Going Organic
Organic Rice & Soybean Production A guide to convert to organic production 07/128
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 1 1 15/04/2008 11:24:28 AM © 2008 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation All rights reserved
ISBN 1 74151 525 4 ISSN 1440-6845
Going Organic—Organic Rice & Soybean Production—A guide to convert to organic production
Publication no. 07/128 Project no. DAN-188A
The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances. While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.
The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors. The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication.
This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165.
Agdex disclaimer The information contained in this publication is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing. Because of advances in knowledge, however, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information on which they rely is up to date and to check the currency of the information with the appropriate officer of the NSW Department of Primary Industries or the user’s independent adviser.
Researcher contact details Robyn Neeson NSW Department of Primary Industries, Yanco PMB Yanco NSW 2703 Phone: 02 6951 2611 Fax: 02 6951 2620
Other contributors: Other contributors: Dr. Sandra McDougall NSW Department of Primary Industries National Vegetable Industry Centre, Joseph Ekman, from NSW Department of Primary Industries National Centre for Greenhouse Horticulture, Genevieve Carruthers, NSW Department of Primary Industries Wollongbar Agricultural Institute, Jim Murison, at time of contribution NSW Department of Primary Industries Agsell, Sydney. Catriona MacMillan, Heaven and Earth Systems Pty Ltd, Tamarama NSW. Ruth Lovisolo, at time of contribution Manager, Food Standards Policy, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, now Manager, Codex Australia, AFFA, Canberra. Adam Willson, Soils Systems Pty Ltd, and Glen Scammell, Agronomist, Vitasoy Australia Products Pty Ltd. are acknowledged for their contributions to Chapter 5: ‘Organic Soybean Agronomy’.
RIRDC contact details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4100 Email: [email protected]. Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and the NSW Department of Primary Industries with assistance from Biological Farmers of Australia Co-op Ltd and National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia Ltd
Publication designed and published by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing the material in its edited form.
Published in April 2008
Front cover: Post-emergent harrowing using Hatzenbichler® harrows to remove Barnyard Grass in rice. Photo: NSW DPI Back cover: Organic soybean growing next to insectaries of ruffle basil and marigold
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 2 2 15/04/2008 11:24:29 AM Going Organic
Organic Rice & Soybean Production A guide to convert to organic production
by Robyn Neeson NSW Department of Primary Industries, Yanco
RIRDC Publication Number 07/128
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 3 3 15/04/2008 11:24:29 AM Rice
Soybeans
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 4 4 15/04/2008 11:24:58 AM Foreword
Despite increased consumer demand for organic products, particularly in export markets, farm conversion to organic agricultural systems in Australia is slow. An important impediment to conversion is a lack of information.
This document provides a comprehensive discussion of organic farming and the ‘paddock to plate’ requirements for successful organic rice and soybean production. It is one of three documents developed for key organic agriculture production systems—vegetables, rice and soybeans, and rangeland livestock production. The documents have been produced as part of a project coordinated by the NSW Department of Primary Industries and jointly sponsored by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
A series of workshops for NSW Department of Primary Industries staff and organic industry specialists underpinned the documents’ development. During the workshops the similarities and differences between conventional and organic systems were discussed and, where possible, measures to help overcome any perceived impediments to conversion were identified. This formed the framework for the draft publications. Stage two of the project involved presentation of the drafts to organic and conventional producers at additional workshops held across regional New South Wales and their final review by organic certifying organisations.
This publication does not aim to be prescriptive; rather, it provides a framework for organic conversion and discusses pathways towards conversion. In addition to general organic principles, each document describes possible methodologies for organic production of the commodity in question, the market potential, possible marketing strategies, the economics of production, processing requirements, and quality assurance.
True evaluation of the publication lies with practitioners. The authors hope the information provided will help make the transition to organic production a smooth one.
This project was funded from RIRDC core funds, which are provided by the Australian Government. A new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1800 research publications, this document forms part of the Organic Produce R&D Program, which aims to optimise the profitability of Australian organic production in both domestic and overseas markets and to promote organic farming systems as a means of increasing the sustainability of Australian agricultural systems.
Most of RIRDC’s publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:
• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop
Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 5 5 15/04/2008 11:24:58 AM Contents
Foreword ...... v Executive summary...... ix 1. Introduction to organic farming...... 1 1.1 Industry size and structure...... 1 1.1.1 The world scene...... 1 1.1.2 The Australian scene...... 1 1.2 Market potential ...... 3 1.2.1 Rice...... 3 1.2.2 Soybeans...... 3 1.2.3 Other organic products...... 4 2. Organic production principles: an overview...... 7 2.1 Soil management and crop nutrition...... 8 2.1.1 Organic soil-building practices...... 9 2.1.2 Improvements to soil structure...... 12 2.1.3 Organic soil conversion...... 12 2.1.4 Correcting deficiencies organically...... 13 2.1.5 Livestock and soil nutrition...... 13 2.1.6 Determining crop nutrient requirements...... 13 2.2.1 Livestock nutrition...... 14 2.2.2 Soil management for nutritious pastures...... 15 2.2.3 Encouraging predators and parasitoids to manage pasture pests ...... 15 2.2.4 Breeding...... 16 2.2.5 Livestock welfare...... 16 2.2.6 Livestock health...... 17 2.3 Plant pest and disease management...... 19 2.4 Weed management...... 20 3. Planning for organic certification...... 21 3.1 A self-assessment test...... 21 3.2 Beginning the conversion...... 21 3.3 Conversion and certification...... 23 3.3.1 Conversion planning...... 23 3.3.2 Developing an organic management plan...... 23 3.3.3 Additional considerations for livestock producers...... 25 3.3.4 Certification...... 26 4. Organic rice agronomy...... 29 4.1 Farm and land selection...... 30 4.2 Variety selection...... 31 4.3 Soil development and crop nutrition...... 31 4.3.1 Assessing soil fertility...... 31 4.3.2 Nitrogen...... 32 4.3.3 Phosphorus and sulphur...... 35 4.4 Rotation design...... 36 4.5 Sowing method...... 37
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 6 6 15/04/2008 11:24:59 AM 4.6 Crop establishment...... 38 4.6.1 Sowing...... 38 4.6.2 Grazing management...... 38 4.7 Irrigation...... 38 4.7.1 Water management...... 39 4.7.2 Water quality...... 39 4.8 Stubble...... 39 4.9 Weeds...... 39 4.9.1 Weed management during rice establishment...... 41 4.9.2 Post-emergent harrowing...... 41 4.9.3 Row cropping...... 42 4.10 Pest and disease management...... 42 4.11 Harvesting, storage and transport...... 43 4.12 Marketing...... 43 4.13 Economics...... 44 5. Organic soybean agronomy...... 45 5.1 Soil development and crop nutrition...... 45 5.1.1 Humus...... 45 5.1.2 Crop nutrition...... 46 5.2 Seedbed preparation...... 51 5.3 Crop establishment...... 51 5.3.1 Variety selection...... 52 5.3.2 Soil moisture...... 52 5.3.3 Planting machinery...... 52 5.3.4 Sowing depth...... 52 5.3.5 Row spacing...... 52 5.3.6 Sowing rates...... 52 5.3.7 Planting time...... 53 5.4 Inoculation...... 53 5.4.1 Nitrate levels...... 53 5.4.2 Acidity...... 54 5.4.3 Dry soils...... 54 5.5 Weed management...... 54 5.5.1 Crop rotation...... 54 5.5.2 Pre-sowing irrigation and cultivation...... 54 5.5.3 Mechanical inter-row cultivation...... 54 5.5.4 Hand chipping...... 54 5.5.5 Grazing...... 55 5.5.6 Planting density and depth...... 55 5.6 Water management...... 55 5.7 Pests ...... 55 5.7.1 Monitoring crops...... 56 5.7.2 Biological control...... 56 5.7.3 Planting insectaries and trap-cropping...... 57 5.7.4 Foliar nutrients...... 58 5.7.5 Non-toxic insecticides...... 58 5.7.6 Pupae busting...... 58
vii
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 7 7 15/04/2008 11:24:59 AM 5.8 Diseases...... 58 5.9 Harvesting...... 58 5.10 Seed storage...... 59 5.11 Marketing...... 59 5.12 Economics...... 60 6. Post-harvest management and marketing...... 62 6.1 Grain storage...... 62 6.1.1 Harvesting...... 62 6.1.2 Storage hygiene...... 62 6.1.3 Monitoring pests...... 63 6.1.4 Storage design and layout...... 64 6.1.5 Mineral dusts...... 64 6.1.6 Controlled-atmosphere disinfestation...... 64 6.1.7 Temperature ...... 64 6.1.8 Vacuum packaging...... 64 6.2 Quality assurance...... 65 6.2.1 Quality...... 65 6.3 Environmental management systems...... 69 6.3.1 Conclusion...... 71 6.4 Marketing...... 71 6.4.1 Production and supply pathways need to be defined...... 72 6.4.2 Developing supply chain alliances...... 72 6.5 Product promotion, packaging and presentation...... 75 6.6 Export help...... 80 6.7 Processing requirements...... 82 7. Regulatory considerations...... 83 7.1 Export requirements...... 83 7.2 Permitted inputs...... 84 7.3 Other regulatory considerations...... 84 7.3.1 Chemical application permits...... 84 7.3.2 Phytosanitary requirements...... 85 Appendices ...... 86 Appendix A Sources of information and other contacts...... 86 A.1 AQIS-approved certifying organisations...... 86 A.2 Australian organic industry...... 86 A.3 Export requirements...... 86 A.4 NSW and ACT organic and bio-dynamic groups...... 86 A.5 Diagnostic and analytical services...... 87 A.6 Consultants...... 87 A.7 Institutional support...... 87 A.8 Journals and newsletters...... 88 A.9 Useful websites...... 89 A.10 Other contacts...... 89 Appendix B Farming inputs...... 95 Bibliography ...... 99
viii
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 8 8 15/04/2008 11:24:59 AM Executive summary
Organic farming is practised in SunRice sees domestic market to plate’. This document gives about 100 countries worldwide; potential for organic long grain readers a step-by-step guide to the 398 804 farms account for about white rice and has released a product organic conversion and certification 23 million hectares of organically for sale in Coles and Woolworths process for organic rice and soybean managed land. World retail trade supermarkets. The export market enterprises. It also discusses the in organic produce is estimated at for organic rice is large, particularly primary features of successful US$31 billion. in Japan, where ‘organic’ and ‘quality’ production and marketing. are the two most important sales In 2003 in Australia about 2340 criteria. Japan imported 800 000 Although organic farming basically certified organic operators— tonnes of rice in 2000. excludes the use of substances to farmers, processors, exporters provide crop nutrition and to treat and retailers—were operating In recent years there has been a weeds, pests and diseases, organic from some 7.9 million hectares dramatic increase in the demand standards do permit limited use of certified organic farmland; an for organic soybeans. Most of the of some substances. Soil health additional 600 000 hectares of non- beans are white hilum varieties and crop pest, disease and weed certified land belonged to organic used for tofu and milk production. management are discussed here, farmers. Seventy-five per cent of Organic soybeans are also used in and a reference guide to substances the certified area is in Queensland’s the production of some fermented permitted under organic standards Channel Country, producing products (such as soy sauce) and is provided. Of course, being organic beef. milled to produce soybean flour. organic does not preclude a farmer from complying with federal and The estimated farm-gate value Australia has considerable potential state or territory laws. Some of the of Australian organic produce to increase exports of organic regulatory requirements organic ranges from A$90 million to soybeans. Being in the Asian region, producers might encounter are also $140.7 million, and exports it is well placed geographically, and noted and discussed. (potentially reduced due to out of season it can produce quality Finally, the publication provides a drought) total A$40 million. About beans for the Northern Hemisphere. comprehensive list of references and 500 Australian-based certified Demand appears insatiable, contacts for people keen to further processors and manufacturers prompted mainly by Japanese explore the intricacies of organic of organic produce contribute importers: at present 90 per cent of agriculture and to provide help with to an industry worth between Australia’s organic soybean crop is farming and marketing. A$165 million and A$300 million exported to Japan. a year at the retail level. Industry reports suggest that growth This publication describes the continues at between 10 and 30 per requirements producers must meet cent a year, depending on the sector in order to comply with organic but particularly in beef, milk and production standards. Topics such Export Potential for Organics —opportunities and barriers— horticulture. as farm selection and establishment, weed, pest and disease management, The total production of organic rice soil and crop nutrition, variety in Australia in 2000 was 600–700 selection, rotation design, irrigation tonnes finished product and management and economics 700–800 tonnes of paddy. SunRice are discussed. There is also a notes that organic rice production comprehensive section on storage falls well short of both domestic and handling requirements for and export requirements. Domestic organic grain. markets exist for 1000 tonnes of
milled organic rice. Others in the Fundamental to marketing an Innovation for rural Australia industry report export markets for organic product is the ability to RIRDC up to 100 000 tonnes of organic prove to consumers the organic Export Potential for Organics— rice. integrity of a product ‘from paddock opportunities and barriers, No. 06/061.
ix
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 9 9 15/04/2008 11:25:02 AM 07-128 Going Organic A guide to 10 10 15/04/2008 11:25:18 AM 1. Introduction to organic farming
This chapter provides an overview of the organic industry, the market potential for organic products, and the basic principles of organic production. Some of the production practices discussed here do not apply to producers of soybeans and rice, but the concept of creating and maintaining a holistic, dynamic farming system with emphasis on soil health and biological diversity does apply, no matter where the Organic farming workshop farm and what the products. organic foods (at 40 per cent a year), 1.1.2 The Australian 1.1 Industry size and with the increase in production scene (25 per cent a year) failing to keep structure It is estimated that there are about pace with demand. 1.1.1 The world scene 2100 certified organic farming operations in Australia, farming The New Zealand organic industry about 10 million hectares. The Organic farming is practised in has enjoyed spectacular growth approximately 100 countries of the number of organic farmers has in recent years: exports increased world. The total area of organically increased by 10 to 15 per cent from $1.1 million in 1990 to over managed land worldwide is around in each of the past two years $60 million in 2003. Europe, Japan 23 million hectares. Worldwide (Australian Certified Organic and the United States are important there are approximately 398 804 2003). About 310 certified organic markets for New Zealand organic organic farms. (International farms are located in New South produce: exports to Europe Federation of Agriculture Wales. amounted to $28.7 million in 2003 Movements 2003). and are expected to grow to over Estimates of the value of Australian The retail value of the organic $100 million by 2008. organic produce vary. Australian industry worldwide in 2005 was Certified Organic’s 2003 Organic The International Federation of valued at US$30 billion. In 2005 Food and Farming Report estimated Agriculture Movements, a private organic retail sales accounted the farm-gate value for such organisation, is the peak world for US$13 billion in Europe, produce in 2002 at A$90 million US$13 billion in the United States, body for organic agriculture. It has and exports (possibly reduced as a and US$450 million in Japan. By about 700 member organisations result of drought) at A$40 million. the year 2015 it is predicted that the from around the world and runs Australia-wide, in 2002 there world trade in organic products will an international accreditation were an estimated 500 certified be US$100 billion. (International program. The Codex Alimentarius processors and manufacturers of Federation of Agriculture Commission (created in 1963 by organic produce, contributing Movements 2005). the UN Food and Agriculture to an industry worth about Organization and the World Health A$300 million annually at retail The organic sector is reported to Organization) works to encourage level; this represents an increase be growing at between 20 and all countries to harmonise standards of A$222 million since 1990. The 25 per cent a year. If the growth and import controls for organic Commonwealth Department of rate experienced in Europe in produce. Australia has played a Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry the past 10 years continues, it is central role in Codex’s Organic estimates that retail sales of organic expected that, by 2010, 30 per cent Program, acting as chair for a produce in Australia increased from of food consumed will be organic. number of years and regularly A$28 million in 1990 to nearly Some countries, such as the United participating in negotiations to put A$200 million in 2003 (press Kingdom, have reported consistent forward the case for the Australian release, 21 August 2003). Wynen growth in the consumption of organic industry. (2003) reports the retail value of
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 1 1 15/04/2008 11:25:19 AM Australian organic produce to be An audit of the organisation and its organisations is to ensure that A$165 million. RIRDC (2007) documented system is conducted products marketed under their logo estimates the retail value for organic against the requirements of the are produced according to specific produce is worth between A$250– National Standard for Organic standards. Each organisation has A$400 million. The Organic Food and Biodynamic Produce, the its own standards in addition to and Farming Report suggests that Export Control (Organic Produce the national standard. Figure 1.1 growth is continuing at between 10 Certification) Orders 1997, and describes the certification and 30 per cent a year, depending importing country requirements. framework for the Australian on the sector. Beef, milk and Once the organisation is organic industry. horticulture were of particular note. approved, AQIS issues a Quality Management Certificate. At the NASAA and Australian Certified Almost 20 years ago pioneers time of writing seven organic Organic are the only Australian of the organic industry asked certifying organisations were certifiers accredited by the the Australian Quarantine and operating in Australia: International Federation of Organic Inspection Service for assistance Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). in developing an export program • Australian Certified Organic They are also accredited with and a national standard for organic • AUS-QUAL the United States Department production. In 1992 AQIS, in • the Bio-Dynamic Research of Agriculture National Organic conjunction with the Organic Institute Program (USDA NOP); also the Japanese Agriculture Standards Producers Advisory Committee • NASAA—the National (JAS) administered by the Japan (now the Organic Industry Export Association of Sustainable Ministry of Agriculture Forestry Consultative Committee), released Agriculture Australia Ltd the National Standard for Organic and Fisheries (MAFF), this • Organic Food Chain and Biodynamic Produce, which recognition provides market access sets out the minimum requirements • Tasmanian Organic Dynamic to these countries for Australian for organic products exported from Producers certified products, which have Australia. • Safe Food Production been accredited by these respective Queensland. systems. Sections 3.3 and 6.1 AQIS is responsible for accrediting Appendix A provides contact details provide more information about organic industry organisations for these organisations. obtaining organic certification seeking to become an AQIS- and the organic Export Control approved certifying organisation. The role of the certifying Program.
CODEX (International) AQIS
National Organic Standard Organic Certifiers
Organic Inspectors
Domestic Consumers Distributors Processors and and Farmer Exporters Manufacturers Producers Export Consumers
ORGANIC SUPPLY CHAIN
Figure 1.1 Certification framework for the Australian organic industry. Source: May and Monk (2001)
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 2 2 15/04/2008 11:25:21 AM 1.2.2 Soybeans In 2007Australian soybean production averaged around 35,000 tonnes, 45000 tonnes in 2006 and 55,000 tonnes in 2005. These volumes satisfied only a proportion of domestic demand. In 2006 and 2007 organic soybean production accounted for around 10 per cent of the total Australian soybean harvest.
In recent years there has been a dramatic increase in the demand for organic soybeans. Most of the beans are white hilum varieties used for tofu and milk production. SunRice has identified domestic market potential for organic long grain white rice and has released a product for Organic soybeans are also used in sale in Coles and Woolworths supermarkets. Source: SunRice the production of some fermented 1.2 Market potential important criteria in Japan, and the products (such as soy sauce) and in 1.2.1 Rice variety Koshihikari has the greatest the milling of soybean flour. export potential. The Japanese SunRice sees organic rice market is reported to be prepared There is much potential for production as falling well short to pay a 25% price premium for Australia to increase its exports of both domestic and export organic rice. It currently obtains of organic soybeans. Being in requirements. Domestic markets organic product from the United the Asian region, it is well placed exist for 1000 tonnes of organic rice States, Australia and China. geographically, and out of season it (milled). Export markets for up to Australian organic standards are can produce quality beans for the 100 000 tonnes of organic rice have considered strong and are the most Northern Hemisphere. Demand been reported (Terada, pers. comm., acceptable to the Japanese. Demand appears insatiable, prompted mainly 2001). Total Australian production for imported organic rice in Japan by Japanese importers: at present, of organic rice in 2000 was 600–700 has been augmented by the recent 90 per cent of Australia’s organic tonnes finished product and 700– adoption of international protocols soybean crop is exported to Japan. 800 tonnes of paddy. All organic for organic production; this change rice is currently milled at Echuca, Organic soybeans have the greatest has reduced the amount of certified potential for producers in the and there are certified receival organic rice produced domestically depots at Burraboi and Yenda. irrigated cropping areas of the in Japan. Riverina. Current prices suggest returns of $800 to $900 a tonne on SunRice has identified domestic More recently, the challenge for market potential for organic long farm (after grading), representing a producers has been the availability grain white rice and has released potentially lucrative niche market. of water. This limitation has seen a product for sale in Coles and In addition to their significant the area under rice production Woolworths supermarkets. The market potential, soybeans offer decline and market premiums for organisation’s previous marketing of rice producers the opportunity to those able to produce rice increase. organic brown rice met with limited diversify production and to provide Whether this trend will continue success. It offers a premium for fertility inputs to the rice rotation. is open to speculation, however, organic rice: in 2001 this was $90– $150 a tonne above the conventional it is highly likely that water will The industry is at present falling price. In 2002 and 2003 the continue to remain a limiting and well short of meeting the demand premium was $150 a tonne. increasingly valuable resource. It for organic soybeans. In 2003- is increasingly likely therefore that 04 the total volume of soybeans Significant export markets exist due to limited water resources (organic and conventional) exported for organic rice, particularly into rice production will become an from Australian was 10,000 tonnes. Japan, which imported 800 000 opportunistic component of more Forecasts from the organic industry tonnes of rice in 2000. ‘Organic’ and complex and integrated farming suggest an immediate demand for ‘quality’ are currently the two most system. 13 000 tonnes in the Australian
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 3 3 15/04/2008 11:25:26 AM domestic market and 20 000 tonnes for export.
A report to the Australian Oilseeds Federation following a study tour of Japan concluded:
“The Japanese indicated that they would also like to purchase soybeans grown organically. The key consumer driver is health and Japanese buyers are seeking product that is organic as this is related to safety and healthiness of products in the consumers’ mind. The demand for organic soybeans is increasing as local bean production declines. Japan does not currently have a reliable supplier of Vitasoy organic soybean production plant. Source: Vitasoy organic soybeans (Chinese organic Soybean processors Vitasoy McCoy and Parlevliet (2000), from standards are not sufficient and Ltd established a soybean milk Agriculture WA, identified a range appearance of US organic beans is processing plant at Wodonga in of organic products as having a high poor) and would be prepared to pay 2001. Vitasoy has indicated an priority for further development; see a considerable premium to obtain immediate demand for 3000 tonnes Table 1.1. this. It was indicated that organic of organic soybeans, increasing to Table 1.2 Organic products soybeans would achieve similar 5000 tonnes in the near future. for further development prices to domestically produced Australian Natural Foods, in beans. Organic beans would need Sydney, has indicated similar Priority Likely Possible to have their identity preserved and demand for organic soybeans for Beef Apples Broccoli Carrots Asparagus Eggs specific transportation arranged processing. In addition, Victorian Citrus Bananas Fish to Japan.The organic market is manufacturers currently use 300 Wheat Canola Grapes estimated to be 20-30,000 tons, tonnes of organic soybeans, with a Wine Dairy Herbs with considerable growth potential. projected demand for 3000 tonnes products Nectarines Tofu is the major segment seeking Honey Pears by 2007. Oats Plums organic beans but there is an Rice Poultry emerging demand amongst natto 1.2.3 Other organic Soybeans Potatoes manufacturers In relative terms to products Safflower Sunflower over all demand, this may seem Sugar Onions a small market, but is 4-6 times In organic rice production systems current exports to Japan and would pasture and livestock are important Source: McCoy and Parlevliet (2000). see Australia edible bean product for fertility building and weed Smith (2003) reported that in 2002 double. This market could be worth management. Other cropping $180-270million.” (AOF, 1999). options should, however, also be the volume of Australian exported considered for fertility building or organic product was around 16 000 Nationally, only about 2000 tonnes for creating a ‘weed fallow’ before tonnes, about three-quarters of of organic soybeans were produced planting rice. Organic growers this being grain. The destinations in 2000. Japanese imports have been need to determine which rotation for these exports were mainly the dominated by the United States and options will provide optimal farm United Kingdom and Europe. Fruit China—at 8000 and 7000 tonnes performance, and in this a balance and fruit products accounted for a year respectively—largely because should be struck between natural about 8 per cent of the total volume of the shortfall in Australian resource sustainability and financial of exports in 2002. The main areas product, which is preferred. Organic sustainability. The market potential of growth between 2000 and 2002 products imported into Japan must for all crops in the rotation should were in exports of certified organic comply with Japanese organic be evaluated and, if possible, meats and in oils and fats; exports standards and be marked with the contracts secured with processors of certified organic vegetables fell JAS logo. before planting. sharply (Smith 2003).
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 4 4 15/04/2008 11:25:36 AM Of the top 10 export destinations certified organic farm-gate sales Domestically, markets exist for a for Australian organic produce volumes for livestock sold as meat range of organic meat products, in 2001, six were in Europe—the (beef, sheep and goats, pork and which are marketed through United Kingdom, Italy, Switzerland, chicken) accounted for about supermarkets, through specialty or France, the Netherlands and 13.44 million kilograms live weight. local butchers, direct to restaurants, Germany—and accounted for over This was made up of beef, at through organic retailers and 70 per cent of all Australian organic 11.54 million kilograms valued at wholesalers or via home delivery exports. A$52.35 million; sheep and goats, services. at 1.73 million kilograms valued Other important export markets at A$2.92 million; pork, at 0.11 Food safety scares in Europe, Japan, were Japan (12 per cent), Singapore million kilograms valued A$0.745 Canada and the United States have (5.5 per cent), the United States (5 million; and chicken, at 0.6 million seen the export demand for organic per cent) and New Zealand (2 per kilograms valued at A$0.353 meat increase. There does appear to cent) (Smith 2003). million. In the same year 385 000 be potential to export organic meat, dozen certified organic eggs, valued but that market remains relatively There appears to be considerable at A$0.795 million, and 15.05 untapped. domestic and international million litres of certified organic consumer demand for organic milk, valued at A$7.4 million, The estimated value of organic cereals and oilseed products, and were sold from certified Australian products imported into Australia at present a full range of organic organic farms (DAFF 2004). in 2003 was A$13 million (Organic cereals, pulses and oilseeds are Monitor 2004, cited in DAFF grown for export. A survey of organic growers 2004). In relation to imports, conducted by Halpin in 2003 the Department of Agriculture, Durum and hard wheat are found that, with the exception of Fisheries and Forestry reported: exported to Europe; noodle wheat, producers of eggs and poultry, most triticale, barley, canola and safflower livestock producers expected to Over half of imported organic oils are exported to Japan. The most increase their production during the products are processed foods, common grains grown organically ensuing three years (DAFF 2004). such as biscuits, breakfast are wheat (45 per cent), oats (42 Table 1.2 Indicative prices for a range of organic per cent), barley (24 per cent), grain grains and oilseeds legumes (22 per cent), safflower (16 per cent), and triticale and ryecorn Product $ per tonne on farm (15 per cent) (Burnett et al. 2002). Wheat Prime hard 280–310 Processors, buyers and exporters Australia hard wheat 280 of organic grain demand ‘certified Feed 200–220 organic’ grain. Most lines are in Rosella wheat 230–250 short supply and premiums are Rye 250 attainable. Linseed 800 Chick peas Table 1.2 shows indicative prices Brown (amethyst type) 550 for a range of organic grain and White (Kabuli) 1700 oilseeds. End products include Oats (quality milling oats) 220 organic flour, bread mixes, breakfast Barley 230 cereals, biscuits, pasta, noodles, Maize 250–300 cooking oil and specialty oils. Popcorn 600 Potential rotation crops with rice Soybeans 600–900 are soybeans (significant demand), Millet 350–400 maize (for processing), hay and Sunflowers (Hi-oleic) 440 grain (for export livestock fodder), Buckwheat 500 Mung beans (Berken type for 800 wheat, pulses and oilseeds. sprouting) Sesame seed 2500 Although it is still relatively small, Adzuki beans 1200 the domestic market for organic
livestock products is expanding. Note: Prices quoted are free-into-store at Kialla Pure Foods Mill. In 2003 the estimated Australian Source: Kialla Pure Foods newsletter (2002).
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 5 5 15/04/2008 11:25:36 AM cereals, muesli, chocolate, pasta, drinks, an increasing number of The current situation for organic soups, coffee, tea and other organic personal care products products in Australia is perhaps best beverages. such as skin care products, summarised as follows: hair care products, deodorants Most global organic food and soaps are imported into The market for organic food processing occurs in North Australia. is still small and therefore America and the European susceptible to oversupply, at Union and it is these two It is not clear whether imports least at particular times and regions that supply the majority are replacing shortfalls in locations. While many countries of organic processed food Australian production or report strong growth in demand imported into Australia. competing with domestic products. Certainly some for organic meat and dairy Other organic imports include products similar to those products, for example, a number herbs, spices, grains, pulses, imported are produced in of instances can be cited where nuts, dried fruits, rice, honey, Australia and even exported. supply has exceeded demand. sunflower oil and olive oil. (DAFF 2004, pp. 32–3) This has resulted in either a severe reduction in the price Organic fruit and vegetables On the basis of these remarks, difference between organic are mainly imported from New it appears likely that there is the and conventional products or Zealand to meet shortfalls in potential for an increase in domestic domestic supply. production of some organic organic products being sold as products in order to replace similar conventional products. (Hallam Apart from organic food and imported products. 2003, p. 17)
Organic fresh vegetables in a Woolworths supermarket. Source: Woolworths
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 6 6 15/04/2008 11:25:40 AM 2. Organic production principles: an overview
Organic agriculture is defined worldwide as ‘farming without the addition of artificial chemicals’. An artificial chemical is one that has been manufactured or processed chemically. For example, rock phosphate is acceptable on an organic farm but superphosphate is not. The difference is that superphosphate is rock phosphate with a manufactured chemical (sulphuric acid) added to make more of the phosphate soluble. The definition includes the word ‘addition’ because organic farming is not necessarily chemical-free Management strategies based on an understanding of biological cycles and other interactions are the main farming. The reason for this is that tools for replacing reliance on synthetic inputs such as artificial herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, drenches, we live in a world where there are superphosphate and urea. artificial chemicals in the soil, the drenches, superphosphate and urea. whole. These interactions within water and the air. the farm ecosystem lead to a range Biodynamic agriculture is a type Like many other words, ‘organic’ of management practices that take of organic farming. It developed has several meanings. In the account of the environmental, social from a series of eight lectures context of agriculture it refers to and financial aspects of the farm as on agriculture given in 1924 by whole‑farm management—the a whole. Austrian Rudolf Steiner (1861– farm being treated as a living 1925), founder of the spiritual Although biodynamics parallels organism. Traditionally, organic system known as anthroposophy. organic farming in many ways— farms aim for optimal production The lectures were a response to especially in connection with rather than yield maximisation. They seek to operate as closed farmers’ observations that soils cultural and biological farming systems, using renewable resources were becoming depleted and there practices—it stands apart from wherever possible and with, as far was a deterioration in the health other organic agriculture systems as practicable, reduced reliance and quality of crops and livestock by virtue of its association with the on outside (off-farm) inputs. following the introduction of spiritual science of anthroposophy. Organic farms can be managerially chemical fertilisers at the turn of the Steiner identified energies more complex, but they are less century. Steiner believed a renewal working in nature and so proposed dependent on external inputs. in agriculture was necessary in order practices that would deploy those to find a way to re-invigorate the energies. He emphasised farming Organic systems are essentially earth. practices designed to achieve biological systems—both above balance between the physical and and below the soil. Pest, disease Biodynamic agriculture sees higher, non-physical realms, that and weed control must, in the first the farm as a living organism acknowledge the influence of instance, encourage and maintain interacting with its environment cosmic and terrestrial forces, and natural biological processes so as to to build healthy soil and nutritious that aim to imbue the farm, its balance disease and pest problems. food that sustains plants, animals products and its inhabitants with Management strategies based on an and hence humankind. Emphasis life energy.1 understanding of biological cycles is placed on the integration of and other interactions are the main crops and livestock, the recycling Biodynamic farmers aim to tools replacing reliance on synthetic of nutrients, and the health and develop a soil rich in humus; this inputs such as artificial herbicides, wellbeing of crops and animals. is facilitated by practices involving insecticides, fungicides, animal The farmer, too, is part of the careful use of plants, animals, 1. The higher, non-physical, realms are the etheric, the astral and the ego. The terminology and the complex underlying concepts of anthroposophy can make biodynamics hard to grasp. Biodynamic farmers believe there are forces beyond gravity, chemistry and physics that influence biological systems.
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 7 7 15/04/2008 11:25:42 AM machinery and special preparations. • improving biological cycles in Initially, conversion from a Humus—decomposed organic farming systems conventional fertiliser regime to matter made up principally of • maintaining and increasing soil an organic soil-building process water—assists in binding soil fertility involves eliminating the use particles and holding on to soil of artificial chemicals in the • working as far as practicable nutrients. It binds with clay particles farming system. Fertilisers such as within a closed system to form a clay–humus complex. superphosphate and ammonium Among biodynamic humus- • avoiding pollution resulting nitrate are thus excluded and are building practices are the following: from agriculture replaced by practices that foster • use of special preparations to • minimising the use of non- the cyclic renewal of nutrients to stimulate biological activity renewable resources maintain crop health. Organic • application of composts • co-existing with and protecting matter content, microbial activity containing special preparations the environment (AQIS 2002). and general soil health are taken as measures of soil fertility. An • use of cover crops and green This is achieved through: analysis of organic farming systems manure ‘management practices that in Europe (Stolze et al. 2000) found create soils of enhanced • crop rotations and companion that organic farming increased biological activity … such that planting microbial activity by 30 to 100 per plants are fed through the soil • appropriate tillage cent and microbial biomass by 20 to ecosystem and not primarily • addition of rock dusts, lime and 30 per cent. through soluble fertilisers rock phosphate as required. added to the soil … Organic A comparative study of organic, A distinguishing feature of farming systems rely to the conventional and integrated apple biodynamic farming is the use maximum extent feasible upon production systems in Washington of nine preparations designed to crop rotations, crop residues, State from 1994 to 1999 found improve soil quality and stimulate animal manures, legumes, that the organic and integrated plant life. The preparations consist green manures, mechanical systems had higher soil quality of mineral, plant or animal manure cultivation, approved mineral- and potentially lower negative extracts, usually fermented and bearing rocks … to maintain environmental impacts than the applied in small proportions to soil productivity and tilth and conventional system. The data compost, manures, the soil or to supply plant nutrients …’ showed that the organic system plants after dilution and specialised (AQIS 2002) ranked first in environmental stirring. The intention is to moderate and regulate biological processes as well as strengthen the life (etheric) forces on the farm. The preparations are used in homeopathic quantities—that is, in extremely diluted amounts. They are numbered BD 500 to BD 508. 2.1 Soil management and crop nutrition
There is worldwide agreement in organic standards that organic farming systems should maintain or increase soil fertility on a long-term basis. Australia’s organic standard, the National Standard for Organic and BioDynamic Produce states that the primary aims of organic agriculture are as follows:
• producing food of high nutritional value Testing the soil
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 8 8 15/04/2008 11:25:45 AM incorporation of green manures services to assess soils for microbial for high-value crops such as fruit, status are now becoming more vegetables and herbs. common in Australia. 2.1.1 Organic soil- Green manuring building practices Green manure crops are grown Organic farmers have a range of specifically for cultivation back options for sustaining soil health— into the soil in order to build up increasing biological activity, green organic matter and nutrients and manuring, undersowing crops, using to stimulate biological activity. The Organic farming starts with the soil. Photo source: compost, and so on. type of green manure crop and Should I Convert to Organic Farming by Viv the stage at which it is turned in Burnett, Robyn Neeson and Els Wynen. RIRDC Increasing biological Publication No. 05/084 determine the amount of organic activity matter or nutrients returned to and economic sustainability, the the soil. A lush, actively growing integrated system second and the Organic conversion begins with a process that encourages increased legume sward (of vetch, faba beans conventional system last (Reganold or lupins, for example) contains et al. 2001). activity by microbes and arthropods in the soil. The elemental large amounts of nitrogen (50–140 Research into the sustainability composition, structure and organic kilograms of nitrogen gain per of organic farming systems in matter content of the soil need to be hectare) that is released to the soil Australia has been limited. The favourable if biological activity is to upon cultivation. The same crop, work that has been done has be increased. when allowed to mature, contributes tended to focus on comparative more organic matter but less studies in broad-acre, or extensive, Biological activity in the soil begins available nitrogen. If a soil is low in cropping and livestock systems, with the breakdown of organic organic matter, a green manure crop which are characterised by their matter. During the decomposition that increases organic matter (for low use of external inputs. Rock process the organic molecules in example, oats) is desirable. phosphate, lime, dolomite, legume organic matter are either broken Green manures can also act as rotations, incorporation of green down into simpler organic ‘break crops’ to reduce the carryover manures and crop refuse, manure molecules that require further of pests and diseases in subsequent application during livestock grazing, decomposition or converted into crops in the rotation. They are an and the application of microbial mineralised nutrients. Organic essential component in intensive preparations can be used for farmers supply organic matter building soil fertility. through incorporation of green organic annual cropping rotations. manure crops and crop refuse and Studies by Penfold (1995), Derrick the addition of compost. Nitrate leaching following the (1996), Deria et al. (1996) and incorporation of a green manure Schwarz (1999) suggest a trend The use of bio-indicators is crop can occur when rainfall towards deficiencies in phosphorous, becoming increasingly important exceeds evaporation, resulting in net nitrogen and sometimes sulphur as a way of assessing soil health. drainage. There is some evidence under current organic management Pankhurst et al. (1997) review how that nitrate leaching might be less regimes in broad-acre cropping and soil organisms and biotic processes under an organic system than under livestock systems. can be used as indicators of soil a conventional system (Lampkin health. A variety of techniques can 1990). Nitrate leached below the The limited studies of intensive be used for assessing biological root zone is effectively lost from organic farming systems in activity, among them measurement the system. Rotation design within Australia have generally shown an of soil microbial activity based on the organic system must take into increase in soil health compared the soil’s carbon dioxide respiration, account the need to minimise large with conventional practice (Wells DNA testing to determine the nitrogen losses following ploughing & Chan 1996; Huxley & Littlejohn diversity and abundance of micro- in of the green manure crop. Early 1997; Stevenson & Tabart 1998). organisms present, and an ‘in-situ’ establishment of a cereal crop This could largely be a reflection technique based on measuring the immediately after incorporating the of the cost-effectiveness of larger tensile strength of a cotton strip green manure has been shown to applications of commercial organic that has been buried in the soil. be one of the most effective ways of fertilisers and compost and Commercial laboratories offering reducing nitrate leaching.
