REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 1

Executive Summary

The in : An Investigation of Livelihoods and Coping Strategies

Oroub EL ABED Forced Migration Refugee Studies Program The American University in September 2003 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 2

Executive Summary

The Palestinians in Egypt: An Investigation of Livelihoods and Coping Strategies

Oroub EL ABED Forced Migration Refugee Studies Program The American University in Cairo September 2003

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This research has been funded by the Canadian International Development and Research Centre (IDRC) and was conducted under the auspices of the American University of Cairo (AUC)- The Forced Migration Refugee Studies Programme (FMRS).

Cover photo: Jaziret Fadel, 7 KM from Abu Kbir- Sharqieh where Palestinians live separately in their own unserved village. Photo by O.El Abed

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encounter in Egypt in order to lay a foun- Objectives dation for future projects to benefit the • This report provides an analysis of the community. These endeavours may livelihoods and coping strategies adopted include development projects such as by Palestinian exiles to adjust their life in income-generating schemes or education- Egypt. Two main factors have affected al initiatives. In addition, it is hoped that their adjustment — the resources that these findings will be applied to lobby for they have employed to “reconstruct” their policies and programmes to better meet lives in the host country and the policies the socio-economic and legal needs of of the host country itself vis-à-vis Palestinians residing in host countries. Palestinians.

• Studying the livelihoods of Palestinians Methodological Issues in Egypt is significant because it approaches refugees as agents of social • The research, which was undertaken over change rather than reducing them to mere the course of two years, was conducted victims of political circumstances. It under the auspices of the American examines how even the most vulnerable University in Cairo’s (AUC) Forced communities of refugees are able to Migration and Refugee Studies mobilise resources and social networks in Programme (FMRS) as part of a series of their struggles for survival. In studying research projects on the livelihoods of livelihoods, this report also challenges various refugee populations in Egypt. popular images of Palestinians as wealthy members of Egyptian society by reveal- • The lack of reliable sources of informa- ing the hardships faced by middle and tion concerning the geographical distribu- lower class Palestinians, who form the tion and social and demographic charac- majority in Egypt. teristics of refugees in Egypt was a major challenge. The Egyptian government does • This report aims to provide an under- not release information on the numbers of standing of the difficulties Palestinians Palestinians residing in various parts of the country nor does it release figures on the total number of Palestinians in the Livelihood can be defined as the means, activi- ties, entitlements and assets by which people country. make a living. Assets in this particular context are defined as natural and physical (e.g. land, • According to the Palestinian ambassador common property resources, schools, health to Egypt, Palestinians living in Egypt for clinics), social (e.g. community, family, social the end of the year 2000 were 53,000. He networks), political (e.g. participation in civil remarked that the Egyptian government society, association and community organisa- tion), human (e.g. education, labour, health, said that there were 70,000 Palestinians in skills) and economic and financial (e.g. jobs, the country.1 The United States Refugees savings, regular remittances or pension) assets. Committee (USRC) report for the year Livelihood involves attempts to generate effi- 2002 states that there were 50,000 cient income-earning opportunities for refugees Palestinians in Egypt by the end of the and access to education, health care and other 2 services, as well as civil and legal rights. 2001. Meanwhile, shocks and unexpected events may occur and serve to create vulnerability. • Unlike those who went to Jordan, Vulnerability varies over time and space, and Lebanon, relatively little has been depending largely on the changing processes written about the Palestinians who came through which individuals, households and larg- to Egypt. Palestinians in Egypt numbered er social groups fulfil their immediate subsis- tence needs and invest in the medium and long- 13,000 in 1948 and 33,000 in 1969 term reproduction of their social system. (Dajani 1986: 41). Given the scarcity of

1 Interview with the Palestinian ambassador to Egypt, H.E Zuhdi Al- Qudreh in September 23, 2001. 2 http://www.refugees.org/world/countryindex/egypt.cfm SEPTEMBER 2003 3 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 5

literature and demographic data, a quali- Eighty visits to Palestinians households tative case-study approach was employed were made to the previously mentioned in the research. Statistical sampling and governorates. In three governorates, quantitative data collection would have Cairo, Sharqieh and Qalubieh, 59 full been impossible given the fact that the interviews were conducted in households exact number of in comprising 401 persons. Of these there Egypt is not known and the results of the were 215 men and 186 women. census conducted by the Egyptian gov- ernment in 1995 have not been made • Face-to-face interviews were conducted available. through a series of open-ended questions structured to evoke descriptive qualitative • Various secondary resources, including data on the survival strategies of refugee archives, books, articles, laws and regula- households and to gain an understanding tions, were also used as part of the of the factors influencing refugees’ liveli- research. Libraries at AUC, the Centre hoods. A questionnaire was used in order des Etudes et de Recherches de Moyen to determine the effects of changing state Orient Contemporain (CERMOC) in policies on the legal status, socio-eco- Amman, the Documentation Centre of the nomic situation, education, work, health, Refugee Studies Centre at Oxford financial status and sources of income of University and the British Library in Palestinians. The fact that those conduct- London were visited to collect material ing the interviews were of Palestinian ori- on Palestinians in Egypt. During these gin and that some spoke the Palestinian visits, few references pertaining to dialect facilitated the interviews. Palestinians in Egypt were found. In addi- tion, interviews were held with various Background Number of Palestinian • The Palestinians studied in this report can Households interviewed be divided into two categories: those who Location Interviewed fled to Egypt because of a well-founded Households fear of persecution, and those who were motivated by socio-economic factors. N % Those who came as a result of persecu- 1 Cairo 24 (40.7%) tion include those who arrived in 1948 2 Egypt Governorates 35 (59.3%) and are defined as “Palestinian refugees” as well as those who came as a result of Total 59 (100%) events in 1967 and are defined as “dis- placed Palestinians”. The second category Palestinian and Egyptian officials, as well refers to those Palestinians who sought as scholars and community leaders. work and education opportunities in Egypt between 1954 and 1967. Due to the • In Egypt, Palestinians are dispersed occupation of in the throughout urban and rural areas. No and Gaza, many of these United Nations body serves them, and Palestinians were unable to return to there are no camps. In order to locate and Palestine and have remained in Egypt. interview Palestinians, a snowball methodology was employed in several • Egypt’s geopolitical location makes it an governorates: Cairo, Sharqieh, Qalubieh, important centre in the Middle East. Prior Ariesh, Menya, Port Said and Ismaileh. to the British mandate and the occupation The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) has defined a “Palestine refugee” as “any per- son whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict”. In the UN General Assembly Resolution 2252 (ES-V) of 4 July 1967, ‘displaced persons’ were described as those “who have been unable to return to the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel since 1967.”

