Clean Air in Denmark Dedicated Efforts Since 1970

CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK DEDICATED EFFORTS SINCE 1970

CHALLENGES, SOLUTIONS AND RESULTS Title: Clean Air in Denmark – Dedicated eff orts since 1970 – Challenges, Solutions and Results Authors: Professor Ole Hertel, Senior Scientist Thomas Ellermann, Senior Advisor Ole-Kenneth Nielsen, Senior Scientist Steen Solvang Jensen Layout: Graphic Group, AU Silkeborg Publisher: Aarhus University, DCE - Danish Centre for Environment and Energy – in cooperation with the Danish Ministry of Environment’s Environmental Protection Agency & State of Green Financial support: Danish Ministry of Environment, EPA ISBN: 978-87-7156-143-2 Number of pages: 48 ©Copyright Aarhus University, DCE – Danish Centre for Environment and Energy 2015 Reproduction permitted provided the source is explicitly acknowledged

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Front page photo: The Energy Tower. Company KARA/NOVOREN’s new combined heat and power (CHP) plant in Roskilde, just west of Copenhagen. The new Waste-to-Energy plant uses the most up-to-date technology, thereby exploiting energy from waste a lot better while further benefi tting air quality and the environment as such. The architecture by Dutch architect Erick van Egeraat is a signifi cant part of the construction. © Jeppe Sørensen, KARA/NOVEREN Photo this page: A day at the beach at Amager, 5 km from the city center of Copenhagen, ©Amager Strandpark I/S FOREWORD | 3

FOREWORD

ECONOMIC GROWTH AND CLEAN AIR FOR ALL Economic growth delivers better living 600.000 tons in 1970 to 13,000 tons in for millions around the world through 2014. Emissions of dioxins have decreased industrial development, better transport, by about 70 % and the use of ozone-layer- modern energy systems and more. But depleting substances as well as lead in fuel oft en it also causes serious problems due to have been abandoned, to mention a few of air pollution. the results.

Air pollution as a side-eff ect to economic In the same period the Danes have enjoyed growth and development is currently an economic growth of 215 %. threatening citizen’s health, and leading to very signifi cant costs and serious One of the main outstanding air pollution environmental damages all around the world. problems in Denmark is emissions of ammonia from pig production. But the It is my hope that readers may fi nd But the connection between growth and development is going in the right direction. inspiration for concrete solutions to air increasing air pollution can be overcome. From 1985 to 2014, as the Danish pig pollution problems, which can assist in production increased with 40 %, the emissions “jumping the curve”, and breaking the link Denmark has been a fi rst mover in of nitrogen were reduced with 40 %. between economic growth and air pollution. combatting air pollution since the 1970s. We have brought down air pollution from Th e benefi ts and possibilities of these front industrial and energy production to a runner eff orts are now apparent to us, and minimum. Emissions of sulphur dioxide with this publication, the aim is to share the Kirsten Brosbøl have decreased from approximately lessons learned. Danish Minister for the Environment 4 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

CONTENTS

6-9 A MULTI-FACETTED PROBLEM WITH SOLUTIONS

10-11 FROM EMISSIONS TO IMPACT

12-15 DANISH ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION

16-19 DANISH ENERGY POLICY

20-21 SULPHUR AND ACIDIFICATION

22-23 CARBON MONOXIDE AND HEALTH

24-29 NITROGEN – EUTROPHICATION AND HEALTH CONTENTS | 5

30-35 AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AND HEALTH

36-37 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND OZONE FORMATION

38-39 ORGANIC HARZARDOUS COMPOUNDS

40-41 HEAVY METALS AND HEALTH

42-43 CFC’S AND THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER

44-45 GREENHOUSE GASES AND A CHANGING CLIMATE

46-47 SUMMARY

48 CONTACTS

A MULTI-FACETTED PROBLEM WITH SOLUTIONS | 7

A MULTI-FACETTED PROBLEM WITH SOLUTIONS

Impacts of air pollution include; health Air pollution abatement is a complex task, eff ects related to episodic events as since airborne pollutants are emitted from well as to long-term exposure, loss of multiple man-made as well as natural biodiversity due to acidifi cation and sources and aff ect health, climate and the eutrophication, degradation of the environment on scales ranging from local stratospheric ozone layer that protects to global. Th e eff ective abatement of air life on earth from UV radiation, loss of pollution levels calls for holistic solutions crops due to ozone stress in the lower and cooperation on the national, European atmosphere as well as climate change and even global scale. Th ese solutions must due to releases of climate forcers in include a range of initiatives that promote the form of greenhouse gasses and certain behaviours, the development of particles. It is important to understand new technologies, and a move towards the nature of all these eff ects and how more environmentally friendly products. these are related to man-made releases In Denmark, some of the environmental in order to select the right solutions – problems relating to air pollution have been locally as well as globally – in order to resolved over the past few decades, whereas avoid that regulation aimed at solving/ others persist and will require further reducing one type of impact does attention in the years to come. Th is book not enhance other negative impacts. is devoted to describing these problems, Acidifi cation is of minor importance in and how they have been handled over the Denmark due to high content of calcium past few decades. We focus on describing carbonate in Danish soils, but all the the actions and initiatives that have been other environmental eff ects have been successful and eff ective in the abatement of or are still of concern in Denmark. air pollution in Denmark, and at the same Children is one the most sensitive groups time we identify the main parties – such as concerning air pollution. Photo: Colourbox. ministries, politicians, industry, agriculture and NGOs – that have been involved.

ACIDIFICATION When acid gases and particles are deposited reductions in Danish sulphur emissions on the ground, they can cause problems for over the past three decades have thus been the local ecosystems. Th e acids can disturb an important factor in the reduction of this the balance of the ecosystem, and lead to problem. wash out of essential nutrients from the soil. In the 1970s and 1980s, the acidifi cation of HUMAN HEALTH Swedish and Norwegian lakes was a serious It is well established that human exposure to The political ambition is to make Copenhagen problem that had to be treated by liming the air pollution can lead to both short-term and the world's leading bicycle city by the end of 2015, thereby also improving the air quality in lakes, i.e. adding calcium carbonate. Th e long-term health eff ects in the population. the Danish capital. This goal is defi nitely within high content of calcium carbonate in most Short-term eff ects are the result of episodic reach. 45 percent of all Copenhageners use Danish soils means that acidifi cation has events of elevated air pollution levels, bicycles to go to work, school, university etc., never been as severe a problem in Denmark whereas long-term eff ects are the results of the city off ers more than 300 km’s of bicycle as it has been in Sweden and Norway. long-term exposure to air pollution. Th e paths, and the popular “free token bikes” give the visitors an opportunity to get around on However, Danish sulphur emissions have in latter could for example occur due to the two wheels most of the year. Photo: Kasper the past contributed to these problems in the city centre location of one’s residence, but Thye, www.copenhagenmediacenter.com other Nordic countries, and the substantial also be the result of long-range transport

A MULTI-FACETTED PROBLEM WITH SOLUTIONS | 9

of pollution to the entire country. Most of input has been increasing as inputs from on human health, the high concentrations these negative health eff ects are believed these two sources have declined over the that result during these episodes may also to be associated with particle pollution. past three decades. aff ect vegetation and crops during the However, ground level ozone, heavy metals, growth season, leading to reduced crop various organic pollutants and nitrogen Th e input of atmospheric nitrogen to yield. Studies from America indicate that oxides also play a role. Although pollutant Danish terrestrial natural environments US losses in crop yield are very substantial, levels in Denmark are generally moderate, is generally high, due to high emissions however ozone levels in Denmark are more it is evident that negative health outcomes of ammonia from local agriculture in moderate, and their impact on crops is thus amongst the Danish population have been combination with the long-range transport also smaller. and still are associated with air pollution. of nitrogen from the European continent. Th ese negative health outcomes include In 2010, the European Environment CLIMATE CHANGE hospital admission, days of restricted Agency estimated that more than 40 % of Th e greenhouse eff ect is essential to life activity level, premature death related natural environments in European Union on Earth - it is the greenhouse eff ect that to cardiovascular and respiratory illness Member States have critical atmospheric keeps temperatures on Earth at a level and diabetes, as well as various types of nitrogen load exceedances, with Denmark that supports living organisms. Th e Earth cancer. Th e highest air pollution exposures amongst the most aff ected due to its high is to some extent a self-regulating system. generally occur in urban areas. However, atmospheric nitrogen loads. However, man-made releases of gases the contribution from long-range transport and particles to the atmosphere in recent means that exposure to airborne fi ne fraction DEGRADATION OF STRATOSPHERIC decades have aff ected our climate by particle pollution is fairly homogeneous OZONE increasing the greenhouse eff ect. Th e scale over the entire country, and is only slightly Th e ozone layer in the stratosphere protects of this eff ect is global, but in recent years elevated in cities. life on earth from harmful UV radiation there has been signifi cant focus on the local emitted by the sun. In the 1980s, it was fi ngerprints concerning releases of climate EUTROPHICATION revealed that man-made emissions to the forcing atmospheric species. Excess nutrient input (eutrophication) atmosphere of long-lived gases such as strongly aff ects the natural environment. CFCs (commonly known as Freon) can OUTLINE OF THIS BOOK In marine coastal waters, algal blooming seriously degrade the ozone layer. CFCs Th e fi rst chapter of this book describes a may be followed by severe oxygen defi cits in were used as, for example, insulation in chain of events that begins with activities bottom waters. When the algae die and are refrige-rators and windows. It became in society, which lead to atmospheric deposited on the ocean fl oor, oxygen in the evident that the degradation of the ozone emissions, from which follow an impact bottom waters is depleted by the degradation layer was aff ecting health, nature and the on health, the environment and climate, of the dead algae. In severe episodes, this climate. During recent decades, initiatives leading to mankind’s response as we try may lead to the death of fi sh and benthic have been taken to fi nd substitutes for to prevent negative impacts from taking fauna (animals living on the bottom) in the CFCs and other gases that may degrade the place. Th e following two chapters concern coastal zone. Oxygen depletion in bottom stratospheric ozone layer. environmental regulation and energy policy waters has been observed in Inner Danish in a Danish context. Th e subsequent nine waters almost every year since the 1980s. CROP LOSS chapters outline the specifi c pollutants Both waste water input and surface water Ground level ozone is an air pollutant that that have negative impacts, and detail the run-off generally constitute the principle has a negative health impact, but also aff ects abatement strategies that have been carried source of nitrogen to Inner Danish waters. vegetation. In the lower atmosphere, ozone out in Denmark. Th e pollutants (and their Th e relative importance of the atmospheric is formed through reactions involving eff ects) are sulphur (acidifi cation), carbon nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the monoxide (health), nitrogen (eutrophication presence of sunlight. Denmark is located and health), airborne particles (health at fairly high latitude, which limits the and climate), organic pollutants (health intensity of solar radiation. Th is means that and climate), ground level ozone (health), ground level ozone does not build up in high organic hazardous pollutants (health and concentrations locally, as for example occurs the food web), heavy metals (health), CFC in Southern Europe. High concentrations gases (degradation of stratospheric ozone), For terrestrial (living or growing on land) of ground level ozone appear in Denmark and greenhouse gases (climate). Th e last ecosystems, high nutrient input above a certain ecosystem-specifi c critical load will in (and the rest of Scandinavia) when high chapter of the book provides a summary of the long term lead to a reduction in ecosystem pressure systems over central Europe force the lessons learned in Denmark relating to biodiversity. Photo: Kirsten Bang. air masses north. In addition to impacting the abatement of Danish air pollution. 10 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