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 9 9 15/04/2008 11:25:45 AM nitrogen. Legumes such as clover and lucerne can contribute 40–140 kilograms per hectare per year of nitrogen to the soil reservoir. Herbs such as plantain and chicory often have a higher mineral content and have deep roots capable of bringing up leached elements that would otherwise be unavailable to the crop. Compost Compost is a primary source of nutrients and organic matter in intensive organic farming systems and is an invaluable food source for soil micro-organisms. The use of compost in Australian broad- acre organic cropping systems is, however, not widely practised: Green manure crops of oats, faba bean and vetch at NSW Agriculture’s organic demonstration site at Yanco . sources of compost material are Photo: R Neeson 1999 limited, and when the compost is Undersowing crops development of plant roots, soil available it is often costly. Animal manures and crop refuse are the Undersowing crops—for example, microfauna and flora, worms and main ingredients of compost. barley with the grass or clover mycorrhiza and helps retain good Organic standards require that pasture that will follow in the soil structure. imported manure intended for rotation in the succeeding year or application be composted before almost any leguminous crop—is A mixture of deep-rooted and use. central to organic systems. The shallow-rooted species increases the practice has been shown to have potential for gaining access to soil The primary benefits of compost beneficial effects on the diversity nutrients; for example, in organic are that it is a more stable form of and abundance of insect species pastures herbs such as chicory, organic matter than raw waste and (Vickermann 1978). Other benefits plantain, yarrow and caraway are that weed seeds and diseases are are the potential for higher protein often added. Ideally, an orchard sod destroyed during the composting content in cereals undersown with consists of a range of perennial plant process. Composted manure is a legume as a result of a small net species. Grasses such as ryegrass easier to spread, so losses to the nitrogen gain, improved weed and fescue are efficient in obtaining environment are minimised. Rock suppression, improved pest and potassium from the soil and are dusts and clay added to compost disease control, and establishment able to make use of excess organic in small quantities can help reduce of that very important clover-based pasture (Lampkin 1990). Permanent swards and pastures In both livestock and cropping enterprises legume-based pastures provide the system’s main nitrogen input and livestock largely recycle other nutrients. In orchards, permanent swards, or sods, are sometimes planted between the rows and are the preferred method of inter-row management because the soil ecosystem remains A range of deep-rooted, shallow-rooted, fibrous-rooted and nitrogen-fixing species in green manure crops increases the potential for gaining access to soil nutrients and improving soil structure. Pictured here are, from undisturbed. This favours the left to right, oats, faba beans and fodder rape. Photo: NSW Department of Primary Industries.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 10 10 17/04/2008 7:47:03 AM access. Microbial activity quickly elemental composition of fresh raises the temperature of the fruit and vegetables since the 1940s heap to 55°C, where it stays for a (McCance & Widdowson 1992). minimum of three days before the compost heap is then turned (ASA Soils with higher biological activity standards specify a minimum of play an important part in increasing three turns) to allow for thorough the availability of micronutrients. mixing and a further heating of any Much research has been done into undecomposed material. the symbiotic roles of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi in increasing Compost is usually applied at a rate phosphorus availability in plants of 5 to 20 tonnes a hectare—the and rhizobium bacteria and their higher rate on sandier soils. Some ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen certifiers put limitations on compost for plant use. There has, however, rates above 20 tonnes a hectare. Soil been little research into the role analysis and crop requirements will of other soil micro-organisms in help determine application rates. improving micronutrient uptake by plants. Organic farmers should aim to Compost—a primary source of organic matter and establish on-farm composting and The re-mineralisation of Australian nutrients in intensive organic farming systems. farming soils is a strategy more Compost production at NSW Agriculture’s organic handling facilities, which should be demonstration site, Yanco. Photo: R Neeson 2000. sited well away from watercourses recently proposed by some soil health experts. Various techniques nitrogen loss from the heap by and dams. Efforts should be made for re-mineralisation are gaining an absorbing ammonia (Lampkin to avoid run-off and nutrient increased following among farmers; 1990). loss—for example, by covering the compost windrow. A grassed buffer they are largely based on balancing Many recipes and techniques are area downslope of the windrow soils’ cation exchange capacity and advocated for composting. The will help absorb nutrient run-off. achieving a satisfactory calcium– Australian Standard for Composts, If a certified source of compost magnesium ratio (Albrecht 1975). Soil Conditioners and Mulches (AS is available locally, this could be a The effectiveness of the techniques 4454-1999) defines composting preferred option, provided it is cost is yet to be scientifically evaluated as ‘the process whereby organic effective (include the transport under Australian conditions. materials are pasteurised and costs). Re-mineralisation involves the microbiologically transformed addition of various rock-based under aerobic and thermophilic Suitable equipment is needed for materials, among them reactive and conditions for a period of not less handling, turning and spreading colloidal rock phosphate, dolomite, than 6 weeks’. The pasteurisation the compost. This might include limestone and rock dusts (from process is described as having ‘the a front-end loader or tractor- silicate rocks, including basalt whole mass of constantly moist mounted bucket for loading and and bentonite), as well as some material subject to at least three turning and a manure spreader for commercial organic blends. consecutive days at a minimum application. temperature of 55°C’. Rock dusts and Rock dusts can be added directly to the soil or to compost heaps. The principal aim of composting re-mineralisation Whatever the method of is to produce a stable humic Many Australian soils are leached of application, the release of nutrients compound. This is achieved by elements essential for plant growth. mixing main ingredients together from the rock dusts is accelerated by Moreover, many years of farming in quantities that achieve a suitable moist conditions, high temperatures with an emphasis on supplying a carbon–nitrogen ratio. The ideal and high biological activity—for nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium ratio lies between 25:1 and 35:1 example, during a green manure fertiliser regime, at the expense (Lampkin 1990). Moisture stage or composting. Finer particle of minor elements, might have content is also important and size of the rock dust is preferred resulted in further ‘mining’ of ideally should be about 55 to 70 as this provides a greater surface per cent. Compost heaps should some trace elements. This theory area for micro-organisms to act on be designed to allow sufficient air has some support: evidence and hence a more rapid availability suggests a gradual decline in the of nutrients to plants. Where
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 11 11 15/04/2008 11:25:55 AM soils have good biological activity the soil to have vegetative cover crops and applying compost and and are subject to irrigation, the for as long as possible within the rock dusts—commercial organic effectiveness of the mineral products rotation. Shallow cultivations, where fertilisers, seaweed, fish emulsion, can be further improved. only the surface layers of the soil are sugar solutions and microbial mixed, are an important element preparations are applied to Rock phosphate becomes available of this approach. Deep cultivation stimulate soil biological activity and more quickly under acidic soil of dry soil is practised to loosen supplement plant health. conditions (a pH less than 5.5) and aerate soil, avoiding inversion and where rainfall exceeds 600 of the lower layers. Green manures The comfort phase millimetres. Because the benefits or cereal crops are sown as soon as The comfort phase coincides with of rock dusts are not available practicable following cultivation: an increase in biological activity and immediately to a crop, the dusts their roots help stabilise loosened a corresponding release of previously should be applied a few seasons soil and minimise nitrate leaching. ‘locked-up’, or unavailable, nutrients. before cropping. Consistent, small It is during this phase that optimal applications throughout the rotation 2.1.3 Organic soil crop yields are reached. Organic should be considered. conversion farmers need to be careful not to Organic conversion is not just over-fertilise during this phase. This For growers buying mineral rock about replacing a high–chemical is more likely to occur in intensive dusts, it is important to note that input system with a no-input, or horticulture systems, where unacceptably high levels of heavy every ‘alternative’ input, system. The application of compost and green metals have been found in some organic soil-building process goes manuring are common practice. commercial products. Unlike through three critical stages, which Over-fertilisation usually manifests other commercial fertilisers, rock can be referred to as the ‘adjustment itself through crop physiological dusts are at present not required to phase’, the ‘comfort phase’ and the problems and an increased undergo testing or to be registered ‘maintenance phase’. incidence of pests and diseases. under the Fertiliser Act 1998. Each batch bought should be tested, or The adjustment phase Farmers should also be aware that a written declaration should be a running down of the nutrient The adjustment phase involves obtained from the manufacturer reserve can also occur if the soil developing a system that reduces or supplier, in order to determine system is not being monitored whether impurities are present. the crop’s reliance on artificial chemicals. This could be likened properly. Usually, organic farmers to going ‘cold turkey’ for farming regularly monitor soil nutrient 2.1.2 Improvements to levels. Soil and plant tissue testing soil structure systems that are heavily dependent on chemical inputs. During this allows nutrient requirements to be Improvements in the biological phase some farmers have observed tracked, thus avoiding ‘overfeeding’ activity and cation exchange that crop yields can decline as the or ‘underfeeding’ the soil system. capacity of soils will generally lead system converts from a chemical The maintenance phase to an improvement in soil structure, to a biological one and is starved of but this needs to be supported by its regular ‘fix’ of readily available, Research has shown that some suitable cultural practices. Use of chemical fertilisers. organic systems have, over a suitable machinery at the correct relatively long period, experienced soil moisture, incorporation of soil The length of this preliminary soil- a decline in soil nutrient reserves organic matter, and improvement building process depends largely on (Small et al. 1994; Penfold et al. of soils using differing types of the soil’s pre-existing condition and 1995). This could be attributed crop root physiology are techniques fertiliser history. The phase involves to long-term drawing down of organic farmers use in order to increasing biological activity by nutrients during harvesting of develop soil structure. providing optimal soil conditions. crop or (less so) livestock products The challenge for organic farmers and through natural processes Lampkin (1990) describes is to develop and adopt a cost- such as leaching. In Australia this cultivation practices as having effective strategy that encourages has been particularly evident in the greatest impact on the soil and builds biological processes in broad-acre cropping and livestock of any agricultural activity. He the soil while maintaining optimal enterprises where a phosphorous summarises the organic approach plant nutrition. In addition to deficiency has been found. This has to soil cultivation as one that seeks standard organic practices—such as implications for cereal and legume to maintain soil structure and allow planting legumes and green manure crops: phosphorous deficiency in
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 12 12 15/04/2008 11:25:56 AM legumes adversely affects the plant’s pasture phase are nitrogen fixation the early stages of conversion—to ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through the legume component help track the effectiveness of soil in root nodules; nitrogen fixed by and the recycling of organic matter improvement and crop nutrition legumes is an essential nutrient in and nutrients via livestock manure. programs. Soil samples should be subsequent crops in the cropping The pasture phase can also help to collected from all representative rotation. suppress pests, disease and weeds soils on the farm, with care being by providing a break in the disease taken to map out the location Preparing a nutrient budget by cycle. and depth of sampling. A good reconciling inputs and outputs sampling procedure is described on and correlating this with regular If well managed, poultry such as the NSW Department of Primary soil tests and crop performance chickens, geese and ducks can Industries website
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 13 13 15/04/2008 11:25:59 AM livestock during grazing are returned to soil in manure and urine. Managed carefully, livestock and manure can play an important role in nutrient cycling on an organic farm. Composting of livestock manure is generally required, particularly if sourced externally to the organic farm.
Livestock are used extensively for weed control on organic farms. For example, they can graze down weeds before a crop is sown or they can be used after crop establishment Organic beef. Photo: Andy Monk for weed control and to improve nutrition seeks to produce adequate deficiencies. Under the organic tillering. Crops can sometimes be yields, it has an enormous effect on standards, any mineral supplements chosen so that livestock selectively animal health and is therefore very used should be from natural sources. graze out weeds, leaving behind the important in disease prevention. For example, additives such as urea less palatable crop. Chinese weeder and synthetic amino acids are not geese are often used in organic Dietary diversity is the key. A permitted, whereas seaweed and vegetable and fruit production to balanced diet helps to meet the seaweed extracts, which contain a selectively remove grasses and some animals’ physiological needs. range of minerals, are. Nutrients can broad-leaf weeds from crops. Lampkin (1990) points out also be provided in mineral licks that cows with high production and fodder mixes or by drenching. Livestock can also help with levels as a result of emphasis on Exceptions are made for potassium- preparing the ground for planting concentrates in their diet have a based fertilisers. by grazing and trampling crop shorter productive life. In organic stubble and reducing the length of a systems crop rotation and a variety The national standard requires pasture sward. of plant species in the pasture help that all food for organic livestock be organic—either as purchased The pasture phase in a mixed to achieve diet diversity. A mixture of deep-rooted and shallow-rooted input or, preferably, produced on the cropping–livestock system builds farm. In connection with feeding critical fertility and structure into species increases the potential for nutrients to be available and helps supplements and rations, the rotations and reduces potential for national standard states: the build-up of insects and disease. eliminate nutrient deficiencies. Herbs such as chicory, plantain, 2.2.1 Livestock nutrition In order to satisfy their yarrow and caraway are often added. nutritional requirements, Deep-rooted native species can livestock can be given free recycle and make available nutrients access to mineral supplements that otherwise remain unavailable, (e.g. mineral licks, shell-grit and deep in the soil. Legumes such as trace elements from mineral lucerne can supply organic nitrogen origin). to the grass component of pastures and help recycle deep nutrients. Feed supplements of agricultural origin must be of Nutrient imbalances are less likely certified organic or biodynamic Organic principles encourage the natural behaviour to occur in organically raised origin where the operator can of livestock livestock when plant nutrients are prove that the required products provided through the balancing of are not available. In organic farming, animal soil fertility and the soil’s biological husbandry aims to provide a diet activity, rather than when water- An exception is made for that livestock are best adapted to; soluble nutrients are provided. supplements of non-agricultural the aim is not to maximise weight origin2 when the following three gain at the expense of animal health The long-term aim of organic circumstances all apply: and contentment. Although good systems is to remedy soil • They constitute no more than
2 14 Livestock feed produced before the inspection should be replaced during the in-conversion period.
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 14 14 15/04/2008 11:26:01 AM 5 per cent of the animals’ diet on bio-dynamic status of the used to open up the soil profile, an annual basis. livestock is unaffected. and a deep-rooting species such as • They are not processed with • Livestock receiving feed lucerne or chicory is sown to keep products that do not meet the that does not comply with the soil open. Additions of mineral requirements of the standard. this Standard must be fed rock and approved organic fertilisers • They do not contain materials of on feed complying with this are also useful. genetically modified origin. Standard for a consecutive six-month period before 2.2.3 Encouraging The supplements of non- regaining organic or bio- predators and agricultural origin can be only the dynamic status. Residue parasitoids to manage following: testing of certified livestock pasture pests • minerals, trace elements, by-products maybe required Synthetic pesticides cannot be used vitamins and pro-vitamins of before any organic or bio- when producing fodder or pasture natural origin dynamic status is regained. for stock. Rather, cultural practices • binders, anti-caking agents, (OIECC 2002, p. 24) 2.2.2 Soil management that encourage healthy plant growth emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners, and other management practices surfactants and coagulants from for nutritious pastures that encourage predators of pests natural sources Slow, organic remediation of soils are used. Davidson and Davidson • acids of natural origin through improved biological activity (1992) give the example of 1000 • marine products of plant origin. provides balanced plant nutrition ibis consuming nearly a quarter of a and growth and hence improved million pests during a day. When feed rations are prepared, nutrition for livestock. The aim they must consist of organic or is to build soil fertility through Providing shelter, breeding grounds organic-in-conversion products management. This includes rotation and year-round food sources for and be labelled accordingly. As of crops, incorporation of organic predators encourages them. Nectar- with supplements, feed rations matter such as green manure, and producing species incorporated in of non-agricultural origin are cultivation practices that increase pastures and windbreaks attract restricted to the products just listed. the aeration of soil. Aerator ploughs wasps, which parasitise scarab The following are prohibited feed (for example, Agroplow® and species in pastures. On-farm products: Yoeman’s®) and deep ripping are wetlands encourage predatory • antibiotics, coccidiostats, medicinal substances, growth promoters and any other substance intended to stimulate growth or production • synthetic nitrogen compounds, non-protein nitrogen compounds and amino acid isolates. The feeding of animal products and by-products to the same species— excluding milk and milk products to ruminants—is strictly prohibited.
In cases of extreme climatic or other extenuating circumstances—such as drought, fire or flood—exemption for feed inputs may be granted by an operator’s approved certifying organisation. The national standard states: In such a situation: • Where in-conversion feed Biological pest control is encouraged in organic systems. Predatory shield bug parasitises Heliothis caterpillar in a is sourced, the organic or pigeon pea trap crop. Photo: R Neeson
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 15 15 15/04/2008 11:26:04 AM waders and, suitably located and • Stress factors become adapted to to decreased diversity in the herd. designed, provide a filter for conditions over a longer period. Livestock produced using genetic nutrients in drainage before it leaves • The quality and quantity of engineering are not permitted. the farm. colostrum in older cows is 2.2.5 Livestock welfare 2.2.4 Breeding greater. Organic farmers aim to minimise Breeding should be within the In conventional livestock systems physical and psychological stress genetic capacity of the species the genetic emphasis is on high in their livestock in order to concerned. For example, breeding production. The organic farmer promote wellbeing and reduce the selects livestock for a wider range of for high feed conversion can lead incidence of disease. Having non- qualities, among them pest (parasite) to arthritis and breeding for large stressed livestock also helps reduce and disease tolerance or resistance hindquarters can lead to birthing veterinary bills and maintain meat (for example, Brahman tick difficulties. tenderness. tolerance) and mothering ability. During conversion to organic The national standard states, production, livestock bought Breeding for lifetime yield is ‘Livestock husbandry practices externally must be organic or, if more commonly the practice in that reflect the behavioural needs conventional, placed in a quarantine organic farming. While the aim of and ethical treatment and welfare area for three weeks. Once the farm conventional livestock production is management of livestock are also is fully organic, external purchases for high, early productivity, the aim of fundamental importance where are confined to breeding stock only: with organic livestock is to increase animals are kept on the farm’ and, all other livestock should be bred on the animals’ productive life, and this in relation to stress caused by the property. Replacement breeders is often associated with resistance to practices such as castrating, marking may be introduced at an annual rate disease (Boehncke 1990). and mulesing, ‘Pain inflicted by of 10–20 per cent (depending on surgical treatments must be kept the certification organisation) of the Developing longevity in the herd to a minimum level and duration’. existing breeding stock. A limited offers a number of advantages: For example, NASAA prohibits provision does, however, exist in • A long growth period means a practices such as de‑tailing of cows, the standards for taking on agisted long youth, and a long immature although de‑horning and castration stock. stage has been shown to be a are allowed when carried out as precondition for a longer life. humanely as possible and within Livestock produced by artificial specific age limits. • The farmer has the opportunity insemination are allowed by most to get to know the herd, which certification organisations if natural Use of anaesthetics is permitted: it makes handling easier and behaviour is not practical or new does not result in loss of organic or allows for a thorough knowledge genetic material is required. Embryo biodynamic status. of the herd’s disease history. transplant is not permitted since • The herd establishes a stable this technique usually necessitates Management aims to minimise social order and a stable health hormone injection to synchronise stress during potentially stressful state. breeding cycles and tends to lead periods. After shearing, for example,
Organic farmers aim to minimise physical and psychological stress in their livestock. Photo: C. Ferguson
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 16 16 15/04/2008 11:26:06 AM stress can be reduced by providing acupuncture, and dietary additives the development of resistance. If good pasture with low or no such as pro-biotics. There is, permitted substances or practices do parasitic infection. Reducing noise however, not always a satisfactory not satisfactorily treat an animal, the and not rushing stock through ‘organic treatment’ for health animal’s welfare takes priority over gateways can also help minimise problems, and when an organic organic status. stress during handling. treatment is not effective there is no doubt that conventional treatment Among the organic treatments Animals experience added stress must be used: the welfare of the used are drenches made from a when being transported to market animal is paramount. mixture of natural products such and during slaughter. The NASAA as garlic, molasses, vegetable oil standards state, ‘Slaughter will be When an animal is treated with a and cider vinegar. Copper sulphate carried out quickly and without non-permitted substance it must in minute doses is also favoured undue stress … animals may not be be identified and quarantined by some organic farmers. Others held or herded in an area where the from other stock from the time of use aloe vera, clay products, killing of other livestock is visible’. treatment for at least three times the diatomaceous earth, other vegetable ® withholding period or three weeks, and tree products, and Nutrimol . The benefits of shade and shelter whichever is the greater, specified Homoeopathic remedies are widely for livestock are well documented. for the treatment under relevant used, with reported excellent Organic animal husbandry requires laws. For a period of at least 12 results. Homoeopathy works on that sufficient protection be months after quarantine, such areas the principle of ‘substances usually provided against excessive sunlight, are to be used only for livestock in extreme dilutions which, when temperature, wind, rain and other production. Crops labelled as given to healthy individuals, harsh climatic conditions. This can organic or biodynamic and intended produce the same symptoms as the be achieved through the provision for human consumption can be disease being treated … the whole of windbreaks and sheltered grown on the area after this period. organism is treated in an attempt paddocks. to raise its levels of resistance Therapeutic treatment with and stimulate its ability to throw Livestock such as geese should be allopathic veterinary drugs or off disease’ (MacLeod 1981). protected from predators such as antibiotics is permitted. Following Homoeopathy aims to stimulate the foxes and dogs. such treatment, however, livestock body’s natural defence mechanisms. may not be sold as organic or Although there is little scientific 2.2.6 Livestock health biodynamic. Their products and evidence of its effectiveness, the practice is widely used in organic The organic approach to animal progeny can be sold as organic dairy farming. Only a few trials health care focuses on prevention or biodynamic after a minimum have been conducted; some have of disease through diet, shelter, management period, as outlined demonstrated effects, while others breeding and husbandry practices, in the standard. In cases where have failed to do so. rather than treatment. It is not legislation requires the treatment of possible to eliminate all animal diseases or pests, this overrules the Some substances listed as disease, but when disease does organic standards. permissible are not registered occur a healthy animal is in a better as veterinary treatments, and Selection of stock on the basis of position to cope with it. For many the Organic Industry Export disease tolerance and resistance is organic farmers, good observation Consultative Committee, which is an important tool of the organic is an important part of disease responsible for approving changes farmer. Recurrent health problems management. A producer who to the National Standard for point to something amiss in the keeps daily or frequent records will Organic and Biodynamic Produce, system. If individual stock exhibit be in a better position to identify has been asked to explore the recurrent problems they should be the possible origins of a disease or legality of using these unregistered injury. culled. substances. Internal parasites Organic standards exclude the Alternative management practices routine use of veterinary drugs such Organic farmers are not permitted aim to disrupt a parasite’s life as antibiotics and some vaccinations. to use conventional anti-worm cycle. Temperature and moisture Organic farmers rely instead on preparations. Drenching is done favour the development of internal treatments such as herbs, vitamins only when necessary, as routine use parasites, so after rainfall or and minerals, homoeopathy, is not permitted and could lead to irrigation livestock are moved to a
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 17 17 15/04/2008 11:26:07 AM clean pasture; alternatively, pastures pasture. Sowing mustard and marking, and burning dead stock can be harrowed following grazing ploughing it in as a green manure where they lie. Some practices to expose the eggs and larvae has been shown to clean a pasture emphasised in organic farming to sunlight and heat. The New (Belstead & Belstead 1992). reduce the likelihood of injury. For Zealand Agroecology Program example, dipping and drenching found pastures such as chicory and In summary, maintaining good are avoided (so stress and rough lucerne to be least conducive to health and reducing the risk of handling are minimised) and parasite larvae intake. parasites involves the following: birth complications are minimised • maintaining a high plane of through appropriate breed selection. Resistance to internal parasites nutrition and minimum stress increases with age because immunity • grazing management that The most commonly used develops through previous exposure. reduces exposure to parasites disinfectant for equipment in an Sheep reach a higher level of organically certified operation is • eliminating herd drenching and resistance at about nine months, methylated spirits. drenching individual stock only whereas cattle reach this stage at when infection is sighted—close about 18 months. Late pregnancy, Use of vaccinations in observation is crucial here lambing and weaning are critical organic livestock systems • after the system is established, periods for infection because When a serious disease is endemic resistance drops with increased stress culling of animals that show signs of heavy infestation. and cannot be otherwise controlled, and as feed intake increases, so it vaccination is an appropriate and is critical to provide clean pasture Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) control important management strategy. at these times. Good nutrition and can be achieved by controlling the grazing rotations assist in developing intermediate host, the freshwater Organic standards outline specific and maintaining resistance. snail. In organic farming systems requirements for the use of vaccines and other allopathic livestock Grazing management is very this is done by excluding livestock from water sources the snail inhabits treatments. The standards classify important in managing parasites. the use of vaccines as ‘restricted’. Spelling paddocks can control and by using birds such as ducks. Snails prefer damp, slightly acid This means that their routine use is worm populations, as can alternate discouraged and is only permitted grazing. This latter method can conditions, so the addition of lime when it can be demonstrated by involve older, less susceptible stock can be useful. Copper sulphate the organic operator that a specific grazing wormier pastures before is approved under the national disease is endemic in the region or young stock or having a higher standards, although its use is under on the organic farm, or where their number of less susceptible stock review. Iron phosphate shows use is required by law, or in proven together with young stock. Another promise and is under review as an cases, where such a disease cannot form of alternate grazing is to graze approved input. be effectively controlled by other alternately with different species— management practices. Organic for example, cattle before sheep Clostridial diseases are caused by certifiers require written verification because cross-infection does not spore-forming anaerobic bacteria. from a veterinarian to confirm the occur to any great extent—or with At present, conventional control presence or threat of disease infection different species together. This also is through vaccination. In organic prior to approving the application offers benefits in terms of weeds: farming, use of vaccines is permitted of the treatment. In addition, the different grazing habits will prevent only when a specific disease is vaccines must not contain genetically the domination of a particular known to exist on the organic modified ingredients or by-products. weed species. Strip grazing involves farm or on neighbouring farms The use of vaccines under these back-fencing stock to match larvae and cannot be controlled by other circumstances will not prejudice development so that the stock do means. To deal effectively with certification and does not require not contaminate their pasture. Most clostridial disease, the first goal is quarantine procedures. Full records organic farmers prefer low stocking to avoid predisposing factors. For of treatments must be kept. rates and relatively intensive example, in Clostridium chauvoei rotations. (blackleg, or malignant oedema) a Use of non-permitted significant predisposing factor is veterinary treatments: Cultivation and intermediate injury, and among the management cropping allow for a break in strategies are avoiding and treating Other conditions apply to the use of the build-up of insects, parasites injuries, avoiding use of the same veterinary treatments (such as drugs and disease and therefore a clean site for operations such as lamb and antibiotics) or other treatments
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 18 18 15/04/2008 11:26:07 AM • observation of livestock • selection of resistant or tolerant stock—genetic selection and culling of susceptible stock • monitoring the presence of pests and trapping them—for example, using fly traps • cleanliness—for example, burning the crutchings from fly- blown sheep • biological controls—for example, using dung beetles to remove faeces and hence the eggs of the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) • organic treatments—derris, When a serious disease is endemic and cannot be otherwise controlled, vaccination is an appropriate and rotenone and monocalcium important management strategy. fluorosilicate (Flockmaster®) not listed or not permitted for use livestock, eggs and poultry can never for lice, lime sulphur for itch under organic standards. Prohibited be sold as ‘certified organic’. Wool mite, zinc sulphate for lumpy treatment use is only acceptable in regains its certified organic status wool, and neem and eucalyptus cases of emergency; however organic 18 months following treatment and (Eucalyptus globulus) oil for fly standards stress that such treatments milk 180 days following treatment. strike (including medicines) should not The offspring of treated livestock • double-fencing—particularly be withheld where animal welfare however may attain organic adjoining conventional concerns exist. If parasiticides and/ certification status for meat if livestock—to help prevent the or antibiotics are required, organic managed in accordance with organic spread of lice from infested to standards specify a number of standards and conceived on the clean livestock. management conditions which certified unit or other certified lands must be applied to treated livestock. or where the parent is managed in 2.3 Plant pest and Treated stock must be excluded for a accordance with organic standards disease management period of time from certified organic from the last trimester of pregnancy land and separated from non-treated onwards, including throughout the Organic systems are designed organic stock. This means containing lactation period. This means that to re-create natural systems, those livestock to be treated in a any treatment applied to a breeder which support several competing defined quarantine area during and must occur prior to the start of the species, so that no single species following treatment for a period last trimester of pregnancy and has a consistent advantage. This which is equivalent to three times full organic management must be is contrary to the main objective the legal withholding period of the sustained from this point onwards of modern agricultural systems, substance in question, or a minimum for their offspring and its meat where the enterprise must maintain of 3 weeks, whichever is longer. products to be certified as organic. permanent control in order to Following this quarantine period, be viable. Organic producers treated stock are permitted to mingle The use of anaesthetics does not also believe that, by maintaining with organic (non-treated) stock result in the loss of certification a vigorous and healthy crop and range on certified organic land status, but does require the treated through the adoption of sound provided they are clearly identifiable livestock is withheld from sale or cultural practices, plants are better from the organic stock as well as killing for a period three times the able to withstand attack from traceable through farm records. legal withholding period of the pests and disease. Predicting substance in question or a minimum potential problems and developing If organic livestock are treated with of 3 weeks, whichever is longer. strategies to prevent the problems parasiticides and/or antibiotics a External parasites from occurring is the key to period of de-certification follows successful organic pest and disease and the livestock and / or their External parasites are managed management. Organic farmers products cannot be sold as ‘certified through a range of practices, among take an ‘integrated pest and disease organic’. The meat from treated them the following: management’ approach. Such
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 19 19 15/04/2008 11:26:14 AM an approach is sometimes called favourable habitat or food source species might dominate or a noxious ‘ecological pest management’ in • mechanical controls to trap or weed (one that, by law, must be the case of organic farming, to kill pests or physically prevent controlled) might be present and differentiate it from integrated them from gaining access to this situation must be managed. pest and disease management crops Whereas most conventional in conventional farming, which • modification of the physical includes the use of pesticides. environment—for example, farmers see a weed as something Pesticides are generally not available using light traps and sticky traps that grows where it is not wanted, to organic farmers, although some (to trap and monitor insect organic farmers see it as a sign that substances that are derived naturally pests), laying down clear plastic something in the farming system are allowed for restricted use—for to control weeds (solarisation), needs attention. Weeds are also seen example, natural pyrethrum and planting a crop such as canola as having an important ecological Bacillus thuringiensis. that inhibits certain pest species role: for example, some deep-rooted (known as bio-fumigation), or species will recycle nutrients from In organic systems integrated pest planting antagonistic species deep down in the soil profile, and disease management makes (known as allelopathy) for weed making them available to shallow- use of a range of non-chemical control rooted species. techniques: • use of livestock —for example, • cultural controls such as crop In order to develop an integrated rotation, cultivation and crop using ducks and geese to reduce populations of snails and strategy for suppressing weeds manipulation—for example, without using chemicals, organic varying the crop spacing and maintain hygiene by consuming crop refuse. farmers need to have a good the planting time—and crop understanding of weeds’ behaviour, hygiene 2.4 Weed management their growth characteristics, and • manipulation of species the conditions that favour their Economic weed control—without diversity—for example, presence. increasing the number of plant the assistance of synthetic herbicides—remains one of the species that act as a barrier Manipulating soil fertility and using most difficult aspects of successful to a pest or that provide an cultural techniques to control seed organic production. alternative (preferred) host banks are examples of long-term • crop resistance or other physical A well-managed organic system strategies used by organic producers attributes of the crop—such as should not develop a significant for the management of weeds. spines or hairs—that deter pests weed problem. A primary objective Among the shorter term strategies • natural and biological controls— for organic farming is to change are mulching, using grazing animals, for example, encouraging the the composition of the weed biological control, hand weeding, natural enemies (parasites, community, so that the farming and mechanical methods such as predators and disease organisms) system gains maximum benefit. slashing, cultivation, brush weeding of a pest species by providing a Sometimes, however, one weed and thermal weeding.
Organic farmers use a range of innovative techniques to manage weeds. Pictured is a tractor-mounted hot-air weed steamer. Photo: R Neeson.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 20 20 15/04/2008 11:26:18 AM 3. Planning for organic certification
Conversion to organic farming and your thinking. You must be some certification organisations is a dynamic process: it involves committed to strictly following do, however, provide a database of conceptualising, then action and organic principles, yet be flexible suppliers of certified organic inputs. observation, and finally reflection enough to work with the Livestock can play an important and refinement. It is a cyclical and ever-changing face of nature. role in the future soil fertility continuous process. Figure 3.1 Information is not readily available program, so it is also necessary illustrates the concept. through conventional sources, to investigate how stock can be so be prepared to spend many managed organically. hours researching and testing new techniques. The self-assessment Paying increased attention to pest test shown in Figure 3.2 is designed monitoring and determining ways to help aspiring organic farmers of reducing pesticide applications decide how far along the conversion from another area that should pathway they are. receive high priority during the early stages of conversion. It is 4. Reflect 3.2 Beginning the worth considering employing a 3. Observe 1. Plan conversion crop-check consultant to help with pest and predator identification and John Melville, from Bioterm the development of strategies to 2. Act Consulting Pty Ltd, has a message predict and manage pest incursions. 4. Reflect for aspiring organic farmers: ‘A Noxious weeds and other difficult- problem is a positive opportunity to-control weeds (such as perennials for development’. This is how the 1. Plan or weeds with rhizomes) should be 3. Observe farm conversion process should be targeted before organic practices considered; failures should not be 2. Act are introduced. It is important to seen as problems but rather as a way remember, though, that weeds are of moving forward and developing commonly an indication of a soil and improving your organic system Figure 3.1 An action learning fertility imbalance or a structural step by step. model. Source: Kolb (1984) problem in the soil: these problems Conversion begins by making must be remedied if their recurrence Observation and reflection are is to be prevented. particularly important because small changes that will have the biggest impact on the farming organic systems are, by their The first stage in the planning system. It is best to change small nature, holistic. A change to one process involves information component of the system will affect aspects of management that can collection. Armed with as much other components. Monitoring be implemented without excessive information as possible, a farmer and recording the consequences of cost or loss of crop yield or quality. will be in a better position to make implementing a change are crucial Avoid trying to change to total informed decisions and plan the to success. organic management immediately. conversion strategy. Information can be obtained from a variety of Changes to soil fertility and soil Planning is an essential requirement sources: management should be considered of any business—not least an • successful organic (and early in the process. This will organic enterprise. To put it simply, conventional) farmers if there is no planning the venture involve conducting soil analyses, • extension and research staff will almost undoubtedly fail. determining how to substitute non- organic fertiliser inputs with organic employed by government 3.1 A self-assessment inputs and crop rotation practices departments test (for example, green manuring) • state organic organisations and assessing current cultivation and the Organic Federation of Organic conversion starts with practices. Locating organic inputs Australia personal conversion—for you can be time-consuming and costly; • certification organisations
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 21 21 15/04/2008 11:26:19 AM
organic organic rategies in your in rategies and incorporate incorporate and with these things these with You need to deal st management plan management before applying for organic inspection. .