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of Palestine, Palestinians were able to the Egyptian minister of culture, by a travel easily between major cities for Palestinian faction group led by Abu- commercial, cultural and political rea- Nidal both negatively affected Egypt’s sons. Previously existing contacts relations with the Palestinians. between Palestinians and Regulations and administrative policies paved the way for a series of migrations were amended to treat Palestinians in from Palestine to Egypt. Egypt as foreigners. In 1978, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat issued two admin- • Upon the arrival of Palestinians in Egypt istrative regulations, No 47 and No 48, on April 24, 1948, the Egyptian Ministry that decreed that all regulations treating of Social Affairs prepared emergency Palestinians as nationals should be camps in Abbasieh area in Cairo, annulled. Much of the basis for this grad- Mazarita in Port Said and Qantara Sharq. ual infringement of civil and legal rights This later had main services for lies in political factors. Palestinian refugees. The UN did not pro- vide assistance to these refugees. After • With limited rights, Palestinians in Egypt Egypt signed the Rhodes Armistice in attempted to enhance their capabilities to 1949, Egypt assumed military and admin- survive, employing both tangible and istrative rule of Gaza and many intangible assets, including work activi- Palestinians were transferred from Egypt ties, income resources, savings and long- to Gaza. Only those Palestinians who had term planning for the future. By giving an the means to live in Egypt or who had an account of the ways in which these assets Egyptian guarantor were permitted to were utilised, this report aims to con- stay. tribute to the expanding field of forced migration and to the theoretical under- • During Nasser’s era, Palestinians were standing of the livelihoods of Palestinians not treated as “foreigners” in Egyptian in host countries. legislation and regulations. Rather, they were treated on a par with nationals. Overall, their livelihoods and living con- ditions were best during this period. They were able to access more state services. Findings on Palestinian Work was permitted and elementary Livelihoods in Egypt school and university education were free. Most importantly, the laws pertain- I. Social Networks ing to Palestinians did not apply the word “foreign” to them in administrative mat- • Social capital refers to the set of resources ters. utilised in family relations and other forms of social organisation in order to • However, political tensions during the facilitate social development. These net- late 1970s brought changes in Egypt’s works provide social, financial and polit- treatment of Palestinians. Egypt’s signing ical support. They fulfil immediate sub- of the peace accords with Israel at Camp sistence needs and allow for investment David and the killing of Yusuf El-Sibai, in medium and long-term needs to guard against vulnerability. In 1962, President Nasser issued Law 66, per- mitting Palestinians to work in government and • Refugees and displaced people often public sector jobs. Article 1 stipulated that, as an build social links among themselves with- exception to Section 1 of Article 6 (Law 210 of in host countries in order to adapt. 1951), concerning public sector employees, it is permitted for Palestinians to work in govern- However, the fieldwork suggests that a ment and public sector jobs and to be treated as number of factors, including trust, stabili- nationals of the Arab United Republic (Official ty and ideology, served to hinder the con- Gazette, No 58, March 10, 1962). struction of a cohesive Palestinian com-

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munity in Egypt who share historical, many cases, social and professional net- geographical and socio-economic back- works affected employment and played a grounds. In a security-oriented state, peo- hand in decisions about where people set- ple may be suspicious of one another and tled. Many Palestinians depended on may limit social obligations or responsi- what Ben-Porath (in Coleman 1990) calls bilities. As a weak and dispersed minori- their “F connections” (family, friends, ty, Palestinians were affected by political firms) to settle in cities. tensions between the PLO and the Egyptian government. On one hand, the • Many Palestinians fled the homeland in government clamped down on Palestinian groups, arrived in Egypt in those same activities during periods of tension. On groups and started new lives together. the other hand, the Egyptian public was Today, many still live together, for exam- heavily influenced by media campaigns ple many Palestinians from Majdel live projecting negative ideas about together in Faqous and many Palestinians Palestinians. Both of these led to the tense from Beir Al-Sabeh live in Jaziret Fadel conditions for Palestinians residing in and Qanayat. In some cases, the social Egypt. Eventually, Palestinians construct- system that had functioned in Palestine ed social networks that included was recreated in these new areas. Even Egyptians. No isolated Palestinians com- the mukhtars, or village heads, main- munity as such exists in Egypt. tained their prestige and served as media- tors with the local authorities in Egypt as • In countries which have camps served by they had in Palestine. Nonetheless, the UNRWA, Palestinians re-created their majority of the Palestinians who arrived own traditional communities. The situa- as individuals settled in larger Egyptian tion was different in Egypt. First, the re- cities. Established networks and relations creation of traditional Palestinian com- helped later groups of Palestinians to set- munities was hindered chiefly by Egypt’s tle in 1956 and 1967. policy not to create long-term refugee camps served by any institution, which • In the early 1980s, as a result of the social could have helped the Palestinians to and economic vacuum among the dis- gather around the service-provider, re- create their communities and establish persed Palestinians, Palestinian business- themselves. Second, Egypt’s policies for men in Egypt felt the need to create their dealing with refugee influxes entailed own associations to handle the social, cul- several transfers of refugees within Egypt tural and economic affairs of the and back to Palestine, causing ruptures Palestinian community. Moves within within the community. The emergency this community to create social and eco- camps created in 1948 in Abbasieh, nomic institutions sparked fear among Mazarita and Qantara were merely tem- some Egyptians that such organisations porary and eventually camp inhabitants could be co-opted for political purposes were forced to either be transferred to that could threaten Egypt’s state interests. Gaza or, if they had the means, to self-set- In turn, the PLO feared that the creation tle in Egypt. Further divisions were made of an organisation by the Palestinian among the Palestinian community in bourgeoisie could threaten the legitimacy 1967, especially in the temporary camps and power of the PLO itself. After a series in Mudiriet Al-Tahrir, such as that of negotiations, Palestinian businessmen between military personnel and civilians. were eventually brought into the fold of Those in the military left their families to the PLO when the Palestinian Red join their military bases. Civilians settled Crescent, a PLO-affiliated organisation, according to their own personal connec- created a board of trustees called the tions and interests and the availability of Consultation Council of Palestinian employment. Businessmen. Due to Egypt’s security • Often, the distribution of the Palestinian concerns, the council was created under population in Egypt was not random. In