FROM EMISSIONS TO IMPACT

Air pollution has various negative Meteorology, and especially wind and climate. In the following chapters the impacts on health, the environment, conditions, governs the dispersion and pollutant groups will be handled one by and climate – impacts that depend on transport of pollutants. Some pollutants one, and discussed in relation to Danish many factors and take place on a wide are emitted directly to the atmosphere abatement strategies and how successful range of temporal and spatial scales. For from either natural or man-made sources, these have been. many of the impacts several pollutants whereas others are formed through play a role, and in some cases it may be chemical reactions between pollutants POLLUTANT SOURCES diffi cult to determine which of these has that take place in the atmosphere. Air pollutants may be emitted from com- played the most important role in the Some pollutants have extremely short bustion, evaporation, or biological processes. specifi c context of interest. atmospheric residence times, whereas others remain for decades. Concentrations EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION of some pollutants may be dominated by Any combustion, whether it relates to local emissions, whereas those of others industry, energy production or wild fi re, Th e areas through which human activities may be governed by long transport. Air leads to the formation of new chemical lead to environmental pressures in the form pollutants may leave the atmosphere compounds. Th e main constituent of fuel, of air pollutants are: agricultural activities, following chemical degradation, or they carbon, reacts with oxygen and forms industry, transport, energy production, may be deposited on the Earth’s surface carbon dioxide. In addition, some of the and activities in private households. Th ese following scavenging – either through atmospheric nitrogen “burns” and forms activities lead to the release of air pollutants direct deposition when they come into nitrogen oxides. If the combustion is to the ambient environment, introducing contact with the surface, or via cloud and incomplete, it can lead to the formation of climate forcing aerosols to the atmosphere rain droplets. Pollutant levels are thus the carbon monoxide, soot and other particles, and resulting in the exposure of humans and result of competition between emissions, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as the environment to gas and particle pollution, the chemical formation processes that various volatile organic compounds. Most and the degradation of stratospheric ozone. builds concentrations up, scavenging by fuels contain impurities. An important Th ese outcomes can lead to impacts on chemical degradation and deposition that impurity in relation to air pollution is health, the environment and climate in reduce concentrations, and dispersion sulphur, which is released from combustion the form of climate change, degradation of and transport, which dilute pollutants as sulphur dioxide, whilst incombustible the ozone layer, negative health eff ects in or removing them from a specifi c area. constituents like heavy metals may also be the population, eutrophication (nutrient Th e vastly diff erent paths followed by emitted with exhaust gases. enrichment) problems in marine and diff erent pollutants during their lifetime terrestrial ecosystems, loss of crops, and the in the atmosphere also aff ect their impact degradation of buildings and materials. in relation to health, the environment

Modifi ed version of the DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures State Pressures, State, Impact, and Response) Sulphur dioxide, Carbon Human exp. gases and conceptual model developed by the Dutch monoxide, Nitrogen, particles, Nature exp. Particles, Organic ozone, Dep. acid gases environmental research institute RIWM in the pollutants, Heavy metals, and particles, Climate 1980s. Societal conditions (such as economic, CFC’s, Greenhouse forcers, Degraders organizational, social, technological, and gases stratos. ozone physical factors) aff ect agriculture, energy/ heat production, households, industry and transport and thus mediate emissions of atmospheric pollutants. These emissions lead Impacts to concentrations, exposures and depositions Driving forces Response Climate change, Human of pollutants that aff ect climate, human Agriculture, Energy, Health, Eutrophication, health, materials, the environment, and Goals and regulation Households, Industry, Crops Loss, Degradation measures agricultural production. Transport of buildings and materials EMISSIONS BY EVAPORATION Emission and deposition data concerning nitrogen oxides in Denmark and selected neighboring countries in 2011 (Schultz et al. 2013). Deposition Volatile fuels may evaporate during transport or refuelling, data are obtained from EMEP (The European Monitoring and Evaluation or due to fuel spillages or incomplete combustion. Various Programme) model calculations performed at EMEP MSC-West at the construction-related processes such as treatment of Norwegian Meteorological Institute. surfaces with paint and varnish can lead to the evaporation Emissions Deposited Total deposition in of volatile organic compounds. Manure from animal (Gg NO2) nationally country production in agriculture leads to the evaporation of (100 Mg N) (100 Mg N) ammonia and methane from manure storage facilities and Denmark 126 4 186 stables, as well as during the application of manure to fi elds. Sweden 145 62 799 EMISSIONS FROM BIOLOGICAL SOURCES Norway 178 47 437 Methane, nitrogen monoxide and nitrous oxide are United Kingdom 1033 269 633 formed in biological processes in wetlands. Man-made Germany 1293 605 1710 changes in land use aff ect these emissions, and the same Belgium 210 16 142 applies to evaporation of volatile organic compounds from vegetation. Th e latter is a major source of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere and takes place from vegetation in natural Emission and deposition data concerning ammonia and its reaction and semi-natural ecosystems as well as from crops in product ammonium in Denmark and selected neighboring countries agricultural fi elds. Th e border between natural and man- in 2011 (Schultz et al., 2013). Deposition data are obtained from EMEP made emissions is thus not clear-cut. model calculations performed at EMEP MSC-West at the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS Emissions Deposited Total deposition (Gg NH ) nationally in country Th e amount of air pollution emitted in a given country 3 (100 Mg N) (100 Mg N) depends on a number of factors: the size of the country, the degree of industrialization, the energy sources available, the Denmark 74 138 272 level of agricultural activity, the climatic conditions, and so Sweden 52 184 637 on. Th e fraction of the pollution that deposits inside the Norway 26 102 246 country from which it has been emitted depends likewise United Kingdom 290 838 1187 on several factors. Amongst these factors are the rate of Germany 563 112 3143 chemical conversion, the solubility of the pollutant and its Belgium 67 128 295 reaction products, as well as meteorological parameters such as precipitation, wind speed, and the prevailing wind directions. Th e two tables below show two sets of data concerning reactive nitrogen compounds for Denmark and some of its surrounding countries. Th e distinct diff erence between these two groups in the fraction of locally emitted nitrogen that is also deposited locally is mainly a result of a signifi cant diff erence in deposition velocity. Nitrogen oxides need to be chemically converted to compounds that are quickly deposited, before they are being scavenged from the atmosphere. Th is means that nitrogen oxides from Danish sources are mainly transported out of the country before depositing, whereas ammonia deposits quickly – indeed about 20 % is typically deposited within 2 km of the source. We will return to these compounds in the following chapters of the report. Photo: Søren Kjeldgaard, Aarhus University. Kjeldgaard, Søren Photo: Photo: Jesper Rais, Aarhus University. Not acceptable, more shallbedone Not quite acceptable, more shouldbedone The level isacceptable Greenhouse gasses Ammonia Particles Dioxins Volatile hydrocarbons, VOCs Polycyclic hydrocarbons, PAHs Impacts Carbon monoxide, CO Targets Nitrogen dioxide, NO Lead, Pb Sulphur dioxide, SO Status for airpollutioncontrol 2 2                    DANISH ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION | 13

DANISH ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION

Regulation of air pollution in Denmark during the past two decades has been the result of a combination of Danish initiatives, and the implementation of international conventions and EU directives.

AIR POLLUTION FROM INDUSTRY dioxide and nitrogen oxide cause signifi cant Th e initiatives taken to reduce emissions AND ENERGY damage to ecosystems in sensitive areas, from power plants have been implemented in Already in the late 1960s, sulphur dioxide when critical loads are exceeded. several steps, including the implementation was recognised worldwide as an air pollutant of environmental taxes for sulphur dioxide with various negative impacts on health In 1990 the Danish Ministry of and nitrogen oxides. One of the results has and the environment. Th is led in 1972 to Environment issued a comprehensive set of been that sulphur dioxide concentrations in the regulation of the sulphur content of industrial air pollution control guidelines, Denmark today are a factor of 20 lower than fuel oils in Denmark. Th rough the Danish which were revised in 2001. In parallel, the levels in 1982 (see also chapter 6). Environmental Protection Act of 1974, the the EU emission requirements for large authorities were empowered to restrict for combustion plants was introduced and In 2001, the EU established the NEC Directive example air emissions from the industry and BAT (Best Available Technology) were (National Emission Ceilings). Th e NEC energy sectors, and the Act proved to be an imposed by the EU directive on Integrated Directive was used to set reduction targets effi cient instrument for reducing local air Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) for four pollutants known to play a central emissions, associated health risks, and odours. for large combustion sources as well as role in acidifi cation, eutrophication and the Denmark joined the Geneva Convention on other major polluting industries. elevation of ground-level ozone pollution, Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution in to be fulfi lled by 2010. Th ese four pollutants 1979 under the United Nations Economic Th rough the introduction of end-of- were sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile Commission for Europe. Th e background pipe technologies and the regulation of organic compounds and ammonia. to the introduction of the convention is the sulphur content of fuels, this led to a that it was recognised that acidifi cation and signifi cant reduction in emissions from Desulphurisation at power plants and eutrophication due to the emission of sulphur Danish power plants. the purifi cation of fl ue gas from waste incineration plants have, together with the rules set out in the Danish industrial

Residential emissions are the only source that has increased emissions since 1990 due to increase air pollution control guidelines, reduced in numbers of woodstoves and their use. Although woodstoves are only a supplementary heat emissions of heavy metals such as lead, source in about one third of all homes and only used during winter emissions still make up cadmium, nickel, copper and mercury. about 2/3 of national PM emissions, more than 4/5 of PAH emissions and more than half of 2.5 Environmental problems with heavy dioxin emissions. The Danish Ministry of Environment regulated the particle emissions for new metals are limited in Denmark, compared woodstoves by executive order in 2008 leading to decrease in emissions since 2008, and has with many other countries. carried out several awareness campaigns of how to light a fi re with low particle emissions.