NO u will need access Yo
e
e f points for livestock and processing facitilies
component. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. HACCP
ficulties. Austrade and the Are my grain storages free of chemical residues?
NO Agsell,
NO to certified transport, grain storage, finishing-of Contact organic certifiers, wholesalers, exporters, processors, the NSW Department of Primary Does my crop and livestock management conform to organic standards? Have I identified non-chemical methods to manage pest and diseases in crops livestock and methods to improve crop pasture sustainability without the use of artificial fertilisers? Do I keep thorough records of any inputs used? have a non-certified area to contain treated or non-organic stock? Have I located and isolated sources of contamination such as old chemical dump sites? Have I developed a strategy for managing weeds, pest outbreaks and feral animals? Have I identified certified organic seed sources? attend field days. Read, search the internet. Investigate organic training courses with a Industries, standards. Contact local organic groups, farmers and agriculture departments Obtain copies of the National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce certifiers’ Prepare an organic management plan that outlines your strategies for ensuring ongoing adherence to standards and include the following: • certifier organic management plan template, if availabl • audit and maps of farm resources—physical, financial natural • farm and paddock history • details of past, current and future farm management, how it complies with organic standards, any inadequacies, and strategies for achieving complianc • documentation of hazards to organic production or food safety and development a HACCP-based plan resolve these dif • • • • • points’. NO NO NO
?
S S ? YE YE YES YES operation? standards inspection requirements are? requirements Note: HACCP denotes ‘hazard analysis critical control apply for an organic certification questions you are in a position to If you can answer ‘Yes’ to all these these all to ‘Yes’ answer can you If Do I have an organic management plan in Does my management conform to organic organic to conform management my Does Do I understand what organic means organic what understand I Do Have I investigated markets for my produce and what their their what and produce my for markets investigated I Have certification? organic apply for to being ready am I from far away 3.2 How Figure
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 22 22 15/04/2008 11:26:19 AM • organic consultants production, processing and labelling • organic (and conventional) of organic produce. The Australian producer groups Quarantine and Inspection • books and other publications Service administers the national • crop and market forecasts standard and audits each approved • organic wholesalers, retailers and certifying organisation to ensure exporters it complies with the requirements of the national standard, the • short courses and workshops— Export Control (Organic Produce for example, Integrated Pest Certification) Orders 1997 and Management courses run by the importing countries’ requirements. NSW Department of Primary The national standard can be Industries viewed on the AQIS website • agricultural research and < http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/ development organisations—for export/organic-bio-dynamic/food- example, the Rural Industries legislation >. Research and Development Corporation 3.3 Conversion and Should I Convert to Organic Farming?– • the internet Information to support your decision. By Viv certification Burnett, Robyn Neeson & Dr Els Wynen • universities, agriculture colleges Provides information on organic production to and TAFE colleges—especially ‘Conversion’ refers to the physical broadacre grain farmers to help them with the organic their libraries conversion process. Discusses the inadequate provision and biological changes the farmer of information to farmers on organic production, and the • organic (and conventional) and the farming system must make relative isolation (geographic, information support) of farmers’ newsletters in order to comply with organic farmers who wish to convert their farms. RIRDC Pub. No. • field days, agricultural trade standards. ‘Certification’ refers to 05/084. $16 shows, conferences and the formal process of assessment workshops designed to lead to accreditation of entails financial risk. Furthermore, • the internet (www). the farming system as compliant there is little in the way of detailed with organic standards. Before information and advice about how This list is by no means conclusive, going down the conversion path, to embark on the venture. but it offers a good starting point. farmers should ask themselves the questions posed in Figure 3.2. Basically, the conversion process When seeking information, people begins with personal conversion— planning to convert to organics 3.3.1 Conversion attitude and approach. It is then should not limit themselves to planning important to develop a planning ‘organic’ networks. Much of framework. Often called an Converting to organic farming is the information available to ‘organic management plan’, the not a short-term project, and there conventional farmers is equally framework accommodates changes are no fixed methods for doing it. relevant to organic practitioners in production methods and the Each farm unit is a unique system, (and vice versa), particularly as potential financial consequences and successful conversion requires conventional agriculture investigates and outlines strategies for continued careful assessment of the resources ways of reducing reliance on adherence to organic standards. available and the interactions chemicals. It should also set out the steps to between components of the system. be followed during conversion Important information to have is and a time scale over which the a copy of the organic production A degraded resource base and conversion will occur. Preparation standards. Each certifier has its economic pressures resulting from of such a plan is an essential pre- own standard, which is available previous land use can constitute certification activity. on-request. Some certifiers’ the biggest constraints to successful standards are on their website. The conversion, and more specialised 3.3.2 Developing an standard adopted will depend on and intensive farms will generally organic management the certifying organisation. The take longer to convert. These plan certifiers’ standards are based on the systems require more time and National Standard for Organic and effort to reintroduce diversity. The When developing an organic Biodynamic Produce, which sets conversion process calls for a high management plan, the following out the minimum requirements for level of commitment and often questions should be borne in mind:
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 23 23 15/04/2008 11:26:24 AM • How much, and over what wheat on the same farm, but – What must be done to time frame, will I convert? It it is permitted to grow organic keep these risks at an is a good idea to initially use Rosella and conventional acceptable level? only part of the farm to trial oats, provided all sources of – What records or evidence organic methods. A drawback contamination have been will I need to demonstrate is, however, that this might considered. that I have controlled the not allow for suitable rotations • What are the potential sources hazard? or provide the scale required of contamination and how will If parallel production is for necessary adjustments in I overcome them? Organic practised then harvesting, techniques and machinery. On standards require that the sowing, transport and processing the other hand, converting only producers implement a equipment must be thoroughly part of the farm might allow process for documenting and cleaned before organic produce for better financial stability monitoring the potential for is handled. Storages for organic if yields become depressed. contamination from substances and conventional produce must Perhaps, too, it is worth trying and practices that are not be separate, and there must be a organic production of just one permitted and that strategies be strong system of traceability. commodity grown on the farm, introduced to avoid these risks. Additionally, external sources although this could entail more A system similar to HACCP— of contamination—such as work—for example, segregating hazard analysis critical control over-spray from adjoining organic and conventional points—should be considered. properties and contamination of produce. Any risk assessment requires watercourses running through Under organic standards, asking, at each point in the the organic land—should be the growing of organic and production process, four further identified. The use and sources conventional produce on questions: of external inputs such as seed, the same farm is referred to – What are the potential fertiliser and livestock feed, even as ‘parallel production’. The sources of contamination if they are organic, must also be standards prohibit production during the production, recorded. of the same crops (or livestock) harvesting, storage, • What rotations should I organically and non-organically transporting and processing implement? When making on the same farm where the crop of the crop or livestock? decisions about rotations, it (or livestock) products are not – Which of these is important to consider the visibly different. For example, contamination risks is implications of each crop for it is not permitted to grow an significant and likely subsequent crops in the rotation. organic crop of Rosella wheat to occur if not properly The potential for pests and and a conventional crop of Janz managed? diseases, weed management, fertility management and livestock requirements must also be taken into account and be balanced against what will be profitable for the farming business. Production decisions must be viewed against the goal of optimising the economic return. Rotations must be flexible, too. One organic producer has said he would select a crop for a rotation only if it offered at least three benefits—for example, an economic return, soil structure (or nutrition) improvement, and a pest and disease break (Whittacker, pers. comm., The ibis is a natural pest predator November 1997).
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 24 24 15/04/2008 11:26:37 AM • Is my farm layout suitable? Now markets, the premiums offered capacity of the grazing units is the time to consider the (generally none for in-conversion been assessed? Are the stocking appropriateness of the farm’s produce) and marketing rates appropriate? Do I have in layout and how it will facilitate alliances—and value-adding operation a monitoring system organic conversion. Paddock potential all need to be assessed. that can verify sustainable size, fencing, irrigation layout, • How do I start? Start slowly. grazing practices? Does the the location of watercourses Gain experience with new carrying capacity of the grazing and wetlands, the presence of crops and techniques and the units take into account seasonal windbreaks, topography and soil potential output of the system. variability and the long-term types are all relevant. Start with a couple of paddocks sustainability of the region? Are • Do I have suitable equipment entering the rotation for a the paddock sizes appropriate? and farm structures? Conversion couple of seasons. Then other Can I provide at least 50 per to organic management could paddocks can be brought in cent of my livestock’s feed necessitate modification or and the original paddocks can requirements from my farm? Do replacement of existing farm progress to later stages of the I have access to a certified source equipment and structures. rotation. In this way the original of supplementary feeding? Do I Specialised sowing and weed paddocks are always a couple have an area of the farm set aside management equipment might of years ahead, and mistakes in which to quarantine non- be needed; sealed storages might learnt will not be repeated. Most organic livestock or livestock have to be built to allow for importantly, record observations that have been treated with a carbon dioxide disinfestation and redesign the conversion plan prohibited substance? Am I of produce; refrigeration units each year to take into account aware of the organic standards could be required to control experiences with each paddock. for drought feeding? post-harvest insect pests and 3.3.3 Additional • Livestock health. What products diseases. and practices am I currently considerations for using to manage pests and • Do I have a recording and livestock producers monitoring system? Keeping diseases of my livestock? records of crop production, Some specific considerations apply Are these compatible with cropping history, soil tests, to livestock producers who are organic standards? If not, what livestock movements, pest and converting the farm to organic management practices must disease management and crop production. In general, they concern I adopt so that I comply with sales will facilitate monitoring the management of livestock and of organic standards yet retain the of the impact of management pests and weeds. health of my livestock? practices and the changes that • Livestock mix and breeds. Is my • Livestock holding yards and have occurred during conversion. livestock mix appropriate? Are shearing sheds. Are stockyards Certifiers will ask for some there markets for my products? and shearing sheds free of information—such as details of Are the breeds the most suitable chemical residues? Are they crop yields and sales—as part of for meeting the objectives designed to minimise bruising the certification contract. of organic production—for and trauma to livestock? Are • What financial factors should example, more resistant to old dip sites and other areas of be considered? The capital pests? Do I allow for the natural potential contamination securely investment required for changes behaviour of livestock, such as fenced off from livestock? must be taken into account; natural breeding techniques • Livestock transport. Do transport this could include, for example, and appropriate weaning times times for stock—that is, how livestock housing, machinery, (three months for calves and long stock travel in any single storage facilities such as sealed nine weeks for lambs)? Are all stretch—comply with the silos, coolrooms, and facilities my livestock clearly tagged for certifier’s standards? Is the for processing, packaging and easy tracing? livestock transporter willing to marketing of produce. A viable • Grazing management. Is grazing ensure that organic stock are marketing strategy should be management conducted in segregated from non-organic established before proceeding such a way as to preserve the stock and that transport with the organic management health of the livestock as well equipment, trailers and loading plan. Marketing options— as the ecological aspects of the systems are designed to including the availability of property? Has the carrying minimise stock stress and are
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 25 25 15/04/2008 11:26:38 AM cleaned before loading certified stock? • Commons and stock routes. Do commons or stock routes exist within my holding? If so, can I exclude my organic stock from these areas when non-organic stock are travelling through? Can I gain approval from the Rural Lands Protection Board to Some specific considerations apply to livestock producers who are converting the farm to organic production. In have these areas narrowed down general, they concern the management of livestock and of pests and weeds and fenced off? The certification process involves organic produce. Producers and • Noxious and woody weed having the farm and the farming exporters need to be aware that a management. Can I manage my methods examined in order certification program must cover woody weeds in accordance to confirm that they meet the any treatment, preparation and with the certifier’s requirements? certifier’s standards for organic packaging of the organic product Have I used residual chemicals farming. The certifier’s standards before export. All exporters must be (such as Velpar®) to control cover all the requirements of the approved for this purpose. woody weeds and, if so, can I National Standard for Organic satisfactorily exclude these areas and Biodynamic Produce. Since Domestically, the market for from surrounding certified January 1993 exports of organic organic produce has expanded. The National Standard for Organic and areas. What other permissible produce have been required to meet Biodynamic Produce does not have management techniques can I the national standard, which sets legal standing within the Australian introduce? out the minimum requirements for production, processing and labelling domestic market. Following a • Feral animals. Do my current request from Australia’s organic control methods for feral of organic produce and requires that all exporters, as well as producers industry peak body, the Organic animals comply with the Federation of Australia, Standards certifier’s standards? For and processors, be certified with an accredited industry organisation. Australia, Australia’s peak standards example, if I use 1080 (sodium body, has agreed to proceed with the monofluoroacetate) baits are Seven organisations are currently development of a new Australian they buried, marked, mapped accredited by the Australian Standard for organic produce. The and routinely checked and are Quarantine and Inspection Service current National Organic (export) the unused baits retrieved? What to inspect and certify organic Standard is being considered as a other methods are approved? producers. (They are listed, along basis for the development of the • Regulatory requirements. What with their contact details, at the Australian Standard. options do I have if a plague beginning of Appendix A.) Each Levels in the certification locust outbreak is declared on certifier has standards that must process my property? be complied with in order to meet Full certification is generally granted Once the organic conversion the requirements of the national following three consecutive years strategy has been planned and standard. of organic management. Producers implemented, the time is ripe for Certification ensures the integrity must be involved in an accredited formal certification. of the organic product ‘from organic inspection system for a 3.3.4 Certification paddock to plate’, providing a minimum of 12 months before guarantee to consumers. It also receiving any certification level. Consumers now recognise a protects the interests of genuine The 12-month pre-certification certified organic product as their organic producers in maintaining period does not begin until a farmer best guarantee that the product and increasing their market share. has made a formal application to was in fact produced using organic Trade practices law imposes severe the certifier and has submitted a practices. This is particularly penalties for passing off non- statutory declaration and responses important to consumers with health organic produce as organic. to a farm questionnaire. Some concerns. Organic retailers and certifiers’ standards refer to ‘pre- wholesalers generally will not buy There appears to be considerable certification’ (also known as ‘pre- uncertified produce. potential for exporting Australian conversion’), ‘in conversion’ and
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 26 26 15/04/2008 11:26:42 AM ‘organic’ levels. Organic standards farmer might be asked for more Additional fees may be payable must be adhered to at all three levels, information, or further inspections under certain circumstances such as each level usually being a reflection and tests for chemical residues for fast tracking applications, adding of the amount of time or the degree might be called for. If successful, new acreage and / or new products, to which an organic system has been the farm will be approved for and for residue testing. implemented. Adherence to the pre-certification, the phase that Some certifiers offer a scheme for ‘in-conversion’ and ‘organic’ phases demonstrates to the certifier the small growers, where local producer entitles farmers to market and label farmer’s ability to manage the groups can apply for certification their product accordingly. No label enterprise organically. is issued during ‘pre-certification’. at a reduced rate. The typical fee Figure 3.3 shows the steps in the Following pre-certification, another per producer is around $800 pre- certification process. inspection takes place, and if certification, with annual fees of the requirements of the organic around $400 once label use is If the decision is made to proceed standard are met a certificate approved. with certification, a completed of certification is granted. The Some certifiers also employ multi- application form, along with farmer is then required to enter the required fee, should be sent skilled auditors, who can carry into a licensing agreement with out other audits such as HACCP to the certifying organisation. the certifier. From application to The certifier then asks for the (hazard analysis critical control certification takes 12 months. At points) for clients. completed statutory declaration this point, the ‘in-conversion’ level is and questionnaire describing the achieved, after which a further two How to stay certified products for which certification years ‘in- conversion’ is generally To comply with and retain organic is sought and the management required before ‘organic’ status is accreditation, farmers must uphold practices currently used on the farm. granted by the certifier. the national standard. Any breach Inspection of the standard—such as use of a Once a farm is certified, it will be prohibited substance—will result Once the application has been re-inspected each year. Unscheduled in temporary or, for continued made and the certifier determines inspections are also carried out as non-compliance, permanent de- that an organic system is possible— part of the certifier’s obligation to certification. Under the national based on the information provided meet the Australian Quarantine and standard inputs such as fertilisers in the statutory declaration and Inspection Service requirements. questionnaire responses—an and substances for pest and disease The cost of certification inspector contacts the applicant to control are classified as ‘permitted’, ‘restricted’ or ‘non-allowable’. arrange an inspection time. A number of fees are associated with becoming certified. The The inspection usually takes two Regardless of the type of input, amount and type of fees imposed to four hours but can take longer, its use must be recorded in the can depend on the certification especially on larger properties. farm diary. If for any reason a non- organisation and on the sales The inspector goes through allowable input is used, this use turnover of the producer. In general, the application and statutory must be recorded and the certifier however, around $1300 should be declaration with the farmer and asks notified immediately. Only after questions. Farmer and inspector allowed during the pre-certification the certifier is satisfied that organic together examine the farm, the period for the application fee, management has been re-applied machinery and the livestock. inspections (2 during pre- will it be possible to sell the produce The inspector might take soil or certification), and soil and produce in question as organic. product samples to test for chemical residue tests. residues; problem areas could be Continuing certification calls for Once certified for label use, on- old chemical storages or chemical good record-keeping. During going annual fees are payable which disposal areas and old spray inspections the inspector will want includes the costs associated with application equipment. to see these records. This helps annual reinspection. These are verify that management has been The inspector then makes an overall generally around $600. In addition, in accordance with the standard. assessment of the property and its some certifiers place a levy (around Although it is not compulsory, management. A certification review 1%) on gross sale of organic produce adoption of a system for monitoring committee considers the inspector’s when sales exceed a minimum risk—such as HACCP—is report and recommendation. The amount. recommended.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 27 27 15/04/2008 11:26:42 AM An organic management plan has been developed and is being implemented.
Formal application is made to the Producers must be under an accredited certification certification organisation for system for a minimum of 12 months before receiving
pre-certification inspection. any certification level.
The producer completes a questionnaire and statutory declaration and returns them to the certifier.
The 12-month pre-certification period begins The certifier evaluates the application and, if when the certifier approves the application, it is approved, notifies the producer of a date receives the statutory declaration and for inspection. questionnaire, and the fees are paid.
The inspection covers evaluation of organic The property inspection takes management and pesticide and heavy metal place. residue tests of soils and/or plant tissue, as well as inspection of grain storage areas and stockyards, and produce storage and processing areas.
The inspector prepares an inspection report and submits it to the certification organisation’s certification review committee. From application to certification will take about 12 months.
The certification review committee evaluates the inspector’s report and the application for pre-certification.
A contract is not offered. Changes to management or more information are required before the application can be A contract is offered, enabling use of the reconsidered. certifier’s logo under strict guidelines and within an agreed organic management plan.
In conversion is usually the stage following the pre- certification period. If there is no prior recognition for organic Organic certification is ongoing and involves management the farm will remain at this level for two years. adherence to the organic management plan and annual re-inspections. Organic status is usually offered following in- conversion level after three years of organic management.
Figure 3.3 The certification process
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 28 28 15/04/2008 11:26:43 AM 4. Organic rice agronomy
If careful consideration and planning are devoted to a number of important management factors, organic rice production can be profitable and successful.
Traditionally, rice production is based on a pasture (clover or ryegrass) and livestock–rice rotation, but many rotations are now only cropping based. Unlike conventional rice production systems, pasture- based organic rice rotations tend to have a longer pasture phase— usually three to four years of pasture followed by one year of rice. If careful consideration and planning are devoted to a number of important management factors, organic rice The lengthened pasture (and production can be profitable and successful livestock) phase plays an important role in providing a weed break and summarises organic rice production grazed either with sheep or nutrition for the subsequent rice systems in the Murrumbidgee and dairy cows. crop. Murray Valleys: All farmers sod-seeded their All crops and pastures grown in The Questionnaire respondents rice using a triple disc seeder. the rotation must be organically were all certified by an AQIS Sowing rates on the organic produced, and all livestock must be accredited organic certification farms varied from 120kg managed in keeping with organic organisation as being either -185kg/ha, compared to principles. ‘organic’ or ‘bio-dynamic’ ‘conventional’ sowing rates of farmers. The farms varied in 90 -130 kg/ha (depending Although the pasture–rice the length of time they had on variety) for conventionally combination has been successful been certified, ranging from combine drilled grown rice. for many organic rice farmers, there 1-28 years. The average farm are further cropping opportunities size was 323 hectares in the Most farmers agreed that apart that might provide increased market Murrumbidgee Valley and from market preference, the flexibility as well as help optimise 1,120 hectares in the Murray major factor influencing variety the use of natural resources such as Valley. The average area of selection was crop vigour. water. But expanding production rice planted annually on each Only one farmer indicated to include other crops, such as farm was 17-22 per cent in the they undertook regular soil soybeans, also requires farmers Murrumbidgee Valley and 5-12 testing. All farmers applied per cent in the Murray Valley. to re-evaluate their on-farm phosphorus (P) to pastures resources—such as the suitability or rice (rates ranged from 8 of existing farm equipment and Three out of five farmers kg/ha–38 kg/ha total P). One the irrigation layout. For example, followed a three year pasture producer irregularly applied buying specialised row-cropping phase (subclover, ryegrass, and gypsum at 2.5 tonnes/ha. Only equipment and incorporating some phalaris and lucerne) drainage recycling in the farm’s with one year rice, followed by one producer applied additional irrigation layout might need to be a winter cereal and back into nitrogen (N) to rice in the form considered. pasture. The other farmers of composted cow manure followed the same cropping (75kg/ha total actual N), the The results of a survey of organic sequence but implemented a others relying on symbiotic and bio-dynamic rice producers four year pasture phase. All N fixation from leguminous conducted by NSW DPI in 2003 pastures were rotationally pastures.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 29 29 15/04/2008 11:26:48 AM Four out of the five farmers utilised some form of soil or foliar microbial preparation. Two farmers direct drilled cereal crops into standing or grazed rice stubble, two cut and baled (one occasionally burning) and one mulched the rice stubble.
Weed management during the rice establishment phase used a combination of livestock grazing and mechanical removal Field surveys using an electromagnetic survey device will help determine the soil’s suitability for rice production (two farmers used harrowing 4.1 Farm and land contamination. Irrigation water and slashing), and following should also be assessed, to ensure establishment, water depth. selection that it is of adequate quality for The time between crop flushing Farm and land selection for organic organic production. irrigations at establishment of rice production should be based on • Weed pressures. Fields in which the rice crop varied from 10–16 a number of factors: days, but not exceeding 20 days. biennial or perennial weeds such as cumbungi, water couch, • Farm size. Farms should be large silvertop or umbrella sedge are Two out of the five farmers enough to accommodate the established or where previous had grown green manures (oats longer rotations and the greater and vetch) for grazing and cropping rotations might have diversity of cropping–livestock encouraged the build-up of incorporation. Three farmers enterprises. felt it would be possible to a seed bank of annual weeds • Soil suitability. Soils should substitute green manures for such as barnyard grass, dirty be relatively non-porous, to the pasture phase as a potential Dora or water plantain should allow for efficient water use be avoided. This will generally source of N for the following and to minimise through exclude fields where rice or rice crop. drainage. Field surveys using an other crops have been grown Rice yields ranged from electromagnetic survey device in the previous two to three 5–8 tonnes /ha. Higher yields will help determine the soil’s years or where irrigation leakage suitability for rice production. (7–8 tonnes/ha) were achieved or summer rain has allowed where farmers practised a 3 • The impact of non-organic summer weeds to proliferate year, as opposed to a 4 year agricultural activities. Chemical and seed down. Pre-watering (to pre-germinate weeds), pasture rotation, suggesting spray drift could impinge on then cultivation or slashing or that N fixation of pastures is a farm’s certification status. grazing of these summer weeds sub-optimal beyond 3 years if Penalties do exist for spray to prevent seed set can help adequate rice yields are to be drift beyond target boundaries, to minimise the likelihood of achieved. This is supported but it is nevertheless advisable problems. by the research of Beecher et for organic farmers to inform al (1994) who concluded that aerial operators and neighbours • Pasture management. The most there is no advantage to rice of their organic status. If common preparatory regime for organic rice is three to four years grain yields from a legume contamination does occur, it is of a vigorous subterranean clover pasture phase of >2 years essential to immediately inform pasture: a well-managed clover duration, provided the legume the certification organisation, pasture can suppress barnyard pasture is well established and which might impose a period grass. maintained. Furthermore, of de-certification. The certifier Herridge (1982) found that N will probably demand that • Water management. Laser- buffer strips of non-certified fixation in pastures declines as landformed irrigation bays crops or windbreaks separate soil nitrate-N levels increase are essential. This provides the organic property from more efficient irrigation, better over time. adjoining properties that control of water depth and (Neeson, R, Koenig, T & Mudford, E 2005,) could be a potential source of better timing of flushes; it also
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 30 30 15/04/2008 11:26:50 AM creates a uniform grade that seed—necessary under organic This involves practices such as green helps prevent weed ‘pockets’ standards from December 2003. manuring, application of mineral developing in low-lying rock dusts, composting and use areas. Early, rapid growth of At present Koshihikari and Langi of commercial organic fertilisers, rice during establishment are the main rice varieties grown microbial preparations and organic is further encouraged by an for organic production. Japanese foliar preparations. even application of shallow markets prefer organic Koshihikari. permanent water. Langi is characterised by slow early 4.3.1 Assessing soil growth and is less popular with • Proximity to markets. Although fertility organic producers, who report that it is not essential, having the older variety Pelde might offer A soil fertility program should aim the farm close to processors to introduce practices that will lead or key markets might need good agronomic potential. Pelde has better seedling vigour, might to a consistent improvement in the consideration. All organic rice is soil resource. This calls for a long- milled at Echuca in the southern perform better under conditions of sub-optimal nutrition, and has term strategy, which might not Riverina, with a receival depot at necessarily provide adequate crop Burraboi (in the Murrumbidgee reasonable weed competitiveness and moderate cold tolerance. It has, nutrition, particularly in the first Irrigation Area), so haulage years of conversion. distances might pose problems however, been superseded in the marketplace. District trials need to for some producers. In the early stage of conversion, be carried out in order to identify strategic application of commercial 4.2 Variety selection varieties that are most suitable for organic fertilisers or foliar organic production while remaining Variety selection for organic rice application of organic preparations acceptable to the market. production should be based on a might be necessary. number of factors. Marketability— 4.3 Soil development that is, consumer preference—is a Organic rice farmers need to pay central concern and, since all rice in and crop nutrition particular attention to building up phosphorus levels in the soil. New South Wales is marketed by Soil fertility is the key to successful SunRice, this could dictate which organic management. A fertile, Organic sources of phosphorus rice variety is grown. Producers also biologically active soil is a good need to take account of a number of generally become available more foundation for crop growth and, other factors: slowly than conventional sources, provided other factors such as • seedling vigour—to out- so it is important to begin building irrigation are well managed, should compete weeds, particularly the ‘bank’ of phosphorus well before help crops withstand any pest and during crop establishment cropping and pasture establishment. disease pressures that arise. • use of rapidly maturing varieties, Reactive phosphate rock, or RPR, is allowing for later sowing and As discussed in Section 2.1, organic the common source of phosphorus giving a quicker pasture ‘scald soil management involves building used by organic farmers, although out’ and less potential for weed up soil organic matter and humus, guano and some commercial competition with young rice thus stimulating biological activity, organic blends are also used. plants and providing adequate nutrition • optimum performance in a for optimum crop performance. Organic certifiers generally do not lower fertility regime • the variety’s suitability for the district • cold tolerance • the time and method of sowing—late sowing often provides more options for weed control in advance • the length of the growing season—short-season varieties Cold tolerance is a key indicator of varietal acceptance by the Australian rice industry. Rice on left has offer greater flexibility set no grain due to cold at the reproductive stage. Source: Rice–Reaping the rewards of innovation. • the availability of organic 06/017
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 31 31 15/04/2008 11:26:52 AM encourage regular and long-term See also the NSW DPI publication: ammonium and nitrate. The reliance on such fertilisers; rather, “SOILpak–southern irrigators”. The two sources of plant-available they encourage adoption of practices SOILpak series aims to provide N in the early stages of growth designed to increase soil fertility— a range of best soil management are mineralised organic N (from for example, green manuring, practices to optimise crop and legume pastures and organic matter appropriate tillage, and careful pasture yields. See:
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 32 32 15/04/2008 11:26:52 AM (aerobic) soils exposing N to application is a critical issue for nitrogen for the nutrient responsive potential losses. By supplying rice yield. Humphries et al (1987) growth stages of rice. (Anon, 1984) oxygen (an aerobic condition) estimated that the agronomic via draining (flushing), NH4+ efficiency (56 kg grain per kg Results from trials conducted in conversion to NO3- (nitrification) applied N) of surface applied 2003 (Neeson, et al 2005) which and organic matter breakdown fertiliser N was greatest when compared various forms of organic is accelerated. Re-flooding then applied just prior to permanent fertilisers indicated there were no imposes an anaerobic condition flooding in a combine-sown yield benefits to be obtained, at least where the newly-formed NO3- is rice crop. This compared to an in the short-term, from additional lost through denitrification and agronomic efficiency of 8.2 kg grain application of fertiliser applied leaching. per kg N when fertiliser N was N. However, there may be some applied at sowing. long-term benefit to be obtained To determine how much N- from repeated applications of some fertiliser to apply to a crop it is Whilst these studies reflect the organic fertilisers. necessary to know the amount bioavailability of readily available of N is supplied through soil N chemical fertilisers such as urea, For example, long-term repeated mineralisation (Angus et al. 1994) organic fertilisers such as manures applications of composted cattle and applied fertiliser N. must first undergo conversion manure and various other kinds of by soil micro-organisms into compost have been shown to slowly Angus et al. suggest that the ammonium nitrogen (NH4) before increase the level of mineralized recovery rates of mineralised N by becoming available, the timing of nitrogen, although the pattern a rice crop may be as high as 97%, release dependent on factors such as of increase is different for each however, Beecher et al. (1994) the C:N ratio of the organic matter, material (Figure 4.1). reports a much lower recovery of microbial activity, soil pH, aeration, 70%. Losses would be expected to moisture and temperature. The solution to improved rice be greater in a cultivated versus sod- crop N nutrition in organic rice seeded (pasture) seed bed. The method used to establish production systems is to ensure rice will also have a bearing on adequate N is provided from Various researchers have reported the extent of potential soil N symbiotic fixation of legumes and that the recovery of fertiliser N by losses. Soil disturbance during through the timely addition of rice is much lower than that of soil ground preparation and combine organic fertilisers. N. Humphries et al (1987) reports sowing increases the extent of N the plant recovery of fertiliser N mineralisation especially in high Under current production systems, at sowing was only 3%, with 80% clay soils (Craswell and Waring, organic rice nutrition depends unaccounted for, the majority being 1972). As a result, nitrate levels largely on the symbiotic fixation of lost from the top 20cm of soil due at sowing are normally higher in nitrogen by legume pastures prior to to the rapid rates of nitrification and cultivated than in undisturbed soils, the rice phase of the rotation. denitrification during the flushing leading to increased losses during period. flushing and permanent flooding Under optimal conditions the due to denitrification. proportion of N fixed by mixed Plant recoveries of fertiliser N pastures with a largely legume surface applied before permanent Sod-seeding rice into a legume (sub clover) component could be flood (after flushing) have tended pasture, the method commonly expected to be around 100kgN/ha. to be higher than from application used by organic producers, is the However, this reduces significantly at sowing (before flushing), usually preferred sowing method for with pasture age and as legume falling in the range 25-40%, with preserving organic nitrogen as there percentage declines. losses around 40% (Patrick & is a minimum of cultivation and Reddy 1976; Reddy & Patrick hence plant decomposition. The health of a legume pasture 1976, 1978). is a key factor in determining Because little air remains in the soil the quantity of N fixed. Factors IRRI (1983) reported that after flooding to assist breakdown, influencing N fixation include intermittent flooding in the field plant decomposition to ammonium pasture nutrition, water use increased losses by 150% over nitrogen is very slow and nitrogen efficiency and grazing pressure. permanent flooding. becomes slowly available over the Symbiotic N fixation of legumes rice growing season. This then is highly sensitive to soil water Clearly, timing of fertiliser provides an ideal release pattern of deficiency. (Zahran, H.H.1999).
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 33 33 15/04/2008 11:26:52 AM Green manuring has been successfully used in Californian rice production. The aim being to replace legume pastures with green manures in the rice rotation as the major source of N. N cycling within the farming system would be enhanced due to a greater frequency in the incorporation of organic matter and mineralisation of symbiotically fixed N.
Californian organic rice farmers utilise the following approach with green manuring:
‘The Lundbergs of Richvale, California, are large-scale organic rice producers who use a purple Figure 4.1: Changes in the amount of nitrogen mineralized vetch green-manure crop as their each year in temperate rice culture, derived from successive nitrogen source. They mow the applications of 1 mt (on a dry matter basis) of organic vetch in spring to 6 inches and drill materials for 50 years. (Notes: ma.: mature; mo.: moderately mature; rice seed directly into the vetch im.: immature) Source: Shiga et al. 1985 mulch.
Following planting, they flood Water availability is a key factor soil structure due to increased soil the field to kill the vetch and likely to impact on future rotation pore space, microbial activity, and germinate the rice seed. Following options. Due to limited availability, increased cation exchange sites for germination, they drain the field mixed rice–livestock systems in nutrients. The use of high density and allow it to dry, and then the Australia tend to under allocate legumes as green manures has been field is re-flooded for the season’ water for pasture production. shown to provide opportunities (Sullivan, P. 2003) . Under-watering of pastures is within a crop rotation for improving therefore likely to be leading to The development of short season soil nitrogen, breaking cereal disease reduced N fixation. rice varieties may facilitate the cycles, weed management, and as use of green manures by allowing Green manures as an a source of grazing or conserved more time for plough down and alternative source of fodder (Bowcher, A and Condon, decomposition prior to rice seedbed nitrogen 2004). preparation. Leguminous green-manure crops can supply 30 to 50 percent of the nitrogen needs of high-yielding rice varieties.
The availability of green-manure nitrogen depends on the quantity, quality, and type of green-manure crop; the time and method of application; soil fertility; and cropping method (Westcott and Mikkelsen 1988).
Other benefits of green manure crops include improved soil tilth, and the addition of organic matter Green manure crops of oats, faba bean and vetch, NSW Department of Primary Industries organic leading to an enhancement of demonstration site, Yanco. Photo: NSW Department of Primary Industries.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 34 34 15/04/2008 11:26:54 AM Incorporation of green manures would need to coincide (as near as possible) with the sowing of the following ‘catch’ crop in order to avoid N losses through leaching. Alternatively, grazing or mowing of green manures, followed by disc drilling of rice would further reduce N losses.
Whilst sod-seeding provides the best method to optimise N availability to rice, farmers need to carefully consider how to manage N availability from legume pasture and organic fertilisers to avoid environmental losses.