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the supervision of Egyptian authorities, • The activism of Palestinian nationalist which monitored and attended the activi- groups was a source of concern for the ties and meetings of the board (Dajani host state. In 1978, Egyptian authorities 1986). All efforts were in vain and the banned the General Union for Palestinian association failed. It was revived once Students after the student group again in 1996 but nothing was reported to expressed its rejection to the Rogers’ have been achieved by this affluent Plan, which called for the implementation group. of UN Resolution 242, and Sadat’s peace agreement with Israel. • The Palestinian Charitable Association in the 1983 was established in order to pro- • Under Egypt’s emergency law, the right vide services for Palestinians in Egypt. to association has been severely limited. The association subsidises educational The creation of social and cultural clubs fees, assists Palestinians in need of health and the participation in activities held care and coordinates employment oppor- especially for the minorities are not tunities among Palestinians and encouraged. Palestinian businessmen. The association aims to support economically vulnerable • In the absence of a strong community, the Palestinians in Egypt as means of Palestinian family plays an important role expressing solidarity and community sup- in taking on the burdens of social institu- port. According to its director, Mr Ali tions that were destroyed through dis- Jowhar, most of those served by the asso- placement. The family has become a focal point for a support network consisting of Palestinian Active Bodies in Egypt affiliated other Palestinian and Egyptian families to the PLO and acquaintances to address daily liveli- The Consultation Council of Palestinian hood concerns, such as obtaining resi- Businessmen dence permits, travelling, employment, The Palestinian Charitable Association property ownership, enfranchisement and The Association of Martyred and Injured The Palestinian Labour Union education. The Palestinian Women Union The Palestinian Red Crescent Society • Traditional family structures have changed and become more heterogeneous as a means of survival in exile. Rather ciation are women whose husbands aban- than constructing families strictly accord- doned them upon leaving for Gaza.3 ing to clan-based affiliations, as was tra- ditionally done in Palestine, families in • Palestinian organisations could only be Egypt have expanded to include members created in Egypt with the approval of the of other communities. Many interviewees state and the support of the Palestinian expressed difficulty in maintaining typi- Liberation Organisation (PLO). The cal Palestinian marriage patterns along Palestinian Women’s Union and the family or clan lines. Most importantly, Palestinian Labour Union, both affiliated marriage with members of the host com- with the PLO, were established in Cairo munity has been used as a strategy for in 1963. The main goal was to organise upward mobility and increasing one’s Palestinians inside the PLO apparatus and legal rights. to mobilise them to serve the Palestinian cause. The unions provide minimum • Some Palestinians were able to maintain administrative and sometimes social ser- their professions by utilising social net- vices that are again, not permitted to take works. Others, however, were forced to place without security approval. begin new careers in skilled and unskilled work in urban areas. Relationships

3 Interview with Ali Jowhar, head of the Palestinian Charitable Association, October 22, 2001.

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between Egyptians and Palestinians were equal footing with Egyptian nationals. strengthened through business partner- • Abdel-Nasser’s decision to treat ships and work relations. Policies in Palestinians as nationals enabled the Egypt limited ownership rights for majority of Palestinians in Egypt who Palestinians. As a result, many arrived in Cairo to create stable livelihood Palestinians formed partnerships with bases. This stability was reflected in their Egyptians as a way of circumventing purchases of houses and cars, investments legal obstacles. in the education of their children, and in creating businesses that provided them with income after retirement.

II. Employment • Benefiting from the policies that treated them on a par with nationals, Palestinian • Palestinians in Egypt, as elsewhere in businessmen were able to expand their exile, did not constitute a homogenous operations in Egypt after the 1967 War. economic group. Their human, financial When the war erupted, most Gazans and social capital varied, as did their eco- transferred their property and capital to nomic adaptation to the new environ- Egypt. ment. For many, migration imposed new patterns of work. • In 1978, following the signing of the peace agreement with Israel and the • Social networks played a crucial role both assassination of Yusuf El-Sibai, policies for those who were able to maintain their restricting the rights of Palestinians in professions and for those who were Egypt greatly affected their economic sta- forced to make a change. The process of bility. Section 1 of Article 16 (Law 48 of 1978) concerning employment in the pub- flight affected different segments of the lic sector stipulated that the enrolment of Palestinian community differently. Many Arab country nationals should be done on of those whose employment skills deteri- a reciprocal basis, meaning that the gov- orated, being unable to find suitable jobs, ernment of Egypt would hire citizens only took on new roles by enrolling as fighters of those countries that hired Egyptian in various armed forces or by serving nationals. Article 27 (Law 137 of 1981) with the Palestine Liberation stipulated that foreigners were not permit- Organisation (PLO). In Cairo, although ted to practice their professions unless various groups of Palestinians settled they had a permit issued by the Ministry throughout the city, two main communi- of Labour Force and Training and a resi- ties are most evident — those who were dence permit. Adding to the difficulties members of the PLO or its army, and for Palestinians, a quota was set for for- businessmen. eigners employed in the private sector. Article 4 (Law 25 of 1982) said that for- • Earlier generations of Palestinians who eigners should not exceed 10 per cent of arrived in Egypt were not permitted to the total number of employees in any workplace in order to avoid competition work unless given special permission. In between foreigners and the national response to the worsening economic con- labour force. ditions of many Palestinians, in 1954 President Gamal Abdel-Nasser permitted • In many cases, Palestinians work in the Palestinians to work as teachers although private sector illegally. It is common for he issued no official regulation formalis- small enterprises and small-scale busi- ing the policy. In 1962, President Abdel- nesses not to provide employees with Nasser issued Law No 66 permitting the social insurance. In addition, they tend to recruitment of Arab Palestinians in gov- hire skilled and unskilled workers without ernment bodies and treating them on an contracts. If a worker does not have a

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work permit, as is true in most cases, she III. Education or he may be easily exploited by the employer in terms of working hours, con- • The repercussions of political events in ditions and payment. 1978 gravely affected the provision of education to Palestinians in Egypt. • When public and private sector employ- Although Palestinians had been treated as ment opportunities decrease, new entrants nationals and had the right to free educa- to the urban labour force find alternate tion in public schools and universities, in income-generating activities or work in 1978 they became categorised as “for- small-scale individually-run enterprises. eigners”. With changing regulations, edu- Palestinians with limited resources and cational services became possible only in some basic education represent a dynam- private schools and ever since ic class of people engaged in various Palestinians are required to pay universi- activities that, if not highly remunerative, ty fees in British sterling pounds. at least provide for their own subsistence needs and those of their families. • The change in treatment of Palestinian students prevented many from continuing • Palestinian households tap into multiple their education. A ministerial decision in and creative resources to sustain them- 1978 required Palestinian students to selves. These resources encompass far transfer from public to private schools. more than merely formal employment The decision excluded the children of and include an array of formal and infor- employees of the Palestinian Liberation mal, legal and illegal, regular and irregu- Army and the Administrative Office of lar work activities. Interviews suggested the Governor of Gaza. Access by “for- that the income-generating strategies of eigners” to certain faculties at university lower-income earners are usually the was also restricted. Palestinians were pro- most diverse. hibited from studying medicine, pharma- cology, economics, political science and • Very few interviewees in rural areas mass communications. However, in 1995 reported that they still work in agricul- an agreement between the Palestinian ture. However, the few agricultural work- Authority (PA) and the Egyptian govern- ers who were interviewed appeared to be ment in order to prepare Palestinians for the most vulnerable group of Palestinians. state building in the West Bank and Gaza Agricultural work is limited and provides permitted Palestinians to study in the pre- only irregular income because it is sea- viously mentioned faculties. While from sonal. 1965-1978 Palestinian students at univer- sities numbered 20,000, in 1985 the num- ber of Palestinians enrolled in universities • A remarkably common profession among had dropped to 4,500 (Sarraj 1986, Yassin Palestinians in areas such as Qalubieh and 1996) and those enrolled in public univer- Sharqieh is driving articulated trucks. sities between the year 1997-1998 and Many inherited these professions from 2000-2001 were 3,048.4 their fathers. Others became involved through social networks and today, own • Paying university fees is a major obstacle their own trucks. During the various polit- for many Palestinians. While some stu- ical events which had its repercussions on dents initially received help from the employment for Palestinians, they were Palestinian embassy to fund their univer- able to maintain their jobs. Political sity education, this assistance was not events did not affect their ability to obtain enough. Palestinians, who are expected to a driving licence or to get work permits as pay foreigners fees, are residents in drivers. Egypt, make their daily income from the