The Danish company Morsø has been making cast-iron wood burning stoves for more than In 1976, a serious accident at a factory in 150 years. Its newest batch, the Morsø 6600, is eco-labelled with the Nordic “Svanemærket”. Seveso, Northern Italy, led to the release of Pictured left is the Morsø 6670 stove. Morsø’s wood-burning stoves meet some of the strictest environmental standards in the world. In particular, they meet the Norwegian Standard NS large amounts of dioxin to the surrounding 3058/3059, which sets out stringent requirements on minimising particle emissions. environment. Th is resulted in severe damage Photo: Morsø. to vegetation and animals as well as humans in the area around the plant. Th e Danish 14 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

Ministry of Environment reacted to this national Action Plans for the Aquatic In 1990, Denmark introduced strengthened severe incident by closing a number of minor Environment have been implemented since emission requirements for road traffi c waste incinerator plants in Denmark that the late 1980s, in order to reduce nutrients vehicles, forcing all new cars to be fi tted were operating without fl ue gas purifi cation, inputs to the aquatic environment. Despite with catalytic converters in order to reduce and by tightening the general requirements long-term eff orts to reduce emissions, emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile for Danish waste incineration plants. Th e critical loads of nitrogen are still exceeded organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. EU has subsequently adopted very strict in many areas of Denmark (see chapter 8). In 1993, a similar regulation was adopted emission limits, and similar requirements by the EU, and the EU emission standards have accordingly been imposed on Danish TRANSPORTATION AND AIR POLLUTION for road traffi c vehicles were progressively industries and incinerators. During the 1970s, there was increasing strengthened over subsequent years. Th is awareness in Denmark and worldwide regulation has again led to improvements AGRICULTURE AND AIR POLLUTION concerning the negative impact of lead in air quality close to roads and in urban Based on special Danish guidelines, on health. It was shown that lead aff ects areas in Denmark. Similarly, the fuel ammonia evaporation from agriculture the nervous system, and this fi nding led content of benzene, sulphur and aromatics is regulated in order to reduce releases to pressure for regulation of the use of has been regulated. As a result of vehicle from ammonia sources. Th e main aim lead in petrol. In 1978, the fi rst of many emission standards, all new cars and vans here is to reduce nitrogen deposition to EU regulations on lead in petrol was in EU have been equipped with particle nearby sensitive ecosystems. Odours from introduced. Th e result has been that lead fi lters since 2010-2011, to be extended to livestock have also been regulated in order concentrations in Danish urban streets trucks and busses from 2014-2015. Th e use to reduce odour nuisance for those living have decreased by a factor of about one of particle fi lters is leading to signifi cant in the vicinity of sources. A number of thousand (see chapter 12). reductions of particles from exhaust gases.

MOST IMPORTANT DANISH LEGISLATION ON AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE GAS CONTROL:

1970s 2010s Limits to sulphur in oil (1972) and lead Reduction of nitrogen oxides from gas Low Emission Zones (LEZ) in large cities in petrol (1977). engines and gas turbines (1990). (2010). Environmental Protection Act enters Regulation of waste incineration plants No purchase and annual owner taxes into force (1974). (1991). for electric vehicles (2010). Geneva Convention on Long-range Air quality limit values for ozone (1994). Particle fi lters on new cars and vans Transboundary Air Pollution (1979). Integrated Pollution Prevention and (2010-2011). 1980s Control (1996). Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) Air quality limit values for sulphur Reduction of emission from off -road for Baltic Sea and North Sea (2010). dioxide and particulates (1983). vehicles (1998). National air quality plan for NO2 (2011). Reduction of sulphur dioxide from Tax on sulphur (1998). 5.75 % biofuels for transport (2012). power plants (1984), and sulphur 2000s Industrial Emission Directive, e.g. dioxide and nitrogen oxides (1989). National Emission Ceilings (2001). regulation of large combustion plants, Air quality limit values for nitrogen waste incineration and other major Air Quality directives adapted (2001, dioxide (1987). polluting industries. 2008). Regulation of waste incineration plants Particle emission standard for (1987). woodstoves (2008). 1990s IMO regulation of SOx and NOx in ship Catalytic converters in new cars (1990). emissions (2008). Reduction of emissions of sulphur National air quality plan (2008). dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particles, from large combustion plants (1990). DANISH ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION | 15

Th e Danish Ministry of Environment has supported the preparation and implementation of a number of action plans relating to traffi c and the environment for local government, e.g. the promotion of bicycles. About 45 % of all commuter trips within Copenhagen are by bicycle, and this fraction is planned to be increased to 50 % by 2020. In addition, a shift to alternative fuels is being promoted. In recent years electric vehicles have been promoted by their exempting them from purchase and annual owner taxes for the period 2010-2015, and by providing free parking for electric cars in some cities. Since 2012, all petrol and diesel for transport sold in Denmark has been required to contain an average of 5.75 % biofuel due to EU regulation, and this is expected to increase to 10 % by 2020. International ship emissions aff ecting Denmark are regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the content of sulphur in marine fuels for use in Danish harbours are due to EU regulation.

INTEGRATED AIR QUALITY MONITORING

Monitoring of air quality in Denmark The Danish Ministry of Environment introduced Low Emission Zones (LEZ) in the four largest cities is based on a combination of air quality in 2008-2010, requiring older trucks and busses to be equipped with particles fi lters to reduce measurements and air quality modelling, particle exhaust in the urban area. A subsidy scheme for implementing particles fi lters supported taking advantage of both methods for a cost- the regulation. Photo: Britta Munter, Aarhus University. eff ective programme. Measurements are used to study trends in actual concentrations and depositions at monitoring stations, and model calculations are used to air quality limit values for sulphur dioxide MODELLING OF AIR QUALITY obtain information on concentrations and dust, and limit values for nitrogen Th e Danish Ministry of Environment has, and depositions at locations where dioxide and ozone were subsequently in cooperation with expert institutions, measurements are not performed. Both issued. developed a capacity for air quality model measured and modelled data are used for simulations for decision-support. Th is source attribution, and the modelled data Since 1996 the Danish air quality monitoring constitutes a signifi cant supplement to additionally for studying expected trends program has, in accordance with the EU Air the measurement program. Air quality and future scenarios, including the impact Quality Directive, studied 13 pollutants in modelling provides information on the of implemented and planned as well as order to check compliance with air quality geographical distribution of pollutants, potential future regulations. limit values. In 2013 Denmark was only enables source apportionment, provides exceeding the annual nitrogen dioxide short-term forecasts and health MONITORING OF AIR QUALITY limit value at one station, in a busy street impact assessments, and allows for the

Beginning in 1981, the Danish Ministry of in Copenhagen, however the PM10 limit future impact of scenarios relating to the Environment has, together with expert value has been exceeded in recent years. In diff erent policy options to be assessed. institutions, built up a national air quality response to these exceedences, the Danish Measurements and model results are made monitoring program that measures key Ministry of the Environment has prepared freely available to the public via TV, the pollutants in urban and rural areas. In Air Quality Action Plans for PM10 and internet, and through publications. 1983, the Danish Ministry issued the fi rst nitrogen dioxide in Denmark. Danish energy policy is a success. A signifi cant proportion (in 2014 around 40 %) of the Danish electricity is generated by wind turbines, mainly in off - shore parks. Danish wind turbine producers are key players on the international marked due to their high quality turbines. Biogas and solar energies are contributing to a decreasing dependence on fossil fuels. DANISH ENERGY POLICY | 17

DANISH ENERGY POLICY

Gross energy consumption (PJ/year) 1000 Renewable energy Waste 800 Natural gas Coal and coke An active Danish energy policy that Oil focuses on energy effi ciency, energy 600 diversifi cation and the development of renewable energy has resulted in a 400 resilient energy system in Denmark, with co-benefi ts for both climate 200 and the environment. This policy has also produced a growing industry of 0 environmentally friendly products 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 within a number of sectors, including Year wind energy, biogas, solar energy, and From the end of 1950s up to 1970, Danish gross energy consumption more than doubled, with a insulating materials. high dependence on imported oil. Since then it has been stabilised and diversifi ed.

THE OIL CRISES OF THE 1970S Th e implementation of nuclear power and development of new environmentally Denmark’s energy policy took shape aft er production in Denmark was part of the friendly energy technologies, and the the oil crises in the 1970s. When oil prices 1976 national energy plan, but this was ambitious use of energy taxes aimed at rose in 1973, Denmark was among the removed from Danish energy policy in reducing general energy consumption as OECD (Organisation for Economic Co- 1985 aft er years of discussion and very much as possible have all been introduced operation and Development) countries strong public opposition organised by that were most dependent on oil for their NGO’s (non-governmental organizations) In combination with successful oil and energy supply. More than 90 % of all energy amongst other groups. natural gas production from the Danish was produced from imported oil. Th e part of the North Sea, this energy policy fi rst Danish energy plan was launched in TRANSITION OF THE ENERGY SECTOR meant that Denmark went from being 1976, designed to ensure energy security An early decision in Danish energy policy a huge importer of oil back in 1973, in Denmark, and at the same time was to generally prioritise energy savings, to become more than self-suffi cient in reduce the dependency on imported oil. but also to work towards a diversifi ed energy from 1997 onwards. Th e Danish Environmental considerations were not energy supply, to include signifi cant use of production of oil and natural gas from the given much consideration at that time, and renewable energy. North Sea peaked during the years 2004- climate change was not considered at all. 06, but gas and oil reservoirs are expected Th e policy measures within Danish energy to be depleted by 2040 – although new policy have focused on the implementation extraction technology as well as new oil of combined heat and electricity pro- fi eld discoveries will partly compensate the ComBigaS, a Danish company situated in the duction based on coal, municipal heat anticipated decline in production. western part of Jutland, supplies complete planning, and the implementation of a turnkey biogas plants designed to optimal use more or less nation-wide natural gas grid IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY of diff erent sources of biomass and their safe that now covers the major urban areas Danish experience shows that through an handling, which makes it easy to change the in the country. Furthermore, the energy active energy policy focused on energy biomass input. A standard plant can be easily accommodated on individual farms without effi ciency of buildings has undergone effi ciency and use of renewables, it is the negative environmental and landscape extensive improvement in Denmark, whilst possible to sustain high economic growth eff ects. Photo: ComBigaS. support for renewable energy, research whilst simultaneously reducing fossil-fuel GDP 300

250 Gross Domestic Product 200

150

100 Gross Energy Consumption

Gross Energy Intensity 50

0 1965 1980 1995 2010 Year Since the 1980s it has been possible to decouple energy consumption and economic growth, since Gross Domestic Product has increased by 80 % while energy consumption has remained stable. Energy intensity has consequently decreased. (Source: Danish Energy Agency). Photo: Søren Kjeldgaard, Aarhus University. Kjeldgaard, Søren Photo: DANISH ENERGY POLICY | 19