In summary, in order to optimise nitrogen availability to rice it is recommended that organic farmers aim to: • Maximise symbiotic N fixation during the pasture phase by: – ensuring a high (at least 90%) legume component in pastures – shortening the pasture phase to 2 years – improve pasture nutrition (particularly P), water use efficiency and grazing management – investigating the value of It is essential to monitor the impact of fertiliser management strategies and nutrient status during crop growth. Organic rice producer Bill Barnhill checks his organic rice for panicle initiation, a critical stage for checking the green manuring within the crop’s nitrogen status. Photo: Grant Webster, Rice Cooperative Research Centre (2005). farming system to increase N cycling, provide weed to minimise N losses from previous rice crops. Organic farmers should carefully monitor breaks and alternative If combine sowing - cropping and grazing crop yield responses to fertiliser opportunities. – incorporating pastures applications and consider the cost as near to rice sowing as benefit of fertiliser applications. • Minimise N losses during rice practical to minimise the establishment by: potential for denitrifcation 4.3.3 Phosphorus and sulphur If direct drilling - – incorporate organic – drilling rice into heavily fertilisers in the top 10cm Phosphorus and sulphur are grazed irrigated pasture, of soil (in combine sown central to promoting growth and minimise flushing and crops) to reduce N losses nitrogen fixing in legume-based apply permanent water as pastures. Organically, phosphorus soon as possible to prevent Applications of composted manures is usually supplied by the addition denitrification or organic fertilisers should be of rock phosphate, which is a – apply organic fertilisers or based on crop requirements and soil naturally mined product and, composts to the rice crop analysis of ‘available’ nutrients and unlike superphosphate, is relatively prior to permanent water from the NIR Tissue Test results insoluble in water. (Superphosphate
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 35 35 15/04/2008 11:26:58 AM is treated with sulphuric acid aluminium phosphate by a factor and remains in the soil over a to increase the availability of of 10 times per unit rise in pH longer period of time. Hence, in phosphate.) (Kyuma, K. 1995). organic systems P application has to be considered well in advance The availability of phosphorus from Small quantities of organic P of requirements. Researchers rock phosphate is not immediate: are also released during the investigating the availability of it can take a number of seasons to decomposition of organic matter. organic fertilisers have suggested become fully available, so planning Rice therefore rarely suffers from that soil analysis should include is essential for deciding when to phosphorus deficiencies. Yadvinder- organic P, which is likely to be an apply rock phosphate for future Singh et al. found that P application important source of P in organically crops or pastures. to rice increased P accumulation farmed soils (NOAG, 1999). by rice, but it did not consistently The availability of phosphorus is increase rice yields because flooding Addition of elemental sulphur can dependent on a number of factors: decreased soil P sorption and improve phosphorus solubility, and • Soil pH. Soils with a pH below increased P diffusion resulting in a rock phosphate can be added to 6.0 tend to release phosphorus higher P supply to rice. Kawasaki compost during the composting more rapidly. found that even when P was not process to improve availability. applied, the yield decline was only • Soil moisture. Soils in higher Some sources of phosphate rock 5% of the complete (fertilised) rainfall areas or under irrigation can contain molybdenum, another plot for rice, whereas it was as have a greater capacity to release element that is essential for nitrogen severe as 31% for wheat and barley. phosphorus. fixation. Molybdenum deficiencies This means that in paddy soils, • Soil biological activity. Soils that commonly occur in acid soils. are biologically active are able to the mechanisms outlined above mobilise phosphorus at a greater maintain the P status at a high As with nitrogen, alternative rate as a result of the activity of enough level, even when no P has sources of ‘organic’ phosphorus are micro-organisms and worms. been applied. Any beneficial P available, among them composted response is therefore more likely to animal manures (small amounts), • The type of rock phosphate. Two be to cereal crops or pastures which guano, commercial organic blends, types of rock phosphate are may follow rice in a rotation. and bone meal. All sources should available, depending on the be approved by the certifying source—reactive phosphate Phosphorus and legume organisation. rock and colloidal, or soft, rock productivity phosphate, the latter being Sulphur can be applied in elemental The major limiting factor for more soluble. Levels of the form, added to the composting pasture legume growth (and hence, heavy metal cadmium should process, or mixed with other nitrogen fixation) is considered to be checked in each form and in organic fertilisers. Commercial be phosphorus It is recommended each batch. organic blends containing elemental that sub-clover pasture receives sulphur are also available. Sulphur A major benefit of growing rice 13.5kg/ha actual P. The residual applications tend to make the soil under flooded conditions is that effect of P fertilizer application more acidic—hence phosphorus the resulting soil reactions increase can persist for several years, and availability increasing with additions the availability of phosphorus management must emphasize of sulphur—so care should be taken (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968; the build-up and maintenance of not to promote acidification. Sulphur Ponnamperuma 1972). This occurs adequate soil-available P levels to is, however, a significant component under the rice paddy’s anaerobic ensure that P supply does not limit in irrigation water, so it is unlikely to (submerged) conditions where the crop growth and N use efficiency. be lacking in rice-based systems. reduction of iron phosphate results A number of contributing factors in increasing P availability. Maintaining adequate levels of may influence P availability in organic matter will help protect The reduction of paddy soils legume pastures. The P in mineral against extremes in pH. during permanent flooding is also fertilizers such as rock phosphate accompanied by an elevation in soil is largely insoluble in water as well 4.4 Rotation design pH, which stabilises around 6.5. as in citric acid. They are suitable This rise in pH further enhances in strongly acid soils or organic Organic rice is most often grown in P availability by increasing the soils. The phosphorus is slowly a three- to four-year rotation with solubility of iron phosphate and released by the action of microbes a clover-based pasture. Livestock
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 36 36 15/04/2008 11:26:59 AM production can be an additional system is nitrogen losses (due before permanent water is applied, component. Some producers follow to leaching) during winter. can stimulate the growth of the rice crop with a winter cereal Some growers also suggest that barnyard grass and silvertop; aerial if the soil has sufficient nutrient fallowing might encourage sowing and dry-soil broadcasting reserves. Farmers might consider weeds. followed by the early application diversifying production to include • A nitrogen-fixing cash crop such of permanent water stimulate the cash crops such as maize, soybeans, as soybean. In this instance, care germination and establishment of sunflowers and processing tomatoes. would be needed to ensure that aquatic weeds such as sedges and These can be grown in alternate sufficient residual nitrogen is broadleaf weeds. years, between spring-incorporated available for the subsequent rice Sod seeding into a well-established and autumn-planted green manure crop. If at sowing time nitrogen clover-based pasture is best for crops. Winter crops such as wheat, was found to be limiting, minimising the opportunity for safflower and barley might be topping-up could be done—for weed development and is the considered instead of a winter green example, with composted manure. Diversification of crops can most common sowing method in livestock manure. reduce economic risks, make full organic rice production. The pasture use of nutrients throughout the soil From 2004 it is a requirement provides a competitive ground cover profile, and control certain pests, that all seed used in the cropping on the soil surface, suppressing diseases and weeds. There are three rotation be organic. weed germination before and after main considerations for farmers sowing. when making decisions about crop 4.5 Sowing method rotation: Following a number of flushings • the timing and compatibility The method of sowing—including to promote rice growth, sheep are of the alternate crop’s growing field preparation—can determine grazed (usually through to the end season vis-à-vis rice and the whether conditions are optimal of November–early December) then green manure for the germination of weeds. permanent water is applied, the Cultivation, although removing • equipment requirements for the pasture ‘scalds off ’ and an organic surface weed growth, can bring alternate crop mulch develops. weed seeds to the surface and • the feasibility of growing the stimulate the germination of some Once the rice seedlings are alternate crop organically—in weeds. Drill-seeding techniques established, the crop canopy, water terms of both production such as combine sowing, which depth and the mulch layer further practices and finding a market. use flushing to grow rice seedlings suppress weed germination and The importance of incorporating to the three- to four-leaf stage growth. a nitrogen-building crop in the rotation before sowing rice (and other non-leguminous row crops) cannot be understated. Green manuring is the best solution. Several options are possible: • An autumn-sown green manure crop followed by a rice crop. This would be successful only if early incorporation of the green manure were possible. A mixture of species is desirable and could include faba beans, vetch, field peas, oats and fodder rape. • A summer-grown and autumn- incorporated green manure followed by a winter fallow before rice sowing. A suitable mix might be cowpeas, mung beans, soybeans and sunflower. One possible drawback of this Drilling sowing rice into pasture. Photo: Geoff Hare
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 37 37 15/04/2008 11:27:05 AM 4.6 Crop establishment seeder should cut a neat groove, and Continuous grazing with 10–15 the seed should be placed at a depth DSE (dry-sheep equivalent) With crop establishment, the aim of 1–3 centimetres and covered per hectare from autumn until is to achieve a uniform plant stand, with soil. Well-structured soil will spring is desirable. The optimum early vegetative growth, and rapid retain moisture and will fold over pasture height at rice sowing is development of a competitive the seed at sowing. It is important 3–5 centimetres. During spring, canopy of rice vegetation. that there are no gaps between drill additional stock might be needed 4.6.1 Sowing passes and no excessive breaking up to control growth. If required, the or exposure of the soil surface since animals can remain until the third Sod seeding has the advantage that this will encourage weed emergence. flushing. The rice will be grazed but the time of sowing can be very A triple-disc seeder provides an not damaged and the root system precise because there are fewer ideal environment for emergence will be strengthened in the process. delays as a result of rain. Some sod and is particularly useful in sodic seeders can, however, have difficulty soils (soils high in magnesium and 4.7 Irrigation penetrating old pastures if rain or sodium), where crusting can be a irrigation has not first softened problem for emerging seedlings. Good management of irrigation the soil. Sowing generally occurs is perhaps the most critical factor from the end of September until 4.6.2 Grazing for organic producers: it is a very mid-October. Although weather management important tool in the fight against weeds. conditions generally dictate the time Good grazing management will of sowing, some biodynamic and help produce a clean, dominant There is increasing pressure on organic producers sow according to pasture. Before and after sod all irrigators to improve their the phases of the moon. Preference seeding it is important to keep water use efficiency. Poor water is given to two to three days before pasture growth in check: the aim management not only is costly—to a full moon: the belief is that this is to minimise growth through the environment and the farmer— optimises crop germination and grazing management. If allowed to but also affects other management establishment. become too vigorous, particularly practices. Poor irrigation can have a after sowing, the pasture can big impact on crop establishment, Good sowing management compete excessively with the rice weed control, sterility at flowering, is important for encouraging and/or cause slime problems. Care nutrient availability and grain seedling emergence and early should, however, be taken to avoid growth. Among organic producers overgrazing, which can expose soil quality. Organic standards require sowing rates vary from 120 to and allow the establishment of that due care be taken when 190 kilograms a hectare. A rate weeds such as barnyard grass. Some irrigating. Some organic certifiers of 160 kilograms a hectare will farmers prefer to bale the pasture demand that weather- or soil-based help maintain good seedling cover. in preference to stocking at high irrigation scheduling techniques be Higher rates are generally used rates. This has two main advantages: adopted; this is particularly relevant where pastures are poor and where it reduces compaction, and the for row cropping. Good farmers barnyard grass and bird problems remaining stubble acts as a mulch will adopt one or more methods for are anticipated. At sowing, the sod against weeds. determining when and how much to irrigate.
Rice production should be considered only on soils where infiltration and deep percolation are minimised. Ideally, rice should not be grown on soils where crop water use exceeds 16 megalitres a hectare. An electromagnetic survey will help determine the soil’s suitability for rice production. A drainage recycling system is essential: it saves water and prevents excess nutrients and chemicals entering public Good grazing management will help produce a clean, dominant pasture waterways.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 38 38 15/04/2008 11:27:06 AM during milling. Flooding should be maintained until maturity. 4.7.2 Water quality The most serious potential problem facing organic rice producers is water quality—in particular, chemical residues in water. Having an amicable relationship with local water supply agencies and the Environment Protection Authority helps to ensure that contaminants brought on to the farm are kept to a minimum. 4.8 Stubble
Most certifiers disallow stubble Shallow water, 5–10 centimetres deep, encourages early growth of rice seedlings and the development of tillers burning. Stubble therefore should 4.7.1 Water Nitrogen use be cultivated as early as practicable after harvest, to facilitate its management A flooded rice paddock keeps the Germination nitrogen in the ammonia form, breakdown. Organic rice producers which is readily absorbed by roots. say stubble tends to break down Drainage management is critical Flushing of the sod-sown crop faster under an established organic for germination. Water ponded can result in substantial losses of system. Some producers have found for an excessive amount of time nitrogen through nitrification. Rice that spray applications of certain becomes anaerobic, reducing plant plant nitrogen levels should be microbial preparations and molasses populations. With one exception, regularly monitored. can speed up stubble breakdown. the aim is to flush irrigate and drain Sheep are sometimes used to the paddock as quickly as possible. Low temperatures during trample the stubble, which is then The exception is the first flush: for the reproductive phase irrigated to germinate clover-based this, the water should be held for pastures. At early pollen microspore, at least 24 hours. The purpose of temperatures less than 12°C have subsequent flushing is to soften 4.9 Weeds resulted in 60 per cent floret sterility. the soil surface and so encourage Water at least 20 centimetres Weed management presents seedling emergence. deep is required at the early pollen extra challenges for the grower of Early growth microspore stage to protect crop organic rice. Unlike conventional yields. rice producers, organic producers In organic rice production the time Moisture stress are not permitted to use herbicides to apply permanent water depends before or after the crop is sown. on the weed burden. Permanent Moisture stress during grain They must rely instead on cultural water is often applied after the development can reduce grain size and management systems to prevent second flush in order to suppress and increase cracking of the grain competition and excessive yield early weed growth. The water depth should be kept shallow enough to promote vigorous seedling growth but deep enough to restrict weed growth. Higher rice seedling mortality can be compensated for by the increased seeding rates. Shallow water, 5–10 centimetres deep, encourages early growth of rice seedlings and the development Most certifiers disallow stubble burning. Stubble therefore should be cultivated as early as practicable after of tillers. harvest, to facilitate its breakdown
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 39 39 15/04/2008 11:27:13 AM losses. A holistic approach is needed, says that, in order to establish a lighter piece of equipment that one that prevents the seed set of good pasture sward, it is necessary was mounted on the front of a annual weeds and the spread of to plan three years in advance when full track tractor. perennial weeds. The emphasis is determining where to plant a rice one the following factors: crop. The rice seed germinated in the • field selection wet soil, nourished by spring • choice of variety Successful weed management rains. When the weeds began to is achievable only with a good come up, we mounted a piece of • sowing method understanding of both rice and weed orchard equipment on the front • field preparation and crop growth habits. This is illustrated by of a tractor that fans the ground establishment the following description of some of with flames. This propane- • water management. the weed management techniques fuelled burner is driven across adopted by an organic rice farmer in the field of young rice plants A number of additional techniques the United States: and weeds. Since the plants are can help organic producers control green and the soil is moist, the weeds: Water management and crop singeing process does not create • Sod sow rice accurately, being rotation are the most important any smoke. careful to avoid gaps between weed and pest control tools drill passes or in bay corners we use. We apply a deep- The tops of the small rice plants because these can become sites water flood (8 to 15 inches) were singed to the ground. But for weed infestations. about one week after the seed in a few weeks, after more rain • Summer flood to germinate is sown. Approximately 21 had fallen, the rice plants came grass and aquatic weed seeds. days of deep water is used to back up with a healthy stand. Subsequent cultivations and control water grasses.3 The The rice plant had established winter frosts decrease weed field is then allowed to dry for a good root system so it could incidence. approximately 35 days. The tolerate being singed. The less • Screen weed seeds from ditch dry-up method is used to kill established weak-rooted weeds irrigation water, although this broad-leafs and sedges but does died. may not be practical in all not harm the rice seedlings. In other fields, we singed weeds situations. Close monitoring during the dry-up assures that young rice as we planted the rice, sending • Compost any livestock manures plants can successfully compete out flames ahead of the light drill. used in production. with weeds for ground space. Weeds died before the rice came • Hold deep water (18 to 20 When the weeds wilt, a three to up. Some fields received another centimetres) to control grasses four inch flood is applied. scorching pass to eliminate new and some sedges, such as weeds that germinated. umbrella sedge. Another method the farmer tried • Use sheep to graze weeds along involved the use of a tractor- In the Sacramento Valley, it almost 4 banks and channels. Fencing will mounted propane gas burner : never rains past May. Planting early be necessary. during the rainy season makes it One new method involved unnecessary to irrigate for the first • Sanitise equipment when planting the rice early. We several weeks. This also gives the moving from field to field. planted the rice in March, rather rice a head start on watergrass, a • Rotate crops in alternate years. than May—the usual time. The problem weed which does not grow • Rotate paddocks and channels ground was wet from rain, so aggressively until the warm summer to discourage weeds. we had to drill the seed with a temperature arrives. Avoiding a weed problem constitutes the best approach to conversion. Select fields with no history of weed infestation, then develop a management strategy that prevents or minimises the build-up of weed seeds and plants and encourages a vigorous crop or pasture. One organic rice producer Organic maize is an alternative that could be included as part of the rice rotation. NSW Agriculture’s organic demonstration site, Yanco. Photo: R. Neeson.
3 This practice would need to be evaluated under Australian conditions—particularly in aerial-sown crops, where wave action could be severe. 40 4 A second-hand flame weeder costs $12 000–$15 000. Hand-held flame weeders cost less but are suitable only for small weed outbreaks or areas such as channels. Gas costs about $80 a hectare.
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 40 40 15/04/2008 11:27:19 AM 4.9.1 Weed Sow 1st Flush 1st Harrow 2nd Flush 2nd Harrow Permanent water management during rice establishment 1st Count 2nd Count A common establishment technique used by organic rice producers in southern New South Wales is that of sod seeding rice into a vigorous annual clover pasture.
Sod seeding discourages aquatic 0 11 25 28 41 44 Days after sowing weeds such as dirty Dora, starfruit, arrowhead, alisma and water Rice / weed emergence Rice 3rd – 4th leaf plantain. The main weed problem experienced using this system is Figure 4.1 Methodology for post-emergent harrowing barnyard grass—and to a lesser 4.9.2 Post-emergent extent silvertop. Problems with perennial weeds such as water couch and umbrella harrowing Depleting the seed bank of sedge can be avoided by careful An alternative method for barnyard grass during the pasture field selection. If these weeds do controlling weeds is to combine phase is achievable provided there is become a problem, a cultivation in sow into a clean seedbed and to no summer irrigation and the first the year before rice growing might control weeds that germinate after autumn irrigation is not applied too be required. Cumbungi and water crop emergence using harrows. early. couch can become troublesome in Post-emergent harrowing of weed channels and drainage ditches. seedlings is commonly done in Sod sowing into the thick pasture organic cereal production. mat inhibits germination of Bathurst burr can be a problem barnyard grass seed, but water on banks and is best controlled by Trials conducted by NSW regular chipping. management is the key to Agriculture and the Rice Cooperative Research Centre suppression of the seedlings. The Channels and banks should be during the 2003–04 rice season water must be shallow enough to kept weed free. If a channel is investigated the effect of post- encourage vigorous rice seedling permanently full of water, stocking emergent harrowing on control of growth but deep enough to totally it with fish will help control aquatic barnyard grass. An initial harrowing submerge barnyard grass seedlings. weeds. Fencing off channels and was carried out with a normal set banks will allow for the grazing of of stump harrows when the rice Grazing combined with water weeds. was just emerging. The second and management is then used to keep third harrowings were done using weeds in check. Grower experience Other methods of management are Hatzenbichler® harrows when the suggests that merino wethers burning, rotary hoe, brushcutter, rice was in the three- to four-leaf are better for weed control than channeller (v-shaped), grader blade stage. The effect was evaluated ° ° crossbreds. (45 and 60 at rear), backhoe, tree by taking counts of rice plants planting along channels (shade and weeds before and after the If prime lamb production is an out weeds) and, as a last resort, harrowing. Figure 4.1 illustrates the objective, however, meeting market knockdown and rebuild. post-emergent harrowing strategy. requirements should be the main objective. Some growers slash A typical organic weed Initial establishment counts revealed to prevent weed seed set and to management strategy in rice is that harrowing had removed up to complement grazing. summarised in the box below. 98 per cent (mean: 91.6 per cent) of A typical organic weed management strategy in rice: the barnyard grass, while only 3.8 Rice harvested retain stubble for one year incorporate stubble (sprayed with per cent (mean: 3.18 per cent) of the microbial preparation and molasses) autumn sown pasture two to three years rice was removed (see Table 4.2). vigorous clover-based pasture close graze, slash, silage or bale pasture sod sow This shows that the Hatzenbichler® rice (October/November) flush irrigate two weeks after sowing begin grazing graze until rice reaches three to four leaf stage (stock can go to third flush) apply harrows can produce an effective permanent water graze banks and channels harvest rice. control for barnyard grass, providing the timing of harrowing and the
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 41 41 15/04/2008 11:27:21 AM ® Table 4.1 Effect of Hatzenbichler harrows on rice and concern compared with weed barnyard grass populations control. The following organic Plants/m2 after harrowing Plant reduction/m2 (%) management options might be Rice Barnyard grass Rice Barnyard grass helpful: 324 6 2.4 98 • Bloodworms. These can cause 271 8 3.2 85 considerable losses during 263 10 2.9 89 228 8 3.8 93 establishment in aerial-sown 216 12 3.6 93 rice. They do not, however, cause 260.4 8.8 3.18 91.6 major damage to sod-sown rice. Late application of permanent Source: Neeson et al. (2005). water helps avoid damage. soil conditions are optimal. The rice documents farmers’ experiences in • Leaf miner. Leaf miner attack should be sown at a slightly higher this regard. following the application of rate to compensate for seedlings permanent water might cause that are removed by the harrows. Growers should aim to achieve early, rapid growth and, eventually, concern, particularly in cooler 4.9.3 Row cropping maximum foliage coverage over seasons. A good, even layout the beds to help ‘shade out’ weeds. and the avoidance of deep water If considering row cropping in the Increased sowing density and (except at microspore stage) help rice rotation, it would be necessary careful variety selection can help to offset the damage caused by to develop an alternative weed with meeting these objectives. A this pest. management strategy. Careful pre-planting irrigation, followed • Snails. Rotations are the main selection and management of by a pre-sowing cultivation and way of controlling snails, which rotation crops would minimise the early post-emergence cultivations are rarely a problem after an potential for a weed problem. have been found to be successful extended pasture phase. Good weed management strategies for drainage during wet winters Various mechanical and cultural organic row cropping, provided helps reduce the incidence of weed management options are soil structure is not compromised. this pest. available for row cropping. Accuracy Following harvest it is important to • Armyworms. No adequate when operating row cropping prevent weeds setting seed: grazing, organic control of armyworms equipment and precision timing slashing, baling or cultivation could exists but, fortunately, the of operations are essential. Among achieve this. incidence of major crop damage the equipment used with success caused by armyworms is low. In are inter-row cultivators, flame and 4.10 Pest and disease years when they are a concern, hot-air weeders, brush weeders, management organic crops will suffer some rotating cultivators, and various yield reductions. If a high toolbar attachments such as bean Rice producers in Australia population of armyworms is knives and Alabama sweeps. Highly experience few pest and disease predicted, increasing the sowing recommended is the book Steel in problems. In organic rice rate might compensate for the Fields (Bowman 1997), which production, insect control is a lesser seedling losses. • Slime. Brown slime—decaying organic matter—can cause crop damage. The control method for organic crops is the same as that for conventional crops and involves substantially lowering water levels. Algal problems (green slime) are controlled, in both organic and conventional crops, using copper sulphate. It is, however, important to verify the acceptability of copper sulphate with the organic Post-emergent harrowing using Hatzenbichler® harrows to remove Barnyard Grass in rice. Photo: NSW certifying organisation. Copper DPI use in organic systems is under
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 42 42 15/04/2008 11:27:24 AM bulk handler GrainCorp have been given buyers’ permits. Previously all New South Wales produced rice was marketed through SunRice for an agreed price. Whilst this offered some advantages for producers as they did not have to spend time and resources finding markets for their produce, there was evidence that organic rice sold in the unregulated marketplace was attracting higher premiums.
SunRice offers organic growers a premium during the in-conversion phase. This is an attractive proposition: it provides additional Top Left: Larva (top) and pupa of the rice bloodworm, Chironomus tepperi. Top right: Damage (left) to roots of income for growers during the rice seedlings. Bottom left: Aquatic earthworm, Esukerria saltensis. Bottom right: Aquatic earthworms damage in-conversion phase, when yields rice establishment by creating an unfavourable environment. They do not feed on rice. Source: Rice–Reaping can decline as a result of changed the rewards of innovation (RIRDC Pub. No. 06/017. Free) practices. In-conversion payments review. In the absence of copper into a well-sealed bin; the gas are scheduled, with half the sulphate, some control can be concentration must remain above premium payable during conversion achieved by lowering the water 35 per cent for 14 days to ensure and the other half payable when full level. that all stages of the insect life cycle certification is granted. 4.11 Harvesting, storage are killed. SunRice has a number of and transport organically certified receival depots, SunRice has identified domestic and a certified mill operation is market potential for organic The organic integrity of a product located at Echuca. long-grain white rice and has a must be maintained throughout product for sale through Coles and production, harvest, storage and 4.12 Marketing Woolworths supermarkets. It has processing. If contractors are also identified markets for organic employed, or if on-farm machinery rice flour. is used to harvest conventional crops, There is considerable export market care must be taken to ensure that potential for organic rice. Japan has equipment is thoroughly cleaned shown interest in obtaining large before harvesting or handling quantities of Australian organic rice, any organic product. Similarly, particularly Koshihikari. Japanese trucks and haulage bins should be demand for imported organic thoroughly cleaned or used only for rice has increased since the recent transporting organic grain. adoption of international protocols for organic production. This change Use of pesticides to treat pest has led to a reduction in the amount infestations in grain storages of certified organic rice produced is not permitted under organic domestically in that country. standards. On-farm silos and receival storages must be tested Other products organic rice for pesticide residues and be producers market are organic rice approved by the organic certifier straw (for mulch and straw-bale before organic grain is stored. In New South Wales the majority houses), livestock (fat lambs, beef The most common disinfestation of rice is marketed by SunRice. and goats), oilseeds, cereal grains technique permitted under Deregulation of the domestic rice and pulses. In all cases markets organic standards is controlled- market occurred in early 2007 and for these products need to be atmosphere disinfestation, which since then three players, SunRice, an thoroughly assessed before buying involves pumping carbon dioxide organic grower, and eastern states livestock or planting. The ideal
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 43 43 15/04/2008 11:27:29 AM is to secure forward contracts for Table 4.2 Budget comparison: sod-sown organic Koshihikari produce. Many organic producers and Langi rice varieties report that, once they have Inputs Activity/product $/haa established a reliable name in the Koshihikari marketplace, buyers actively seek Machinery Reform banks, push ends, sod seed, (0.5 x $30) 25.00 their produce. Fertiliser Durasulphb (100 kg) to rice 40.00 Durasulph (100 kg x 3 yr pasture—half cost to rice) 60.00 Although export markets show Seed 175 kg x $250/t 43.75 potential for a number of other Water 13 ML/ha 196.95 organic products, these markets Harvest and cartage Harvest, chaser bin, cartage (20% incr. harvest cost) 174.50 need to be secured and each Insurance Crop value 0.07% 13.65 country’s importing requirements Variable cost 553.85 thoroughly researched before Return $240/t (35% premium) + $150/t organic premium 1950.00 embarking on such a venture. Gross margin 1396.15 Langi NSW Agriculture’s marketing unit, Machinery Reform banks, push ends, sodseed, (0.5 x $30) 25.00 Primex (formerly Agsell), as well as Fertiliser Durasulphb (100 kg) to rice 40.00 AQIS and Austrade, provide export Durasulph (100 kg x 3 yr pasture—half cost to rice) 60.00 advice. Seed 175 kg x $250/t 43.75 Water 13 ML/ha 196.95 4.13 Economics Harvest and cartage Harvest, chaser bin, cartage (20% incr. harvest cost) 198.00 SunRice provided the budget Insurance Crop value 0.07% 15.93 Variable cost 579.63 comparisons shown in Table 4.2. Return $200/t (35% premium) + $150/t organic premium 2275.00 Gross margin 1695.37
Note: Five-year industry average for all Koshihikari crops is 6.7t/ha. Five-year industry average for all Langi crops is 8.6t/ha. The yield scenarios allow for a 25% yield penalty against industry average. a. Koshihikari—5t/ha (75% av.); Langi—6.5t/ha (75% av.). b. Fertico fertilisers available 2002–03. Source: SunRice (2001).
Rice crop. Photo: M Field
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 44 44 15/04/2008 11:27:34 AM 5. Organic soybean agronomy
[This chapter should be read in conjunction with Soybeans (NSW Agriculture 1995, Agfact P5.2.6, 2nd edn.) The information that follows was compiled on the basis of a 1999 NSW Agriculture survey of Australian organic and biodynamic soybean producers. The survey revealed that the best crops of organic soybeans came from producers who had adopted most, or all, of the following agronomic practices.]