4 Press release, dated December 20, 2000, issued by the office of Minister of higher education concerning a decision from the Minister Dr Mufid Shihab to reduce public university fees to 50 percent for Palestinian students as a support for the Palestinian struggle during Al-Aqsa Intifada. SEPTEMBER 2003 9 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 11

Egyptian labour market and undergo the fees: same living conditions as nationals. - The children of government employees, Foreign fees range from £1,000-3,000 per including retirees; academic year for humanities and scien- - The children of Egyptian widows and tific faculties. If a Palestinian student divorcees; wishes to pursue a higher education, the - The children of mothers who passed their tuition fees are doubled (Yassin quoting Egyptian high school exams Qaddoussi’s article “Ghost of ignorance - Continuous residents of Egypt – those haunts 24,000 Palestinians in Egypt”, Al- who were born in Egypt and have com- Shaab, February 4, 1992). pleted all levels of education in Egyptian schools; • When applying to university, Palestinians - Students in need of financial assistance are selected for admission through the who can submit papers verifying their Maktab Wafidin (general administration [socio-economic] conditions, Bah’th office for admitting immigrant students). Ijtimai. The procedure takes a considerable amount of time and students are often not • Many of those exempted from paying 90 admitted until after the school term has per cent of the fees were able to attend begun. Many reported how this negative- primary and secondary schools. ly affects their education performance in University education was not assured, the first year. however, because fees must be paid in foreign currency. While the exemptions • In order to avoid paying foreigners, fees enabled some Palestinian students to in sterling pounds, many students pay a remain in the education system, many small amount of fees in Egyptian pounds continue to face significant obstacles in each year, as if they were Egyptians. By getting an education. Many students have this, they risk being dismissed, if caught. had to leave school early because of the Many interviewed students reported pay- high costs of private schools. While get- ing security guards in order gain entrance ting an education is an important source to the university and paying administra- tive staff to let them sit for the exams. of hope for many Palestinians, the right to Only after they graduate and work, they an education has been denied due to polit- try to pay the foreigners’ fees or wait for ical issues they were not even part of. a presidential or ministerial official par- don. Until this happens, they have no uni- • The government of Egypt has shown versity certificate testifying their univer- sympathy and support for the Palestinian sity education. people during the Intifada that began in 2000. Aware of the previous roll-backs in • While Palestinians are known throughout rights to education, and considering the the world for being highly educated, economic difficulties Palestinians have attaining an education in Egypt has been endured in the West Bank and extremely difficult for many due to the as well as the importance of the remit- regulations requiring Palestinians to tances that families in Egypt received attend private schools and to pay foreign- from relatives in Gaza, the Ministry of ers’ fees. As a result of the political ten- Education, in 2000, exempted all sions and consequently the applied regu- Palestinian students from paying school lations, many Palestinians interviewed fees at government schools. This has reported having dropped out school or not made a significant difference for those ever have attended school. who are still enrolled in public schools. In particular, this decision benefits the chil- • An official letter dated October 30, 1993 dren of Palestinians employed by the from the Ministry of Higher Education’s Egyptian government, PLO and the Maktab Wafidin to the cultural attaché of Administrative Office of the Governor of the Palestinian embassy clarified the cat- Gaza in addition to those children who egories of Palestinians exempt from pay- attend public schools where no private ing 90 per cent of school and university schools exist in their area of residence.

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IV. Health V. Ownership

• Interviews illustrated an overall satisfac- • Law No 15 of 1963 prevented foreigners tion with the provision of health services from owning land. However, in Article 1, in the areas where Palestinians live. For it considered Palestinians as an exception. minor medical needs, many Palestinians “Until the Palestinian territories are liber- reported that these services are affordable ated from the occupiers and Palestinians and adequate. One major complaint return to their homeland,” Palestinians expressed by Palestinians in regards to were permitted to own land in Egypt. health care concerned access to special medicine for chronic diseases, however. Having to buy unsubsidised medicine is a • Law 81 of 1976 prevented foreigners major obstacle for many. When a devas- from owning built properties and lands tating illness strikes or a costly medical except in certain cases. In Article 2/B it operation is needed, it can disrupt the stipulated that when the ministerial coun- entire household economy. Costs for the cil grants permission, foreigners may own treatment of sudden illnesses and injuries, built property and land provided that only are, as many reported, often overcome by one property is owned for the purpose of mobilising other livelihood assets. private residence or private business, the surface of the property does not exceed • The Red Crescent hospital, Palestine 1,000 square metres (amended in Law 56 Hospital, currently serves 20,000 benefi- of 1988 to 3,000 square metres), the ciaries within its medical insurance pro- money for the property is paid in foreign gramme, including those working at PLO currency, and as long as it is not owned in institutions and Palestinian unions, in partnership with an Egyptian. addition to Palestinian Red Crescent employees. It also serves the families of martyrs and injured Palestinians, who are • Law 104 of 1985 prevented foreign per- also covered and assisted by the sons and companies from owning agricul- Association of Martyrs and Injured tural properties or fertile or desert lands in Palestinians. The hospital also provides Egypt. Article 1 stipulated that ownership medial treatment to Palestinians working of the property reverts to the state within with the Palestinian Authority in Gaza five years of the enactment of the law. and the West Bank. The lack of medical services in the Occupied Territories • These ownership laws have served to means that hospitals there must transfer undermine the economic power of patients to Palestine Hospital in Cairo. Palestinians in Egypt. In many cases, Palestinians must register their ownership • The hospital has a huge budget deficit. using Egyptian names or partners. False Budget cuts were made because of the registration renders them vulnerable and National Palestinian Fund in 1995, which limits their access to legal redress in the gave priority to the establishment of the courts. Palestinians remained vulnerable centres in Gaza and in the West Bank. In addition, the money that was supposed to in this way until 1997, when Law 8, the be deduced from the PLO employees’ Guarantees and Investments Incentives salaries is not sent to the Red Crescent to Law, was ratified. Law 8 allows foreign- pay for the services it provides to them. ers the right to own businesses on a larg- The same applies to the money expected er scale by permitting partnerships to be to be sent by the Palestinian Authority for created whereby 49 per cent of a property the medical services provided to can be owned by a foreigner and 51 per Palestinians coming from Gaza. cent by an Egyptian.