dependency. At the same time, this policy helps Danish buildings. Th ese requirements were has been continuously developed. Danish to protect the climate and the environment. tightened in 1977 following the oil crises, enterprises can get a reimbursement Since 1980, the Danish economy has grown by and the requirements have been tightened of this tax, provided that they make an around 80 % while energy consumption in the even further several times since. However, agreement with the authorities on specifi c country has remained more or less constant, existing buildings were not neglected, and energy saving projects, and enterprises and carbon dioxide emissions have even been initiatives were taken in order to produce can in addition apply for subsidies for reduced over the same time period. Denmark improvements. In 1978, the Danish these projects. is one of the most effi cient users of energy government introduced state subsidies for when compared with the other EU Member energy improvements to existing buildings In 2005, the European carbon dioxide States, as well as when compared with the in Denmark, and these subsidies lasted emission trading scheme (ETS) was OECD countries. until 1984. Th e energy performance of new introduced. A large part of carbon dioxide buildings is regulated in the Danish building emissions from Danish industry was RENEWABLE ENERGY code. Th e energy performance covers covered by this scheme. Following the Th e target for the Danish Government energy for heating, cooling, ventilation, introduction of the ETS, the Danish carbon is that Denmark’s energy and transport domestic hot water and lighting. Today, dioxide tax was changed. Danish industries sectors should be supplied by 100 % the heat demands of new buildings in covered by the ETS were exempted from renewable energy by the year 2050. Denmark have been reduced to about 25 % carbon dioxide tax, while the tax for Th e parliaments 2012 political Energy of what they were before 1977. In 2020, new enterprises not covered by the scheme was Agreement introduced the intermediate building requirements will lead to “nearly set at the carbon dioxide quota price. objectives that by 2020, 35 % of total energy zero” energy consumption buildings in consumption should be renewable, 50 % of Denmark, with the small amount of energy ENERGY AND ROAD TRANSPORT electricity consumption should be provided needed covered primarily by renewable Despite high Danish taxes on petrol and by wind power, gross energy consumption sources. diesel as well as high Danish purchase taxes should be reduced by 7.6 % compared with on new cars, fuel consumption related to 2010 levels, and greenhouse gas emissions COMBINED HEAT AND POWER road transport has grown steadily over the should be reduced by 34 % compared with PRODUCTION last 40 years due to an increasing vehicle 1990 levels. Th e implementation of combined heat fl eet and an increasing number of km and power production (CHP) has been travelled on the Danish road network. Since Th e Danish energy sector is on the right an important measure by which energy 1997, the annual car owner tax in Denmark track as the share of renewable energy effi ciency in Denmark has been increased. depends on fuel consumption per km for has increased from zero in 1970 to 26 % With more than 55 % of the net energy the specifi c type of vehicle. In recent years of gross energy consumption in 2012. demand for heating being supplied by the energy effi ciency of road traffi c vehicles Renewable energy sources include solid district heating systems, Denmark has one has increased, due to EU regulation of biomass, wind, bio degradable waste, of the highest shares of district heating in the carbon dioxide emissions from cars, and biogas, biofuels, and others (heat pumps, world. In 1980, only 18 % of the electricity the introduction of eco-labelling of cars. geothermal heat). Electricity from wind produced at thermal plants was produced in Th e renewable share of energy consumed power has increased from 2 % in 1970 combination with heat production. In 2011, as fuel during road transport is very small to 29 % in 2012 of Danish electricity this share had increased to 63 %. Th e extensive – only 3 % in 2011. One of the reasons that consumption. For the Kyoto period 2008- use of CHP has reduced Danish gross energy this number is so low is that it is more 12, Denmark committed to an ambitious consumption by about 14 %. Th e expansion expensive to use renewable energy within greenhouse gas reduction target of 21 % in in CHP has been supported by state subsidies the transport sector than it is in other relation to 1990 levels, and this target was (Act from 1977), the establishment of a sectors. Electric cars have been exempted met. Denmark is in fact expected to surpass legal framework for Danish municipal heat from purchase tax in Denmark since 2011, the EU objectives of a 20 % reduction in planning, and fi nancial incentives for small- but despite this the number of electric greenhouse gas emissions compared with scale CHP plants. vehicles in the Danish car fl eet is increasing 1990 levels, a renewable energy share of very slowly. 20 %, and a 20 % improvement in energy ENERGY SAVINGS IN INDUSTRY effi ciency by 2020. Until 1993, Danish industry was exempted Since 2012, all petrol and diesel for road from energy and carbon dioxide taxes due vehicles sold in Denmark must contain HEAT SAVINGS IN BUILDINGS to export interests. In order to encourage an average of 5.75 % biofuel due to EU Heat savings is an important part of the companies to save energy, a carbon dioxide legislation, and it can be expected that Danish energy policy. Since 1961, there tax on industrial energy consumption was this will be increased to 10 % from 2020 have been energy requirements for new introduced in 1993, and since then this tax onwards. Combustion of fossil fuels like oil and coal has the side eff ect that the 3 SO2 concentration (μg/m ) sulphur contained in the fuels leads to the formation of sulphur dioxide 100 (SO ) and particulate sulphate. When present in the atmosphere, these Copenhagen, urban background 2 Copenhagen, busy street pollutants can have signifi cant negative impacts on human health. 80 Aalborg, busy street Awareness of the negative health impact of sulphur emissions comes from Anholt,Anh small island in Kattegat two historical episodes – one in the Meuves Valley in Belgium in 1930, and 60 secondly and perhaps more importantly the famous London smog episode in 1952. Both episodes led to a large number of casualties, and turned 40 our focus to centralized heat and power production. Today, most Danish houses thus use district heating, whilst the power plants where this heat is 20 produced clean sulphur from their emissions with great effi ciency. In the 1980s there was signifi cant focus on sulphur emissions related to 0 diesel engines, and lowering the sulphur content of diesel has reduced 1968 1979 1990 2001 2012 these emissions very signifi cantly. Danish emissions of sulphur dioxide Year peaked around 1970, while total European emissions peaked 10-15 years

later. The small peaks in the Danish emissions since then are due, amongst Emission of SO2 (1000 t/year) other factors, to years with high export of electricity to other Nordic 800 countries due to low production from hydro power. Denmark Europe/100 Today sulphur concentrations have been reduced considerably, and the 600 impact on health and the environment likewise reduced signifi cantly. Natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and biogenic sulphur from sea algae have started to play an increasing role in relation to ambient concentrations, due 400 to the signifi cant reductions in man-made emissions. Concentrations of sulphur dioxide have been decreasing since 1970 due 200 to the rapid decrease in sulphur emissions. Concentration reductions have been much larger in the three cities than on Anholt, a small island situated close to the major ship traffi c lanes of the Kattegat. This is because land 0 based emissions were regulated earlier and much more aggressively than 1940 1955 1970 1985 2000 2015 were ship emissions. Year

Cruise ship at the Langelinie quay in Copenhagen. Photo: By&Havn. SULPHUR AND ACIDIFICATION | 21

SULPHUR AND ACIDIFICATION

In the 1970s it was recognized that Th e transboundary nature of airborne NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS emissions of sulphur, besides aff ecting sulphur pollution has led to strong regulation Th e acidifying eff ects of depositions of both human health, also had a severe of European sulphur emissions, fi rst through sulphur dioxide and particulate sulphate had impact on the environment. Deposition the Gothenburg protocol under the Geneva a signifi cant negative impact on both aquatic of sulphate and other acidifying Convention on long range transport of air and terrestrial ecosystems over the second compounds (nitrate and ammonium, pollution, and later followed up by the EU air half of the 20th century. As an example, fi sh see chapter 8) leads to severe damage to quality directives. Th e regulatory measures were seriously harmed in about 20 % of lakes in Northern Scandinavia, as well as that were agreed involved the introduction Swedish lakes. Th e large decrease in sulphur to the so-called “forest death” in central of binding national emission ceilings, to emissions has changed this picture. During Europe. Moreover, it was found that the which the member states and parties of the period 1990 to 2010, the area of sensitive depositing acidifying compounds were the convention had to comply from 2010 ecosystem within the EU that receives the result of long range atmospheric onwards. Th is has led to an approximately acidifying depositions above critical load transport from sources up to a thousand 70 % reduction in total European emissions. has reduced by 92 %, and today acidifying kilometres away. The recognition of Th e regulations have been so eff ective that deposition is only a minor problem for Danish these impacts motivated a long series of Denmark was already complying with the natural ecosystems. Moreover, emissions of both Danish and European regulations 2010 sulphur emission ceiling in 2000, and nitrogen compounds are today responsible of the emissions during the second half in 2012 Danish emissions were only 25 % of for the major part of the remaining acidifying of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st the national emission celling. deposition (see chapter 8). century. These eff orts have signifi cantly reduced the impact of airborne sulphur SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN DANISH CITIES SHIP EMISSIONS pollution in Denmark compared with Danish and European reductions of sulphur Th e regulation of sulphur emissions began the situation just 40 years ago. emissions have led to a signifi cant reduction with regulations targeting land based sources, in urban concentrations of sulphur dioxide as these were the biggest emitters and the in Denmark. In around 1970, the annual easiest to regulate. Due to the very successful mean urban background concentration was reduction of the land based sources, focus measured at 70–80 μg/m3 in Copenhagen, shift ed to ship emissions that have, until DANISH AND EUROPEAN EMISSIONS suggesting that concentrations must have recently, avoided regulation, meaning that Denmark began to regulate sulphur been well above 80 μg/m3 in the busiest fuels were used whose sulphur content emissions in 1972, and since this time has streets. Both Danish and European was over 100 times greater than that of the generally been somewhat ahead of many emissions reached their maxima in the early diesel used by road traffi c. In 2007, shipping of the other European Countries in this 1970s, and it is likely that during this period emissions contributed about 40 % of the respect. In 1972, the content of sulphur concentrations also peaked in Denmark. sulphur dioxide in Denmark. in oil was regulated, and in 1984 this was Today, Danish concentrations of sulphur extended to cover sulphur dioxide emissions dioxide have reduced to less than 3 % (about In 2005, the International Convention for from power plants and combined power and 1–2 μg/m3) of the levels seen in the early the Prevention of Pollution from Ships was district heating plants. In the time since then, 1970s. Moreover, concentrations of sulphur extended to also include regulation of air the rules have been tightened several times, dioxide are far below the EU limit value for pollution from ships. In addition, the Baltic taxes have been introduced, and limits on the the protection of human health. Th e health Sea and North Sea have become a Sulphur sulphur content of diesel were introduced impact of sulphur dioxide in Denmark is Emission Control Area with more stringent in 1999 and 2005. Th e technical solutions thus marginal. However, particulate sulphate emission controls, leading to a reduction to these regulations were reduced sulphur levels in Denmark have not been reduced as from about 1.5 % sulphur content in fuel content of fuels, and use of desulphurisation much as those of sulphur dioxide due to the before 2007 to below 0.1 % in 2015. Th e “fi lters” by combustion plants. Moreover, long range transport nature of the former. stepwise regulation of the sulphur content a shift in energy production towards an Concentrations of particulate sulphate has so far led to a reduction in ship emissions increasing use of gas and wind turbines has are today about 15 % of the levels seen in in Danish marine waters of about 40 %. Th e also resulted in a reduction in emission. All the early 1980s, meaning that particulate reductions in concentrations of sulphur in all, these measures have proven to be very sulphate still has an impact on human health dioxide observed at the Danish monitoring eff ective and have led to a 97 % reduction in in Denmark (see chapter 9). stations since 2007 are most likely due to Danish emissions. mainly reductions in the ship emissions. Carbon monoxide is emitted following the incomplete combustion of fuels. When combustion is taking place in the presence of suffi cient oxygen, emissions will usually generally be low and therefore not lead to concentration levels at which severe health eff ects may be the result. Back in the 1960s and 1970s, carbon monoxide levels in Danish urban streets could become high due to less effi cient motor technology and less strict and regular control of road traffi c vehicles. In the past, carbon monoxide levels in heavily traffi cked streets in Denmark may have been at levels that can lead to negative health eff ects. Today, the regulation and control of emissions of carbon monoxide is generally effi cient, and levels in Danish cities are far below the limit values in the EU directive, and thus not considered health damaging.