The NSW DPI Agfact ‘Soybeans’ contains detailed practical information on: • growing soybeans in Australia • best management practices for rain-grown and irrigated cropping Organic soybean crop. Photo: R Neeson • major coverage of insect pests and damage caused by insects comparison to other crops like cropping districts. Weeds can also maize, rice and sorghum during be a problem, although they are • markets and uses, soil and the transition into organic not unmanageable if cultivation climatic needs, planting, production. Soybeans have a and rotations are well organised nutrition, nodulation and relatively low water demand harvesting and carried out. Rice producers compared with rice and are incorporating a row crop in their • control of weeds, diseases and capable of producing a positive rotation for the first time will need insects. nitrogen balance for subsequent specialised equipment. A variety For orders see: http://www.agric. crops. It is only following a of tools and equipment is available nsw.gov.au/reader/soybeans-agfact). number of years with adoption to assist with inter-row cultivation. and incorporation of green Summer crop weed seed banks—for A number of advantages are manures in your rotation that example, barnyard grass, silvertop, available for growers wishing to you may see a decline the water Bathurst burr and blackberry incorporate organic soybeans in requirement or watering time nightshade—must be depleted their farming systems: interval. Soybean should not before crop establishment. • There is a strong local and be grown the year following export market. maize as there will most likely 5.1 Soil development • Australian growers have a be a build up of weeds under the competitive advantage over the maize while it is maturing for and crop nutrition United States and the European harvest. 5.1.1 Humus Union as a result of consumer There are, however, a number of resistance to genetically challenges for organic soybean The primary aim of organic soybean modified products. producers, and by far the greatest is growers should be to develop their • Soybeans offer a high return for pest management. Few organically soils biologically. Soil humus is quality: good-quality beans can acceptable pesticides are available, composed of fulvic and humic acids return up to $1200 a tonne. and there has been limited research and is generally the very top layer of • Agronomically, soybeans are one into the effectiveness of natural your soil that contains the decay of of the easiest crops to grow in predators, particularly in southern crop residues.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 45 45 15/04/2008 11:27:43 AM Humus is a complex organic colloid fosters microbial activity, which against erosion, compaction, acidity similar in many respects to butter or makes available to plants and nutrient decline. See: jelly. It has the ability to retain water nutrients that were previously http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/ and assists in binding soil particles unavailable. Bacteria and fungi agriculture/resources/soils/guides/ and holding onto soil nutrients. have been shown to ‘release’ publications/broadacre Humus is where the soil micro- phosphate and trace elements organisms live and it is micro- such as zinc. Humus-rich 5.1.2 Crop nutrition organisms that excrete a sticky soil also provides an ideal Soil analysis. The first step and substance known as glomalin that environment in which soybeans most important to determining actually binds soil colloids together can nodulate, thus improving the crop nutritional requirements is to to form stable soil aggregates. potential for nitrogen fixation. know what nutrients are in your • Improved soil structure. Humus soil and what you need to change to It is through the digestive processes binds soil particles together, achieve a nutritionally balanced soil. of soil micro-organisms that crop leading to improved soil Traditional soil tests only look at the and plant residues will be eventually structure, which in turn leads to total nutrients within a soil. turned into humus. Generally most increased aeration and improved soils that have been in a chemical infiltration of water into the soil. A good approach is to locate a farming operation will have both Increased humus levels also help laboratory that looks at not only low organic matter (0.5 to 1 %) improve soils’ water-holding the total nutrient pool, but more and very low soil biology. The capacity. This helps plants importantly, what is plant available excessive application of non-organic withstand dry spells for longer and what is water soluble. fertilisers and certain chemicals can and thus extends irrigation have a detrimental affect on the soil intervals. The analysis of plant available is biology. what is in the soil that a plant is • Fewer disease and insect attacks. able to acquire for its immediate The fundamental aim of organic Increased humus levels in requirements. soybean growers should be to the soil create a healthier develop their soils biologically. environment for plant roots. A Water soluble indicates what Remember the soil is a living entity, healthy plant growing in healthy nutrients can be readily converted it needs feeding, nurturing and soil is less likely to be susceptible into plant available. caring to work in its full potential. to attack by pests and disease. Through appropriate rotations, • Better germination. Humus In most soils the plant available use of green manure crops, provides a temperature buffer and water soluble are dramatically incorporation of stubble, application similar to mulch or insulation. different to total nutrients as a result of how tightly held the cation and of biologically analysed compost, • High cation exchange capacity. A anion exchange sites are on soil targeted nutrition and the use of high cation exchange capacity collides. soil microbial sprays, farmers have provides a reservoir of nutrients been able to increase the biological for plants. activity and humus content of their The only way for tightly held • A pH buffer. Humus provides a soils. nutrients to be released into the buffer against extremes in pH, nutrient pool is the application encouraging the presence of of nutrients like calcium that will micro-organisms. displace these nutrients on the soil • The higher the soil humus. The collides, moving the clay particles greater the stability of soil apart, allowing for more oxygen, carbon and the greater the water and micro-organisms to move ability of the soils to repair about through the soils. following repeated cultivation necessary for weed control in Soil microbiological analysis. Soil Compost heap organic row crop production. micro-organisms play an important part in organic farming systems. Soil humus has been documented The NSW DPI publication: Therefore it is essential to know to benefit crops in a number of Soil management for soybean and the current levels and types of ways: broadacre cropping on the North Coast soil micro-organisms within your • Increased microbial activity and of NSW is intended to help North soil and the required levels to release of nutrients. Humus Coast farmers to protect their soil meet your crops requirements.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 46 46 15/04/2008 11:27:44 AM There are commercial laboratories Crop nutrition should be assessed Commonly used organic sources of available that can assess your soils’ by using a combination of soil and phosphate are soft rock (colloidal) microbiological status (Refer foliar analysis. Removal of crop phosphate, reactive rock phosphate Appendix A.5). product also removes nutrients and crushed igneous rock. Growers from the soil reserve. Unless these generally apply phosphate at rates It will take a considerable number nutrients are replaced the soil’s between 50 and 125 kilograms of years to build up the required nutrient reserves will eventually be a hectare (about 7–17 kilograms soil microbiology population and run down, so regular monitoring actual phosphorus per hectare) a balance of desirable species. This is essential. Table 5.1 shows the for the soft rock and reactive rock is assisted through the application quantity of nutrients removed from phosphates and up to 1 tonne of biological sprays and quality the soil as crop product following a hectare for crushed rock. All compost, and by providing other harvest for a range of crops. these phosphate sources are highly appropriate food sources. Phosphorus insoluble in water and increase in Soybeans are a legume, which availability through the action of enables them—through a symbiotic Soybeans need phosphorus (P) soil micro-organisms. relationship with soil bacteria called for cell growth, metabolism and There are a number of private ‘rhizobia’—to accumulate, or fix, photosynthesis. Estimates suggest fertiliser companies that apply atmospheric nitrogen in nodules that soybeans remove 6 kilograms of biological additives to the soft rock on their roots. The soybean plant’s phosphorus for every tonne of grain. ability to fix and use nitrogen Phosphorus assists in supplying or reactive rock phosphate. It is is dependent on a soil that is energy to a plant and is critically claimed these additives increase P nutritionally balanced. important in root development and solubility. storage. There are 74 macro and micro Phosphorus applied to organic nutrients a plant needs at any time, As a plant root grows it is only systems is applied in a single not just the conventional wisdom able to take up nutrients through application, usually well before the of N, P & K. Among the nutrients the root hairs which are on the crop is planted. This is because only are phosphorus, potassium, calcium tip of the growing root. Soil about one-third of the phosphate and sulphur and trace elements such micro-organisms living adjacent may be available in the first year as molybdenum and boron. All are to the plant root help to increase following application. Hence, essential for plant growth and all are the nutrients availability which phosphorus needs to be built up required in varying amounts during are then taken up by the root over a number of crop rotations. the plants growth cycle. hairs. In exchange, the plant root exudes carbohydrates that micro- This contrasts with conventional Together with soil pH, compost, organisms use as food, and survive growers, who apply high-analysis soil microbial sprays, crop rotations in a symbiotic relationship with phosphate fertilisers such as mono- and foliar sprays, these elements the plant. It is only through this ammonium phosphate which is make up the nutritional package symbiotic relationship that allows more or less immediately available used by most organic growers. the plant to take up P. for plant use. Table 5.1 Quantity of nutrients removed in product at harvest (kg / tonne) Nutrient Barley Oats Corn Sorghum Soybean Wheat Nitrogen 23.33 25.0 17.27 15.00 70.00 30.00 Sulfur 2.04 1.67 1.45 2.78 3.34 1.11 Phosphorus 3.7 3.33 3.18 3.33 5.99 4.07 Calcium 0.5 0.83 2.09 1.0 3.34 0.56 Magnesium 1.67 1.67 1.64 1.78 4.20 2.41 Potassium 6.11 5.28 4.09 3.33 20.05 4.63 Boron 0.185 0.134 0.0223 0.0166 Iron 0.740 0.25 0.173 0.0198 0.1296 Maganese 0.148 0.472 0.0100 0.0122 0.0223 0.0370 Copper 0.148 0.0111 0.0073 0.0022 0.0198 0.0148 Zinc 0.296 0.0194 0.0164 0.0022 0.0198 0.0574
Source: Environmental Analysis Laboratory, Southern Cross University, Lismore.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 47 47 15/04/2008 11:27:45 AM Potassium improves the plant’s resistance to ratios, such as serpentine soils Potassium (K) is essential for disease and insects. (high in magnesium), the addition the production of enzymes and of gypsum can create a more Organic farmers’ experience is chlorophyll and for flowering and favourable ratio. that calcium gives a stronger stem. regulating osmosis. Potassium also Calcium is added to the soil in Weed indicators of calcium aids in conversion of nitrogen into the form of high-quality lime, or deficiencies include: blackberry protein, the movement of sugars in gypsum. Large single doses of nightshade (Solanum nigrum), the plant, and influences stomata lime are not advised because soil dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), regulation. Leaching of potassium micro-organisms are very sensitive capeweed (Arctotheca calendula), can occur in sandy soils. to dramatic changes in pH. Lime Johnson Grass (Sorghum halepense), nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus), and Optimum potassium levels are should be used only when a correction in pH is desirable. It is barnyard grass (Echinochloa spp.). essential for early growth of the advisable to have the lime analysed plant with the majority of the for heavy metal contamination. In organic farming systems, the use plant’s requirements needed within of well made compost is an integral the first 60 days of growth. Many organic farmers gauge input. Adding lime to the compost the nutrient status of their soils windrow prior to the final turning Plants access their potassium levels by comparing the calcium to of the windrow will increase the through soil solution. About 90 magnesium ratio (Ca: Mg). This availability of the lime by a factor % of the potassium in the soil is test indicates the levels of oxygen in of 6. As an example, if a soil test insoluble and therefore unavailable. the soil, as soil biology need oxygen recommends 1.5 t of lime per ha, However, good soil microbial to survive and grow. The ideal 25 kg of lime added to 1 tonne of populations will help to release the level is a Ca : Mg ration of > 4 : 1. compost will provide the same lime tightly bound potassium. (Scammel, G pers., com. 2007) equivalent as a paddock application of straight lime. (Scammel, G. pers. In organic production, the Dolomite has high levels of com., 2007) availability of potassium is largely magnesium which tends to dependent on microbial activity. Sulphur coagulate soils, so applications are Composted animal manures also only recommended where soils are Sulphur is involved in nitrogen use act as a source of potassium. The generally very low in magnesium and protein formation. Sulphur commonly available commercial (Mg). Most northern cropping influences the protein levels in fertiliser, sulphate of potash, is also soils are high in Mg and therefore soybeans and lucerne, stimulates acceptable for use under organic application of dolomite is generally seed production, promotes rapid standards. not required. root production and helps to Calcium translocate sugars within the plant. Gypsum (calcium sulphate) Calcium is required for cell should only be used where soils Although sulphur is not often differentiation, elongation, growth have a high pH and where deficient in Australian soils, (particularly the root tips) and calcium is > 60 %. In soils having deficiencies have been reported in nitrogen metabolism. It also unfavourable calcium magnesium the Coleambally area of southern
Blackberry nightshade (Solanum nigrum) Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) Capeweed (Arctotheca calendula)
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 48 48 15/04/2008 11:28:07 AM New South Wales. A 10:1 nitrogen- Zinc is essential for chlorophyll Nitrates are available as a result of to-sulphur ratio is recommended production, and deficiencies the breakdown of organic matter. to achieve optimum protein levels. commonly occur in alkaline soils. Careful selection of crops in the Generally a range of 20–25 ppm is When we think of zinc we think rotation—shallow-rooted and required as a minimum amount for of the solar panels. Zinc is used deep-rooted crops—will ensure that a plant to reach its optimum growth to collect sunlight and convert it available nitrates are used. Growers requirements. into energy in plants leaves. Zinc should avoid fallowing cropping Trace elements is released in the soil by micro- land after a leguminous crop and organisms and rarely deficient during periods of heavy rainfall. The most common trace element in soils rich in humus. Zinc Organic Matter deficiencies occurring in soybeans deficiencies first appear in newly involve molybdenum (Mo), boron formed leaves, shown as chlorosis, Most soil tests will indicate the level (B) and zinc (Zn). leaf mottling and stunted growth. of organic matter (OM), with the ideal range for organic farms around Molybdenum is essential for Soil pH 4.5-5%. To convert organic matter nitrogen fixation, and deficiencies The pH of a soil can be anywhere into organic carbon, divide OM by commonly occur in acid soils. 1.75. Molybdenum is the least abundant between 4.5 and 8.5 (measured in of all trace elements in the soil, is calcium chloride). Soil pH affects Microbial sprays and BD500 leachable when soils are neutral the availability of nutrient elements to alkaline and is only required and the types of soil micro- Organic producers are constantly in small quantities. Rhizobium organisms, particularly nitrogen- fine-tuning their management requires Mo in addition to iron fixing rhizobia. techniques in order to increase to enable N fixation to occur. The humus. The microbial stimulant In soybeans, the optimum pH for soil living nitrogen fixing bacteria, BD500 is a fundamental tool for Azotobacter need sources of Mo nitrogen fixation is 6.2–6.8. Organic biodynamic growers, who believe to enable them to fix atmospheric growers have found that in soils that soils treated with 500 for a nitrogen into a plant available form with high levels of organic matter few years show improvements in of N. a buffering of pH takes place, so their structure. BD500 is applied extreme fluctuations in pH are less in the autumn or spring, when soil Boron deficiencies are easily likely to occur. But most soils are microbial activity is at its peak. recognised on clovers and not high in humic acid, and lime Among other soil stimulants are lucerne where red and yellow leaf from natural sources is added to commercial microbial activators, discoloration occurs, rather than raise pH in organic systems. Regular worm emulsions, and humates. dark green leaves. Boron governs applications of compost will help to the uptake by plants of calcium and buffer against extreme shifts in pH. The most common microbial sprays is essential for promoting flowering, are what are known as compost pollination and good seed set of Acidification can also occur as a teas/compost brews. These are the plant. Boron is critical in the result of nitrates leaching past the made in a brewing tank which can movement of plant sugars within root zone. This can occur in both be from 5 litres to 5000 litres in the plant. organic and conventional systems. size. A base culture is added, which
Johnson Grass (Sorghum halepense) Nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus), Barnyard grass (Echinochloa spp.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 49 49 15/04/2008 11:28:23 AM is a well made compost containing consider that livestock play an shorter, around 6-8 weeks. Species active fungi, bacteria and ideally integral role in crop rotations could include, forage sorghum (such protozoa. The culture is suspended through stubble management and as Superdan®), Japanese or white in the water filled tank, and oxygen nutrient and microbial recycling. millet, cowpeas, dolichos lablab, and circulated throughout the tank maize. using oxygen pumps. A food source When deciding on a green manure is added to breed up beneficial rotation you need to consider The species selected should be micro-organisms and both oxygen whether to sow a winter or summer determined by price and availability levels and the level of micro- green manure crop and if any of of seed as well as a variety of root organisms are monitored over a 24 the species in the green manure systems. hour period. The compost tea is mix could encourage the presence then spread over the intended soil of major farm weeds, for example When sowing a green manure or crop using a diaphragm pump to millet and nutgrass. mix, ensure the sowing rate is close ensure the biology in the mixture is to 100 kg / ha to ensure a high not damaged. A winter green manure crop density crop. An early sowing is generally consists of cereals, grasses, preferred to allow for maximum As all of the above biological sprays legumes and if possible herbs. An development of dry matter. are alive, field application should be example could include cereal rye Following incorporation, a period undertaken during the cool of the and oats or triticale, and at times of at least 6 weeks will need to be day or night. a short lived annual ryegrass. allowed for the mix to decompose. Oats and rye grasses are both Many growers apply a stubble Crop rotations good scavengers for phosphorus. digester over the green manure mix In any organic system crop rotations Legumes could include fenugreek once it has been incorporated. The are essential for recycling nutrients, / lupins / faba beans / field peas / mix should be lightly incorporated building up humus levels, and Persian clover / red and crimson into the soil surface. The aim is to reducing weeds, insect pests and clovers. Different plant species incorporate the manure mix to a disease. Experience in the United have different root structures which depth of 2–3 centimetres (to just States shows that a four- to seven- enable more efficient soil nutrient cover the crop), no greater. year rotation (that includes a pasture extraction and which encourages a phase) is required for organic diversity of soil biology. The working of the green manure production, with four to five years mix ideally should be undertaken needed to achieve good weed Similar theory applies for a summer when the first species in the mix control. green manure mixture; the only has reached about 20 % flowering. exception is the maturity of the Follow up rain is ideal to assist with In organic systems rotations summer crops are significantly decomposition of the green manure. which incorporate soybeans into the cropping sequence vary. Some operations include a pasture phase; others continuously crop. What is common is the underlying importance attached to incorporating legumes in the rotation—in green manure crops, undersown with other crops, as a pasture, or for grain legume production. Among the crops rotated with soybeans are wheat, rye and barley. Often these are undersown with a legume such as clover or medic. Other rotation crops include ryegrass and legume pastures, sorghum, corn, sunflower, French millet, safflower, mung beans, chickpeas, fenugreek and Green manure crops of oats, faba bean and vetch at NSW Agriculture’s organic demonstration site at Yanco . lablab. In addition, organic farmers hoto: R Neeson 1999
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 50 50 15/04/2008 11:28:25 AM Foliar sprays meter. Soils have a desirable pH clay content such as those found Foliar application of nutrients is levels, so do plants and human. The in the Liverpool plains, Northern often economically feasible with ideal level is between 6.2 and 6.6. Rivers and Moree / Narrabri soybeans. Such sprays are often regions as it can cause severe When humans eat food that is applied to increase the source of compaction. lower than this level or when plants nutrients to the plant particularly are grown in soil low in pH, then during times of plant stress. Some organic farmers use BD500 the minerals are harder to digest, or other microbial preparations at Examples of foliar sprays used by metabolise and absorb within sowing. Some surface- apply these growers are compost teas, natural the digestive system. This can preparations; others incorporate kelp or seaweed, molasses, fish and ultimately cause health issues. them. This can be done using worm emulsions, humic and fulvic a smooth plastic hose attached The optimum sap pH is around acids and at times, micro nutrients. between and above the last two tyne 6.4. When the sap is below 6.4, it rows of a scarifier. The preparation is claimed there is a cation shortage Some farmers have designed is gravity fed from the back of the within the plant, indicating a spray rigs or irrigation equipment tractor into the freshly tilled soil deficiency of calcium, magnesium or to put out a well-atomised mist and then lightly covered. Microbial potassium. It is claimed that low sap in order to cover large areas at preparations are not sprayed onto pH levels lead to an increase in the minimum cost. Spraying is done in dry soils. the early morning or late evening, incidence of fungal diseases, whilst to coincide with leaf stomata a sap pH higher than 6.4 indicates Planting soybeans on slopes is an anion nutrient deficiency; most opening. Rates vary according to common in northern New South likely phosphorus, sulphate sulphur the type of product and the stage of Wales and southern Queensland, or nitrate nitrogen. crop growth, and this is generally where ground preparation is mostly determined by leaf analysis. There An extremely high sap pH is completed by early November. are now commercially available thought to indicate an increase in ‘biological’ spray jets, which have Pre-sowing irrigation only occurs the risk of insect attack on the plant. a larger opening to accommodate in southern New South Wales compost teas. 5.2 Seedbed where soybeans are commonly grown on beds. The pre-sowing Plant health monitoring preparation irrigation creates a germination of There are a number of instruments Organic soybean producers aim to weeds which are cultivated and then organic farmers utilise to enable prepare a seedbed of 7 centimetres soybeans immediately planted into field measurements of a plants of fine soil that is weed free, well the moist seed bed. This final weed nutrient status. structured, and free of any hard pan cultivation is generally undertaken so that the seed can be sown to a with a rod weeder. Plant sugar levels. A brix meter or uniform depth of 5 centimetres. refractometer is generally used in This is achieved by using various In northern regions, planting is the food industry to measure total types of machinery. undertaken following a rain fall solids within a liquid product. In event but again a rod weeder is used agriculture it can be used to measure In some cases initial cultivation is to control germinating weeds. the total solids within plants sap. done with contour deep-ripping, Samples are generally collected which entails ripping the soil on 5.3 Crop establishment during 11 am to 4 pm when the the contour to a depth of 15–30 plant is in full photosynthesis. It centimetres. This is followed by Successful crop establishment is claimed a brix level above 12 one to two passes with a scarifier, depends on variety selection, soil indicates a healthy, nutrient dense offset disc or chisel plough or a moisture, planting machinery, plant. It should be noted that combination of each. Wide tynes sowing depth, row spacing, sowing refractometer measurements can and harrows are also used. rates and planting times. The most vary significantly with temperature damaging occurrence that can occur and part of the plant sampled. The extent of cultivations is often following planting is to receive a reduced by using stock to graze large rainfall event. This may kill Plant pH levels. Another instrument stubble before seed-bed preparation. or damage a large proportion of commonly used by organic farmers However this technique should not the emerging seedlings requiring a to monitor crop health is a sap pH be undertaken on soils with heave replanting operation.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 51 51 15/04/2008 11:28:25 AM 5.3.1 Variety selection but in either situation weed control Organic crops are sown at row Many soybean varieties are available, is critical. Most crops are sown spacings between 70 and 100 selected for traits such as yield, following suitable rainfall, but some centimetres. Generally, crops grown maturity, resistance to diseases (such are pre-watered. Pre-watering on wider spacings are sown as as phytophthora and sclerotinia), followed by cultivation is often used paired rows—17.5–32.5 centimetres resistance to lodging and seed as a tool for weed management apart for dry land. Row spacings shatter, and tolerance of weathering. before sowing. are generally wider for irrigated soybeans, at 90–100 centimetres, to 5.3.3 Planting The market for organic soybeans is allow for inter-row cultivation. based primarily on the demand for machinery Research in the United States of white or buff hilum varieties, used The right machinery is important America has demonstrated that in tofu and soy milk production. For for ensuring that there is good optimum sowing width to achieve the soymilk market, the choice of seed-to-soil contact and a uniform maximum yields is generally from variety is very different to the tofu plant stand and that the seeds are 20–28 inches (51-71cm). Above 30 or export markets. Most western sown to a uniform depth. Organic inch (76cm) row spacing there will consumers prefer soybean with a crops are sown using a wide variety be a slight drop in yields. Below bland taste, whilst Asian markets of equipment—basic combines, 20 inch row spacing it is near prefer a strong bean taste. precision planters, air seeders, and impossible to inter row cultivate so on. Direct drilling and the use to control late germinating weeds, The current varieties recommended of press-wheels to improve seed- this despite early closure of the crop for soymilk in southern NSW are to-soil contact are used by some canopy. Empyle, Curringa, Djakal and farmers. Planters will either consist Snowy. In Central, Northern NSW of a disc opening followed by a and southern QLD, the currently The choice of row crop machinery triple disc shank or simply by a is relatively simple. The majority recommended varieties are P 791, A tyned shank. Some planters will 6785 and Cowrie. Varieties suited of machinery available is designed have short sweeps in front of the for planting cotton with most to the tofu or export market include, sowing shank to remove any dry Surf, Bunya, Manta, and some of manufactured in the U.S.A. Most surface soil to allow the shank to machines used in Australia consist the older lines. Variety planting sow into the deeper moist soil. guides for soybeans in NSW can be of 36 inch (91cm) row spacing and The planter will then have reverse generally 8 rows per machine. Due found at:
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 52 52 15/04/2008 11:28:26 AM Successful crop establishment depends on variety selection, soil moisture, planting machinery, sowing depth, row spacing, sowing rates and planting times
plant density of 30–40 per square 5.4 Inoculation When this is exhausted the plant metre. then acquires its nitrogen source In soybeans the level of nitrogen from the soil via decomposition 5.3.7 Planting time fixation depends on root and mineralisation undertaken by inoculation. Among the factors that soil microbes. It is not until 6–8 The moisture content of the can affect nodulation are soil nitrate weeks following emergence that soil is the most important factor levels, acidity and dry soils. the soybean plant will receive its determining the time of planting. nitrogen from the excess produced There are a number of different Variety selection does, however, also in the nodules on its roots by inoculation methods available for have a bearing on the time. Variety rhizobium bacteria. selection, and hence the planting soybeans, ranging from a water suspension, a peak culture to a freeze date, vary according to the location In order to achieve optimum dried concentrated suspension. It and the market that is being organic soybean yields it is essential is important to remember that the targeted. Crops are sown from that summer crops are grown inoculum is alive and therefore it following a winter green manure the end of November until late must be kept in a cool place (< 4 January, the first half of December crop which contains a mix of both degrees Celsius) at all time and away grasses and legumes. being optimal. In southern NSW from any direct sunlight. optimum planting date is 20 High soil nitrate levels will benefit November while in southern 5.4.1 Nitrate levels grass weeds, at the expense of row QLD it is 15th December, and All legumes require ammonium crops. When soil biology break further north around Emerald, the nitrogen from the point of down crop residues, it is firstly optimum date is early January. germination all through its growth consumed by bacteria and fungi. and until maturity. The excreta released by bacteria and Some organic farmers believe in fungi are high in nitrates. This can planting by the lunar calendar—in At germination the soybean plant be more easily taken up by grasses particular, two days before the full acquires its ammonium nitrogen than row crops. It is essential that moon—if conditions are suitable. from within its seed reserves. there are sufficient protozoa and soil
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 53 53 15/04/2008 11:28:35 AM nematodes to consume the bacteria nodulation in follow-up soybean suppressing crops helps minimise and fungi who in turn convert that crops is excellent and that there is the weed burden. Choosing nitrate to ammonium which they no need to re-inoculate each year. paddocks with a low weed burden then dispose as excreta. It is this This depends, however, on soil type and rotating soybeans with other that row crops can easily access. A and pH. Routine inoculation is summer and winter crops are sign of grass weeds like nut grass recommended to ensure adequate sound strategies. Organic farmers or barnyard grass in cereal and row nodulation. Visual assessment of see weeds as an indicator of soil crops indicate there is a break in the roots will reveal numerous large, condition, so weed management is biology food chain and insufficient pink nodules if nodulation is based on soil management. protozea and nematodes in your soil successful. (Scammel, G. pers. comm. 2007). 5.5.2 Pre-sowing 5.5 Weed management irrigation and 5.4.2 Acidity cultivation Weeds reduce crop yields by Soybeans are grown on moderately competing for nutrients, water and Pre-sowing irrigation and acidic to alkaline soils—a pH of 5.0 sunlight. Trials have demonstrated cultivation of emerging weeds is an to 8.0 measured in calcium chloride. yield reductions of up to 50 per cent option for some farmers. It involves Crops grown outside this range from uncontrolled grasses and up applying a pre-sowing irrigation tend to have nutritional problems. to 80 per cent from uncontrolled to germinate weeds, followed by a In very acidic soils (a pH below broadleaf weeds. Soybeans are final pre-sowing cultivation. It is 5.0) molybdenum, calcium and especially susceptible to weed important to leave adequate time magnesium become less available. competition in the first four to eight following irrigation for final ground In alkaline soils (particularly weeks of growth. Chemical control preparation before sowing and for above a pH of 8.0), zinc can be of weeds is not an option in organic crop growth; on the other hand, deficient. Soil micro-organisms production, so other options must if irrigation is too early the broad prefer to live in a slightly acidic to be considered in order to minimise spectrum of summer weed seeds alkaline environment. The choice yield losses and to produce soybeans will fail to germinate because of of fertiliser can affect the soil pH free of contamination or stain. low soil temperatures. Pre-sowing and the microbial population. cultivation should be shallow (to In conventional production There is new innovative machinery sowing depth) and should avoid soil applications of superphosphate can on the market that has been inversion. This reduces the risk of create an acidic environment for shown to dramatically reduce exposing a ‘new’ weed seed bank. about two days, and this is not ideal young weed population numbers. for inoculating rhizobia. Leaching These include the Yetta® (rotary) 5.5.3 Mechanical inter- of nitrates can exacerbate the weeder and the Hatzenbichler® row cultivation problem. Organic farmers prefer to (spring tyne) harrow. Most weed use slow-release phosphates such control is undertaken via inter row Soybeans are suited to inter-row as rock phosphate and soft rock cultivation, again there are a number cultivation because they compete (colloidal) phosphate. of purpose built machines for this well with weeds within the row. purpose, including the Buffalo® Shallow inter-row cultivation 5.4.3 Dry soils inter row cultivator, and similar removes seedlings from the inter- Soybean rhizobia require moist soil machines manufactured by Excel row area and smothers small weeds for about three to four days after and Orthman which are available in around the base of the soybean plant. planting, otherwise nodulation will Australia. Most organic farmers use inter-row cultivation. In some cases roguing be poor. In addition, nodules can 5.5.1 Crop rotation stop fixing nitrogen during periods (hand pulling) of weeds is necessary. of moisture stress. It is therefore Rotations are the principal means of 5.5.4 Hand chipping essential that organic farmers controlling weeds, pests and diseases. continually strive to increase the They allow for different types of Hand chipping of sparse humus content, and hence the cultivation to occur at different populations of weeds can prevent water-holding capacity, of their times of the year, so that no single build-up in subsequent crops. If soils. Most organic soybean crops weed species dominates. Certain a weed is declared noxious under are inoculated with a slurry in their crops also have a suppressant the New South Wales Noxious Weeds first year of paddock production. effect—by direct competition or by Act 1993, producers are required by Some organic and biodynamic allelopathic interactions—on weeds. law to control it, and hand removal producers have found that Rotation between these weed- might be the only option.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 54 54 15/04/2008 11:28:35 AM 5.5.5 Grazing monitor soil moisture by hand or Heavy grazing of palatable weeds use moisture probes. before the crop emerges can help 5.7 Pests with crop establishment. Grazing weeds before they mature reduces Successful pest management—be the seed burden in subsequent crops. they pests weeds, insects or 5.5.6 Planting density diseases—involves understanding and depth the life cycle and habitat of the grass blue butterfly (Zizina otis labradus) pest species and its predators. The Crops sown at higher densities are Soybeans Agfact P5.2.6 (NSW often more competitive with weeds. Agriculture 1995) has an excellent The available soil moisture during section on insect pests that includes the growing season does, however, discussion of some non-chemical need to be considered, to avoid crop control methods. stress at higher planting densities. Insect and mite infestations vary Organic farmers have found from year to year and area to area. Heliothis caterpillar that good seed-to-soil contact The grass blue butterfly (Zizina and shallower plantings give the otis labradus), Heliothis caterpillars seedlings the best opportunity to and the green vegetable bug compete with weeds. (Nezara viridula) are the three most important insect pests of soybeans. Other techniques worthy of investigation are electrocution, Less important is the soybean moth the use of boiling water, and (Stomopteryx simplexella), the two- flaming. Weeds require sunlight to spotted mite (Tetranychus ludeni), green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) germinate; many organic growers looper caterpillars, the lucerne crown plant the row crops north / south borer (Zygrita diva) and the lucerne to reduce the light penetrating onto seed-web moth (Etiella behrii). the bare soil. Damage can occur at any time.
5.6 Water management The introduction of genetically Soybeans (NSW Agriculture 1995, modified (GM) cotton has seen a Two-spotted mite (Tetranychus ludeni) Agfact P5.2.6, 2nd edn) provides gradual pest population shift from a detailed information about soybean one time major pest in Heliothis to crop water use and irrigation an increase in other pests including requirements. thrips, mirrids and white fly. The irrigation practices of organic As one pest is controlled, this allows room for other pests to multiply and and conventional growers are Looper caterpillar similar, although organic growers take that space of the former pest. aim to decrease the number of There are a number of small organic irrigations by developing soils with pest control companies that are high levels of organic matter. developing new products that may Furrow irrigation and sprinklers are be of benefit against the increasing the irrigation layouts commonly threat of thrips, mirrids and used by organic growers. whitefly. Lucerne crown borer (Zygrita diva). Source: DPI Qld. To maintain high yield potential Products produced by Organic farmers must be able to predict Crop Protectants, Enviorganics and with reasonable accuracy when the Nutri-tech are all showing positive next watering is due. Poor timing of results. Some of these products irrigation from late flowering until are based on plant derivatives such mid–pod fill can reduce yields by as Neem oil, capsicum and chilli up to 50 per cent. Organic growers sprays. Lucerne seed-web moth (Etiella behrii)
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 55 55 17/04/2008 7:52:59 AM 5.7.1 Monitoring crops Regular monitoring of the crop for insects and other pests is critical in achieving optimum yield and quality. Infestation can be swift and devastating, so regular inspections at least once or twice a week are necessary. Depending on the pest, conventional growers use thresholds for the level of damage based on foliar damage or pest numbers. Once this threshold has been exceeded pesticides are used. Organic producers tend to concentrate on monitoring predator (in addition to pest) numbers and/or crop health (sap tests) at least once or twice a week. Some producers employ a consultant to monitor pests and predator numbers and report on crop health. The green vegetable bug is a major pest affecting the yield and quality of soybeans. Few organic options are Experience has shown that this is available for the bug’s management. Here, two bugs are seen on mung beans. Photo: R. Neeson. money well spent—particularly if the producer is not familiar with insects that might not be caught and pollen beetles (Dicranolaius growing the crop. with the Bugvac®. The insects bellulus). Because of their increased collected are then sorted into three biodiversity and reduced chemical Organic farmers have observed that categories—beneficial, pest, and use, organic farms have a greater the recommended ‘conventional’ insects of no apparent significance. number and diversity of predatory threshold levels are far too high for Sticky traps are placed in the top insects. the organic situation. In the case of the plant canopy close to the of mirrids and thrips, the threshold height of the flowers, attached to Beneficial insects are very in an organic system is 0–1, not stakes and left for 48 hours. They susceptible to insecticides, so care the recommended level of 4–5. At are placed in the crop monthly, must be taken to limit drift. Some this level the pests have already while Bugvac®samples are taken for organic farmers plant windbreaks established to a threshold where 30 seconds at two-week intervals. or arrange with their neighbours to a considerable amount of damage The predator–pest ratio is the sow buffer crops such as sorghum to the young plant has already number of individual predators along the boundary. Casuarina occurred, but which is only evident divided by the number of predators species are very effective at reducing at harvest when the plants are green and pests combined. The higher the spray drift by trapping the spray and refuse to dry off. number the greater the proportion droplets. Windbreaks also add of predators to pests. to the biodiversity of a farm by A number of devices are available providing shelter for smaller birds to help survey predator and pest 5.7.2 Biological control and other predators of pests. species. Two methods used during trials at the NSW Department Among the beneficial insects Heliothis eggs parasitised by of Primary Industries organic (predators and some parasitoids) commercially reared Trichogramma demonstration farm at Yanco that commonly occur in soybean (a predatory wasp) can be released are yellow sticky traps and the crops are braconid wasps, to control Heliothis and loopers. At Bugvac® (a reversed leaf blower). predatory shield bugs (Cermatulus $100 a hectare, this is an expensive Sticky traps were used only in plots nasalis), spined predatory shield operation, so it is used only on with plants over 30 centimetres bugs (Oechalia schellenbergii), highly productive irrigated flats tall and with a dense plant stand; damsel bugs (Nabis kinbergii), where yields are expected to reach the Bugvac® was used in all the orange caterpillar parasite 3–4 tonnes a hectare. A backpack is plots with established plants. (Netelia producta), ladybirds, soldier used to release the eggs in a water Sticky traps collect many flying beetles (Chauliognathus lugubris) solution, at a rate of 8 hectares an
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 56 56 15/04/2008 11:28:54 AM hour; for larger areas, a specially Table 5.2 Potential insectary plants selected for testing at built machine can be used. NSW Agriculture’s organic demonstration farm, Yanco Insectary plant Scientific name Flowering Potential The most important thing Azerbaijan basil Ocimum basilicum Summer Moderate with Trichogramma release is Borage Borago officinalis Spring–summer— Moderate timing. Farmers have found it is long flowering Calendula Calendula arvensis Spring–summer— Moderate usually necessary to make two long flowering releases about five to seven days Cosmosa Cosmos bipennatus Summer—long Moderate apart. Monitoring is essential to flowering determine the best time for release. Cow peaa Vigna unguiculate Late summer— Moderate short flowering Pheromone and light traps are used Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Autumn Moderate (weed to monitor moth numbers. There potential) are a number of companies that Feverfew Chrysanthemum parthenium Autumn Moderate breed beneficial insects for release French marigold Tagetes patula Summer—long Good flowering (Refer to Appendix A.10). Grain amarantha Amaranthus spp. Summer Moderate (weed potential) 5.7.3 Planting Green ruffle basil Ocimum basilicum Summer—long Good insectaries and flowering Leaf amarantha Amaranthus spp. Late summer Moderate (weed trap-cropping potential) a Insectary crops have been used in Mexican sunflower Tithonia rotundifolia Summer Moderate a range of permanent cropping Parsley Petroselinum crispum Moderate Pigweed Portulaca oleracea Poor situations and also in organic Pineapple sage Salvia officinalis Autumn Poor—frost gardening. The concept of using sensitive flowering plants to encourage Sorghuma Sorghum bicolour Autumn Poor beneficial insects is based on the Strawberry clover Trifolium fragifernum Autumn Moderate need for many adult predatory and Thai basil Ocimum basilicum Summer—long Moderate flowering parasitic insects to feed on nectar White clover Trifolium repens Autumn Good and/or pollen. It is the larvae of Wormwood Artemisia absinthium Late summer Moderate these beneficial insects that are the Yarrowa Achillea millefolium Summer Good (weed primary feeding stage for other potential) insects. a. Species also intercropped with a mixture of clovers and buckwheat. Intercropped plants tended to have higher Bugvac® predator – prey ratios and lower sticky trap pest numbers. Relatively little work on insectary Source: S McDougall, NSW Agriculture (2002). crops has been done in Australia— and even less on row-cropping situations. Table 5.2 shows the potential of some insectary species selected for testing at the NSW Department of Primary Industries organic demonstration farm at Yanco. Charles Sturt University, Orange, is currently researching understorey species to grow in habitat corridors. At present the only guide is to plant a range of species that produce a large volume of nectar. Species like, lucerne and lavender are a few examples. These species along with small shrubs like melaleuca, bottle brush and small native flowing shrubs are all recommended.
