Lord Killanin vious host city, in this case Jean Drapeau26 of Montreal. has congratulated the organising committee of the games. He said the spectators had seen vivid “Mayor Drapeau ever loyal to the Olympic and genuine Olympic Games”21 reported Radio movement was anxious to be present himself and Moscow World Service. had not supported the boycott. However political pressures forbade him to come to Moscow. ”21 Later in the same broadcast it concluded that Although Canada’s team did not participate in Moscow, “The anti Olympic campaign launched by the Stéphane Prefontaine and Sandra Henderson, the young Washington administration was a failure. ” athletes who had lit the cauldron in 1976 took the flag to Moscow on behalf of Montreal. In those days the flag was The American government made one further gesture. presented to the city about to stage the games. Thus in 1980, They wrote to the IOC stating Moscow became the custodians. This ceremony had been part of the Opening in Moscow. “that the United States strongly objected to any use When the Soviets boycotted 1984, they refused to send a o f the national flag and its national anthem during delegation with the flag. the entire Games in Moscow So it was that the Olympic flag was bome into the LA Coliseum by a group headed by IOC members Louis This had not been a problem during the Games themselves Guirandou-N’Diaye and Prince Alexandre de Merode28 and but it did present an issue at the Closing Ceremony. A key handed to the Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley. element here was the handover which traditionally has the 14 days later the Olympic flag was handed on again to the raising of the three flags, Greece for the past, the Soviet mayor of Seoul. This change of protocol was another direct Union for the present and the American flag to denote the consequence of the Moscow boycott but the decision to give coming games in 1984. the flag to the future hosts four years in advance had already The problem was solved by a discussion between IOC been taken by at the 87th session of the IOC Sarajevo. “It is important to note a new stage in Olympic also instruct their National Olympic Committees not to tradition. The Olympic flag would henceforth be go. As a result of their experience over the previous eight handed over during the closing ceremony o f the Games years, the Olympic movement was now strong enough to o fthe Olympiad which hadjust taken place [...] to the survive. 140 countries did turn up in Los Angeles37 and mayor o f the host city for the next Olympiad.,f& although the Soviet bloc athletes were missed, the boycott was by no means as devastating as had been feared. In Los Angeles had only had the Olympic flag for a fortnight. fact the games were a colourful television spectacular There was some consolation for Mayor Bradley. A special and generally viewed as a great success. presentation was made to him by IOC President Samaranch. The build up to the next Olympic Games in Seoul was In a press conference at the Beijing Olympics Peter by no means without obstacle, but never again would the Ueberroth admitted he thought the change of protocol Olympic movement be hostage to the politicians. This was sensible. consequence of the trials of Moscow was perhaps the biggest Olympic paradox and their greatest legacy. ■ “When the games are over they are over. The next city will have great fun activating their Olympiad I think it's a good thing. ”30 Notes and References

A Stronger Olympic Movement 1 JONES, Peter: BBC Radio Olympic Opening Ceremony 19th July The US boycott of 1980 gave another unwitting legacy 1980. to the Olympic movement and this is a paradox. Many 2 WOOLDRIDGE, Ian: BBC Radio The Olympic Years - April 1984. including long time president Avery Brundage, feared for 3 DAVIES, Russell: Sunday Times 27th July 1980. the Olympic movement and others saw the boycott in 1980 4 HARRIS, Norman: Sunday Times 20th July 1980. as a death knell. There had only been one candidate for the 5 JONES: Opening Ceremony. 1984 Games31 and many viewed the prospects for 1988 6 Wolper had been part of the original group which bid for the 1984 with equal pessimism, especially when Seoul was chosen Olympic Games over the Japanese city of Nagoya. At the time the Republic 7 MILLER, David: “Olympic Display wins hearts in Los Angeles”, in: The Times (1984), 30th July. of Korea was still an authoritarian regime. “ The crowd with no more than a five second countdown unknow­ Even the IOC president who had fought so hard to head ingly produced a canopy o finternationalflags [...] which upstaged off the 1980 boycott took leave of the Olympic stage with the carefully rehearsed Russian display in Moscow.” an uncompromising message. 8 Killanin, Lord: My Olympic Years. London 1983, p. 178. “Unite in Peace before the holocaust descends”32 said 9 Programme o f the 1980 Olympic Torch Relay. Moscow 1980, p. 25. Killanin in his farewell address at the Lenin Stadium. 10 FOLLOWS, Sir Denis: Olympian Views. London 1980, p. 5. Although few realised it at the time but the Olympic 11 From Moscow to Washington. IOC Review 151 (May 1980), pp. movement was becoming strong again. No-one expected 229-230. the IOC and National Olympic Committees to face off 12 The Times (May 5th 1980) - Lord Noel Baker was a former govern­ against two powerful world leaders but they did. ment minister, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and Olympic medallist. 13 Declaration by 18 European NOCs. IOC Review 151 (May 1980), “The Olympic world had stood up magnificently to p. 273. the power o f the US and its fawning politicalfriends ” 14 Declaration by 18 European NOCs. The criteria for participation Killanin wrote later.33 was set out as follows: NOCs will not participate as a contingent in the opening cer­ Despite the demands of American President Jimmy emony. A flag bearer only will follow the name board. Carter and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, • At all times and on all occasions, the flag of the participating delegations will be the Olympic flag. Moscow 1980 went ahead and was superbly staged, even The anthem will be the official Olympic Anthem. if in some ways it lacked the joie de vivre of other cel­ In all ceremonies the flag will be the official Olympic Anthem ebrations. (Abbreviated) and the flag the official Olympic Flag.The Killanin himself later admitted that these were sports outfits or informal dress should not display anything “Joyless Games”. Even so, he believed that the actions of other than the badges with the name of the NOCs the American and British governments had helped unite • The IOC will ensure that in the course of the ceremonies, the and galvanise the Olympic movement.34 speeches will have no political content The Olympic movement started to believe in itself The NOCs will confine their activities to purely sporting once again and cities showed renewed interest in staging events the Olympics35. • The NOCs will not participate in the Youth Camp organised in conjunction with the Olympic Games The spectre of a retaliatory boycott hung over the 15 The Olympic Opening Ceremony - 19th July 1980. movement and in May 1984, the Soviet Union announced they would not attend the Los Angeles Olympics.36 Very 16 Lord Killanin: Speech at Olympic Opening Ceremony, 19th July 1980. soon it became clear that other Warsaw pact allies would 17 Aleksandr Medved spoke the oath on behalf of the judges. ISOH