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VI. Financial Resources skills and to be productive in society. By having multiple resources of income, • Interviewees who had not completed their many people improved their living condi- education often expressed the belief that tions and secured their livelihoods. self-employment and diversified jobs were their best options for survival. Women’s Roles in • Palestinians who went to work in Gulf countries in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s Livelihoods in Egypt provided an important source of income for their families in Egypt by sending reg- • Over time, women married to ular remittances to immediate and extend- Palestinians have assumed increasingly ed family members. Many felt obliged to vital roles in livelihoods and in making send money in order to help family mem- important decisions for the household. bers continue their education. Many of the women who were inter- Palestinians in Egypt were also dependant viewed as part of the research reported on remittances sent to them by relatives that they were engaged in petty trading who had joined the Palestinian Authority (e.g. buying 10 lipsticks from a supermar- (PA) in Gaza after 1995. They previously ket and selling them on the street) in depended on remittances sent to them Egyptian cities and between Gaza and from the Gulf. As the 1990-1991 Gulf Egypt or they worked in the informal or War erupted, this flow of remittances service sectors. Economic pressures have halted. The Intifada in 2000 also affected led many women to take on active roles in the flow of remittances from the West the labour market and to assume the role Bank and Gaza to Palestinians in Egypt. of breadwinner.

• Very few people interviewed said that • Many of the women interviewed engaged they used the bank for saving money. in income-generating activities that Many other means are used. Property and adhere to traditional ideas about women’s gold are the most common means of sav- roles that are prevalent in Palestinian ing money in both rural and urban areas. society and that do not require employ- The use of cooperatives (gamieh) was ment outside of the household. also common. Each member of the coop- erative regularly contributes a set amount. • In both rural and urban areas, women At the end of each month, members may were often responsible for handling take a turn to borrow money. The main Egyptian bureaucratic and administrative purpose of these cooperatives is to pay for matters. For example, in many cases, the school and university fees as well as the wife would be the one to renew residence fees needed for renewing residence per- and Egyptian travel documents and would mits. process the paperwork for children’s schools. • In relation to their struggle to survive, none of the interviewees expressed a pref- • Interviews revealed a tendency on the erence for asking for money rather than part of men who travelled for work, main- earning it. With dignity as a central con- ly PLO army soldiers and officers, to cre- cept, seeking job opportunities takes pri- ate families for themselves wherever they ority over receiving charity. lived. In Egypt, for example, a Palestinian man might marry an Egyptian woman in • The limited opportunities of employment order to obtain legal residence in the and provisions of basic services made country. Multiple marriages were com- Palestinians diversify their search for mon among men as well as women. In income possibilities. In many interviews, some cases, men reported having multiple Palestinians stressed the need to acquire wives in various locations. Wives help to

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create a stable home base. For women, • The PLO played an important role in husbands can play an important role as helping the families of its employees, e.g. breadwinners. A divorced or widowed The Association of Martyred and Injured woman may feel inclined to marry again and the Palestinian unions. The condi- in order to ensure that her family is pro- tions of Palestinians who were dependent vided for. on the PLO for salaries, assistance, schol- arships, and pensions deteriorated sud- • During the course of fieldwork, many denly as the Palestinian National women who had been abandoned or Authority was establsihed in the West divorced when their husbands returned to Bank and Gaza Strip and funding priority Gaza were interviewed. For the most part, was diverted to the state building in 1995. the husbands of these women had worked Salaries were hence reduced and all aid with the PLO and had been offered posts programmes, scholarships and grants with the PA in Gaza. Upon arrival in were halted. Gaza, the husbands established a new beginning — a new career, a new family • The PLO served as a socio-economic and a new home. Upon doing so, many nucleus for those unions and associations severed relations with their families back affiliated with it. It was a base for the in Egypt. In turn, women’s responsibili- community of Palestinians who had ties doubled – they were charged with the worked with the organisation and its insti- tasks of running the house as well as earn- tutions. Several PLO bodies continue to ing an income outside of the home. Some provide services to Palestinians, includ- women interviewees expressed frustra- ing the Labour Union and the Women’s tion at the irresponsibility of their hus- Union. bands, many of whom neglected their household duties in lieu of pursuing their own interests while women were left to Legal Status of Palestinians take up the slack. in Egypt

• In 1960, during the period of unity Palestine Liberation between Egypt and Syria, Decree No 28 Organisation in Egypt was issued providing for travel docu- ments for Palestinians. Meanwhile, Egypt • The PLO’s role in Egypt was extremely said that Palestinians residing on its terri- significant until 1995, when the PA was tories would not lose their Palestinian established in Gaza and the West Bank. nationality. The PLO was not only a national body but also a major employer. Through sev- • On September 11, 1965 Egyptian Foreign eral branches, including Fateh and the Minister Mahmoud Riyad ratified the protocol on the treatment of Palestinians Palestinian Liberation Army - Ain Jalout in Arab states in the Casablanca Protocol. forces, the PLO was the chief employer of The protocol called upon Arab govern- Palestinians in Gaza and Egypt. Many ments to grant Palestinians residence per- Palestinians sought work with the PLO mits, the right to work and the right to because it offered hope of liberation for travel on a par with citizens while at the Palestine. Most importantly, however, same time emphasising the importance of becoming a PLO employee represented a preserving Palestinian identity and main- stable income, a pension, free education taining the refugee status of Palestinians for children at public schools, scholar- in host countries. At least on paper, the ships for university education and sub- members of the Arab League expressed sidised health care at Palestine hospital. their solidarity with and sympathy for In addition, positions with the PLO were Palestinians. However, on a practical prestigious and powerful. basis, the Casablanca Protocol was not SEPTEMBER 2003 13 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 15

upheld and Arab state policies gradually may be renewal every 5-10 years accord- denied the rights of Palestinians. ing to the year of arrival.

• Despite the fact that Palestinians in Egypt • Since obtaining a work permit is not easy, are refugees or displaced persons and especially if the Palestinian worker is not cannot go back to Palestine due to the able to compete over the 10 per cent occupation, obtaining quota for the foreign of Egyptian residence labour, many of those permits is conditioned Protocol on the Treatment of engaged in illegal or upon whether or not Palestinian Refugees: Casablanca unlicensed work said the applicant can pro- Protocol that they apply for a vide a reason for his or (Unofficial translation) – www.Badil.org taxi driver’s license, On the basis of the Charter of the League of her stay in Egypt. One Arab States and its special annex pertaining which is easily can prove this, for to Palestine, and of the LAS Council resolu- obtained, or an agri- example, by providing tion concerning the Palestinian issue, and, in culture labour licence, a document showing particular, of the Special resolution pertain- in order to have an that one is engaged in ing to safeguarding Palestinian existence, official document licensed work or edu- The Council of Foreign Ministers of proving a profession. cation in Egypt, or that Member States agreed, in its meeting in Such official licence is one is married to an Casablanca on 10 September 1965, upon the usually necessary for Egyptian spouse or following regulations, and called upon mem- applying for a residen- has an Egyptian part- ber states to take the necessary measures to cy permit. A letter ner in a business. Of put them into the sphere of implementation: from the Labour (1) Whilst retaining their Palestinian nation- course, not everyone ality, Palestinians currently residing in the Union is also required can meet these condi- land of ______have the right of for the residency per- tions. employment on part with its citizens. mit. (2) Palestinians residing at the moment in • The renwal periods of ______in accordance with the dic- • A major concern residence permits, tates of their interests, have the right to expressed by intervie- which is payable, vary leave and return to this state. wees was the renewal according to the year (3) Palestinians residing in other Arab states of residence permits of arrival. Those who have the right to enter the land of for Palestinian men arrived in Egypt ______and to depart from it, in reaching the age of 21. before and during the accordance with their interests. Their right of entry only gives them the right to stay Many Palestinian men 1948 War, hold for the permitted period and for the pur- are vulnerable to Category A and B. pose their entered for, so long as the deportation at the age Their permits are usu- authorities do not agree to the contrary. of 18, when many are ally renewable every 5 (4) Palestinians who are at the moment in forced to drop out of years. The numbered ______, as well as those who were school because they Palestinians who residing and left to the Diaspora, are given, are unable to pay pri- arrived during the upon request, valid travel documents. The vate school fees, or at 1956 Tripartite War concerned authorities must, wherever they the age of 21 if upon hold Category C and be, issue these documents or renew them graduation from uni- they renew their resi- without delay. versity they cannot dencies every 5 years. (5) Bearers of these travel documents resid- ing in LAS states receive the same treat- find licensed work. As Palestinians who ment as all other LAS state citizens, a result, many arrived during and regarding visa, and residency applications. Palestinians are forced after the 1967 War are On behalf of: to reside illegally in under category D and The Secretary General Egypt until they can H respectively. They Casablanca, 11 September 1965 provide the authorities renew their residen- with an official reason cies every 3 years. For for their stay. Many old people and those who prove continu- young Palestinian men and women marry ous residency in Egypt for the period of Egyptians in order to legalise their resi- ten consecutive years, their residencies dence in the country.