Another method of management Organic soybean adjacent to insectaries of green ruffle basil and marigold at NSW Agriculture’s organic is the planting of ‘trap’, or ‘catch’, demonstration site, Yanco Photo: R. Neeson.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 57 57 15/04/2008 11:29:02 AM crops in strips adjacent to the cash Control of Heliothis and mites can plants that are stressed. This is crop. Tomatoes and pigeon peas be achieved by cultivating paddocks probably more likely to be the case have been suggested as suitable trap to 5–10 centimetres by early spring. with root diseases. Where plants crops for Heliothis. In an evaluation Some organic growers cultivate are not growing in a well-balanced, at Yanco, pigeon peas were found their soil using chisel ploughs, deep humus-rich soil, and where soil to be an excellent trap crop for rippers, scarifiers, discs and sweeps. conditions discourage rhizobia and Heliothis, while sunflowers were These implements should be used other beneficial bacteria, disease particularly attractive to the green carefully, though, to avoid damaging pathogens can build up to harmful vegetable bug. Timing the growth the soil structure. levels. of the trap crop to coincide with the 5.8 Diseases growth of the cash crop is critical: if Practices to prevent or inhibit the pest moves on to the cash crop disease include the use of resistant Among the diseases common to varieties and multilines (mixtures because the trap crop has finished, soybean production are root rot there can be significant yield losses. of seeds of different resistant lines (Phytophthora sojae), sclerotinia stem or varieties that differ only in the Ideally, pests should be controlled rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), pod and resistance genes they carry), as well while they are at their peak on the stem blight (Phomopsis phaseoli), rust as rotations with non-host crops in trap crop. (Phakopsora pachyrhizi), charcoal order to break disease cycles. rot (Macrophomina phaseolina), 5.7.4 Foliar nutrients rhizoctonia rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 5.9 Harvesting Some organic farmers apply foliar black leaf blight (Arkoola nigra) sprays when the plant is under and bacterial blight (Pseudomonas Soybeans mature very rapidly once insect attack. Two of the most syringae pv. Glycinea). Most the pods have completely filled. common foliar sprays are made organic farmers consider that About 10 days later—when most of from kelp and fish emulsion. diseases do not pose an economic the pods on the plant have turned problem. During the early stages brown, most of the stems are dry 5.7.5 Non-toxic of conversion, however, minor and most of the leaves have fallen— insecticides problems have been experienced the crop is ready to harvest. with root rot and sclerotinia stem Three natural commercial rot. As with conventional soybean insecticides used to limit insect farming, the secret to a successful damage are neem oil, natural As noted, organic farmers believe harvest lies in careful monitoring pyrethrum and Bacillus thuringiensis, diseases are prone to infecting of the moisture content of the seed. or Bt. Neem oil tends to work as a repellent, whereas the others kill the target insect. All products must be registered for their designated use. Minor-use ‘off-label’ permits may be obtained by contacting the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). 5.7.6 Pupae busting There is now good evidence that a significant proportion of the following year’s Heliothis population results from overwintering pupae. From late-maturing crops such as maize, sorghum, soybeans and some vegetable crops, caterpillars enter the ground and remain dormant as diapausing pupae during winter. Mites do the same, using broadleaf weeds, stubble and bark as their hosts. Rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi)
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 58 58 15/04/2008 11:29:05 AM Harvest should begin at 13 per cent of harvesting. In order to avoid seed moisture. The moisture content damage, large volumes of low-heat can, however, vary, being anywhere air should be used. If previously between 15 per cent in the morning used for storage of conventional and 10 per cent by mid-afternoon. grain, the storage facilities should During this period the moisture be thoroughly cleaned to avoid any level should be regularly monitored. possibility of contamination by chemical residues and insect pests. At high (25 per cent) moisture content, the bean is very soft and Many organic soybean growers are susceptible to weather damage, but undertaking a pre-clean of their when the content drops below 13 soybean crop either at the point of per cent shattering losses can occur harvest or immediately post harvest. and susceptibility to mechanical The aim is to remove any green damage increases. trash, stems, green pods and dust from the soybean. This allows only Seed losses from the front of the clean beans to be stored, greatly header can be reduced to acceptable reducing the potential for the levels by starting harvesting at sample to heat and go off while in 15 per cent moisture content, storage. Whilst this is an added cost, harvesting slowly, setting the cutter it provides cheap insurance against bar as low as possible, and using losses due to mould. Penalties of special attachments—floating cutter up to $750 / tonne may apply for bars, a soybean front, automatic mouldy beans. height control, or knife blades with half normal pitch. Most organic soybean growers use Vitasoy Australia Products Pty Ltd purchases the largest volume of organic soybean and is the on-farm aerated silos. Insect pests only purchaser of organic soybean for the soymilk Due to uneven drying of the can be controlled by aerating the market. Photo: http://www.vitasoy-usa.com/stuff/ mature soybean plants in organic contentmgr/files/bd6ff46454904de4b4b9f4091d1a5 silo during the cooler hours of the dce/misc/vitasoy_pinkie_soymilk.jpg farming systems, trial and error night. Cool air injected during the have discovered the best machines night results in temperatures below seasons organic soybean production to harvest organic soybean are 14°C, which stops weevils breeding. accounted for around 10 per cent of machines with drum rollers. All Temperatures below 12°C kill the total Australian soybean harvest. other machines leave a significant weevils. Another technique involves amount of trash in the sample and using candles to deplete the oxygen Demand for organic soybeans is cannot handle the amount of green in the silos. Sealed silos injected high, driven mainly by domestic material at harvest. Avoid the use with carbon dioxide or nitrogen gas demand for organically grown of any header that does not have a (controlled-atmosphere storage) produce, by consumers concerned drum roller. combined with a surface application about genetically modified foods, of Dryacide (an inert silica dust and the use of synthetic chemicals 5.10 Seed storage that is allowable under organic in food production. To a lesser standards) are becoming a common To ensure that stored seed remains degree demand is also driven by method of non-chemical grain of high quality, organic farmers export demand, predominantly storage. pay special attention to moisture from Korea and Japanese. content and pest exclusion. For more information on organic Soybeans can be safely stored Australia is well placed to offer grain storage see Section 6.1. at up to 13 per cent moisture the market quality-assured high- content; any grain above 14 per 5.11 Marketing grade organic soybeans. Organic cent moisture should be dried. certification is essential for organic Storage experts, however, prefer a Australian soybean production soybean products destined for maximum of 12 per cent. Higher averaged around 35,000 tonnes export, but there is at present no moisture content can lead to mould in 2007, 45000 tonnes in 2006 legal requirement that domestic development, heating, and possible and 55,000 tonnes in 2005.These organic soybeans be certified. spontaneous combustion. Drying volumes satisfied only a proportion Processors will require certified should be started within 24 hours of domestic demand. In the last two product.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 59 59 15/04/2008 11:29:08 AM 5.12 Economics organic management regime. Table 5.5 shows the variation in Returns on production should returns resulting from fluctuations be considered in terms of the in yield or the price per tonne profitability (and marketability) of received. Returns for organic all crops in the rotation. Some crops, soybeans compare favourably with however, offer intangible benefits those for conventional soybeans. such as nitrogen fixation, organic matter production or other soil The gross margin per megalitre of structural improvements. Tofu water used for organic soybeans Economic sustainability in northern New South Wales is Among the uses for organic should nevertheless be a prime calculated to be $194.98, whereas soybeans are soybean milk, soy consideration. for conventional soybeans in paste, soy sauce, tofu and soy flour. northern New South Wales the Table 5.3 shows a possible gross return was $111 and in southern The food industry purchases the margin budget for an irrigated New South Wales $50. Despite bulk of organic soybean with the organic soybean crop. Table 5.4 this, the risk associated with organic larger beans graded for size in this provides a budget for an alternative production is considered greater. market. Table 5.3 Gross margin budget: irrigated organic soybeans Standard budget ($/ha) Income (2.6 t/h @ $750.00/t 1950.00 Variable costs (per ha) Machinery operations Operation Month Tractor Tractor time cost ($/hr) (hrs/ha) Chisel plough Jan 0.26 24.28 6.31 Chisel plough May 0.26 24.28 6.31 Soybeans Scarify Aug 0.17 24.28 4.13 Scarify Sept–Oct 0.17 24.28 4.13 Approximately 60 per cent of Wide-line Nov 0.10 24.28 2.43 all organic soybeans grown in Sow Nov–Dec 0.11 24.28 2.67 Australia, end up in the soymilk Foliar spray (2) Dec–Jan 0.08 24.28 3.88 market. Weed inter-row cultivation Jan 0.16 24.28 3.88 Contract harvest April–May 69.00 The next category is food grade Field bin 0.10 24.28 2.43 flour, with the remainder 15 – 20 Inputs per cent manufactured into full Seed + inoculum (63 kg/ha @ $1.08 /kg) 68.04 fat soybean meals for the organic Fertiliser poultry industry. ‘Soft’ rock phosphate (100 kg/ha @ $225.00/tonne) 22.50 Transport (100 kg/ha @ $75.00/tonne) 7.50 Vitasoy Australia Products Pty Sprays Ltd purchases the largest volume BD500 (2 L/ha @ $1.25/L) 2.50 Kelp (2 L/ha @ $3.44/L) 6.88 of organic soybean and is the only Fish emulsion (2 L/ha @ $2.40/L) 4.80 purchaser of organic soybean for the Pest management soymilk market. Bacillus thuringiensis (2 @ $15.00) 30.00 Trichogamma 100.00 In order to encourage grower Monitoring 55.00 conversion, most processors have Irrigation (6.00 ML/ha @ $14.88/ML) 89.28 said they will buy pre-certification Drying (2.6 t/ha @ 12.00/tonne) 31.20 crops and have guaranteed to Crop insurance (5.5% of est. value of $1950.00/ha) 107.25 buy in-conversion crops. Vitasoy Total variable costs 630.12 has employed a full-time organic Gross margin per ha 1319.88 agronomist to assist growers. Gross margin per ML 194.98 Source: R Neeson, NSW Agriculture (2002). 60
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 60 60 17/04/2008 11:26:05 AM Table 5.4 Alternative management regime budget: organic soybeans ($/ha) Inputs Activity 1.5 t/ha 2.0 t/ha (75% av.) (89% av.) Machinery Rip, disc, scarify, ridge, bed shape, plant, boom spray (3) 65.00 65.00 Fertiliser Durasulph (150 kg) 60.00 60.00 Sodium molybdate trace element 0.125 kg 3.00 3.00 Seed + inoculant 100 kg 130.00 130.00 Water 9 ML/ha 135.00 135.00 Inter-row cultivate x2 16.00 16.00 Spray Bt x2 30.00 30.00 Harvest + cartage Harvest, chaser bin, cartage 50.00 75.00 Drying 8.00 12.00 Insurance/levies 37.50 50.00 Variable cost 534.50 576.00 Return (@ $900/t for organic white hilum variety) 1350.00 1800.00 Gross margin 815.50 1224.00 Source: NSW Agriculture (2002). Table 5.5 Sensitivity table showing effect of yield and price on gross margin per hectare ($) On-farm price Yield (t/ha) 700/t 725/t 750/t 775/t 800/t 1.10 253 279 305 331 357 1.60 578 615 653 691 729 2.10 902 952 1002 1051 1101 2.60 1227 1288 1350 1411 1473 3.00 1487 1558 1629 1699 1770 3.40 1747 1827 1907 1988 2068 3.80 2006 2096 2186 2276 2366 Source: NSW Agriculture (2002)
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 61 61 17/04/2008 11:26:21 AM 6. Post-harvest management and marketing
6.1 Grain storage Under Australian conditions, storing only dry grain and [This section is based on On-farm keeping it dry controls mould. Storage of Organic Grain by Neeson The main pests of dry grain are & Banks (2000). See:
Harvesting grain at the correct time must ensure that harvested grain can minimise yield losses and post- is not contaminated once it leaves Order no. P3.5.1 Agdex 102/28 the paddock. Harvest bins and harvest storage problems. Test the grain before harvest to gauge on- transport—particularly if provided Successful storage requires by contractors—must be thoroughly farm storage requirements, so that protecting grain from insect quality and product grade can be cleaned to remove contaminants or animal pests, preventing such as conventional grain and managed. The moisture content can contamination by moulds and be assessed using a moisture meter chemical residues. Certifiers might physical contaminants, and require that grain transporters or by oven-drying a sample and maintaining seed viability and calculating its moisture content. be inspected or that information its nutritional and processing about disinfestation procedures be properties. Moisture meters usually provide provided. satisfactory estimates of the Organic standards prohibit the use moisture content of grains and Bulk storage facilities, mills of many chemicals traditionally oilseeds when moisture content is and packaging facilities must used to preserve grain quality and below 25 per cent, but large errors be certified. The slaughter and storage life. Organic producers do, can occur with higher moisture processing of organic livestock must however, have access to a range levels. If post-harvest drying and be carried out at a certified abattoir. of techniques that allow them to conditioning facilities are not Certification is sometimes a maintain grain quality and control available, harvest the grain at or deterrent to processors, particularly pests in on-farm storage. below the normal receival limits if only a small quantity of organic for moisture. Aerate oilseeds if they produce is to be processed. Retaining grain quality during storage involves monitoring the are to be stored for longer than a For on-farm storage of grain, silos grain, maintaining hygiene levels, month. must be thoroughly cleaned of any knowing when to use pest control 6.1.2 Storage hygiene potential contaminants. Prolonged methods and what ones to use, and storage calls for a chemical-free pest controlling grain temperature and It is important to maintain good management strategy. moisture levels. hygiene in grain handling and
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 62 62 17/04/2008 8:01:10 AM HACCP (or Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) – based management system.
Using high-pressure air is often the most suitable way of cleaning equipment, although using high- pressure water and vacuum cleaning are also suitable under certain conditions. Plan the cleaning sequence so that cleaned areas cannot be re-contaminated.
Keep the surrounds of storage areas free of things such as rubbish and long grass to minimise mouse problems. A clear area exposes mice Harvesting at the correct time can minimise yield losses and post-harvest storage problems. (Soybeans) to their natural predators. Check storage premises, to ensure that • removal of grain residues in rodenticides before use: some do grain is not contaminated by insects, sheds, around silos, in headers, not conform to organic standards. rodents or other objectionable augers, field bins, trucks and matter, as described in the Grains, animal troughs, and in silos after Keep the grain temperature as low Plants and Plant Products Orders emptying as possible to reduce the potential of the Export Control Act 1982, • rotation of stocks to ensure for insect infestation, and store which are complementary to the they do not become sources of the grain as soon as possible after National Standard for Organic and infestation and destruction of harvest in a sealed, white-painted Biodynamic Produce. Infestation old stocks that are likely to be silo. in cereal grains is usually obvious infested within two to three months. Never add freshly harvested grain • provision of training in safety to silos containing grain from and hygiene for all employees. Good hygiene in grain storage the previous year if the latter has facilities can be achieved by Develop a system for recording not been treated by controlled- ensuring the following: and checking hygiene procedures atmosphere disinfestation. • easy cleaning and inspection of and develop action strategies for a Otherwise, thoroughly clean out storages situation in which contamination silos, and preferably leave them • regular equipment maintenance occurs. One such system is the empty for a time before storing the new season’s grain. 6.1.3 Monitoring pests Placing traps in and around storages allows for detection of most insect pests at lower population levels than is usually possible by visual inspection or probing and provides an early warning that control is needed.
Various insect traps are available, among them pitfall traps, which trap insects as they fall into a container; crevice traps, which provide a physical environment for insects to crawl into; and bait traps containing food or some other substance attractive to the insect. Rice ready for harvest. NSW Agricutlure, Yanco Simple, effective insect traps can
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 63 63 15/04/2008 11:29:33 AM be made from items found in most for application to grain at rates of when using controlled-atmosphere homes. 1 gram per kilogram (0.1 per cent) disinfestation. and can be used to disinfest empty 6.1.4 Storage design storages. Either product can be 6.1.7 Temperature and layout applied using a pickle applicator Aeration cooling involves moving Poor storage design and layout to whole grain to protect against air through stored grain to reduce can affect the quality of stored insect attack for one to two years, the rate of deterioration and provided the grain remains dry. grain. Plan on-farm storage to prevent storage losses. It prevents Note, however, that bulk handlers allow grain to be segregated and temperature variation in the bulk and grain traders do not accept blended to meet quality and grade and reduces moisture build-up and grain treated with Dryacide® or specifications. migration. Low grain temperatures Permaguard® because it slows grain also minimise deterioration by movement through augers. The only organic-compatible preventing insect development, disinfestation process currently 6.1.6 Controlled- as well as reducing microbial available involves the use of sealed atmosphere growth, which can spoil grain, storages. A sealed silo prevents disinfestation cause bad odours and increase grain re-entry of insects—providing it temperature. stays sealed. Check seals regularly Some organic growers have used and replace them every two years. carbon dioxide in bulk grain storage Heat disinfestation is a rapid, Check silos for leaks by using a for many years. The storages have chemical-free process. Other compressor; regularly check the commonly been the larger 50-tonne techniques are cheaper, but heat silo’s superstructure and pressure- silos. A well-sealed silo is essential disinfestation might become a relief valves. and should be checked for gas- useful strategy as the technology tightness, ensuring that the pressure improves: at present it is not The use of underground storage halving time exceeds three minutes. available commercially for grain. and bunkers is an effective method for mid- to long-term grain The carbon dioxide concentration 6.1.8 Vacuum packaging storage. Bunkers can be sealed with must remain above 35 per cent for tarpaulins and filled with carbon 14 days at all points in the grain Some organic growers process and dioxide to kill insects, or they can be bulk to make sure all stages of the package grain for direct sale, adding built fully gas-tight so they do not insect life cycle are covered. About value to the raw product. For this need added carbon dioxide. 1 kilogram of carbon dioxide per market, the grain will be stored in tonne of grain is needed if the silo retail outlets, often for a long time, Heavy reflective white-painted is full of grain; if the silo is partially and must retain its freshness and silos reduce heating by sunlight and filled, more gas is needed. The quality and be free of pests. Inert- improve passive cooling. In hot, carbon dioxide is introduced to the atmosphere, or vacuum, packaging humid grain-growing regions or base of the silo using gas cylinders. offers an alternative for small retail with larger storages (more than 100 quantities of grain. Coffee is often tonnes capacity) cooling grain by Employers and staff should comply dealt with in this way. The grain aeration can reduce quality losses with Australian Standard AS2865, must be dry if this method is to be resulting from high temperatures. ‘Safe working in a confined space’, used. Cooling is essential when grain is stored above established industry receival standards for moisture. 6.1.5 Mineral dusts Mineral dusts based on diatomaceous earth are permitted as treatments against storage insects. Ask certifiers what products are acceptable.
At present two products that are non-toxic to mammals—Dryacide® and Permaguard®—are registered Value-adding expands the range of products but requires extra marketing focus. Photo: MacDonald (2002).
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 64 64 15/04/2008 11:29:35 AM Quality is no accident. Climatic conditions may vary from season to season but product quality is essentially the end result of investment of money, time and labour. Quality can only be achieved consistently and efficiently through managing the activities and inputs that affect quality from the field through to the customer. Consistently achieving the ‘right result’ requires planing Inert-atmosphere, or vacuum, packaging offers an alternative for small retail quantities of product and implementing a quality The process involves filling a Organic producers wishing system. ‘Quality assurance’ can laminated or polythene package to receive training in quality be defined as ‘all the planned with a mixture of carbon dioxide management can contact and systematic actions necessary and nitrogen to kill insect pests Murrumbidgee College of to provide adequate confidence and then sealing the package. The Agriculture, which offers an that a product or service will packaging must have very low accredited Agrifood Quality satisfy given requirements for oxygen permeability (‘barrier’ film) Management course that contains quality’. Quality assurance to retain the insecticidal atmosphere a module called Organic Farming requires the planning and and be well sealed to prevent insects and Certification Procedures. Also implementation of a quality laying eggs through the smallest useful are the regularly conducted management system. of breaks. Another approach is to National Organic Auditor Training Every producer has some pack the product in barrier film and workshops (accredited by the ® kind of informal quality include a sachet of Ageless , which National Association of Teachers of system in place. More often is a form of modified atmosphere Agriculture) and the Independent than not this information is packaging that removes the oxygen Organic Inspector Association’s stored ‘in the manager’s head’. from the air in the pack, leaving Organic Training workshops. A formal, auditable quality only nitrogen. Quality assurance of organic system requires production 6.2 Quality assurance products is crucial to ensure and post-harvest operations that there is no contamination to be planned, documented, Quality assurance of products by products excluded from the implemented, verified and entering the marketplace is standard. Among the potential certified to a recognised becoming increasingly important. risks are pesticide and microbial standard. Management to Consumers of agricultural produce contamination and contamination satisfy a standard is familiar need to be assured that the products with genetically modified or territory for organic and they buy meet their expectations conventional product. An important biodynamic producers certified for safe and wholesome food. Large aim of any quality assurance to the National Standard for supermarket chains and export program is to eliminate problems Organic and Biodynamic markets are starting to demand that before they occur and, if possible, Produce or respective group goods be produced in conjunction to reduce reliance on end-point standards. However, there are with a system that offers full inspection (quality control). numerous other quality system traceability. As Australia develops standards in operation, all of which are based on similar new export markets, it must be 6.2.1 Quality principles. Figure 6.1 illustrates remembered that many of the [This section is reproduced from the principles generic to most countries that import our produce Marketing Organic and Biodynamic quality systems. now enforce quality specifications Products: conference proceedings Why develop a quality more rigidly than ever before, and (NSW Agriculture 1997). Joseph failure to meet specifications may Ekman, Extension Horticulturist, system? see the loss of these markets. This is Quality Assurance, NSW Agriculture in Australia has just as relevant for organic produce Department of Primary Industries, been changing rapidly in recent as it is for conventional produce. contributed what follows.] years and the pace of change
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 65 65 15/04/2008 11:29:39 AM continues to accelerate. These PLAN changes include: • changes in consumer preferences for products
• increased production and geographical spread of many
crops Define quality expectations of customers • government retreat from Determine business and personal priorities enforcing product quality standards and the push to market self-determination on quality • increased competition from
imports. AUDIT DOCUMENT Monitor and improve the Develop product specificatio ns, These forces are changing performance of the quality system production and marketing strategies the way Australian producers IMPLEMENT Develop process specifications market their crop. Implement these strategies to manage people, product, activities and services Many of the problems facing
producers can be tracked down to a failure to research
and understand what their
customers really wanted. Figure 6.1 The quality system cycle. Source: Adpated from Australia has earned a poor Ekman 1997 reputation in overseas markets because of variations in product wastage and reduce operating • brand establishment— quality, poor or patchy market costs. product differentiation service history, and a poor Retailing understanding of market- Rising production costs are • specific requirements. consumers and health also putting pressure on authorities demanding safe, Changes on the domestic growers to improve their quality foods marketing scene are also putting quality consistency to remain • l ess consumer time to shop greater pressure on producers competitive. around—one-stop shopping to supply products of consistent • direct sourcing of produce quality. The threat of an industry collapse from oversupply is from farms—contract Chain stores (supermarkets) growing/alliances forcing producers in many • continue to capture market industries to look overseas for use of product specifications share in fresh produce retailing, new markets. There is no doubt International trade • and they prefer to supply of that successful penetration of decreasing tariff and trade long lines of consistent quality export markets will require barriers (WTO) product. close attention to the needs and • opening of new markets As their market share grows, expectations of customers. The • competition (domestic and chain stores are demanding major challenge for the future international) and declining rigid standards for the products of Australian producers is being global market share they buy. They want to know able to supply consistent quality Business environment that the products they sell meet products and service to markets. • need for profitability/ their consumers’ expectations, in Forces driving change in efficiency gains order to gain consumer loyalty • agricultural industries increases in production and and repeat purchases. market saturation Purchasing long lines of Group marketing • quality replacing price as the consistent quality products can • strength in group marketing competitive advantage also simplify their handling and • demand for long lines and • government deregulation of distribution logistics, reduce continuous supply industries
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 66 66 15/04/2008 11:29:42 AM Quality costs quality management: They also provide a means Quality costs! However, the • improvement in product of objectively monitoring costs of quality and getting it consistency performance in meeting the right must be assessed relative • improved competitiveness specifications. to the costs of quality failure. and ability to adjust to market Management and staff. All quality systems are a balance change Improvements can be achieved between the cost of getting it • enhanced reputation in the only if management and staff right and quality failure. The market are working toward similar three categories of quality costs • reduction in liability risks goals. A successful business— are: • reduced wastage and rework with a reputation for quality— • prevention costs—the costs of products provides better job security and of preventing quality failure, • process efficiency gains job satisfaction for employees. including the planning and • decrease in labour and When the whole organisation maintenance of a quality material costs runs smoothly and everyone management system and • improved employee involvement and morale is involved the success helps certification • improved return on build confidence and teamwork. • appraisal costs—the quality investment. Management must ensure staff control costs of ongoing have a clear understanding of monitoring of products and Quality systems are a tool what is required of them. Many services such as product businesses can use to provide managers often underestimate testing and inspection from the assurance customers want. the contribution staff can make production to marketing By focusing on managing to the business when given • failure costs—the cost of activities that affect safety the opportunity. Being part of final products or services and quality, the quality the quality system from the that do not satisfy customer system helps organise the way beginning lowers staff resistance requirements. Failures things are done and provides to any improvements or detected before the product organisational confidence changes to be made and often reaches the consumer are in the ability to consistently improves morale. termed ‘internal failure provide the goods and services costs’. Failures that result in customers require. Customers and suppliers. dissatisfied customers are Customers and suppliers are Elements of quality ‘external failure costs’. other links in the production, management systems delivery and marketing ‘supply Quality costing provides a basis chain’. It is important that to assess the value of a quality Quality plans. A quality suppliers know what their system to an organisation and plan (manual) sets out the customers want if they are to to assist management to identify policies, resources, practices reliably supply products of the opportunities for efficiency and responsibilities for the quality expected. Often it is gains and cost reductions. The business to meet its customers’ the supplier who must ask the key to improving quality and requirements for products and customers what they require profitability is failure prevention. service. Appropriate quality system plans can make the and seek feedback on how well A quality management system difference between an easy-to- the requirements are being met. increases the prevention costs in use system and one that sits on Most unhappy customers don’t a business but, when the system the shelf. complain—they simply don’t is implemented effectively, the come back. In the same way that cost is more than compensated Product specifications. a business needs to understand for by reduced failure costs, Specifications are a tool for what its customers’ requirements operational efficiency gains and improving customer–supplier are, the business must also increased competitive potential relationships. define the qualities of products in the market. it uses and communicate its Quality system benefits The important feature expectations of quality to its of specifications is that suppliers via specifications. The following are some of they objectively define the the main benefits of failure requirements of a product, Documentation. Documentation prevention achieved through thereby avoiding confusion. can help make decisions, assist
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 67 67 15/04/2008 11:29:42 AM in running the business, and food standards in the food • Establish the corrective help staff do their job. More service and processing sectors. It action(s) to be taken when paperwork does not, however, is also developing a framework monitoring indicates that mean better systems. One of for the establishment of a particular critical control the aims of a quality system ‘Primary Production Standards’. point is not under control. is to reduce wastage, so it is HACCP • Establish procedures for important not to create excessive verification to confirm that paperwork. People drive a Food safety plans are the HACCP system is quality system—not paperwork. conventionally developed working effectively. One of the main functions in food industries using • Establish documentation of documentation is to help the HACCP technique. concerning all procedures improve communication. This HACCP stands for the and records appropriate to overcomes problems of poor Hazard Analysis and Critical these principles and their verbal communication and Control Point method of food application. memory failures. Documents are safety management. It is a valuable tools in that they record step-by-step risk analysis and A HACCP plan essentially what has to be done and what control technique used in food requires asking at each point in has been done. industries worldwide to analyse the process: • What safety or quality Quality system standards processes and so identify food safety risks. It is a pro-active hazards are associated with There are a number of quality, management technique for this process? food safety and environmental preventing hazards from • Which of these hazards are management systems that occurring and reaching significant and likely to occur affect Australian agricultural consumers, rather than reactive if not controlled? industries. Key established and (fire-fighting) management • What must be done to emerging standards and codes methods of damage control. control these hazards to an of practice include: HACCP requires an objective acceptable level? • ISO 9000:2000 and assessment of all biological, • What records or evidence ISO14001 chemical and physical hazards are needed to demonstrate • Safe Quality Food 2000 and to human health throughout that the hazards have been 1000 a business’s operations and the controlled? • Woolworths Vendor Quality development of appropriate Management Standard Implementation of HACCP control, monitoring and data is guided by scientific evidence • CATTLEcare/FlockCare, recording strategies. As a risk Freshcare, Graincare, and so of the risks. The intent of management tool, HACCP HACCP is to focus control on—HACCP-based codes of can also be used to assess practice at critical control points. The risks to product quality and • EUREPGAP—for suppliers individual operations within environmental risks. The to European retailers a business are identified, and HACCP technique applies the • many other industry-specific HACCP principles are applied following seven principles: standards and approved to each specific operation • Conduct a hazard analysis— supplier programs. separately. Consideration must identify all biological, also be given to raw material The systems implemented by a chemical, physical and quality inputs such as water, fertilisers, business will need to satisfy the hazards. packaging materials, and so requirements of its customers. • Determine the critical control on, which may be the source Businesses need to expand their points—the points in the of problems. Hazard control definition of ‘satisfied customers’ process where risks are likely measures may potentially to include regulatory authorities to occur. introduce new hazards of in regard to food safety and • Establish critical limits— their own and must also be phytosanitary requirements. boundaries/tolerances for considered. When a significant Food Standards Australia New safe operation at the critical hazard is identified in a specific Zealand (previously known control points. operation, control measures as the Australian and New • Establish a system to monitor must be established that Zealand Food Authority) is control of the critical control prevent, eliminate or reduce the implementing new national points. hazard to an acceptable level.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 68 68 15/04/2008 11:29:42 AM The critical limits (tolerances They can also constitute a of total quality management or safe operating limits) for that business’s Food Safety Plan. (Netherwood 1996). operation must be established to Development of a HACCP The British Standards Institute maintain control of the hazard, plan will identify the (1994, cited in Netherwood and an appropriate monitoring requirements of a business 1996) defines an environmental and recording procedure must to implement these support management system as ‘the be developed to confirm that programs. The food standards organisational structure, hazard control is achieved. will require all food production responsibilities, practices, Sometimes the monitoring may and handling businesses to procedures, processes and indicate that hazard control develop an auditable food safety resources for determining and was not effective—that is, the plan. The degree of complexity implementing environmental operation exceeded critical required in a food safety plan policy’. limits for safety or quality—and will reflect the complexity of This definition, describing corrective actions are required. business operations and the type British Standard 7750 (which Corrective actions are planned of product and its associated risks; that is, the food safety has now been withdrawn responses to a breach of safety plan for a small grower may with the ratification of ISO or quality limits and the be far simpler than that for a 14000), is similar to that response must: which could be applied to • larger, more complex operation, identify the affected product although the same principles the Eco-Management and • determine what is to be done apply. Audit Scheme (EMAS) with affected product after and to Canadian and Irish assessing the severity of the 6.3 Environmental environmental management problem management systems standards and guidelines. All • determine the origin of the these schemes follow the total problem [This section is reproduced quality management loop from Marketing Organic and approach—that of plan, do, • take the necessary action to Biodynamic Products: conference check and act. A feature of prevent the problem from proceedings (NSW Agriculture, the ISO 14000 standards is occurring again. 1997). Genevieve Carruthers, the requirement to achieve The intent of HACCP is to Environmental Management continual improvement of the Systems Specialist, NSW system and therefore in the systematically build safety and Department of Primary Industries, environmental management quality into a food operation contributed what follows.] overall. to minimise the chances of unsafe product entering the Environmental management Whereas quality control market. HACCP plans are systems (EMSs) are based and assurance programs fully compatible with quality (in general) on the principles have focused mainly on the management standards in food businesses for ‘control of production’ requirements. HACCP plans can work in combination with other support programs such as: • good manufacturing practices • pest control programs • staff training • cleaning and sanitation procedures • calibration programs • preventative maintenance programs Environmental Management Systems in Agriculture (Part 1 and 2)—Case Studies from Australian and • document and record control New Zealand farmers by Genevieve Carruthers. RIRDC publication numbers 03/121 and 05/032.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 69 69 15/04/2008 11:29:46 AM production of consistent goods review of the environmental business setting up the EMS. and services, environmental aspects and impacts of the However, all schemes do require management schemes have business, the identification that the EMS developed must a broader focus—that of of legal requirements for use as minimum standards examination of the whole compliance and the setting legislated requirements and/or process of production of of objectives and targets (if available) industry codes of goods and services and the through to establishing the practice or best management effect of that production on environmental management practice. the environment. That is, not program. In the case of an organic farmer, only will goods be produced • Implementation. This is the the required specifications according to the same set ‘doing’ of the plan. This would be one of the AQIS- of standard procedures, but phase requires the provision accredited organic certifying the effects of producing that of resources and support organisations’ standards, product, be they pollution, use mechanisms to ensure in addition to any current of resources, or transport of the that the environmental legislation (federal or state), completed object or delivery of management plan is achieved as well as industry codes of the service, are also taken into and may include staff training practices to suit the particular account. programs to ensure that the enterprise. objectives of the policy and In agriculture, the growing of plan can be met. Use of EMSs and organic beef cattle is an example. Not • Measuring and evaluation. farming to achieve only does (or should) the farmer This phase checks to see if environmental health want to be able to produce the objectives and targets The use of EMSs is one tool a consistently high quality previously established are in a range of methods designed product, but s/he should also being met. Such methods as to facilitate the management consider the way in which the environmental performance of agricultural land, using cattle are treated during the evaluation, laboratory a system-based approach production period, the effect analyses of emissions, rather than focusing on crisis they have on the soil, water financial records examination management. and air quality on and off the and staff understanding of farm, ways in which the cattle training programs may be Organic farming is also a way are transported, the potential used to assess whether the of examining the whole system impact other farm activities environmental plan is being of farm operations, starting with might have on the cattle (use of met. soil health and its overall effects • pesticides, for example), packing Review and improvement. on farm components through of beef produced, and so on. Here the data gathered in the to all facets of production. previous phase are put to use. The difference really is one of In their development, Were targets met? If not, why degree: use of an EMS is not environmental management not? What can be improved? prescriptive in terms of what systems all follow much the What worked well and why? can be used on the farm but same path. In the case of ISO 14000 specifies that does specify that all operations ISO 14000, there are five steps continuous improvement of and processes used on the farm to developing and using an the management system— need to be considered in the EMS: note: not the environmental light of their potential impact • Commitment and policy. Here performance—is required. on the environment—the so- commitment is developed at called cradle-to-grave approach. all levels of the business or The various environmental enterprise, from management management systems differ in Organic farming may look at down to the most junior how prescriptive they are with all those elements but, to gain levels. The policy is defined regard to the ways to achieve organic certification, there and developed. improved environmental are a number of products and • Planning. This is where the management. ISO 14000 farming practices that cannot be policy is translated into things does not specify particular used. This does not mean that to be done. A number of steps environmental targets; these use of an EMS cannot be made are usually involved, from a are set by the person/company/ effective on an organic farm, but
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 70 70 15/04/2008 11:29:46 AM it does mean that using ISO the assessment that currently 6.4 Marketing 14000 as a guide will not result there is relatively insignificant in an organic approach, unless demand for sustainably Organic producers use a variety of that is the stated intention of produced food, will result in marketing techniques. The market the system in the first place considerable delay in the eco- destinations are domestic (local and and actions are matched to the labelling of food products … interstate) and export sales. The chosen organic standard. following are among the domestic The findings of this study distribution channels for organic 6.3.1 Conclusion concur with international produce: Opportunities exist for organic and experience that there is little • direct farm sales biodynamic producers to capitalise clarity regarding what green, • local, regional and city farmers’ sustainable, or environmentally on these market trends through markets friendly production systems their ‘clean and green’ image. mean and what benefits • wholesale and retail But close attention to customer these systems deliver to the • processors requirements for quality and consumer. This suggests a consistency, coupled with the need • home delivery necessary, but not sufficient, to satisfy food regulatory authorities • internet sales condition for progress in in relation to food safety, are needed green food marketing is that • mail order. if this potential is to be realised. clear protocols, guidelines and Some producers add value to their accreditation processes must be Quality systems cost time and farm produce on the farm. Others established if generic labelling is money, although these costs must tend to do little on-farm value- to be adopted to communicate be weighed against the substantial adding. Some farmers cooperatively the benefits to consumers financial and potential legal sell their produce to processors, costs of getting it wrong. Quality and facilitate the market development for sustainably who then add value by processing management is pro-active. Use of produced food products. (Cary (snap freezing, for example) and HACCP-based quality systems et al. 2004, p. vi), packaging the product. can accommodate food safety, food quality and business objectives. It is clear from these comments that Quality, continuity of supply, organically certified products are product range and service are The pace of implementation well accepted in the marketplace central concerns for purchasers of of formal quality management and that the market advantages organic products. Many consumers systems for quality assurance in of adopting an environmental bemoan the fact that a regular, year- agricultural industries is rapidly management system are yet to be round supply of consistent-quality increasing. Quality assurance does recognised. product is often unobtainable. not guarantee market premiums but increasingly will determine market accessibility. Quality management is rapidly becoming an essential tool for producers in all food industries who want to remain in the food industry and stay competitive. Author’s note A Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation report, Green Marketing and EMS, states: A key finding is that the meaning of the labels ‘sustainably produced’ and, to a lesser extent, ‘environmentally friendly’ are confused and, in contrast to ‘organic’, not widely agreed by the industry or Some farmers cooperatively sell their produce to processors, who then add value by processing and packaging the consumers. This confusion, and product
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 71 71 15/04/2008 11:29:54 AM An excellent read is Eric Gibson’s mislabelling of cuts, and so example, in affluent suburbs. Sell What You Sow! The Growers on. Producers must have Currently there is a limited Guide to Successful Marketing. Eric confidence they can prove variety of organic meat products provides 50 farm marketing tips their accreditation and the in the marketplace. Your product that should be compulsory reading authenticity of their product. needs to have purchasing appeal for marketers. Truth in labelling and the (presentation, and so on) and correct naming of the product you need to instil confidence in 6.4.1 Production and are essential. your product to ... Information supply pathways need such as cooking methods can Processing specifications to be defined accompany the product. A Processing specifications for consumer who is happy with [This section is from a presentation a product involve establishing the product will come back for by Barry MacDonald, formerly guidelines at key points in the more. Market Development Officer, production pathway. These Department of Primary Industries, Conclusion include the farm, transport, to the Organic Production slaughter, boning room, Yes, there is a market. Pathways Workshop (Rangeland Livestock), during any further processing, between the producer and Hay, September 2002.] packaging, distribution, at the consumer need to be defined Focus on pathways retailer or purchaser, and during and developed. Market the display of your product. specifications, codes of practice Consumers are the focus of Feedback sheets provide an and quality assurance need to production pathways. Consumer opportunity to gauge consumers’ be developed. It is important protection is paramount. response to the product but to gain credibility with your Pathways need to be defined. can also be included at other product in the marketplace. This includes on-farm practices. key points in the pathway. Marketing alliances allow The direction of pathways needs Maintaining awareness of how producers to supply year round. to be determined, and guidelines the product is performing at all These will work, however, only and specifications need to key points is essential. if the producers work together be developed to meet these Further processing (value- to develop the market pathway, requirements. become involved and are aware adding) Communications of the program. Communication As a producer, you need to is essential throughout all of the Communications/ determine if you will produce supply chain. The New South documentation must be traditional market cuts and/or Wales Department of Primary developed to facilitate the value-add to product cuts. Industries Lamb Development marketing process. The origin Value-added products include Team can help producers of the product needs to be prepared meals, heat-and- establish alliances and develop verifiable, so a system of full serve cuts, pan-ready cuts, and market specifications and traceability is essential. Organic oven-prepared and gourmet pathways. producers need to be able (for example, pate) products. to prove the organic history If the product contains other 6.4.2 Developing supply of the product in order for ingredients, such as herbs, and chain alliances consumers to have confidence is being marketed as organic, Producers can benefit from in the product. Accreditation proof of the other ingredients’ developing marketing alliances. and certification will achieve organic certification is also Such alliances allow producers to this. Marketing and promotion required. work together to research, locate of the product should be and gain access to markets. undertaken by the producer or The consumer supplier. Use personalised logos Consumers must be willing to Production alliances give purchasers on labelling; tell ‘your story’. pay for the organic product. of organic products access to Substitution This will tend to limit markets a range of goods through one to health-conscious, middle avenue and the potential for a Substitution is occurring in and upper class consumers. It is year-round supply. The group the marketplace—non-organic important to identify where the must be active and maintain meat being sold as organic, greatest demand will be—for communications and interest in the
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 72 72 15/04/2008 11:29:54 AM entire marketing process. Follow the members of the supply chain. Organic credibility product throughout the marketing ‘Supply chain management’ is Producers must understand pathway—all the way to the a business strategy that sees the and implement an organic consumer, to track its performance. whole chain as the competitive certification scheme that meets Be prepared to diversify. unit, not the individual firms their requirements as well as those Supply chain management: within that chain. This strategy of their customers. Ideally, a single the key to successful depends on the firms within the certifier should certify each property chain learning to work together. marketing in the producer alliance. Not all Working together builds better importing countries or customers The key to successful marketing, relationships between firms and recognise the standards of each whether as an individual or as a is a way of creating more value Australian certification organisation, group, is effective supply chain for others in the chain, especially so it is important to choose a management. Figure 6.2 shows consumers. (AFFA 2003, p. 3) certifier whose standards are a supply chain model for organic recognised by the country where or products. The following are important the customer to whom the product considerations for organic producer will be sold. Specific standards Supply chain management can be alliances seeking to export organic may need to be developed, and defined as follows: meat: endorsed by the certifier, for the The chain of firms that takes • organic credibility transportation and handling of inputs, converts them into • year-round supply livestock. products or services, distributes and retails them to consumers is selection of a processor It is advisable to conduct trial runs called a supply chain. Firms that sympathetic to their aims of produce to expose any potential provide services such as finance, • selection of suitable trading problems that could breach its transport and storage are also partners. organic status.