Emission limit values compared to 1985 (%) 120 UNECE-Reg. 49 100 EEC directive 88/77 EU EURO 1 80 EU EURO 2 EU EURO 3 60 EU EURO 4 EU EURO 5 40

0 1985 1990 1993 1996 2001 2006 2009 Year

In 1985, the fi rst recommendations for limit values for emissions of carbon monoxide from vehicles were adopted by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The fi rst legally binding limits came through the EU via the Euro norms. The Euro 1 limit values resulted in a large reduction of emissions of carbon monoxide, and were so strict that they required the use of catalytic converters. The subsequent Euro norms have continued this reduction in emissions, though at a slower speed. The years are valid for personal cars while the Euro norms for heavy duty vehicles came one year later. Photo: Britta Munter, Britta Munter, Photo: Aarhus University. CARBON MONOXIDE AND HEALTH | 23

CARBON MONOXIDE AND HEALTH

3 Incomplete combustion of fuels leads CO concentration (μg/m ) CO emissions (1000 tonnes) 3000 600 to the production of carbon monoxide, CO concentration – street which can have a negative impact 2500 CO concentration – urban background 500 Transport emissions on health since inhalation of carbon 2000 400 monoxide reduces the lungs ability to 1500 300 absorb oxygen. Very high concentrations of carbon monoxide can completely 1000 200 block oxygen uptake in the lungs, and 500 100 lead to acute death. 0 0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year

Ambient concentrations of carbon In 1985, the fi rst recommendations for limit values for emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) were monoxide are usually much lower than adopted by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The fi rst legally binding limits the levels that cause death, but in the past came through the EU via the Euro norms. The Euro 1 limit values resulted in a large reduction there may have been cases in Denmark in emissions of CO, and were so strict that they required the use of catalytic converters. The subsequent Euro norms have implemented more increasingly stringent emission limits, though where concentrations have been high the rate of increase has been declining. enough to have an impact on human health. Th e link between carbon monoxide and human health was one of the earliest to be established in relation to air pollution and adopted for other types of vehicles, albeit as expected, are highest close to those streets human health. As a result of this, emissions several years aft er they were introduced for with the greatest traffi c load. Moreover, of carbon monoxide were among the earliest passenger vehicles. concentrations in 2012 were reduced by to be successfully regulated. Today, ambient 80 % compared with levels in 1994, when concentrations of carbon monoxide in Danish regulations for road traffi c emissions monitoring began. Due to the increased use Denmark and other European countries are have followed these European regulations, al- of wood burning, there has been a much typical so low that their impact on health is though Denmark was ahead of Europe in the slower reduction in urban background insignifi cant compared to those of other air early years. In 1990, three years in advance, concentrations, and the diff erence between pollutants. Denmark introduced the emission require- the urban background and the busiest streets ments of the Euro1 standard that in practice is much smaller than it was back in 1994. DANISH AND EUROPEAN EMISSIONS required that all new petrol cars had to deploy Today, concentrations in Danish cities are far At the beginning of the 1980s, traffi c exhaust a so called three-way catalytic converter. Th ese below the EU limit values, and the impact on was the main source of carbon monoxide, catalytic converters reduced emissions of car- human health has been signifi cantly reduced. accounting for about two thirds of emissions. bon monoxide by more than 90 %. Nowadays, Nowadays, carbon monoxide plays only a Regulation of emissions from cars has to a large catalytic converters are also applied for diesel minor role when compared with other air extent been driven at the European level. Th e cars, vans and heavy duty vehicles. pollutants in Denmark. fi rst regulations were introduced in 1984 under the United Nations Economic Commission By 2011, EU regulations had resulted in a HEALTH EFFECTS OF CARBON for Europe, which adopted standards for the reduction of traffi c emissions to only 20 % MONOXIDE maximum allowable emissions of carbon of those seen in 1985. During the same time Carbon monoxide releases are no longer monoxide from road traffi c vehicles. In 1990, period, there was an increase in emissions of believed to have a severe health impact in the European Economic Community followed carbon monoxide from stationary sources. Denmark, with the exception of those re- up by tightening these rules, and in 1993 the Th is was the result of the increased use of lating to malfunctioning domestic heating EU introduced the so-called Euro 1 standard wood as a fuel for heating domestic houses. devices which, in very unfortunate situa- for cars, a set of rules regulating the most Wood burning is now the largest source of tions, can cause fatalities. Regular control important exhaust emissions. Th is standard carbon monoxide emissions in Denmark. of vehicles, boilers, stoves etc. keeps the risk more than halved the emissions permitted at a minimum, since proper combustion in by petrol driven cars. Emissions have been CARBON MONOXIDE IN DANISH CITIES combination with catalytic converters keep reduced further through the subsequent Euro Results from the monitoring of carbon the emissions suffi ciently low to avoid po- 2-4 standards. Similar standards have been monoxide have shown that concentrations, tentially harmful concentrations. About 78% of the air in theel loweow r atmosphere consiistsststs of nitrogen gas (N2), however thishi gag s is in a non- reactive form. Reactiive nitrogen comco poup ndsn areet thoshose that take partt ini chemical and biologici al procesceessessees inn the environmentnt..T These are present in trace amoum unts, and appear in two groups of coompoundssi in diffff ererennt forms:s a reduced and an oxidizede forf m.m

AmmA onia andn ammonium: AmmAmmmoniiaa( (NHH3) is mainlyy emitted duee to animal produod ctitiiono inn agriculture,e, but a small part is related to catcattalyaalytic converterss inn petrolol drid ven vehicleses. Atmosphspphheerir c ammonia ded positsit quickkly to almostst any surfacace, andn about 20 % of emittedd ammonin a is thus ded ppospoo iititeteted witht inn abob utt 22k km of its source..H Howeverv , in thee presencec of acia ddg gases and aerosool particlcles,eses,, ama mmonia rear cts to fof rmm pararticulate + ammmonium (NH(N( H4 ).. IIff the transporp ting air masass doesoe noot meet precipiipp tatattattionioonn events, thet partir culatee ammonniuiumumm can stay in thethhe aatmosphere up to 101 dayys and be lonlong-- range tratransppoortrted over distances ofo mormo e than 10000 kmkm.m.

Nitrogrooggenn oxxideses: The nitrotr gen oxxideid ssc comprise nitrogrooggene mmononnoxide (NO) andn nitrogen diooxide (NON 2),), botboth of whhici h aree emitteddd duriuur ngg commbustion procroocesses whehheere the high temperp atureses achievedd lead too thtthe cononverversios n ofaf atmotm spheric nitrtrrogeog n gas. Nitrogengeg oxioxxidesdes ara eee emitm ted throughh all kindsnd of coombumb stists ono proproocecessesse , butu the major soourcrceess arere combustioonn in indnddustu ry,ry heat and energy productctiono , and commbubbususu tion relreellatea d to transport. Ozone (O3) andd aan number ofo peperp oxy radaddicaicic ls can convert nititrogenen monoxiide too nnitnitrogroogogen diodidioxxide, whih lst phototoo diissociaci tion in thee prprereesenenencec of ssunlilight can convevertt nittrogen dioxide backackk too nitrogen mmonoxide. Nitrogen oxidessa are cononvertteded fufurthther wwhen nitrogeen dioxio idedee reeaactsws withh hyydrodroxylxyyl rar dicd als tot forfo m nitrtrt icc acid (HNO3). Nitricri acciidd stickscks tot ana y surfacfa e andd iss quickly depop sitedd tot thehee groounou d, reacts with ammomonia, orri isst takennu uppb by airbi bornrnne partar icles. In thethh lalattetterrt twoo cases,s, nnitritr c acidci isis coc nvnvenveerteed to particle – phap se nitnitratratee( (NO3 )t) thahat, just lliikek amammmmmmonnium,u can stay inn the atmospheeree up to 10 dadayays andd be loloong-range traansporortedd ooveveerrd distis ancan ese off morm e than 11000 km.

Photo: Jesper Rais, Aarhus University. NITROGEN – EUTROPHICATION AND HEALTH | 25

NITROGEN – EUTROPHICATION AND HEALTH

Levels and loads of atmospheric nitrogen compounds have been reduced substantially over the past two decades. De-NOX applications in heat and energy production plants as well as industry have substantially reduced nitrogen oxide releases, and here has the Danish environmental industry played an important role. Likewise have releases from road traffi c been substantially reduced by the introduction of catalytic converters. Danish ammonia emissions are substantial due to a very large animal production. During a 20-years period from the mid 1980’s where the pig production was increased by 60 %, the ammonia emissions were decreased by 25 % due to initiatives from the farmers in combination with national legislation. However, despite the substantial improvements, the atmospheric nitrogen compounds still contribute to negative health eff ects in Danish nitrogen oxide emissions have been reduced substantially over the past two decades. All the Danish population, and the deposi- Danish power plants are today equipped with De-NOx devices, many of wh ich were developed tion of nitrogen still exceeds critical loads by Danish companies. This photo shows De-NOx applications developed by the Danish company for sensitive ecosystems in Denmark. Haldor Topsoe. Photo: Haldor Topsoe.

Th e atmosphere contains a lot of non- Since atmospheric nitrogen gases contribute being developed in Danish industry. Th e reactive nitrogen gas. In the following, this to the formation of ozone and airborne introduction of DeNOx applications meant non-reactive nitrogen gas is disregarded, and particles, these compounds also have an that the nitrogen oxide emissions from the nitrogen refers only to the reactive nitrogen indirect impact on environmental problems energy sector where reduced by about a compounds that take part in physical, like climate change, loss of crop yields and factor of three during the time period from chemical and/or biological processes in our poor visibility. the middle of the 1990s to 2010. surrounding environment. Atmospheric nitrogen compounds have a substantial EMISSIONS OF NITROGEN OXIDES Nitrogen oxide emissions from Danish direct and/or indirect impact on several of Danish emissions of nitrogen oxides energy production and industry are the major environmental problems that are reached about 300,000 tons (expressed expected to decrease further in the years to related to ambient air pollution. Th e direct as tons nitrogen dioxide) in the middle come, due to new regulatory initiatives. In environmental impacts of atmospheric of the 1980s. In the 1990s, this had 2010, the Danish government implemented nitrogen compounds include: reduced to about 200,000 tons, and in a new environmental tax on nitrogen oxide • Acidifi cation 2011 was down to about 125,000 tons. emissions related to the combustion of Th ese emission reductions were achieved fossil fuels. Th is environmental tax is meant • Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) mainly by the implementation of DeNOx as an incentive for Danish consumers of • Health applications in power plants and major fossil fuels (mainly the energy sector and polluting industrial plants - an area industry) to further reduce emissions. where technologies have been and still are When fi rst introduced, the rate of taxation 26 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