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• There are many restrictions on the free- The Palestinian embassy in Egypt called dom of movement of Palestinians resid- for Palestinian residents to submit appli- ing in Egypt. Article 3 of the Casablanca cations for employment with the PA in Protocol states, “When their interests so Gaza. Many of the former PLO fighters require, Palestinians presently residing in were given priority to return. An estimat- the territory of (…) shall have the right to ed 45,000 Palestinians left for Gaza in leave the territory of this state and return 1995, according to the Palestinian ambas- to it.” However, the situation for those sador to Egypt.5 Those who went to Gaza leaving the country differs from what was in 1995 included those who had been dis- stated and ratified in the protocol. placed after the 1967 War but did not Palestinians who leave Egypt can guaran- include refugees who had been expelled tee that their return will be permitted in from Palestine in 1948. For those dis- one of two ways. They must either return placed persons, going to Gaza meant to Egypt every six months or provide attaining a long-time goal of return to the proof of work or educational enrolment homeland. Return to Gaza and the West abroad, for which a one-year return visa Bank was seen as a way of escaping the may be granted. Any delay in return humiliating illegal status many of them beyond this date, however, results in endured in Egypt. It was also a way of denial of entry. seeking stability in employment and a sense of belonging that had been lacking • As a result of the political position of the during their sojourns in Egypt. Many PLO during the 1990-1991 Gulf War, young Palestinians who had encountered many Palestinians who had Egyptian difficulties in finding jobs and pursuing travel documents and who lived in higher education in Egypt were keen to Kuwait or elsewhere in the Gulf were live in Palestine. denied re-entry to Egypt after the war began. Moreover, in 1995, the Libyan • For almost seven years (1993-2000), President’s decision to send Palestinians Gaza, with its newly returning residing in Libya to Palestine created a Palestinians, underwent the initial phases problem of stranded Palestinians on the of state building. Many young borders (Salloum Camp) who were Palestinians coming from Egypt became denied re-entry to Egypt and denied part of the PLO-PA institutions in Gaza. return to Libya. Others undertook various livelihood activities through family networks. • Being a stateless Palestinian and holding Family in Palestine was an essential only an Egyptian travel document is prob- lematic for many reasons. When arrested, means of facilitating return. Many of Palestinians may be imprisoned or those interviewed in Egypt reported deported regardless of the grounds for receiving remittances from their children their arrest. In some cases, state security in Gaza. officials require the family of the person arrested to apply for visas so that the per- • Palestinians who returned to Gaza were son can be sent to a second country. In issued Palestinian identity cards and trav- most cases, such applications are rejected. el documents upon arrival. These docu- ments were renewable every three years. Palestinian women whose parents lived in Return to Palestine Gaza were able to apply for their children and husbands to join them through the • In 1995, after a series of Palestinian- family reunification programme.6 Other Israeli peace talks, the PA finally estab- Palestinians were able to go to Gaza by lished a base in the West Bank and Gaza. applying for a visiting permit, or tasrieh

5 Interview with the Palestinian ambassador to Egypt, H.E Zuhdi Al- Qudreh in September 23, 2001. 6 Israeli conditions for the right of residence are: 1) that the person was registered in the Israeli census in the newly Occupied Territories in 1967, 2) that the person holds an Israeli identity card, and 3) that he or she has been visiting the territories regularly, at least every six years, since the census was conducted (Hovdenak 1997: 67). The family reunification programme was carried out through those who had Israeli identity cards that later became Palestinian IDs (and were approved by the Israeli authorities). SEPTEMBER 2003 15 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 17

zyara, through family members living in • The Casablanca Protocol, in which Egypt Palestine. The visiting permit is usually and other Arab countries pledged to treat valid for three months and is issued by the Palestinians on a par with nationals by Israeli governor. While interviewing ensuring them their basic rights while Palestinians in Egypt, they reported about preserving Palestinian identity, was not many of their relatives or neighbours who upheld. Security arrests for Palestinians have overstayed their visas after arrival in used to be held at heightened times of Gaza. Today, they cannot leave since they political tensions. Hence, revealing one’s could be penalised or jailed by the Israeli Palestinian identity was not always pru- authorities. In many cases, returning to dent. In addition, the unstable legal status Egypt would be impossible if their resi- of Palestinians in Egypt (i.e. renewal of dence permits had expired after six residency permit, having a work permit or months. The eruption of the Intifada in a student card) often resulted in them con- 2000 further delayed the processing of cealing the fact that they were applications for IDs for the family reuni- Palestinians. Even those who felt strongly fication programme. about their identity often found ways to conceal the fact that they are Palestinians • Difficulties in finding employment and in for various reasons. The majority of the creating bases for stable living conditions Palestinians in Egypt speak with the in addition to discriminatory legal treat- Egyptian dialect. This assimilation was a ment in Egypt strengthened aspirations to survival strategy to be accepted within the return and motivated many Palestinians to host community. join family in Gaza and settle there.