Specific organic production and individual property organic management plan
Organic producer
Specific Fully organic Tight organic Specific traceable Customer Certifier Organic transport product organic labelled (for processing Consumer producer and specifications certified example, handling standards organic exporters, standard product retail)
Organic producer Single processor with high technology, enabling full trace-back to property
Extent of organic producer group alliance involvement
Source: Adapted from Pahl (2000). Figure 6.2 The supply chain model concept for organic products
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 73 73 15/04/2008 11:29:55 AM Full documentation that clearly Choosing a processor The right customer partnership alerts stock handlers to the organic The processor chosen must status of the system is also needed. understand the requirements of the Exporting product requires Clear and precise documentation group and the product. They need selecting a partner in the country will assist with the marketing of to be innovative and accept that the product, and the group will be of destination who meets the needs the producers want to be involved of the group and the product to be able to demonstrate to potential throughout the entire supply marketed. customers the full traceability of the chain. They also need to agree to organic product. be certified to process the organic Travel to the importing country is product and have the requisite essential to research partnership export clearances for the markets options and to ensure the product is the group is targeting. delivered in the right manner. If not already certified to process organic products, the processor The producer group will need should establish procedures to determine if it will deal with and standards that ensure the a trading house or direct with segregation of the organic product wholesalers, supermarkets, food throughout the processing plant, service chains or some other including packaging and storage distribution outlet. for shipment. Full traceability to each farm, and even paddock, will When selected, prospective partners need to be demonstrated. Table 6.1 should be formally presented lists some criteria to consider when with product samples at a product Proving organic status Photo: MacDonald (2002). selecting a processor. launch.
Year-round supply Table 6.1 Criteria for choosing a processor Consumers are unlikely to be Criterion Comment interested in a product for which Export clearances (non-European Union) General export, US Department of Agriculture, and so on year-round supply cannot be European Union export clearance Able to trade in European Union markets guaranteed. Halal certified Able to process for Muslim markets Adequate chiller storage space Capacity of chilled storage Cooperation between members Access—involves minimal steps to get animals to plant Location vis-à-vis railheads since some will travel by rail in a producer alliance is the key to and good direct rail access obtaining a year-round supply of Current technology and processing capability Current level of technology, standard of facilities, equipment, quality product. Harvesting and systems marketing of crops needs to be Capable and willing to implement state-of the-art Attitude towards implementing new packaging and other packaging and other systems systems if these are needed scheduled within the capacity of Marketing expertise and networks—international and Level of demonstrated marketing (as against commodity each individual property: people will domestic selling) and the scope of in-market networks evident manage their operations to grow Financial stability and long-term viability Financial stability and capitalisation and finish within the capability Able and willing to process small volumes or lots Attitude towards starting small in order to build business of their resource base. This might, competitively later on however, vary from season to season Able and willing to implement full traceability and chain Attitude and technical capacity to provide full trace-back on all and locality to locality. audit systems products processed Willingness to comply with stringent testing regimes Attitude towards the flexibility needed to comply with organic In order to have a year-round testing requirements supply, year-round production Ability to achieve organic accreditation according to State of plant and procedures and attitude in terms of ability to certifiers standards pass certifier’s audit and gain organic accreditation data for each property should be Sound image and high standard of facilities Company’s reputation and standing in the markets thoroughly assessed and all options Sound ethics and business practices Business ethos, ethics and credibility should be investigated. Agistment Motivated, open-minded and able to share the group’s Ability to see the potential and get involved in building new on other group members’ properties vision business in organics might be necessary if feed is low Experience with alliances with producer groups Past experience and attitude to working with producers who or unavailable. Alternatively, other want to maintain ownership and have transparent systems members might have the capacity to Innovative and willing to be proactive about change and Attitude to change and doing something new and different, produce hay to supply others in the new technologies willingness to proactively find a new model group. Source: Pahl (2000).
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 74 74 15/04/2008 11:29:56 AM 6.5 Product promotion, packaging and presentation
[This section is reproduced from Marketing Organic and Biodynamic Products: conference proceedings (NSW Agriculture 1997). Catriona Macmillan, Heaven & Earth Systems P/L, contributed what follows.]
Key elements in selling organic products are promotion, packaging and presentation. Organic products generally command a premium in the marketplace. Consumers paying a premium price expect a quality product that looks well packaged and presented. Organic farmers selling their produce at Lismore’s Rainbow Region Farmers’ Market. Farmers’ markets offer Further, the consumer needs to producers a personal approach to selling their produce. Photo: R. Lines-Kelly be educated about why they are buying a premium product— educates the consumer. and breakfast’; they also promotion. Consider a number • Tell your story; this is what offer ‘afternoon teas, with of promotional ideas: makes your product interesting. hot country-style scones • The product being sold is Consumers love to hear your and homemade berry jam’ organic, so put the word ‘organic’ story. The consumer wants and you can hold your on the label. Research has to be able to say, ‘I made ‘wedding reception on the shown that 12 per cent of this little dish out of organic lawns’. Kiwi Down Under Australian consumers are rice. The rice farmer doesn’t has won numerous tourist interested in organics. It is burn the stubble, just allows awards, and 12 000 people up to you to harness that it to build soil fertility’, and go through a year. It has interest into profitability. The so on. Remember you are a tea house, organic food competition is tough, a world selling your product/produce market, informative farm of multinational companies to processors, exporters, tours, animal feeding and who can and do spend wholesalers and the consumer, nature walks. Another highly millions trying to convince whether it is a brochure, a innovative farm, Glenbye the consumer their product is label or your letterhead, the offers ‘Glenbye Getaway what our product really is— consumer wants a story. Why Tours’, a package including environmentally responsible, do you grow? Why do you air fares for parties of ten. natural, clean and green. care? How do you grow? You Riverina organic rice farms Organic is unique product don’t have to reveal all. A regularly host tours for and needs to be promoted as graphic and a few words can Japanese farmers and overseas such. say a lot. trade delegations. • Participate in joint promotional • Promote your farm using farm • Promote your farm and opportunities. Organic farmers tours, open days and school produce. Send brochures or have regularly participated in tours. Excellent examples newsletters to your local and promoted their produce of farm tours are Montrose library, schools and tourist at the Royal Easter Show farms, Kiwi Down Under office. Advertise with your in Sydney, which over 1.7 and Glenbye. Montrose state tourist board and million people visit each farms offers ‘pick up your holiday magazines. Develop year. Your participation not own berries in picking a mailing list, including only gives your products season’, ‘tour of the charming everyone who has visited your and produce exposure but 1860s homestead’ and ‘bed farm in the past, and post
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 75 75 15/04/2008 11:29:59 AM a newsletter … to inform people of new products or dates for the next ‘pick-your- own weekend’. You could include some other local events or sights in your area. Investigate any ecotourism projects in your area. Do you have any features that the Eco Tourism Association of Australia would endorse? Hold open days and field days: organise your own or look for opportunities, for example, in 2001 ABC open farm schemes held their annual farm open day with Organic meal solutions: heat and serve, a trend for the future? Photo: MacDonald (2002). four Victorian organic farms. Let the local paper know of you have a website, you could from the United States and any special events, attach a include your web address on the United Kingdom. We brochure or newsletter to a your label. In Australia some also import tomato sauces very brief and simple press trading and information sites salsas, olive oil and Californian are being developed. dates, and we pay a premium release. Start a school farming What product? project to encourage visits. for them. Note how these • Mail order delivery. In the Identify the trends, choose products are presented. Why United States and the United the market for your product, will a consumer pay $6.50 for Kingdom a great deal of and package and present your imported organic cornflakes? trading in organics is done product in a way that will sell The packaging and quality by mail order. Producers it. In other words, are you account for a lot. advertise in the major health planning the right product, and Remember, fads and fashions and gourmet magazines. are you growing produce that change. Investigate, look at • Promote yourself on the world will sell next season? conventional models: pasta wide web. American and sauces hardly existed on European companies have Note what organic products supermarket shelves in the mail order, home delivery and Australia is importing—for early 1990s, but look in the promotions on the web. If example, organic cornflakes supermarket now. Chilled, and particularly prepared, dishes are filling the shelves. Consumers even want to buy salad dressing ready to pour. As Reg Clairs, CEO of Woolworths, said, ‘Meal solutions will be the single most important revolution for supermarkets over the next five years’. People want dinner on the plate, not the ingredients in the shop.
As organic producers, are you investigating organic meal solutions, frozen meals, frozen vegetables, salad mixes, dips, deserts, pasta meals, chilled vegeburgers, as well as the Organic lamb packs - Woolworths more traditional deli ranges
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 76 76 15/04/2008 11:30:03 AM of chutneys, jams, sauces and produce so that it could be comes in calico bags. It thought pickles? What about frozen easily identified as organic the ‘calico’ look outweighed the juices, fruit juices, muesli bars and stacked easily and also problem of stacking and shop and cornflakes? provided efficient and reliable soiling—that is, the bag looking delivery system. Sainsburys, grubby from dust—although If you are investing in labour a UK supermarket chain, the top-stitching has to be sewn and machinery, invest in has sponsored major organic straight and parallel to the edge. research and advice too. Include industry events and has a The buyers for David Jones packaging and marketing in program in operation to have said they would order your costing. encourage conventional farmers more organic products if the Farmer and consumer need to convert. labelling and packaging were to get together: look for every improved. When Sainsburys advertises opportunity to find out what nationally it simply lets Grace Bros’ preferred packaging the consumer buys. Ask your consumers know it sells organic friends, everyone you meet; ask for Glenbye’s organic wool as part of its range. It also them why they buy. Visit the quilts is a firm, transparent sponsors the organic industry to city. plastic case rather than a calico promote and educate the public case. Why? Plastic will not What supermarkets need on the value of organics. become shop soiled, it can Recently a spokesman for Coles What department stores be dusted, it can stay neatly stacked, and it can be handled Myer Ltd said they were now need working closely with smaller and still look bright and shiny food companies in a bid to Packaging, shelf life and over time. Using plastic rather offer a wider range of products, presentation are just as than calico may seem an particularly at the gourmet important to department stores. environmental contradiction, fresh food end of the market. David Jones is very interested but shop soiled means selling at Unlike the big brand names, in a line of organic flour that a discount. which offer special marketing deals to the supermarkets to claim the best shelf positions for their products, organic businesses have not spent millions on advertising and promotion. Some supermarkets will expect you to give in-store demonstrations and food tastings.
Supermarkets usually trial a line for a season to see if it sells: if not, it is out. They also have specific packaging needs—for example, barcodes and particular sizes and shapes for stacking. A reliable and regular supply In Britain the success of fresh organic fruit and vegetables in supermarket chains was the result of a wholesaler checking what the supermarkets needed. The wholesaler packaged the Display of organic products in an Asian supermarket
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 77 77 15/04/2008 11:30:11 AM What small shops need A newsletter can cost less than want perfect-looking produce. Customers like variety. They a glossy brochure, especially if • Consumers assume that if come in to be entertained: a printed in one colour, and can it looks hygienic it must be fruit and vegetable shop is be more readable, with new healthy that sterility equates like a theatre with live daily ideas presented in each issue. with goodness, and that soil on potatoes and lettuces means performances—the display. Logos can be a powerful tool germs and work to clean. Fear What is needed is a constant for recognition. Note that, when of food contamination is also a supply of quality staples plus selling to different cultures, great concern for retailers and something new and seasonal. a healthy green image or consumers. Find ways to have your produce name could translate into an • Organic broccoli travels better tasted. inauspicious image. in ice and polystyrene, but Brochures, newsletters and It is also possible to label what does the polystyrene logos individual pieces of fruit, do for the environment? The Prepare a simple to distinguish them from consumer wants fresh-tasting but professional- conventional produce. and -looking broccoli. looking brochure • Some consumers want explaining what ‘environmentally friendly’ your farm sells, claims—such as ‘dolphin safe’, plus ‘your story’ ‘chemical free’, ‘phosphate free’ and who you are and ‘recycled paper’—because Organic produce in a Woolworths supermarket certified by. these claims inundate retailers’ shelves already. Use it like a • We need to find ways of business card. Logos can be a powerful tool for recognition. responsibly managing these Personalise them and they can leave a lasting Or send a impression. conflicts when labelling and leaflet providing packaging. Seasonality recipes out with Labelling consignments. Some organic food is not Following are a few pointers for available year round. In both successful labelling: Newsletters could Europe and the US ‘being in • Often the label is built into be posted, perhaps season’ has become a selling quarterly. Tell point. Extending supply could the packaging, as opposed to (Photo: MacDonald (2002). MacDonald (Photo: readers about the include processing the product being stuck on. harvest, any new products, what or specialised storage. The • Always identify your certified is in season, field days, and so Earth Food store in Sydney sells ingredients as certified on. an organic apple pie. As soon organic. as the new apples are in season • Labels need to be attractive: Select dates for farm tours, the regular customers start bring in a designer. explain why you dug in your anticipating the arrival of these • Sell the positives, not the lettuces, as opposed to spraying freshly baked pies. negatives—for example, ‘we after a bug invasion; and why build soil fertility’. there were no carrots last Consumers need to understand • Every label tells a story: let month. why product is not always your label tell your story. available, so it is important to • Include ‘free range’ when Do you do mail order? Include communicate with the retailer. applicable. The customer your latest product list with your often assumes that free The environmental newsletter. Macro Wholefoods range is as good as organic, is a large Sydney wholefood predicament so explain what your organic store; its newsletter acted as a When it comes to packaging poultry and livestock are brochure and contained a recipe, and presentation, there are fed—for example, organic some Christmas shopping conflicts between organic grain on an organic farm. ideas, the business’s mission principals and retail demands: Another misconception is statement, and a map showing • Consumers have high that ‘tree ripened’ and ‘sun- the business’s location. expectations and unrealistically dried’ mean organic-type
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 78 78 15/04/2008 11:30:14 AM harvesting and no chemical • a notice to refrigerate after Its main purpose is to educate preservatives. opening where relevant consumers. The organic harvest • Take pride in your product. is a national event where the If you are exporting, some Label and box your produce, focus is on promotional events countries might require and each time your name and at the local level. Activities are additional nutritional product are displayed check held over a month and can information, and the label the standard. include everyone, no matter • Try out a label and package might need to be in a language other than English. how small. Publicity for such and gauge the responses in events can be generated through the real market—in Bondi, Promotion and the media networking, coordinated media not Bourke. Ask your friends releases, using celebrities and in the city. If a story about your organic linking with other promotions. • Check packaging and produce and how healthy it is is labelling laws in your state. published nationally, suddenly Assistance with and information The New South Wales consumers want organic. When about organising these activities promoting nationally, promote Department of Fair Trading can be obtained through realistically. can direct you to the relevant specialised marketing and government departments and promotions businesses such as statutory bodies. Australia has a small population spread over a large land, so how Heaven and Earth Systems Pty Legislation requires that can we promote a relatively Ltd, a consultancy specialising in certain details be provided on small industry nationally wholefood and organic products the label. State or territory when it is spread over such an and services. It can organise events, and federal laws, as well as the expanse? Industry promotion show stands, labelling, newsletters, laws of importing countries such as an ‘organic harvest’ product research and sales and (if you intend to export your provides an opportunity to has a team of creative designers, product), apply. The New promote locally and nationally. copywriters and marketers on call. South Wales Food Authority can provide information about correct labelling for that state. The National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce (2002) describes the requirements for labelling organic products destined for export and those for imported organic products.
The following is a basic checklist for labelling packaged food: • name of the food • the ingredients, in order of volume • the name and address of the maker, packer, vendor or importer • the country of origin • the batch code • the sell-by date or a date stamp • sugar-free, low-fat, and so on, nutritional content—keep claims and information simple, realistic and relevant • claims that can be verified Labelling also needs to satisfy state or territory and federal regulations. Source: MacMillan (1997).
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 79 79 15/04/2008 11:30:16 AM 6.6 Export help
[This section is reproduced from Marketing Organic and Biodynamic Products: conference proceedings, (NSW Agriculture 1997). Jim Murison, Previously Manager, Agsell1, NSW Agriculture, contributed what follows.]
When thinking about export, the first step is to examine the reason for exporting. What are you going to achieve by exporting rather than selling in Australia? Do you have goals Organic beef packed and ready for export. Source: Address to Inaugural National Organics Conference you wish to achieve, and within 2001. 27-28 August - Sydney, by Simone Tully, OBE Beef what timeframe do you plan to your range of options. rules of your chosen market is achieve them? Do you have the essential for forwarding samples funds and time to devote to this Once the market needs are and product to your overseas project and, importantly, enough known it is time to inspect representative. It will be product to satisfy the market the chosen market personally. invaluable in handling problems if you become successful? Can Taking samples of your of customs, quarantine and you obtain more product from product is suggested if it is officials involved in gaining others if you are not able to possible. Business cards and a entry to a market. The fee is meet the requirements yourself? brochure in the local language well worth the service provided. These questions must be part of are needed. Introductions to Before agreeing on final orders, your evaluation. businesses that are interested in a number of trips by both your product can be made by parties to each other’s business Having evaluated your position Austrade and, in some areas, by is essential. Then the real price and decided to proceed, the the Department of State and of each unit can be negotiated. next step is to select the markets Regional Development, as well you are interested in and find as Agsell. out if they are interested in you Often Australians give a price on a take-it, leave-it basis, while and your product. There may Another way of meeting Asians will ask for alterations be no demand for what you people who could be interested on the assumption that the produce if it is not part of that in buying your product is to nation’s culture. You also need exhibit at a trade fair. Many price offered will cover the to determine if the importing are held throughout the world alterations. It is also important country recognises your each year. There are often state- to keep your brand on a certifier’s logo or if it requires organised displays at these fairs, product for as long as possible, you to carry its logo, in which and this can offset the costs so there is no confusion about case there will need to be an involved in mounting a display the product’s origins. Follow- agreed equivalence with your by yourself. Agsell has organised up information is highly certification organisation. such displays at selected trade recommended to keep final fairs in Japan and Korea, with sellers informed that it is your Austrade can provide general success for the participants. product they are selling. information—for example, information on price, packaging, Once the contacts have been Vital for any producer is a suitability and trends—on the made the difficult part begins. quality assurance scheme that market in locations throughout It involves trial shipments, will guarantee to the purchaser the world. The information is altering the packaging, of your product that it is safe provided on a fee-for-service changing the size and a number and of the best quality. It also basis … If you have difficulty of ingredients, and many assures the buyer that what in meeting this initial cost, other incidentals. A freight they are buying is the same as exporting is most likely out of forwarder conversant with the the last purchase, since success 1 Agsell is now known as Primex 80
07-128 Going Organic A guide to 80 80 15/04/2008 11:30:19 AM is based on people returning to for any other product for export. organisation. Japan is the largest buy more. There must be a market for the market for organic produce. product and the price must be There is a limited market in New exporters often fear not high enough for the exporter to Singapore and Hong Kong, but being paid. Your bank can help make a profit from the sale. the rest of Asia is still coming in this regard by nominating to terms with supermarkets and a number of ways to ensure To avoid health problems with year-round fresh food. that you get your money. There a range of foods, consumers in is a charge involved, but it is Europe and Japan are buying European markets are large one way to be confident about organic food in the belief and, because of the wealth being paid when you first that it will overcome food and number of consumers, start exporting. Methods of contamination. But organic there is demand for organic guaranteeing payment range production cannot guarantee products during the northern from letters of credit secured that protection. A quality winter. Competitors would be against your consignment assurance scheme is required. Mediterranean and African to cash transfers, insurance countries that are close to the coverage, and even banks paying The experience in European cities of Germany, Holland and you the agreed price and then markets has been that the United Kingdom. Many recovering the money from customers want blemish-free of these producing countries the buyer. Being paid is not products at about the same have preferred entry to the usually a problem in most Asian price as other products. Many European Union, so competing markets. supermarkets found this was on an equal basis might not be impossible to sustain and possible. Agsell’s role in the export reduced their organic section. business is to assist exporters The smaller retailer is better Agsell is often asked to seek a and buyers. It can introduce placed to source such products, source of product that is not an Asian buyer to a producer and it is through these outlets grown in New South Wales. of a product such as organic that organic produce has found There could be a need to pasta and assist in overcoming its market. import planting material and problems with exporting that work closely with research staff The Japanese market is going product. Many overseas groups to develop the product to meet through an ‘organic’ phase. like to deal with government the buyer’s requirement. The Japanese purchasers will want agencies as a first step in intending buyer might also only certified organic products. contacting suppliers. Agsell contribute to the research work Suppliers in Japan do not is that first port of call for to help speed up the process of meet the high standards set in intending buyers of New South developing a crop. Wales produce. Australia. The price offered will often not reflect the fact that Export is not for everyone, The same conditions apply to the product is certified organic and a strong domestic base is organic products for export as by a recognised Australian almost essential before moving to export. Most exporters use the export market for their top-grade product, seeking a higher price than the domestic market. Export can also be used to reduce an oversupply on the home market and establish price stability in the home market. Sending product to export markets on an infrequent, or ‘spot’, basis rarely pays in the long term, and it does very little to develop a long-term profitable business Organics wine expo domestically or overseas.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 81 81 15/04/2008 11:30:20 AM 6.7 Processing which would prevent contamination The national standard requires that requirements or substitution with substances off-farm processing facilities be or products not compatible with inspected and certified. Processors The processing, packaging and this Standard’. This means that must apply for and undergo an labelling of organic product must processing facilities must be inspection before processing conform to organic standards. pre-cleaned of substances not an organic product. On-farm Commonwealth and state or compatible with the standard prior processors of organic products territory health and food safety laws to processing of organic products must be inspected and are required must also be adhered to. and that storage areas for organic to provide a quality management and non-organic products must be manual for the operation. segregated. Processing and food preservation techniques must comply with Careful identification is also organic standards. The use of required to ensure that mixing of additives and processing aids organic and non-organic products is restricted to situations of does not occur. To assist with this, demonstrated technological the national standard states, ‘An need, where food safety might be operator should have in place a compromised or where the aids quality management system as are essential in order to prepare, an integral part of the organic preserve, or minimise physical or The national standard states that, production system … and … this mechanical effects to a product. in order to be sold as organic, should be compatible with Hazard Sometimes Commonwealth and products produced organically Analysis Critical Control Point state or territory law requires the use ‘… must be handled in a manner (HACCP) principles’. of such additives.
Processing and food preservation techniques must comply with organic standards
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 82 82 15/04/2008 11:30:25 AM 7. Regulatory considerations
7.1 Export requirements
[This section is reproduced from Marketing Organic and Biodynamic Products, Conference proceedings (NSW Agriculture 1997). It was contributed by Ruth Lovisolo, then Manager, Food Standards Policy, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service.]
The potential for exports of organic produce has increased from a niche market in Europe to wide interest from consumers among a number of Australia’s trading partners. To ensure that the integrity of organic produce is not compromised and to meet the requirements of importing countries, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection
Service requires that all organic The potential for exports of organic produce has increased from a niche market in Europe to wide interest from certification organisations be consumers among a number of Australia’s trading partners accredited for the purpose. European Union for organic Produce on 10 February 1992. A national standard and produce. While this market The 3rd edition of the standard legislation underpin the has continued to grow, since is currently available in draft third-party accreditation then other markets have also form. program and provide the opened up for organic produce. mechanism for approved Among them are Switzerland, The standard sets out the certification organisations to Japan, the United States, minimum requirements for issue certificates to accompany Singapore and Hong Kong. All production, processing and organic produce to importing countries are being encouraged labelling of organic produce. It countries. to harmonise their respective also establishes the minimum import controls for organic requirements for inspection of The stimulus for introducing produce through the work individuals producing organic an export facilitation program of the FAO–WHO Codex products and the minimum in Australia was created by the Alimentarius Commission. requirements for certifying increasing world demand for such operators. Any producer organic produce and the need Any producer intending to or processor who wants to to provide assurances about export food or fibre that claims export produce that is labelled the integrity of the product. to be organic or biodynamic organic or biodynamic must European Commission needs to know the following. demonstrate compliance with regulations for the import of at least the requirements of the organic produce into countries The National Standard for standard. This is achieved by of the European Union require Organic and Biodynamic being certified by one of the the competent authority in the Produce exporting country to oversee the AQIS-accredited organisations. organic industry. The Federal Minister for AQIS accreditation Primary Industries introduced By 1990 Australia had the National Standard for The national standard sets gained a niche market in the Organic and Biodynamic out requirements for industry
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 83 83 15/04/2008 11:30:36 AM organisations seeking to such as ‘biological’, must be containing the permitted substances become ‘approved certifying accompanied by an Organic have been developed, and certifying organisations’. This is achieved Produce Certificate. The Orders organisations have approved the use through a system of third- provide the necessary authority of some of these substances. party accreditation. The basic for AQIS to delegate the issue approach to the audit program of certificates to accredited All inputs must be recorded in the has been developed by AQIS organisations. Certifiers issue farm diary, and it is advisable to in conjunction with the export certificates to the have any input approved in writing industry. The Administrative exporter of the organic product. by the certifying organisation before using it. Arrangements describe how Cost recovery certifying organisations apply to 7.3 Other regulatory AQIS for accreditation. Government policy requires that AQIS fully recover its considerations Each certifying organisation operational costs. These costs As is to be expected, organic is audited annually, as required are met by the certifying farmers are subject to the same legal by the European Union. The organisations. AQIS recognises requirements as other farmers. audit process involves a number the impact of such charges on of steps to ensure that the the industry and has undertaken State, territory and federal laws organisation and its members to minimise such costs wherever relating to things such as health and meet the requirements of the possible. food safety, noxious weed control, national standard. Individuals More information fruit fly, feral animal control, exotic may be involved in one of pest and disease outbreaks, and these steps when AQIS verifies Further information about the pesticide use must all be obeyed. the inspection reports of an export facilitation program for organisation on the farm or in organic produce can be obtained In some instances the use of the processing plant. from AQIS (phone 02 6271 6638). chemical controls might be the only option for an organic producer. By 2004 AQIS had accredited 7.2 Permitted inputs seven organisations to provide If a non-permitted chemical must inspection and certification Although organic production be applied, the certifier must be services for a range of organic standards promote non-reliance notified immediately and, although or biodynamic commodities on external inputs, they do certification will be withdrawn, it and production practices. acknowledge that some intervention might occur for a limited time only Certifying organisations that might be required at certain times or apply only to a specific part of are accredited by AQIS are during production. This could the farm. listed in Appendix A. particularly occur during the conversion phase. In some instances the certifier Legislation might be able to negotiate with The national standard provides The Export Control (Organic the statutory body responsible for lists of permissible substances Certification) Orders give administering the law to find a for correcting soil fertility, for ‘prescribed goods’ status to solution to the problem. Sometimes combatting pests and diseases, for organic produce under the a non-chemical solution is possible. sanitation, storage and handling, Export Control Act 1982. Any This needs to be clearly explained and as processing aids. person producing organic goods to the responsible statutory body, and a ‘win–win’ outcome will have for export is required to have Requirements for use of inputs to be demonstrated. a quality management system are defined in the standard. Inputs that is audited by AQIS as part are classified as permitted without 7.3.1 Chemical of a third-party arrangement restrictions on use or permitted application permits with certifying organisations. providing specific conditions of use are met. All chemicals used for pest and All product leaving Australia disease control must be assessed that is identified by the Appendix B lists the permitted and registered by the Australian trade description ‘organic’ inputs. Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines or ‘biodynamic’, or with Authority (formerly the National words of similar intent, Various commercial products Registration Authority). The
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 84 84 15/04/2008 11:30:36 AM authority evaluates all agricultural – a minor or infrequent pest pests that are absent or of restricted and veterinary chemical products or disease on either a minor occurrence in the importing country and registers them for sale in or a major crop (Holmes & Kriedl 2003). Among Australia. Registered products can – when the method of the specified control measures be used only in accordance with the application differs from are monitoring to establish area instructions on the label. what is described on the freedom status, pesticide programs, label because of unique pre-shipment treatment with Off-label and minor use chemical and non-chemical agents, permits local circumstances—that is, aerial application of a in-transit cold treatment, inspection, Many minor crops, although chemical registered only for and/or fumigation on arrival. significant in total value, are too ground application because Chemical treatments are becoming small for agrochemical companies local wet conditions do not less common, but they are still to accept the high cost of registering allow ground application. relied on in order to gain access to crop protection products. At times • Emergency use. This refers to some markets for some products. it also becomes necessary to use a situation calling for a rapid Chemical disinfestation of an agricultural chemicals for a use not response. The most common organic product destined for export specified on the label. example is when it is necessary nullifies the organic status of the to control a new or exotic pest product, and this has limited the or disease for which there are no ability to export many Australian registered control products. organic products, particularly fruit Applying for a permit and vegetables. Applications for off-label permits can be made directly on the approved application form and submitted to the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority. General information and application forms can be obtained from the APVMA website
To use registered or unregistered The majority of off-label permits products in an off-label manner, an take between three and 12 months off-label permit must be obtained. to be assessed by the APVMA. The Australian Pesticides and Genuine emergency uses are usually Veterinary Medicines Authority assessed in five to 10 days. No fee recognises two categories of is charged for any applications justification for off-label permits: received from primary producers.