18 In 1983 at the IOC Session in Delhi, the IOC decided to change 28 1984 Official Report of the Games of the XXIII Olympiad. the protocol of the oath. At the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, LAAOC, p. 248. the Yugoslav oath taker BOJAN KRIŽAJ held the Olympic flag 29 Olympic Review 203(September 1984), p. 594. instead. At the Los Angeles Games, ED MOSES did the same. 30 Peter Ueberroth USOC Press Conference in Beijing - 6th August 2008. 19 GOODHEW, Duncan: BBC Radio 22nd July 1980. 31 Los Angeles was the only officialcandidate after Teheran with­ 20 HENNESSEY, John: “Playing the game of small is beautiful”, in: drew its candidature. The Times (4th August 1980). 32 Lord Killanin Speech at Olympic Games Closing Ceremony, 3rd 21 Radio Moscow World Service - News - 4th August 1980. August 1980. 22 Authors correspondence with Monique Berlioux January 2010. 33 Killanin: Olympic Years, p. 216. 23 “Los Angeles Flag will mark new Era”, in: The Times (1st August 34 Killanin: Olympic Years, p. 180 f. 1980). 35 Juan Antonio Samaranch: IOC Review 194(1983), p. 82Iff. 24 UEBERROTH, Peter: Made in America. London 1985, pp. “Seven cities have already presented themselves for the Winter 73-75. Olympic Games and five for the Summer Games. I consider this 25 “Flag Poles bare as regatta ends”, in: The Times (31st July 1980). renewal o f interest in the games as an extremely positive factor.” “The Russian organisers scrapped plans to fly the American flag at 36 The Times (9th May 1984). The announcement was made on the the closing ceremony of the yachting regatta in Tallinn yesterday , same day the Olympic flame began the domestic part of its jour­ thus avoiding any chance of a political row.” ney around the USA. 26 The Olympic Games was thus denied a linguistic curiosity. 37 The participation of Romania was given great prominence by Drapeau is the French word for flag. Western media. 27 Killanin: Olympic Years, p. 199

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ne week to the day following the American O Congressional ratification of the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote, Ethelda Bleibtry won her nation’s first-ever women’s Olympic medal, a swimming gold, as it turned out to be, in the 100 meter Freestyle at the Games of the VII Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium. Bleibtry’s victory initiated an American sweep of all the swimming medals,1 as well as a gold in the only relay event for women. Complementing Bleibtry’s per­ formance was Aileen Riggin, whose gold medal in the Olympics’ first ever springboard diving event for women led an American sweep of the 3 meter diving medals as well. The glamour and the glory of their exploits in Belgium would take some time to diminish in the eyes of an adoring American public, but beyond the glow of all that, there lay in the rear view mirror of their epic per­ formance at Antwerp a long and arduous journey fraught with angst and argument and all the animus that a largely Charlotte Epstein (left) and Louis de Breda Handley (right). male sporting public could muster. Tracing the early history of American women’s swim­ woman competing at Antwerp. Although neither linked ming, a beginning culminated, at least internationally, by either rib or romance, this unlikely twosome became by their domination of the competition at Antwerp in a platonic Adam and Eve of sorts in an aquatic genesis 1920, is to explore the life and times of New York court of their own making, a beginning landscape, if you will, reporter Charlotte Epstein, the founder and manager of that resembled more wilderness than anything suggesting the Women’s Swim Association (WSA), and her volun­ a garden, but a wilderness, nonetheless, that eventually teer coach from the New York Athletic Club, Louis de flowered to produce America’s remarkable performance Breda Handley. In all likelihood, if it were not for this at Antwerp, a performance that, in part, helped to usher duo, there would not have been a single American in the Golden Age of American Sport.