Index increase in the number of diesel vehicles in 140 the Danish car fl eet. Th ese diesel vehicles 120 emit larger amounts of nitrogen dioxide, and the ratio between the nitrogen monoxide and 100 nitrogen dioxide emitted by diesel vehicles is 80 thus substantially diff erent from that of petrol vehicles. 60 Streettreet 40 Rural Background NITROGEN DIOXIDE IN DANISH CITIES Total Emissions Nitrogen dioxide is an airway irritant 20 Urban Background and has a direct impact on human health, Emissions from road traffic 0 whereas nitrogen monoxide is considered 1988 1994 2000 2006 2012 harmless at the concentrations found in Year our ambient environment. Th e groups most This plot shows Danish emissions of nitrogen oxides – both in total and those related only to road sensitive to exposure to nitrogen dioxide traffi c – and concentrations of nitrogen dioxide measured at Danish street, urban background and are people with airway illnesses, the elderly, rural background monitoring stations. Emissions have been steadily decreasing over the last two and children. Th e health impact of nitrogen decades due to regulation, whereas the decrease in ambient air concentrations has levelled out dioxide is mainly an issue in urban areas, over the most recent 5 to 6 years. where levels are generally highest, due mainly to high emissions from road traffi c and the presence of buildings, which act as was set at 5 DKK per kg nitrogen released. converters to the car fl eet during the 1990s. a shield to the wind and thereby give poor Today it has increased to 25.9 DKK per kg Use of 3-way catalytic converters became a dispersion conditions. nitrogen, and it will be further increased to legislator requirement of new petrol vehicles 26.4 DKK per kg nitrogen in 2015. in 1990, and this change could be seen in In recent years, traffi cked streets in many the gradually decreasing concentrations in larger European cities (including Danish Danish road traffi c emissions were also urban streets during the 1990s as the Danish cities) have experienced exceedences of reduced substantially during this time period, car fl eet was gradually updated. During air quality guidelines for nitrogen dioxide. as a result of the introduction of catalytic the last decade, there has been a substantial Inside traffi cked urban streets, the local Photo: Kirsten Bang, Aarhus University. Bang, Kirsten Photo: NITROGEN – EUTROPHICATION AND HEALTH | 27

road traffi c is by far the dominating source Index 200 of nitrogen oxide concentrations. Most of the nitrogen oxide emitted is in the form of nitrogen monoxide. However, for 150 Danish road traffi c, the relative fraction that is emitted as nitrogen dioxide has increased substantially in recent years. 100 Th is is mainly a result of the increasing fraction of diesel vehicles in the car 50 fl eet. Th e nitrogen oxide emissions of Dairy Cattle diesel engines generally include a higher Swine Ammonia emission fraction of nitrogen dioxide than those of 0 their petrol counterparts, due to a higher 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 combustion temperature. Furthermore, Year the fraction of directly emitted nitrogen During a time period during which Danish pig production doubled, Danish ammonia emissions dioxide has increased substantially for were reduced substantially as a result of lower nitrogen content in animal feed and better manure handling. The plot shows the relative development in swine production, cattle production and diesel driven vehicles, from fractions in the total ammonia emissions in Denmark during the time period 1985 to 2012. order of 5–10 % in the 1980s to fractions in the order of 20–40 %. Th is increase has been the result of the introduction of oxidative catalytic converters to modern DEPOSITION OF NITROGEN OXIDES dioxide therefore has a typical atmospheric diesel vehicles. Th is means that despite a Nitrogen oxides deposit relatively slowly residence time of about 24 hours. Th is substantial decrease in total concentrations to the ground. However, nitrogen dioxide fairly long residence time, in combination of nitrogen oxides, the decrease in nitrogen is converted in the atmosphere into with the fact that Denmark is a small dioxide concentrations has levelled out compounds that are effi ciently removed country, means that only a few percent of – including in Danish urban streets – in from the atmosphere, mainly by uptake in the nitrogen oxide emitted from Danish recent decade. cloud and rain droplets. Th is conversion sources is deposited inside Denmark (see from nitrogen dioxide into more soluble the tables and the discussion in chapter compounds takes time, and nitrogen 3). Th e majority is transported out of the

Atmospheric nitrogen deposition in Denmark has decreased over the past two decades, as a result of emission reductions in Denmark and in other European countries. Despite this, the current input of atmospheric nitrogen to the Danish environment has a negative impact, with the most sensitive Danish ecosystems under pressure. Danish coastal waters experience algal blooming episodes almost every late summer / autumn, followed by oxygen depletion in bottom waters when the algae die, deposit and are degraded. In worst cases, this leads to the death of fi sh and benthic fauna. About 30 % of nitrogen input to coastal waters comes from atmospheric nitrogen deposition. About 40 % of sensitive Danish terrestrial ecosystems have atmospheric nitrogen inputs that exceed their critical load values - exceedences that on the long-term may lead to shifts in the ecosystems towards systems with lower biodiversity. 28 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

country before deposition can occur. Most pressure from environmental organizations production. However, throughout the entire of the nitrogen oxide compounds deposited to reduce these emissions since the 1980s. period 1985 to 2012, the reductions in to Danish areas are thus reaction products In the 1990s, the agricultural sector took ammonia emission have been almost steady. that have been emitted in other countries initiatives to reduce ammonia emissions In 2012, emissions were down by about 40 % and transported to Denmark, where they and thereby lower the impact on the compared with emissions in 1985. are mainly washed out of the atmosphere environment and health. Despite a 60 % by rain. increase in pig production over the time Th ese reductions in ammonia emissions period 1985 to 2005, ammonia emissions were the result of regulation, but also AMMONIA EMISSIONS from Danish agriculture decreased by only of initiatives taken within the Danish Danish agriculture is very intensive, with about 25 %. Pig production peaked in around agricultural sector. A very effi cient initiative substantial animal production. Th is animal 2004 at 60 % above the 1985 level. From taken in the 1990s was to reduce the production leads to high emissions of 2004 to 2012, pig production decreased by nitrogen content of the animal feed used ammonia, and there has been substantial about 20 % to a level of 40 % above 1985 by Danish farms. Concerning regulation, NITROGEN – EUTROPHICATION AND HEALTH | 29

new legislation forced Danish farmers to past two decades. It has been estimated For the Danish terrestrial environment, apply manure only when their fi elds have that the typical background deposition it was estimated in 2006 that 40 % of crops growing in them. Danish farmers (i.e. deposition in areas without very local sensitive areas experienced exceedences therefore established storage facilities on sources) of nitrogen before the industrial of critical nitrogen loads. Despite various their farms, in order to store the manure revolution was about 2 kg N/ha/year, and abatement strategies, it is believed that the e.g. throughout the winter. Furthermore, when it peaked in the 1990s it was about most sensitive ecosystems will continue to farmers were required to apply manure 20 kg N/ha/year. Today it is in the order of experience critical load value exceedences direct injection into the soil, in order to about 15 kg N/ha/year. It should be noted for many years to come. prevent the use of diff users. Th e amount that the most sensitive terrestrial ecosystems of manure to be applied to a given fi eld are believed to have critical loads of 5–10 CONTRIBUTION TO PARTICLE was restricted, and animal producers were kg N/ha/year; where the critical load is the POLLUTION required to have access to enough fi elds amount the ecosystem can receive before Ammonia deposits fast, and may thus aff ect to which the manure could be applied. it starts changing into an ecosystem with the environment close to the ammonia Substantial research-eff orts have been generally lower biodiversity. sources, but it also reacts quickly with made by agricultural research institutes in acid gases and particles. In the latter case cooperation with governmental research IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS it ends up as ammonium, in fi ne fraction institutes, in order to determine the best Algal growth in marine waters is generally particles (PM2.5) (see Chapter 6). Most available technology for optimising manure limited by the availability of nitrogen. particulate nitrate also ends up in fi ne application. Increasing nitrogen input leads to algal fraction particles (PM2.5), and thus both blooming episodes; episodes that are nitrate and ammonium contribute to the DEPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC observed in Danish inner waters almost fraction of atmospheric particles that has NITROGEN every late summer and autumn. Since mainly been associated with negative In Denmark, about half of atmospheric the 1980s, the decomposition of dead health eff ects in the population. In general, nitrogen deposition is related to ammonia/ algae following blooming episodes in inorganic compounds (sulphate, nitrate and ammonium, and the other half to the Danish inner marine waters has led to ammonium) constitute about 30 % of fi ne deposition of nitrogen oxides and their frequent episodes of oxygen defi cits in fraction particles. It is, however, still not well reaction products. However, close to single bottom waters. In the worst cases, these known what it is about particle pollution farms with intensive animal production, the episodes have been associated with the that causes health eff ects. It is generally local ammonia contribution may dominate death of fi sh and benthic fauna. In order believed that the chemical composition is over that of nitrogen oxides. to abate eutrophication of marine waters, of importance in terms of health eff ects, but the Danish parliament has launched four most studies have been devoted to mass of Due to the general reduction in emissions consecutive aquatic action plans aimed at fi ne fraction particles and have not been able of nitrogen in Europe, the atmospheric reducing nutrient input to Danish marine to associate health impacts with the various deposition of nitrogen to terrestrial and waters. In the 1990s, it was estimated constituents of the particles. marine ecosystems has decreased over the that atmospheric nitrogen contributed about 30 % of nitrogen input to Danish SOIL ACIDIFICATION inner waters. As waste water inputs have Although ammonia is a base, it can contribute decreased due to the implementation to the acidifi cation of soils. Ammonia that of waste water treatment plants and deposits to soil surfaces will usually be initiatives to reduce nitrogen run-off absorbed by the soil, and converted within from agriculture, the importance of this the soil water to ammonium. Th e dissolved contribution has been increasing. ammonium may subsequently be nitrifi ed into nitrite and nitrate by nitrifying bacteria, DCE has developed and operates on routine When atmospheric nitrogen compounds in processes that release hydrogen ions into basis a series air pollution models (http://envs. au.dk/en/knowledge/air/models/). This plot deposit to the ground, they act as nutrient the soil. If the excess hydrogen ions are shows calculated annual atmospheric nitrogen input to the environment. Th e European not taken up by biomass and converted to deposition over the European area in 2012. Habitat Directive sets protection targets methane, these surplus hydrogen ions will Calculations are performed with the Danish for valuable nature habitats. Th is is lead to acidic soils. Th e remaining nitrogen Eulerian Hemispheric Model (DEHM) with a implemented through critical load target may either return to the atmosphere, be spatial resolution of 50 km × 50 km, except for an area with higher resolution over the values for various types of sensitive stored in the soil, be taken up by plants, or Danish area and close surroundings where the ecosystems, defi ned in the European be removed from the soil during runoff or resolution is 5 km × 5 km. Natura 2000 network. leaching. Airborne particulate matter consists of numerous diff erent kinds of particles, all with diff erent physical and chemical characteristics that defi ne their fate and environmental impact. The chemical content determines the water solubility of the particles, and thereby to what extent they are removed from the atmosphere by precipitation. Moreover, some particles consist of chemical compounds with low toxicity (i.e. sea salt), whilst others consist of compounds with high toxicity (i.e. heavy metals or organic pollutants like carcinogenic PAH (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)). The physical characteristics of particles, such as their shape and size, are very important in determining the rate by which they are removed from the atmosphere by deposition, and also their ability to penetrate into the lungs, with associated health eff ects.

It is common practice to group the airborne particles into diff erent classes, depending on their size. These particle sizes range from a few nanometers to tens of micrometers:

Ultrafi ne particles: This group contains particles with diameters from a few nanometers up to 100 nanometers. These particles are very small, and hence they are measured by their number per cm3. They originate mainly from local sources like traffi c and wood burning, however newly formed particles produced in chemical reactions in the atmosphere are also found in this group.

PM2.5: Particles with diameters up to 2.5 micrometers. The majority of PM2.5 is the result of the long range transport of particles originating outside Denmark. PM2.5 is regarded as the most important group of particles in relation to the negative impact of air pollution on human health.