• Minor use. This refers to one or 7.3.2 Phytosanitary more of the following: requirements – a specialty crop produced Access to export markets depends only on a small scale—that on a product’s ability to meet the is, production of less than importing country’s often stringent 500 hectares or $500 000 a phytosanitary (quarantine), year sanitary (for example, microbial – a small percentage of a contamination) and non-quarantine major crop—that is, less (for example, quota and tariff) than 2 per cent of such a requirements. Phytosanitary barriers crop relate to the possible presence of
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 85 85 15/04/2008 11:30:37 AM Appendices Appendix A Sources of information and other contacts
A.1 AQIS-approved PO Box 434 Bellingen NSW 2454 certifying organisations Fax: 03 6363 5162 Phone: 02 6655 0566 Mowbray Heights Tas 7248 Australian Certified Organic Email: [email protected] Natural Produce Network Post Office Box 530 c/- Sam Statham L1 766 Gympie Rd Safe Food Production Queensland Chermside Qld 4032 Rosnay Organic Farms Spring Hill Qld 4004 Canowindra NSW 2804 Phone: 07 3350 5716 55 McLachlan St Phone: 02 6344 3215 Fax: 07 3350 5996 Fortitude Valley Qld 4004 Email: [email protected] Contact: Phil Pond Tweed Richmond Organic Web: http://www.australianorganic. Phone: 07 3253 9800 Producers Organisation com.au/ Free Call: 1800 300 815 PO Box 5076 Fax: 07 3253 9824 AUS-QUAL Email: [email protected] East Lismore NSW 2480 Post Office Box 3175 Web: http://www.safefood.qld.gov. Phone: 02 6663 5224 9 Buchanan Street au/home.html South Brisbane Qld 4101 Northern Rivers Biodynamic Phone: 0 7 3361 9200 A.2 Australian organic Group Free Call: 1800 630 890 industry Ambrosia Farm Fax: 0 7 3361 9222 Lot 6 English’s Road Organic Federation of Australia Email: [email protected] Upper Coopers Creek NSW 2480 Web: http://www.ausqual.com.au P.O.Box 369, Bellingen NSW 2454 Phone: 02 6688 2003 Bio-Dynamic Research Institute Andre Leu, Chair Sapphire Coast Producers Post Office Phone: 07 4098 7610 Powelltown Vic 3797 Mobile: 0400 075 869 Association Phone: 03 5966 7333 Email: [email protected] PO Box 1054 Fax: 03 5966 7433 Website: http://www.ofa.org.au/ Bega NSW 2550 Phone: 02 6492 0161 National Association for A.3 Export requirements Sustainable Riverina Organic Farmers Australian Quarantine and Agriculture (Australia) Ltd Organisation Inspection Service PO Box 768 Program Management and c/- Judy Brennan Stirling SA 5152 Operations Clifton Phone: 08 8370 8455 Phone: 02 6271 6638 Brocklesby NSW 2642 Fax: 08 8370 8381 Policy and Market Access Phone: 02 6029 4237 Email: [email protected] Phone: 02 6272 3509 Web: http://www.nasaa.com.au Fax: 02 6272 3238 Floodplains Organic Growers Group Organic Food Chain Email [email protected] c/- Frank Old PO Box 2390 A.4 NSW and ACT Balranald NSW 2715 Toowoomba Qld 4350 organic and bio- Phone: 03 5020 1770 Phone: 07 4637 2600 dynamic groups Fax: 07 4696 7689 Hunter Organic Growers Group Email: organicfoodchain@hotmail. Henry Doubleday Research com Association of Australia and the Hunter Biodynamic Group Web: http://www.organicfoodchain. PO Box 442 39 A Dunns ck Rd com.au/ Richmond NSW 2753 Dunns Ck NSW 2320 Phone: 02 4567 8424 Phone: 02 4938 5308 Tasmanian Organic Dynamic Producers Bio-Dynamic Agriculture Australia Phone: 03 6363 5162 PO Box 54
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 86 86 15/04/2008 11:30:38 AM Canberra Organic Growers Society John Melville Relevant courses offered: Inc. Bioterm • Master of Sustainable Elizabeth Palmer Mobile: 0417 662 709 Agriculture PO Box 347 Email: [email protected] • Graduate Diploma in Dickson ACT 2602 Sustainable Agriculture Phone: 02 6248 8004 Adam Willson Soil Systems • Graduate Certificate in Coffs Regional Organic Producers 267 Oxley Road Sustainable Agriculture Organisation Graceville Qld 4075 • Bachelor of Land Management PO Box 363 Phone: 07 3716 0688 (Ecological Agriculture) Coffs Harbour NSW 2450 Fax: 07 3716 0677 • Advanced Diploma of Land 02 6651 1770 Management (Ecological Janie McClure Agriculture) Regional groups in other States and Organics for Rural Australia Territories are listed on the Web at: Phone: 03 9819 2224 Murrumbidgee Rural Studies < http://www.organicfooddirectory. Website: http://www.ruralorg.com. Centre com.au/reg-grow-grps.php> au Yanco Agricultural Institute Yanco NSW 2703 A.5 Diagnostic and NASAA consultants Phone: 02 6951 2696 analytical services Steven David and NSW Department of Primary Organic Farming Systems Industries diagnostic and analytical PO Box 419 CB Alexander Agricultural College laboratories are located at Lismore, Cottesloe WA 6911 Tocal Wollongbar, Menangle, Orange Phone: 08 9384 3789 Paterson NSW 2421 and Wagga Wagga, supporting the Fax: 08 9384 3379 Phone: 02 4939 8888 department’s research and extension Email: admin@organicfarming. programs. The laboratories also com.au Relevant courses offered: provide commercial services to Web: http://www.organicfarming. industry and the public, including com.au • organic and biodynamic courses tests for agricultural water, animal in conjunction with local groups disease, soil fertility, plant nutrition, Kenneth Scott chemical residues, and insect and Piber Pastoral Company plant pathogen identification. For Piber TAFE NSW further details, see
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 87 87 15/04/2008 11:30:38 AM • Department of Natural Primex To find out more about TradeStart Resources and Environment, Primex is the international and what the export advisors and Victoria: export marketing arm of NSW Austrade’s international network Department of Primary Industries, offer, go to < http://www.austrade. Viv Burnett Agriculture providing international access to gov.au/Home3618/default.aspx >. Victoria, Rutherglen the highest quality commodities Farmer information group Phone: 02 6030 4500 of New South Wales. Primex works closely with local producers Kondinin Group and international buyers to 8 Fitzhardinge St • Tasmanian Department of encourage partnerships in a broad Wagga Wagga NSW 2650 Primary Industries and Water range of commodities. Phone: 02 6921 4047 (DPIW) Web: http://www.kondinin.com.au Primex, NSW Department of Louise Mills, PO Box 44 Primary Industries A.8 Journals and HOBART TAS 7001 PO Box K220 newsletters Phone: 03 6233 4038 Haymarket NSW 1240 Acres Australia. The national Phone: 02 8289 3999 • Queensland Department of newspaper of sustainable Email: [email protected] Primary Industries and Fisheries agriculture. Published monthly. Phone: 13 25 23 Australian Government Free Call: 1800 801 467. Available • Primary Industries and assistance through newsagents. Web: < http:// Resources South Australia www.acresaustralia.com.au/index. The New Industries Development http://www.safoodcentre.com/ php?page=home> Program and Agribiz industry/pages/sector/ Acres USA®. Subscribe by email • Northern Territory Department The New Industries Development
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 88 88 15/04/2008 11:30:38 AM A.9 Useful websites Tasmanian Department of Primary http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/ http://www.attra.org Industries and Fisheries— http:// newslett/ncnl1112.htm www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/ http://www.farmerfred.com/plants_ Home/1?Open http://www.goodbugs.org.au that_attract_benefi.html South Australian Department of http://www.anbp.org Primary Industries and Resources— http://www.organic-europe.net/ http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/agwine http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/ http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/ Department of Agriculture, Forestry indexIE.htm biocontrol/biocontrol.html and Fisheries—http://www.daff. http://www.organicherbs.org/Main. http://www.biocontrol.ucr.edu/ gov.au/ html The Rural Industries Research and http://www.mda.state.mn.us/esap/ http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/ Development Corporation—http:// organic/default.htm biocontrol/ www.rirdc.gov.au Other websites http://www.organicstandard.com/ http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ recommends/ Agriculture Network Information http://www.farmersmarkets.org.au/ Centre (US site)—http://www. http://www.cogs.asn.au/ http://www.bioresources.com.au agnic.org/ http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/ Avcare, National Association AFSIC_pubs/findinfo.htm http://www.bugsforbugs.com.au for Crop Protection & Animal Health—http://www.avcare.org.au A.10 Other contacts http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ Bureau of Meteorology—http:// Integrated pest http://www.IPMnet.org www.bom.gov.au/ management Horticulture Australia—http:// http://www.IPM.ucdavis.edu Australian Entomological Supplies www.horticulture.com.au Supplier of hand lenses, sticky traps, http://ipmworld.umn.edu Heliothis development model— and other equipment http://www.uq.edu.au/~uqwroche/ Phone: 02 6684 7650 http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu gentime/ http://www.entosupplies.com.au Markets, Brisbane—http://www. Commercial insectaries http://vegedge.umn.edu/ brisbanemarkets.com.au/ Australasian Biological Control Markets, Melbourne—http://www. Australian Government (Association of Commercial melbournemarkets.com.au/ websites Insectaries) Markets, Sydney—http://www. http://www.goodbugs.org.au NSW Department of Primary sydneymarkets.com.au/ Industries— http://www.dpi.nsw. Beneficial Bug Co. gov.au/ Vegetable Research and Information, University of PO Box 436 Richmond NSW 2753 Queensland Department of California—http://www.vric. Phone: 02 4570 1331 Primary Industries and Fisheries— ucdavis.edu/ Fax: 02 4578 3979 http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/ http://afsic.nal.usda.gov/ Email: [email protected] rde/xchg/dpi/hs.xsl/home_ENA_ nal_display/index.php?info_ Web: http://www.beneficialbugs. HTML.htm center=2&tax_level=1 com.au (predatory mites, http://www.fao.org/organicag/ Victorian Department of Natural Phytoseiulus persimillis) http://www.organic-research.com/ resources and Environment— Bugs for Bugs http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/ http://www.ofa.org.au Bowen St index.htm http://www.bfa.com.au Mundubbera Qld 4626 http://www.nasaa.com.au Agriculture Western Australia— Phone: 07 4165 4663 http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/ http://www.soilfoodweb.com/ Fax: 07 4165 4626 Email: [email protected] http://www.ofrf.org/ Northern Territory Department of http://www.bugsforbugs.com.au Primary Industries and Fisheries— http://www.soilassociation.org/web/ (Aphytis spp., Chilocorus beetles, http://www.nt.gov.au/dpifm/ sa/saweb.nsf/home/index.html Cryptolemus beetles, green lacewings, Primary_Industry/ trichogramma wasps)
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 89 89 15/04/2008 11:30:39 AM Bio-Protection IPM Technologies Phone: 07 4639 3299 PO Box 384 PO Box 560 Fax: 07 4639 3755 Kilmore Vic 3764 Hurstbridge Vic 3099 Email: [email protected] Phone: 03 5781 0033 Phone: 03 9710 1554 Fax: 03 5781 0044 Fax: 03 9710 1354 NASAA standards are Email: [email protected] Email: ipmtechnologies@bigpond. available online
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 90 90 15/04/2008 11:30:39 AM AQIS Industry contacts South Australia Contact: Ian Lyall Soil microbial and foliar sprays • Holden Hill Phone: 02 6271 6638 Petrik Australia Pty Ltd Phone: 08 8266 6344 Austrade Phone: 07 5534 2622 Western Australia Export/trade enquiries • Kewdale Nutri-tech Solutions Phone: 13 28 78 Phone: 08 9353 5200 Phone: 07 5449 1837 Email [email protected] Fax: 08 9353 2052 Biodynamic Agricultural Tasmania SunRice Association • Sandy Bay Contact: Roger Clough Phone: 03 5966 7370 Phone: 03 6224 0415 Phone: 02 6953 0411 Fax: 03 6223 8222 Chapter 5 Biodynamic Farming and Quality assurance advice Gardening Association Marketing companies Phone: 02 6655 8551 Murrumbidgee College of Agriculture So Natural Foods Yanco NSW 2703 Caringbah NSW 2229 Seed grading Phone: 02 6951 2611 Phone: 02 9526 2555 Max Dempster 107 Cobram St National organic auditor training Annand, Robinson & Co. Berrigan NSW 2712 workshops Toowoomba Qld 4350 Phone: 03 5885 2135 Phone: 07 4632 2688 • Biological Farmers of Australia Chapter 6 Phone: 0418 464 350 Biodynamic Marketing Co. Independent Organic Inspector Suppliers: grain storage and Powelltown Vic 3797 Association organic training packaging Phone: 03 5966 7370 workshops Permaguard D-10 Insecticide® NASAA office Four Leaf Farms Ultimate Health.com.au Pty Ltd Phone: 08 8370 8455 Tarlee SA 5411 Unit 19, 46 Abel Street Phone: 08 8528 5330 Penrith NSW 2750 Genevieve Carruthers Phone: 02 47325811 Kialla Pure Foods Environmental Management Fax: 02 47325833 Systems Specialist Greenmount Qld 4359 Email: [email protected] Phone: 07 4697 1170 NSW Department of Primary Industries Cryovac packaging and Ageless® Pure Harvest Wollongbar Agricultural Institute East Bentleigh Vic 3165 Victoria Wollongbar NSW 2477 Phone: 03 9579 3422 • Fawkner Phone: 02 6626 1237 Phone: 03 9359 2244 Soil Systems Pty Ltd Fax: 03 9358 2329 Joseph Ekman Graceville Qld 4075 • Seaford Extension Horticulturist, Quality Phone: 07 3716 0688 Phone: 03 9358 2637 Assurance Fax: 03 9358 2329 NSW Department of Primary Soy Products Aust. Industries Bayswater Vic 3153 NSW National Centre for Greenhouse Phone: 03 9729 1099 • Regents Park Horticulture Phone: 02 9721 8900 Locked Bag 26 Spiral Foods Fax: 02 9743 8580 Gosford NSW 2250 Strathfield NSW 2135 Phone: 02 4348 1900 Phone: 02 9642 8022 Queensland • Brisbane Vitasoy Phone: 07 3347 1333 PO Box 505 Fax: 07 3849 6955 Mulgrave Vic 3170 Phone: 1800 653 303
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 91 91 15/04/2008 11:30:39 AM Marketing advice and promotions Meat/wool Thomas Borthwick And Sons Pty Primex Australian Organic Meat and Ltd Phone: 02 8289 3999 Australian Organic Woolgrowers (ACO 480P) ‘Bye Downs’ Via MACKAY, QLD Catriona Macmillan Elong Elong NSW 2831 Contact: Mr. Scott Craw Heaven & Earth Systems P/L Phone: 02 6886 6212 T: 07 4952 1377 PO Box 3335 Fax: 02 6886 6212 E: [email protected] Tamarama NSW 2026 Phone: 02 9365 7668 Australian Top Making Services Beef Fax: 02 9365 7828 Pty Ltd Western Exporters Mobile: 0402 404 361 Parkes NSW 2870 (ACO 10573P Phone: 02 6862 5854 USDA) Livestock and meat Fax: 02 6862 6236 CHARLEVILLE, QLD Prime Quality Meats Pty Ltd Contact: Tony Lofthouse (David Jones) Maverick International Export Pty T: 07 46543311 Suite 1, Level 1, Shaw House Ltd 42 Church St 49–51 York St Sheep ,Goats Sydney NSW 2000 Dubbo NSW 2830 Churchill Abattoir P/L Phone: 02 9299 7054 Phone: 02 6885 1200 (ACO482P) Fax: 02 9299 7048 Fax: 02 6885 1201 IPSWICH, QLD Cleavers Organic Meats Australian Fibre Spinners Contact: Barry Moule Phone: 02 4322 4528 Hamilton Vic 3300 T: 07 38129000 Phone: 03 5571 1046 E: [email protected] AC Butchery P/L Fax: 03 5571 1046 Cattle Shop 174 Marion St Leichhardt NSW 2040 Elite Fibre Australia Pty Ltd Oakey Abattoir Pty Ltd (ACO Phone: 02 9560 5278 Apparel Cl 467P) Breakwater Vic 3219 OAKEY, QLD The Organic Meat Company Phone: 03 5222 3600 Contact: Mr. Kurt Wockner PO Box 4279 T: 07 4691 1277 Sydney NSW 2001 Organic Plus (Australia Pty Ltd) E: [email protected] Phone: 02 9258 8333 Toowoomba Qld 4350 Fax: 02 9252 3555 Phone: 07 3392 0608 Beef Fax: 07 3391 4460 Email: sales@ Killarney Abattoir theorganicmeatcompany.com.au The Australian Organic Red Meat (ACO4010P) KILLARNEY, QLD Griffith Butchery Association Inc. Contact: Mr. Paul Morrish 10 Baker St PO Box 316 T: 07 4664 1244 Griffith ACT Mount Barker SA 5251 E: [email protected] Phone: 02 6295 9781 Phone: 08 8391 6458 Fax: 08 8391 1937 Beef, Goat, Lamb, Pork, Veal Marketing groups/processors Email: [email protected] South Burnett Beef Flood Plains Organic Grain Group Certif ied organic abattoirs and meat (ACO CP USDA) Pty Ltd processing facilities MURGON, QLD Contact: Frank Old Queensland Contact: Peter Gall ‘Emu Park’ T: 0427 574 941 Balranald NSW 2715 Chaplain Abattoirs (ACO 10181P) F: 07 4659 8898 Phone: 03 5020 1770 MILES, QLD E: [email protected] Fax: 02 5020 1262 Contact: Mr. John Chaplain Beef T: 0427 017517 Riverina Organic Farmers E:[email protected] Organisation Beef, Goat, Lamb, Pork Contact: Judy Brennan Phone: 02 6029 4237
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 92 92 15/04/2008 11:30:39 AM NSW Contact: David Booth Beef Kurri Meats T: 02 6942 2115 Norvic Food Processing (ACO 2026P) F: 02 6942 2664 (ACO 10122P) KURRI, NSW E: [email protected] WODONGA, VIC Contact: Mr. Graham Rees W: www.burongaorganics.com.au Contact: Mr. John Hayes T: 02 4937 1644 T: 02 6055 0226 E: [email protected] Sheep, Beef F: 02 6024 5295 Junee Abattoir E: [email protected] Beef, Lamb (ACO CP) Bindaree Beef P/L Junee, NSW Beef, Goat, Lamb (ACO CP USDA) Contact: Ken Taylor Loddon Country Lamb Pty Ltd INVERELL , NSW T: 02 4322 4528 (ACO CP USDA) Contact: Peter Gall F: 02 4322 4350 PYRAMID HILL, Vic T: 0427 574 941 [email protected] Contact: Peter Gall F: 07 4659 8898 T: 0427 574 941 E: [email protected] Sheep F: 07 4659 8898 DA Holdings E: [email protected] Beef (ACO 245P) Grain processors Rockdale Beef Pty Ltd Moruya, NSW (ACO 10592P USDA) Contact: Graeme Afflick Demeter Farm Mill YANCO, NSW T: 02 4474 2596 Demeter Contact: Gary Shanley F: 02 4474 3998 Breeza NSW 2381 T: 02 69511104 E: [email protected] Phone: 02 67445754 E: [email protected] Fax: 02 67445780 Beef Sheep, Pigs, Beef South Australia Wholegrain Milling Cassino RSM Processing Dalriada Meat Pty Ltd PO Box 347 (ACO 2005P) (ACO 10603P) Gunnedah NSW 2380 Via LISMORE, NSW KIETH, SA Phone: 02 67423939 Contact: Mr. Garry Lees Andrew Martin Fax 02 6742 3373 T: 02 6629 1376 T: 08 8755 1134 Green Grove Organics F: 02 6629 1304 F: 08 8755 1134 18 Lord Street E: [email protected] E: [email protected]. Junee NSW 2663 Phone: 02 69 243574 Pigs Beef Southern Meats Loxton Abattoir Kialla Pure Foods (ACO 10644P) (NASAA 5138P) Greenmount Qld 4359 GOULBURN, NSW LOXTON, SA Phone: 07 4697 1170 Contact: David Conliffe T: 08 8584 1203 T: 02 48240033 F: 08 8584 1203 Soybean milling & sales E: [email protected] E: [email protected] Annand, Robinson & Co. P O Box 2201 Sheep Cattle, pigs and sheep Toowoomba 4350 Northern Co-Operative Meat Co Victoria Queensland (ACO 269P) GH Keily Meat Exporters Pty Ltd Australia CASINO, NSW (ACO CP USDA) Phone: 07 4632 2688 Contact: Mr. Dennis Wyatt MOE, VIC Fax: 07 4632 2668 T: 02 6662 2444 Contact: Peter Gall E: [email protected] Biodynamic Marketing Co. T: 0427 574 941 Main Rd, Powelltown, F: 07 4659 8898 Beef, Veal Victoria, 3797, E: [email protected] Buronga Pastoral Co/Cootamundra Phone: 03 5966 7370 (ACO CP) Fax: 03 5966 7339 COOTAMUNDRA, NSW
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 93 93 15/04/2008 11:30:40 AM Four Leaf Milling Pty Ltd Packaging and labelling laws Lot 120 Main Road NSW Office of Fair Trading (PO Box 83) PO Box 972 Tarlee, South Australia Parramatta 2124 Phone: 08 8528 5330 Local Call: 13 32 20 Fax: 08 8528 5385 Fax: 02 9758 2691 Web: http://www.fairtrading.nsw. Freedom Nutritional Products gov.au/default.html Limited 80 Box Road, Taren Point NSW NSW Food Authority 2229 PO Box 6682 PO Box 2531, Taren Point NSW Silverwater NSW 1811 2229 Local Call: 1300 552 406 Telephone: +61 2 9526 2555 Fax: 02 9647 0026 Facsimile: +61 2 9525 5406 Email: [email protected]. Email: [email protected] gov.au Web: http://www.foodauthority. Kialla Pure Foods nsw.gov.au 342 Greenmount-Etonvale Road Greenmount Qld 4359 Trade Marks Office Australia PO Box 200 Phone: 07 4697 0300 Woden ACT 2606 Fax: 07 4697 0399 Phone: 1300 651 010 Web: http://www.ipaustralia.gov. Pure Harvest au/about/index.shtml 35 Lardner Road, Drouin, Victoria Australia 3818 P.O. Box 178 Drouin, Victoria Australia 3818 Phone: 03 5625 6100 Fax: 03 5625 4008 Email: [email protected]
Soy Products (Sales) Pty Ltd 69 Power Road (PO Box 66) Bayswater, Victoria Australia 3153 Phone: 03 9729 1099 Fax 03 9729 5868
Spiral Foods Unit 4, 56 - 72 John Street Leichhardt NSW 2040 P.O Box 157, Annandale NSW 2038 Phone: 02 8231 4400 Fax: 02 8231 4444 Email: [email protected]
Vitasoy (Soybeans) PO Box 505 Mulgrave Victoria 3170 1800 653 303
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 94 94 15/04/2008 11:30:40 AM Appendix B Farming inputs
The following information comes from the National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce (Edition 3.3, 1 July 2007. AQIS, Canberra.)
Requirements for use General principles i. Where inputs are required they should be used with care and with the knowledge that even permitted inputs can be subject to misuse and may alter the soil and/or water ecosystems or the farming environment. ii. Use of any product has the potential to introduce unwanted residues and contaminants.
Standards 1. A developed organic or biodynamic farm must operate within a closed input system to the maximum extent possible. 2. External farming inputs must be kept to a minimum and applied only on an ‘as needs’ basis. 3. Inputs must not be used as a permanent measure to support a poorly designed or badly managed system. Non-essential use of inputs is counter to organic and biodynamic farming principles. The approved certifying organisation must give approval for their ongoing use. 4. The following lists are subject to review, and inclusion of a material does not imply that it is safe in all circumstances. Any additions or changes to the lists will be made where it can be demonstrated that they satisfy the requirements of this Standard. 5. Liquid preparations, including products of the sea must be used with care as some preparations can be easily applied in concentrated forms and in high quantities. 6. The use of trace elements must be on the basis of a demonstrated deficiency. 7. Use of any input must be based on an assessment of need and with knowledge of the origin and/or analyses of the material for contaminants. 8. The use of any materials/inputs will be recorded in the farm diary or logbook and repeated use must be justifiable. 9. Federal, state/territory and local laws must be adhered to at all times …
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 95 95 15/04/2008 11:30:40 AM Permitted materials for soil fertilising and Permitted materials for plant pest and conditioning disease control Substances Specific conditions/ Where wetting agents are required, caution needs to restrictions be exercised with commercial formulations as these Animal manures Application must be composted or followed may contain substances prohibited under this Standard. by at least two green manure crops in Acceptable wetting agents include some seaweed cropping system. products, plant products (including oils) and natural Blood and bone, fish meal, hoof and horn Following application, uptake of such meal, or other waste products from livestock products by livestock does not form part of soaps. processing the animals diet. Compost Should be produced in accordance Plant pest control with Australian Standard 4454-1999 or Substances Specific conditions/ recognised equivalent system. restrictions Minerals and trace elements from natural Must not be chemically treated to promote Ayurvedic preparations None sources, including: water solubility Baits for fruit fly Substances as required by regulation. Baits • calcium (dolomite, gypsum, lime) must be fully enclosed within traps. • clay (bentonite, kaolin, attapulgite) • magnesium Boric acid None • phosphate (rock phosphate, Biological controls Naturally occurring cultured organisms phosphatic guano) (e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis) • potash (rock and sulphate potash) Diatomaceous earth and naturally None • elemental sulphur occurring chitin products Epson salt—magnesium sulphate) None Essential oils, plant oils and extracts None Microbiological, biological and botanical Products derived from genetic modification Homeopathic preparations None preparations technology are prohibited Hydrogen Peroxide None Mined carbon-based products Peat to be used for plant propagation only Iron (III) phosphate None Naturally occurring biological organisms None Light mineral oils, such as paraffin None (e.g. worms) and their by-products Lime None Plant by-products From chemically untreated sources only Natural acids (e.g. vinegar) None Perlite For potting/seedling mixes only Natural plant extracts excluding tobacco Obtained by infusion and made by the Sawdust, bark and wood waste From chemically untreated sources only farmer without additional concentration Seaweed or algae preparations None Pheromones None Straw From chemically untreated sources only Potassium permanganate None Trace elements and natural chelates, (e.g. Not synthetically chelated elements Pyrethrum Extracted from Chrysanthemum ligno) sulphonates and those using the cinerariaefolium natural chelating agents (e.g. citric, maleic Quassia Extracted from Quassia armara and other di-/tri-acids) Rotenone Extracted from Derris elliptica Vermiculite For use in potting/seedling mixes only Ryania Extracted from Ryania speciosa Wood ash From chemically untreated sources only Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts None Zeolites None Sea salts and salty water None Sodium bicarbonate None Sterilised insect males Need recognised by certification organisation where other controls are not available. Stone meal None Vegetable oils None
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 96 96 15/04/2008 11:30:40 AM Plant disease control Permitted materials for livestock pest and disease control Substances Specific conditions/ Where wetting agents are required, caution needs to restrictions be exercised with commercial formulations as these Ayurvedic preparations None may contain substances prohibited under this Standard. Biological controls Naturally occurring cultured organisms only Acceptable wetting agents include some seaweed Copper (e.g. Bordeaux and Burgundy Hydroxide is the preferred form, Bordeaux products, plant products (including oils) and natural mixture) only on dormant tissue. Annual copper application must be less than 8kg/ha. soaps. Essential oils, plant oils and extracts None Livestock pest control Granulose virus preparations Need recognised by certification organisation. Substances Specific conditions/restrictions Homeopathic preparations None Ayurvedic preparations None Light mineral oils (such as paraffin) None Biological controls Naturally occurring organisms and cultured Lime None organisms Lime-sulphur None Boric acid None Natural plant extracts excluding tobacco Obtained by infusion and/or made by the Clay None farmer without additional concentration Diatomaceous earth None Potassium permanganate None Essential oils, plant oils and extracts None Garlic oil, garlic extract or crushed garlic None Potassium soap (soft soap) None Homeopathic preparations None Propolis None Hydrogen peroxide None Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts None Natural plant extracts obtained by infusion Excluding tobacco Sea salts and salty water None Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) None Skim milk or skim milk powder None Methylated spirits None Sodium bicarbonate None Monosodium fluorosilicate None Sodium silicate (water-glass) None Potassium permanganate None Sulphur In wettable or dry form only Pyrethrum Extracted from Chrysanthemum Vegetable oils None cinerariaefolium Vinegar None Quassia Extracted from Quassia armara Rotenone Extracted from Derris elliptica Sea salts and salty water None Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts None Sodium Bicarbonate None Sulphur None Vinegar (e.g. cider) None
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 97 97 15/04/2008 11:30:41 AM Livestock disease control - Lye Substances Specific conditions/ - Natural acids (e.g. vinegar, lactic, phosphoric) restrictions - Potassium permanganate (not to exceed 1% Ayurvedic preparations None solution) Calcium salts None Charcoal None - Soaps Clay None - Sodium bicarbonate Copper sulphate None - Sodium borate Diatomaceous earth and naturally occurring None chitin products - Isopropyl alcohol Essential oils, plant oils and extracts None 4. The use of any of the above substances will be Homeopathic preparations None followed by a thorough rinse of the area/equipment Hydrogen peroxide None using potable water. Natural plant extracts obtained by infusion Excluding tobacco 5. Cleaning and sanitising chemicals will be used Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) None and stored in such a manner so as to avoid cross- Methylated spirits None contamination to organic and bio-dynamic produce. Potassium permanganate None Sea salts and salty water None Substances permitted as post-harvest/storage treatments Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts None Treatments Substances/conditions Sodium bicarbonate None Controlled atmosphere Carbon dioxide Trace elements To correct identified deficiencies only Oxygen Vaccines May be used only for a specific disease, Nitrogen which is known to exist on the organic Ozone farm or neighbouring farms and which Peracetic acid Approval for use required threatens livestock health and which Ethylene gas Ripening of bananas only) cannot be effectively controlled by other Pest control Physical barriers management practices. Vaccines must not Temperature control contain genetically modified ingredients or Diatomaceous earth by-products. Rodenticides* Vitamins Natural sources only Sticky boards Vinegar (e.g. cider) None Biological controls Zinc sulphate None Electric barriers or grids Sound Light Substances permitted for sanitation, Waxing of citrus fruit Export only—using natural wax storage and handling * Must be enclosed outside processing area and used only where other methods 1. Operators will select cleaners, sanitisers, and have proved ineffective. Containers must be positioned so that there is no potential for contamination with products complying with this Standard. Containers must disinfectants based on avoidance of residual be inspected regularly and dead rodents removed. The operator must maintain contamination, rapid biodegradability, low toxicity, records on volume and use of rodenticides. worker safety, and a life-cycle impact of their manufacture, use, and disposal. 2. Endocrine disrupting, ozone depleting, and trihalomethane-forming compounds used in sanitation chemicals are prohibited. 3. Substances Permitted as Sanitation treatments include: - Alkali carbonates - Bleach (not to exceed 10% solution) - Biodegradable detergents (e.g. low in phosphate and rapidly degradable) - Caustic potash and caustic soda - Ethyl alcohol - Hydrogen peroxide - Iodine (non-elemental, not to exceed 5% solution e.g. iodophors) - Lime
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 98 98 15/04/2008 11:30:41 AM Bibliography
ABARE 2003, Australian Food Statistics 2003, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra,
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 99 99 15/04/2008 11:30:41 AM Broadley, R & Thomas, M (eds) 1995, The Good Bug Book: beneficial insects and mites commercially available in Australia for biological pest control, Australasian Biological Control, Richmond, NSW. Burnett, V, Neeson, R & Wynen, E 2002, Organic Grain Production: an information kit for primary producers, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Rutherglen, Victoria. Carson, R 1962, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Carter, VG & Dale, T 1974, Topsoil and Civilisation, University of Okalahoma Press, Norman, OK. Cocannouer, JA 1950, Weeds: guardians of the soil, Devin-Adair, Old Greenwich, CT. Cocannouer, JA 1958, Water and the Cycle of Life, Devin-Adair, New York. Craswell, E.T. and Waring, S.A. (1972). Effect of grinding on the decomposition of soil organic matter. I. The mineralization of organic nitrogen in relation to soil type. Soil Biol.Biochem. 4, 427-33. Cross, R 2000, The Market for Organic Meat and Stockfeed in Europe, Rural Market Development Unit, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane. DAFF 2004, The Australian Organic Industry—a summary, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, < http://www.daff.gov.au/agriculture-food/food/organic-biodynamic/industry>. Darwin, C 1881 (repr. 1945), The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits, Faber and Faber, London. Date, W & Murphy, J 1990, ‘Woody Weeds in Western New South Wales: background statement’, Woody Weeds Task Force, Canberra, Information sheet 5, September. Davidson, R & Davidson, S 1992, Bushland on Farms: do you have a choice?, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Department of Primary Industries and Energy 1998, Chains of Success: case studies on international and Australian food businesses, co-operating to compete in the global market, DPIE, Canberra. Deria, A, Bell, RW & O’Hara, GW 1996, ‘Wheat production and soil chemical properties of organic and conventional paired sites in Western Australia’, in M Ashgar (ed.), 8th Australian Agronomy Conference, Toowoomba, Australian Society of Agronomy, Perth. Derrick, JW 1996, ‘A comparison of agroecosystems: organic and conventional broadacre farming in south-east Australia’, PhD thesis, Australian National University, Canberra. Eberbach, P & Douglas, L 1983, Soil Biol. Biochemistry, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 485–7. Ekman, J 1997, in Marketing Organic and Biodynamic Products: conference proceedings, NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Evans, J & McDonald, L 2000, Increasing Sustainable Production and Soil Fertility on Broad-acre Organic Farms, RIRDC project no. DAN 195A, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga. Farmer, F 1977, ‘Gene Poirot, farmer, philosopher, poet’, Acres USA, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 13–15. Francis, CA & Clegg, MD 1990, ‘Crop rotations in sustainable agricultural systems’, in CA Edwards, R Lal, P Madden, RH Miller & G House (eds), Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa. Frank, AB 1885, discussed and cited in Raynor, MC 1927, Mycorrhiza: an account of non-pathogenic infection by fungi in vascular plants and bryophytes, Weldon-Wesley, London. Fritz, S & Andresen, T 1994, Organic Animal Husbandry, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Fukuoka, Masanobu 1978, The One-straw Revolution, Japan Publications, New York. Gibson, E 1995, ‘Sell What You Sow! The Grower’s Guide to Successful Produce Marketing, New World Publishing, Auburn, California. Gracie, J 2000, Agricultural Production,
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 100 100 15/04/2008 11:30:41 AM Hilgard, EW 1906, Soils: their formation, properties, composition, and relations to climate and plant growth in the humid and arid regions, Macmillan, New York. Hopkins, CG 1910, Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Ginn, Boston. Horsley, P (ed.) 2000, The Organic Alternative: the complete guide to organic farming, Kondinin Group, Perth. Howard, Sir Albert 1943, An Agricultural Testament, Oxford University Press, London. Hyams, E 1976, Soil and Civilisation, rev. edn, Harper Colophon Books, New York. Humphreys, E, Chalk, P.M., Muirhead, W.A., Melhuish, F.M., and White, R.J.G., 1987. Effects of time of urea application on combine-sown Calrose rice in South-east Australia. III. Fertiliser nitrogen recovery, efficiency of fertilisation and soil nitrogen supply. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 1987, 38, 129-38. IFOAM 2003, The World of Organic Agriculture 2003—statistics and future prospects, M Yussefi & H Willer (eds), IFOAM, Bonn, Germany. Jacks, GV & Whyte, RO 1938, Erosion and Soil Conservation, Herbage Publication Series bulletin, vol. 25, Imperial Bureau of Pastures and Forage Crops, Aberystwyth, Wales. Kellog, CE 1957, ‘We seek; we learn’, in Soil: the yearbook of agriculture, 1957, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, pp. 1–11. King, FH 1911 (repr. 1973), Farmers of Forty Centuries: or permanent agriculture in China, Korea and Japan, Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. Kinsey, N & Walters, C 1993, 1995, ‘Hands on agronomy’, Acres USA, Raytown, Missouri. Kolb, DA 1984, Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Kolisko, E & L 1978, Agriculture of Tomorrow, 2nd edn, Kolisko Archive Publications, Bournemouth, UK. Kristiansen, PE, Jessop, RS & Sindel, BM 2001, Organic Weed Management Survey: methods used by Australian herb and vegetable growers, School of Rural Science and Natural Resources, University of New England, Armidale. Kristiansen, PE, Jessop, RS & Sindel, BM 2001, Organic weed management survey: methods used by Australian herb and vegetable growers, 10th Australian Agronomy Conference. Science and Technology: delivering results for agriculture, 28 January – 1 February, Hobart, Australian Society of Agronomy, Hobart. Kyuma, K (1995) Ecological Sustainability of the Paddy Soil-Rice System in Asia. Food and Fertiliser Technology Centre 1970 – 2002. http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/article/eb413.html Lacy, JM, Cregan, PD & Thompson, JA 1991, Irrigated Pastures for Southern NSW, NSW Agriculture Agfact P2.3.5, NSW Agriculture, Sydney. Lampkin, N 1990, Organic Farming, Farming Press Books, Ipswich, UK. Leighty, CE 1938, ‘Crop rotation’, in Soils and Men: the yearbook of agriculture, 1938, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 406–30. Leyton, A 1997, ‘The market for producer based alliances with reference to organic and bio-dynamic meat and meat products’, Marketing Organic and Bio-dynamic Products, Conference proceedings, NSW Agriculture, Orange. Lines-Kelly, R 2001, Soil health: the foundation of sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of a workshop on the importance of soil health in agriculture, Wollongbar Agricultural Institute, 20–21 June, NSW Agriculture, Sydney. MacDonald, B 2002, ‘Organic market development: organic meats and their requirements’, Paper presented to Organic Rangeland Livestock Production Workshop, Hay. MacLeod, G 1981, The Treatment of Cattle by Homoeopathy, CW Daniel Co. Ltd, Cambridge, UK. Marley, CF 1999, ‘Taking advantage of international markets for organic soybeans’, Acres USA, vol. 29, no. 1. May, R & Monk, A 2001, Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce: comparing overseas standards—discussion paper, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. McCance & Widdowson 1992, The Composition of Foods, 5th edn and supps, Royal Society of Chemistry & Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Cambridge. McCoy, S & Parlevliet, G 2000, Export Market Potential for Clean and Organic Agricultural Products, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
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07-128 Going Organic A guide to 103 103 15/04/2008 11:30:42 AM Walters, C & Fenzau C 1996, Eco-farm, Acres USA, Raytown, Missouri. Walters, C 1991, 1996, Weed Control Without Poisons, Acres USA, Raytown, Missouri. Welch, R 2001, ‘Harnessing the power of agriculture to improve human health in sustainable ways’, Yanco Seminar Series, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Yanco. Wells, T & Chan, K 1996, Environmental Impact of Alternative Horticultural Production Systems in the Hawkesbury–Nepean Catchment, NSW Agriculture, Gosford. Westcott, M.P., and D.S. Mikkelsen. 1988. Effect of green manure on rice fertility in the United States. p. 257-274. In: Green Manure in Rice Farming: Proceedings of a Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. Wheeler, P 1998, The Non-toxic Farming Handbook, Acres USA, Raytown, Missouri. White, D & Eamens, R 2000, Chemical Application Reference Manual, NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Willis, H 1989, How to Grow Super Soybeans, Acres USA, Raytown, Missouri. Wrench, GT 1938, The Wheel of Health: a study of very healthy people, CW Daniel, London. Wynen, E 1992, Conversion to Organic Agriculture in Australia: problems and possibilities in the cereal–livestock industry, NASAA, Stirling, SA. Wynen, E 2003, Organic Agriculture in Australia—levies and expenditures, Pub. no. 03/002, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Yanda, B 1999, ‘Taking soybeans to their full potential’, Acres USA, vol. 29, no. 1. Yadvinder-Singh, A. Dobermann, Bijay-Singh, K.F. Bronson and C.S. Khind (2000). Optimal Phosphorus Management Strategies for Wheat–Rice Cropping on a Loamy Sand. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64:1413-1422 (2000) Zahran, H.H. 1999. Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis and Nitrogen Fixation under Severe Conditions and in an Arid Climate. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 1999 December; 63(4): 968–989. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender. fcgi?artid=98982
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By Robyn Neeson Publication no. 07/128. Project no. DAN-188A
This information is for producers wishing to convert to Major international food corporations are developing organic organic production and for producers already involved in product lines. organic production but keen to diversify their production. It provides a framework for organic conversion and The Australian organic sector is worth between $250–$400 diversification and suggests possible strategies and pathways million per annum at retail level and demand outstrips for moving forward. supply. Domestic production is increasing at between 6 -15% per annum and consumption is growing at between This valuable information will help make the transition to 25-40%—the balance is imported. Australia is one of the organic production or to diversified organic production a world’s leading grain exporters but organic grain is imported smooth one. to meet the shortfall in production. Rising domestic and overseas demand for Australian organic products is Organic products are the fastest growing food sector prompting more conventional farmers and processors to worldwide. Growth of new farms, products and consumers consider and adopt organic systems. has been steadily increasing over the last 20 years. In the last 10 years the rate of growth has consistently increased in all of Our business is about new products and services and better the advanced economies. ways of producing them. Most of the information we produce can be downloaded for free from our website: www. Market analysts forecast annual growth rates between 10% rirdc.gov.au. and 30% around the world. The United States Department of Agriculture expects the organic industry to be worth RIRDC books can be purchased by phoning 02 6271 4100 US$100 billion by 2010 in America, Europe and Japan. or online at: www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop.
Contact RIRDC: Level 2 15 National Circuit Barton ACT 2600
PO Box 4776 Kingston ACT 2604
Ph: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected] www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop web: www.rirdc.gov.au
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