Palestinian Identity Protection of Palestinians • The fieldwork reflected a wide degree of in International Law variation in relation to the question of Palestinian identity. A combination of • The degree to which the rights of legal, political and socio-economic fac- Palestinians are respected in Arab host tors are at play in relation to feelings of countries varies depending on the politics identification with the Palestinian com- of the state and the conventions and pro- munity in Egypt and with Palestine itself. tocols the host countries have ratified. No clear patterns were identified among While agreeing to shelter Palestinian interviewees in relation to identity, since refugees on a temporary basis, Arab states seeking one’s identity is a personal choice have been keen to place responsibility for and involves many factors. In some cases, the Palestinian refugee problem with the Palestinians tended to hide their identity international community. Arab countries and assimilate socially within Egyptian have reminded the international commu- society. In other cases, Palestinians inte- nity of the moral necessity of keeping the grated while more strongly maintaining Palestinian refugee issue on the political Palestinian cultural behaviour and main- agenda and have reiterated the need for taining the Palestinian dialect. implementing international resolutions concerning this group of refugees. • In many households interviewed, when the father of the family was a PLO fight- • The United Nations Relief and Works er, often rarely spending time with his Agency (UNRWA) was created to pro- family, or was busy working in the infor- vide assistance to Palestinian refugees mal sector, memories of Palestine and based on UN Resolution 302 (IV) of knowledge about the history of the fami- 1949. It provided relief and assistance to ly were rarely communicated to the chil- Palestinians who arrived in the countries dren. where it operated, including Jordan, 16 Palestinian Livelihoods in Egypt REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 18

Syria, Lebanon, the West Bank and Gaza. Meanwhile, the United Nations The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defines refugees as follows: “owing Conciliation Commission for Palestine to well-founded fear of being persecuted for (UNCCP) was formed with the adoption reasons of race, religion, nationality, member- of Resolution 194 (III) and was responsi- ship of a particular social group or political ble for the direct protection of refugees’ opinion, is outside the country of his nationali- rights and interests and to implement the ty and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of durable solution of repatriation, resettle- that country; or who, not having a nationality ment and rehabilitation while at the same and being outside the country of his former time ensuring a peaceful settlement. This habitual residence as a result of such events, is dual mandate created a conflict of inter- unable or, owning to such fear, is unwilling to ests for the commissioner, making it diffi- return.” cult if not impossible to protect and pro- Article 1D states that “this Convention shall mote the specific rights of refugees. The not apply to persons who are at present receiv- UNCCP hence failed to achieve its ing from organs or agencies of the United assigned tasks. The UNCCP devolved Nations other than that United Nations High from being an agency charged with the Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) protec- “protection of the rights, property and tion or assistance. interests of the refugees” by the 1952 to When such protection or assistance has ceased little more than a symbol of UN concern for any reason, without the position of such per- for the unresolved Arab-Israeli conflict sons being definitively settled in accordance and responsible to updating the with the relevant resolutions adopted by the Palestinian properties before the eruption General Assembly of the United Nations, these of the 1948 War (Akram 2000). persons shall ipso facto be entitled to the bene- fits of the this Convention.” • The 1951 Refugee Convention Relating for many years the PLO had opposed pro- to the Status of Refugees outlines the spe- viding individual Palestinian refugees cific rights of refugees and prescribes cer- with the status of the 1951 Convention tain standards of treatment for them. because this was considered prejudicial to Article 1D of the convention excluded the inalienable rights of the Palestinian Palestinian refugees who are assisted by people.” (Takkenberg 1998: 125). UNRWA regardless of the fact that only those who live within its areas of opera- • Arab states were instrumental in bringing tion are assisted. It was only in September 2002 that the United Nations High about the unique role of the United Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Nations vis-à-vis the Palestinian refugees reinterpreted Article 1D in order to and advocated the temporary exclusion emphasise the fact that Palestinian from the mandate of UNHCR and from refugees are ipso facto refugees and are to the 1951 Convention. The primary con- be protected by UNHCR if the assistance cern of Arab states was that Palestinian or protection of the other UN body ceases refugees should not be included in (UNHCR 2002). Thus, Palestinians not UNHCR’s mandate but that they should living in the countries where UNRWA receive special United Nations attention. operates fall under UNHCR’s protection The UN recognised that it shouldered a mandate. large part of the responsibility for creat- ing the refugee situation in the first place • Despite the fact that Egypt have acceded by way of General Assembly Resolution to the 1951 Convention in 1981. It had 181 of November 1947, which recom- however “been reluctant to become mended the partition of Palestine (Akram bound by the 1951 Convention, apparent- 2001:173). This concern is based on polit- ly out of a perceived conflict between the ical rather than legal considerations, how- status favoured by the Arab League and ever. The Arab states were afraid that, if that of the Convention, and also because included under the UNHCR mandate, the SEPTEMBER 2003 17 REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 19

Palestinian refugees “would become sub- fore binding even on states that are not merged [with other categories of party to one or other of these conventions refugees] and would be relegated to a (Akram 2000).8 position of minor importance” (Takkenberg 1998:66). In Arab League • In what may concern the regional proto- meetings, Arab states expressed fear that cols, two main principles have influenced the Palestinian plight would not be ade- the attitudes of the Arab League member quately addressed if UNHCR’s durable states vis-à-vis Palestinian refugees. The solutions were applied to Palestinian first principle refers to their support and refugees, such as resettlement to a third sympathy towards the Palestinian cause, country or settlement in the first country on which basis they agreed in the of asylum.7 The Palestinian refugee prob- Casablanca Protocol to grant Palestinian lem, they argued, was to be resolved on refugees residence and the right to work the basis of a special formula of repatria- and travel on the same footing as citizens. tion and compensation rather than the for- The second principle refers to their vow mula commonly accepted for refugees at to preserve Palestinian identity and main- the time, which was resettlement to a tain the refugee status of Palestinians in third state (Akram 2001:173). order to hold Israel responsible for the creation of the Palestinian refugee plight. • The two Conventions on Statelessness of However, the cases that the research team 1954 and 1961 relate to Palestinians who encountered while doing fieldwork and are refugees and are stateless but who are the legal measures taken by Egypt do not unable to obtain the benefits of the 1951 reflect Egypt’s respect for either of these Refugee Convention. The 1954 two principles. Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons has a clause similar to the 1951 Refugee Convention stipulating it “shall not apply to persons who are at Recommendations present receiving from organs or agencies of the United Nations other than the • The ambiguous legal status of United High commissioner for Refugees Palestinians has affected their livelihoods protection or assistance so long as they in many ways. It has rendered their resi- are receiving such protection or assis- dence insecure and in many cases illegal. tance.” The limited applicability of this This has affected employment and educa- article to Palestinian refugees and the pre- tion opportunities, as well as freedom of viously mentioned conventions has movement and association. As a signato- excluded Palestinians from enjoying all ry to many Human Rights agreements and of their basic human rights. Worthy of covenants, Egypt should provide basic note is that fact that the basic definition of rights to Palestinians regardless of politi- “stateless persons” is now considered as cal circumstances. customary international law and is there- • Egypt needs to uphold its commitment to To benefit from these two conventions, “a supporting the Palestinian cause by abid- person must be determined to be stateless, ing by the articles of the 1965 Casablanca that is a person who is not considered a Protocol and by treating Palestinians as national by any state under the operation of its nationals until they are able to return to law” Palestine.