PM10: Particles with diameters up to 10 micrometers, and hence PM2.5 is a constituent of PM10.The major part of PM10 comes from long range transport of particles originating outside Denmark, however, local sources like transport, dust, and sea spray also contribute signifi cantly to PM10. Total suspended particles: This includes particles with diameters up to about 20 micrometers, and hence includes PM10 (and thereby also PM2.5 and ultrafi ne particles, since they are part of PM10).

3 PM2.5, PM10 and TSP are all measured by their mass (microgram per m ). Photo: Thomas Ellermann, Aarhus University. Thomas Photo: AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AND HEALTH | 31

AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AND HEALTH

Particulate matter (PM) is the common Particle number per cm3 name used to defi ne a group of air 40000 H.C. Andersens Boulevard pollutants based solely on the fact that H.C. Ørsteds Institute they occur as particles in the atmosphere. Lille Valby/Risø 30000 Particulate matter is a diverse air pollutant that consists of thousands of diff erent kinds of particles with diff erent shapes 20000 and sizes, as well as diff erent physical and chemical properties. And it is all of these properties that determine the 10000 environmental impact of the particles. Moreover, particulate matter is interlinked 0 with all of the air pollutants dealt with in 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 the other chapters of this book. Year Particle number concentrations at Danish street, urban background as well as rural monitoring stations have decreased over the past decade. This trend has been observed on H.C. Andersen’s Boulevard, a street in central Copenhagen, at the Copenhagen urban background station situated at the H.C. Ørsted Institute, and at the rural background station at Lille Valby/Risø.

Airborne particulate matter is involved in TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION events, particles in the fi ne and coarse more or less all of the major problems that A signifi cant proportion of airborne fraction may be transported for 8–10 days relate to air pollution: particles undergoes long-range transport in and cover more than 1000 km before being • Acidifi cation the atmosphere. Under extreme conditions, deposited to the ground. In ambient air in even relatively large particles may be Denmark, more than two thirds of fi ne and • Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) transported over longer distances. Following course particles originate at sources outside • Health severe storm events over the Sahara, Saharan Denmark. sand has been seen to reach even as far as • Climate change Denmark. Particulate air pollution is thus a In contrast to the fi ne and coarse particles, transboundary problem. A dominating part the tiny ultrafi ne particles (smaller than • Visibility of rural and urban background particulate 100 nm) are mainly of local origin. As an • Degradation of materials matter in Denmark is thus the result of example, more than half of the ultrafi ne emissions that have taken place in other particles in a typical busy street are the Formation of ground based ozone is one European countries. However, the degree result of direct emissions from traffi c of the few examples of the environmental of long range and transboundary transport inside the street itself. Th e short transport eff ects of air pollution for which particulate depends heavily on particle size. of ultrafi ne particles is not because these matter does not have a direct impact. Today, particles “disappear”, but because within the impact on human health is the highest Th e fi ne and coarse particle fractions seconds to a few minutes, ultrafi ne particles concern in relation to airborne particulate (particles larger than 100 nm) undergo grow to a larger size (i.e. coagulate), and matter, and this is therefore the main focus the most extreme atmospheric transport. hence changes properties. of this chapter. If an air parcel does not meet precipitation 32 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

Concentration of air pollution 45 REDUCTION MEASURES Urban areas Countryside Due to the transboundary nature and the 40 many sources of particulate air pollution, Traffic, local sources it has long been evident that abatement of 35 particulate air pollution requires a whole palette of measures at both national and 30 international level. Moreover, reductions are required both for the precursors from 25 Urban background which secondary atmosphere particles are 20 formed, and for directly emitted primary particles. 15 Regional background Some of the earliest abatement measures 10 concerned reductions in the emission Natural background 0 of sulphur through the combustion of fossil fuels. Th e major Danish (as well Fine fraction particles in urban areas are dominated by the long-range transport component as most European) combustion plants that includes contributions from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Local sources in the urban area consist mainly road traffi c, however domestic heating may also contribute to the city are now equipped with desulphurisation increment (the urban background). On busy streets, the traffi c on the street itself may contribute technology that signifi cantly reduces signifi cantly to fi ne fraction particle levels. emissions. Moreover, power plants have shift ed to cleaner fuels (i.e. less coal) and the energy sector has moved towards the DCE operates the Danish air quality monitoring program which includes rural stations, as well use of more clean energy production (i.e. as stations in urban background and traffi cked streets (http://envs.au.dk/en/knowledge/air/ more gas, wind turbines etc.). At the same monitoring/). The photo shows the particle measurement instruments for measuring PM and PM 2.5 10 time, district heating and reduced energy at the urban background station in Copenhagen. This station is located on the roof of the H.C. Ørsted Institute Building of Copenhagen University. Photo: Stephan Ingemann Bernberg, Aarhus University. consumption over the past two decades in domestic homes as well as in industrial facilities have played an important positive role. All in all, this has led to signifi cant reductions both in the emission of primary particles, and in the number of secondary particles produced in the atmosphere following emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

EMISSIONS OF PARTICLES AND PRECURSORS Agricultural activities contribute directly to emissions of primary particles, but also to secondary particles via emission of ammonia. Th e Danish agricultural sector has developed a series of technical solutions that have reduced the ammonia emissions and thereby in turn reduced the formation of particles in the atmosphere.

Th e transport sector contributes signifi cantly to atmospheric particulate matter, via the gasses emitted in vehicle exhaust, direct emission of (mainly) ultrafi ne particles, and – mainly in the coarser fraction – also the wear of tires and road material as well as the resuspension AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AND HEALTH | 33

Particle size 100 Particle size play a Alveoli Nasal cavity signifi cant role in Windpipe and bronchi determining where Throat Nasopharynx >11 μm 80 in the respiratory 7.0-11.0 μm system particles 4.7-7.0 μm deposit, and thereby Windpipe 60 also in the type of 3.3-4.7 μm health eff ect.

Bronchi Deposit (%) 40 2.1-3.3 μm 1.1-2.1 μm 20 0.65-1.1 μm 0.40-0.65 μm Alveoli 0.41 μm 0 0.001 0.1 1.0 10 100 Aerodynamic diameter (μm)

of dust. Use of cleaner fuels and the that signifi cantly reduce emissions has been Th e fi rst Danish measurements of soot introduction of catalytic converters have developed by wood stove manufactures. were initiated in the 1960s, and showed led to signifi cant reductions in emissions Th rough both an increase in awareness soot concentrations in Copenhagen of of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and of the problem and better knowledge on close to 100 micrograms per m3. During volatile organic compounds, and these good practice amongst wood stoves users, the following decades, soot concentrations have reduced the traffi c contribution to it is believed that these emissions will be were reduced to about 20 % of this level. long range transported air pollution. reduced over the coming years. Th e measurement method by which these numbers were obtained has later been Th e direct emission of particles with All these practical measures taken by the found to be inaccurate. However, the exhaust fumes has long been very low for diff erent sectors have of course proceeded observed tendencies in the measurements petrol driven vehicles. In contrast, diesel hand in hand with the Danish government are believed to be correct, and these clearly driven vehicles contributed signifi cantly increasingly regulating emissions of the show the impact of the early initiatives that to emissions of ultrafi ne particle and soot, various air pollutants that contribute to were taken to reduce ambient particulate until it became widely accepted that it was atmospheric particulate matter. Th e many air pollution. necessary to use particle fi lters. Today, initiatives taken in order to reduce the legislation requires that all new diesel negative impact of airborne particulate In the 1990s, the only particle measurements cars and all vans and heavy duty vehicles matter have led to signifi cant reductions made by the Danish monitoring program must be equipped with particle fi lters. in the direct emission of primary particles were of Total Suspended Particulate Despite all these eff orts to reduce the traffi c and of precursors to secondary particles. Matter (TSP). However, standards in this contribution to particulate matter from Th is has clearly decreased particulate air area changed during this period, and in direct emissions in vehicular exhaust, there pollution. recognition of these developments, Danish is still a signifi cant contribution to particle measurements of particulate matter were pollution from road traffi c. Th is is mainly REDUCTIONS IN LEVELS OF also changed. In 2001, measurements of PARTICULATE MATTER due to particle emissions related to wear PM10 substituted the TSP measurements, of brakes, tires, asphalt etc. Such emissions Over the past two decades, a number and in 2007–2008 some PM10 monitors are generally diffi cult to reduce. of methods have been used to measure were changed to PM2.5 monitors, in order to particulate matter. Changes in measurement keep pace with developments relating to fi ne Th e other main source of primary particles methods have made the evaluation of fraction particles. Th ese changes followed in Denmark is the burning of wood for long term trends in Danish particulate international development in air pollution household heating. Today, wood burning matter concentrations somewhat diffi cult. science, but they were also necessary in contributes about 60 % of Danish direct However, despite these diffi culties, it is order to comply with the requirements of emissions. So far it has not been possible evident that concentrations of particulate EU air quality directives that standardized to reduce these emissions signifi cantly, due matter in Denmark are several times measurement of particulate matter in to an increase in the use of wood as a fuel. smaller today than those of the 1960s. Europe. European air quality directives have However, a new generation of wood stoves at the same time introduced several limit 34 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

values for particle mass, that member states since 2002, at a few monitoring stations elevated sulphur pollution (sulphur dioxide were obliged not to exceed. In Denmark, the in and around Copenhagen. Th ese mea- and particulate sulphate) from local limit values for PM10 were exceeded several surements show that concentrations have sources (from local smelters in Meuves, times in the period immediately following halved within just 10 years. Th e reductions and from domestic heating and cooking their implementation, but since 2009 there are believed to be related to cleaner in London). In 1994, the American six have been no real exceedences of these limit combustion in vehicles, as well as in energy cities study showed a surprisingly strong values. Reductions in the levels of PM10 are and heat production, but also to a decrease association between levels of fi ne fraction the result of both national and international in the precursor pollutants that lead to the particle pollution and the mortality rate in initiatives on air pollution. Both types of production of new secondary particles. a number of American cities. Th is study reduction are necessary, since both sources attracted a lot of attention to the long term in Denmark and sources in other parts of HEALTH IMPACT health eff ects of particle pollution, and Europe contribute to PM levels in Denmark. It has long been clear that severe health initiated a variety of health assessment Measurements show that Danish levels of eff ects are associated with episodic smog studies worldwide, including studies in