7 The review of the preparatory work has also revealed that the international community did not decide to exclude Palestinian refugees from the general legal regime for the protection of refugees. Although the Arab states did not consider themselves primarily responsible for financing the relief effort, they were concerned that assistance or protection be extended to the Palestinian refugees irrespective of whether relief by the United Nations would continue to be provided. They, therefore, made it clear that the provision, included upon their request in the draft convention, was only to exclude Palestinian refugees temporarily (Takkenberg 1998: 66). 8 “Unfortunately, adherence to the 1954 Convention is far more limited than in respect of the 1951 Convention” (Takkenberg 1998: 186). As of September 29, 1994, according to Takkenberg, based on information provided by the Centre for Documentation on Refugees, only three member states of the Arab League are party to the Convention; Algeria, Libya and Tunisia. (Takkenberg 1998: 186). 18 Palestinian Livelihoods in Egypt REPORT-E.NG 9/4/2003 12:37 PM Page 20

• Palestinians need to be permitted to use ghourba who envisage return to their their Egyptian travel documents to move homeland. There is a need for increased freely in accordance with the 1954 attention on the part of government bod- Convention Relating to the Status of ies concerned with Palestinian refugee Stateless Persons and the 1965 Arab issues, including members of the Refugee League Casablanca Protocol. Re-entry to Working Group (RWG) — Canada, the Egypt should be an inherent right for “gavel-holder” of the RWG, as well as those holding Egyptian travel documents. Norway, Italy, France, Sweden, the US — The Egyptian government should also and other donor countries involved in the take steps to facilitate the renewal of res- rehabilitation of social and physical con- idence permits for Palestinians. ditions of Palestinian refugees. Their help is needed in lobbying the Egyptian gov- • Particularly given the September 2000 ernment and identifying ways to amelio- reinterpretation of Article 1D of the 1951 rate their living conditions while not Convention Relating to the Status of jeopardising the right of return. The reha- Refugees, the UNHCR should provide bilitation of the Palestinians is necessary international protection to Palestinians for the state-building of Palestine when without jeopardising their right of return. they return and is essential for their liveli- hoods and survival strategies as long as • In case national protection fails, the need they are outside their homeland. for international legal protection to oblige states to uphold certain principles with • As there has been an agreement between regards to their treatment of refugees. the Palestinian Authority and the International protection would offer Egyptian government on preparing stu- Palestinians the protection rights they dents for the state-building process, by currently lack (i.e. socio-economic and admitting them to all faculties at the uni- legal). This does not connote permanent versities, the need to coordinate closely settlement Tawteen that might compro- with the Palestinian Authority to prepare mise their right to repatriate to their Palestinians living in Egypt for the return. places of origin. Funding could be requested from coun- tries in support of the Palestinian state-to- • The United Nations Office of High be. Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Amnesty International and • There is a need for coordination among other concerned human rights groups Palestinian unions and associations as should act on behalf of Palestinians well as cooperation with Egyptian NGOs. detained in Egyptian prisons and at It would be useful to establish an NGO Egyptian borders. consortium with branches throughout Egypt to fundraise for and develop pro- • Donor countries have been generous jects for Palestinians. These projects funding the state-building projects in the could include literacy classes, vocational West Bank and Gaza Strip ever since the skills training, an employment network Palestinian Authority was established. linking employers and job seekers, chil- Part of the Palestinian state-building is dren’s activities, micro-credit pro- the rehabilitation of the Palestinians in grammes and income generating projects.

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References to Executive Summary

Abdel-Qader, Hala (2001), ‘Statelessness in Hanafi, Sari and St Martin, Olivier (1996) Egypt’, paper presented at the regional ‘Problematic of Borders’ Dwellers- The Workshop, Statelessness in Arab World, Ayia Condition of Palestinians in North Sinai’, in Napa, Cyprus, organized by Shaml. Palestinians in Egypt, Shaml, Ramalla.

Akram, Susan (2000), ‘Reinterpreting Kassim, Anis (1987) ‘The Palestinian: From Palestinian refugee rights under international Hyphenated to Integrated Citizens’, in the law and a framework for durable solutions’, Palestine Year Book of International Law, Vol. Badil, http://www.badil.org or in Naseer Aruri, IV, 1987-8, Page 297. ed. (2001) Palestinian Refugees: The Right of Return, Pluto Press, pp 165–194. Orabi, Osama (1996) ‘Canada Camp and the Tragedy of the Palestinian migration’, Samed El Akram, Susan (2000), Temporary Protection and Iqtisadi journal, Vol 18, No.106, Amman, its Applicability to the Palestinian Refugee Case, Jordan. Badil- Information and Discussion Brief, Issue No 4. Raie, Lamia (1995) Forgotten population: a case study of Palestinians in Cairo, MA thesis, Bahgat, Hossam (2001), ‘Living on the margins, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, A parliamentary proposal brings the long- AUC, Cairo. ignored issue of citizenship to the fore’, in Cairo Times, Vol. 5, issue10, 10-16 May, Cairo. Rempel, Terry (2000), ‘The United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Bloch, Alice (1999) ‘Carrying Out a Survey of Protection, and a Durable Solution for Refugees: Some Methodological Considerations Palestinian Refugees’, Badil- Information and and Guidelines’, in Journal of Refugee Studies, Discussion Brief, issue no 5. Vol. 12, No 4. Sarraj, Nadera et al. (1986), Arab Palestinians in Brand, Laurie (1991), Palestinians in the Arab Egypt, Dar Al-Mustakbal, Cairo. World, Institute for Palestinian Studies, Beirut, Takkenberg, Lex (1998) The Status of Lebanon. Palestinian Refugees in the International Law, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Chambers, Robert (1995), Poverty and liveli- hoods: Whose reality counts?, Institute of UNICEF (1995), ‘Analysis of the Conditions of Development Studies, London. Palestinian Women and Children in Egypt’, UNICEF, Egypt (in ). Chambers, Robert (1999), Whose reality counts? Putting the first last, Intermediate Technology UNHCR (2002), Note on the Applicability of publications, London- UK. Article 1D of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees to Palestinian Refugees. Coleman, J. (1990), ‘Social Capital’, in Foundations of Social Theory, Cambridge, MA, Yassin, Abdul Qader (1996) Palestinians in Harvard University Press. Egypt, in Samed Al-Iqtisadi journal, Vol 18, No. 106, Amman, Jordan. Dajani, Maha (1986), The Institutionalization of Palestinian Identity in Egypt, Cairo Papers in Yassin Abdul Qader (1996a) ‘Palestinians in Social Science, Vol 9, Monograph 3, Fall, AUC Egypt’ in Palestinians in Egypt, Shaml, Ramalla. press.

Gilen, Signe; Are Hovdenak; Rania Maktabi; Jon Pederson and Dag Tuastad (1994) Finding ways: © Oroub EL ABED Palestinian coping strategies in changing envi- September 2003 ronments, Fafo, Norway. For comments Hanafi, Sari (1997) Entre Deux Monde: Les and further information Hommes d’Affaires Palestiniens de la Diaspora e-mail: [email protected] et la Construction de l’Entité Palestinienne, or contact CEDEJ, Egypte. FMRS at Tel.: (+202) 797 6626

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Palestinian Livelihoods in Egypt