PM2.5 are well below the limit value of the (the combination of smoke and fog) events Europe and Denmark that related various EU directives. like those that occurred in the Meuves negative health outcomes to air pollution. Valley, Belgium in 1930 and in London, Th e ambient concentrations of ultrafi ne United Kingdom in 1952. At that time, As stated previously, particle pollution is a particles have been measured in Denmark episodic events were associated with complex mixture of diff erent sized particles Photo: Lise Balsby, Aarhus University. Lise Balsby, Photo: AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AND HEALTH | 35

with diff erent physical and chemical more carcinogenic than soot particles, but substantial reduction compared with the properties, and it varies considerably from that the human body is better at removing fi gure of 4,200 premature deaths that was one site to another. Ultrafi ne particles the hydrophillic wood smoke particles estimated for the year 2000, and forecasts can penetrate deep into the respiratory from the lung tissue than the hard and solid suggest that this fi gure is likely to have system, but for various reasons only a few soot particles. fallen to about 2,300 premature deaths in studies have been able to demonstrate 2020. health eff ects for particles in the ultrafi ne Despite relatively moderate levels of air size fraction. Th e most pronounced pollution in Denmark, health assessment In addition to premature deaths, air relationships with health eff ects have been studies in Denmark have been able to pollution has been associated with a variety found for fi ne fraction particles. However, demonstrate relationships between health of other negative health eff ects. Danish recent studies have indicated that soot eff ects and particulate air pollution. Th is studies have shown relationships with may be more strongly linked with health is most probably due to the precise health various airways diseases, cardiovascular eff ects than are fi ne fraction particles registers and good exposure assessment disease, cancer, and even diabetes. (which, as previously described, contain tools. Surveys carried out by DCE, AU various types of material). Scandinavian indicate that particle pollution was studies involving Danish researchers have responsible for about 3,500 premature indicated that wood smoke particles are deaths in Denmark in 2011. Th is is a Copenhagen's new cycle bridge The Bicycle Snake, designed by Dissing+Weitling architecture, completes the journey over the Bryggebro Bridge, off ering a fun ride along the harbour and past its tower blocks at fi rst-fl oor level. Photo: Rasmus Hjortshøj – COAST Studios.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND OZONE FORMATION

In the stratosphere ozone protects life formation of ozone in large quantities. at well over 200,000 tons/year, but during on earth from UV radiation, in the lower In Denmark, ozone episodes are usually the 1990s these emissions were reduced atmosphere it is a pollutant with negative the result of transport from the European to about 150,000 tons/year. Th is reduction impact on health and vegetation. In continent during high pressure situations was mainly a result of the introduction of Northern Europe including Denmark, the over central Europe that forc e air masses 3-way catalytic converters to petrol driven solar radiation is not suffi ciently strong to towards Scandinavia. In urban areas, ozone vehicles, but also due to reductions in the lead to local formation of ozone. Episodes is removed through a reaction with nitrogen use of organic solvents. Th ese emission are therefore generally the result of monoxide, emitted locally by mainly road reductions have continued in recent years, transport episodes from the European traffi c. Ozone concentrations in Danish meaning that Danish emissions of volatile continent. Hydrocarbons play a role in urban areas are thus generally lower than organic compounds in 2010 were less than the formation of ozone but some are also those found in rural areas. Measurements 90,000 tons/year. health hazardous in high concentrations. from Denmark show, in agreement with Benzene in urban areas was lowered by results from other European countries, METHANE reducing content in road traffi c petrol. that annual mean ozone values have been Man-made emissions of methane have slowly increasing over recent years, whereas reduced, together with the emissions of maximum values have been decreasing. non-methane volatile organic compounds, At low altitude in the atmosphere, ozone over the past three decades. Methane is an is considered an air pollutant with EMISSIONS OF VOLATILE ORGANIC important greenhouse gas and plays a very harmful eff ects on health, materials and COMPOUNDS important role in the formation of ozone in the environment. Ozone is an irritant of Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) come remote areas. Th e degradation of methane the mucous membranes in the eyes and from a variety of sources: evaporation takes several years, but concentrations respiratory system. People suff ering from of fuel (during storage and handling as are substantial (currently more than 1.8 allergies and respiratory illnesses may well as due to incomplete combustion), ppm). Measurements at remote locations experience aggravated symptoms at elevated releases related to industrial processes, like Mouna Loa in Hawaii have shown that ozone concentrations. In Scandinavia, use of organic solvents, as well as some despite reductions in man-made emissions situated in the Northern parts of Europe, very signifi cant natural sources. During of methane, ambient atmospheric methane the intensity of solar radiation is generally the late 1980s, Danish emissions of volatile concentrations have increased substantially not suffi ciently strong to lead to the local organic compounds were largely constant between pre-industrial times and the 1990s. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND OZONE FORMATION | 37

3 3 Concentration (μg/m ) Concentration (μg/m ) Plot showing the trend in the annual mean 100 250 (upper plot) and maximum 8 hour mean (lower O3 – annual average O3 – max 8 h. average plot) for ozone concentrations, at a rural site 80 200 (Keldsnor) and an urban background site KeldsnorKldKeldsnor (Copenhagen), both of which are in Denmark, KeldsnorKeldsnor during the period1990 to 2012. It is evident 60 150 from the fi gure that whilst annual mean values have changed only marginally, maximum values CopenhagenCoppgenhagen CopenhagenCopenhagen have decreased slightly over the period shown. 40 100

20 50 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 Year Year

Since then, concentrations have continued to unburned components in petrol. In the early with the necessary octane number but with increase, albeit at a considerably slower rate. 1990s, urban air quality monitoring revealed a low benzene content. Th is took place Th e increasing methane concentrations are that urban street concentrations of benzene in the mid-1990s. During the summer of believed to be part of the explanation into in Danish and other European countries 1998, measurements documented that why annual mean ozone concentrations are exceeded air quality guidelines. Due to the the Statoil refi nery at Kalundborg and the not decreasing, despite reductions in non- phasing out of lead, it became necessary Shell refi nery in Fredericia had lowered the methane volatile organic compounds and to change the composition of the fuels in benzene content of their petrol from 3.5 % nitrogen oxides from man-made sources. motor engine petrol, in order to ensure a to 1 %. During the next few years, benzene suffi ciently high octane number (this ensures concentrations at Jagtvej in Copenhagen BENZENE better combustion in the motor). In order decreased from about 10 μg/m3 in 1996, to Benzene at high concentrations is to reduce benzene in Danish urban streets, 3.4 μg/m3 in 2001. Current benzene levels carcinogenic, and human exposure to high Danish refi neries therefore introduced in Danish urban streets are considerably concentrations thus increases the risk of new technologies to the petrol production below the limit values stipulated in the EU developing cancer. Benzene arises from process, enabling them to produce fuels Directive.

High up in the atmosphere (the stratosphere), ozone protects organic compounds (NMVOC). Man-made emissions of volatile organic life on earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation, but in the lower pollutants have been decreasing over the past two decades, whereas atmosphere (the troposphere) it is a pollutant and is harmful to ozone has not decreased to the same extent. both the environment and health. Ozone is a secondary pollutant, A number of man-made organic compounds are hazardous to health, meaning that it is not emitted, but formed in the lower atmosphere and some of these are regulated. One example is benzene, for which through photochemical reactions under the infl uence of sunlight. The concentrations in urban air decreased substantially when the content precursors of tropospheric ozone are nitrogen oxides (see Chapter of this organic compound was reduced in petrol. Benzene is regulated 8) and hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons (or organic pollutants) may be because it is carcinogenic, but many of the organic compounds may of either natural or man-made origin. Emissions from vegetation also act as precursors for tropospheric ozone. After particles, ozone is generally dominate, and these natural pollutants also play an considered as the most important pollutant in relation to population important role in the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere. health. In addition, ozone has damaging eff ects on crops, as well as Since methane is usually the most abundantly emitted of the volatile vegetation in natural and semi-natural ecosystems. organic compounds, it is common to talk about non-methane volatile

NMVOC emission (1000 tons) Benzene (μg/m3) 250 18

15 200

12 150 9 100 6

50 3

0 0 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 Year Year ORGANIC HAZARDOUS COMPOUNDS

Organic hazardous substances appear Emissions of dioxins (gramme) 80 in low concentrations in the ambient Total Energy industires environment, but may aff ect both the 60 Non-industrial combustion environment and public health, e.g. Industrial processes due to their ability to bio accumulate. 40 The following three important groups of hazardous organic pollutant will be 20 discussed in a Danish context: dioxins, 0 poly cycling hydrocarbons and pesticides. 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year Danish emissions of dioxins and furans have decreased by about 66 % since 1990. However, this decrease has been most pronounced for large combustion plants (mainly waste incineration plants) and industrial processes (mainly steel production). The remaining emission is related to the waste sector, This section focuses on hazardous organic where emissions from uncontrolled combustion such as burning of cars and pollutants from man-made sources. The sources buildings, etc. are a signifi cant and relatively constant source. of these pollutants are mainly industrial processes, waste incinerators, and use of pesticides, as for example occurs due to the intensive agricultural methods practiced in Denmark.

Some organic compounds are hazardous in themselves. Some have been regulated through the Protocol on persistent organic pollutants under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Persistent organic pollutants are organic substances that are toxic, persistent, bio accumulates, prone to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport and deposition and are likely to cause signifi cant adverse eff ects to human health or the environment.

Danish researchers, together with Danish wood stove producers, have developed stoves with signifi cantly reduced emissions. Stoves with the Nordic Swan mark need to comply to certain requirements regarding emissions, but recent research suggests it may be possible to reduce emissions much further in the near future.

Photo: Thomas Ellermann, Aarhus University. ORGANIC HAZARDOUS COMPOUNDS | 39

DIOXINS Emissions of PAH (kg) Emission of polycyclic Th e term “dioxins” covers 210 complex 12000 aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is dominated compounds that are diff erent congeners of by emissions from dibenzo-dioxins and dibenzo-furans. Th e 9000 residential plants, main source of these pollutants is combustion where the main Total of materials that contain chlorine. Th ese sources of PAHs are the combustion of materials include diff erent waste fuels, 6000 wood and straw. but “clean” fuels such as coal and biomass also contain some chlorine that, during Residental plants combustion, can lead to the formation of 3000 dioxins. Due to the bio accumulating eff ect, it is not direct inhalation that possesses the 0 greatest threat to human health, but rather 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 the deposition of these compounds on Year land and water surfaces, from where the dioxins enter the food chain. Th ose of the compounds that are fat-soluble can then easily be transferred through the food chain. households have shown an increasing limit values were established for carbon trend (see section on polycyclic aromatic monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate Danish waste incineration plants have been hydrocarbons). matter. Currently, a revised statutory order regulated since the early 1990s. Th e fi rst that includes a further tightening the specifi c regulation targeting emissions of POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC emission limit values is undergoing public dioxins and furans from waste incineration HYDROCARBONS consultation. Th e total Danish emissions came in 2003, when a statutory order set Formation of polycyclic aromatic of the four PAH compounds increased by a limit value on dioxins and furans of 0.1 hydrocarbons (PAH) typically occurs 61 % between 1990 and 2012. However, ng per cubic metre fl ue gas. Th rough the during poor combustion conditions. Th is between 2007 (when the emissions peaked) 1990s, emissions were reduced due to makes small combustion installations and the present day, a decrease of 25 % has the implementation and improvement of prone to larger emissions of PAH than been observed. Th is decrease is due to more other abatement systems, including fl ue larger plants, where combustion effi ciency effi cient stoves and boilers as a consequence gas desulphurisation. Th e legislative limit is better. Since the formation of PAH is of the established emission limit values. value, which had entered into force by the closely related to combustion conditions, end of 2004, necessitated further technical emissions of PAHs are generally correlated PESTICIDES measures to be implemented at many plants. with emissions of carbon monoxide. PAH Th e Danish EPA uses an indicator for Th e Danish government decided that all emissions are generally inventoried for the pesticide loads. Th is indicator showed that waste incineration plants should have dioxin four congeners: the consumption of pesticides in Denmark abatement measures in place by the end of • benzo(a)pyrene, increased by approximately 40 % during 2004, regardless of whether the emission the period 2007 to 2012, mainly due to limit value could be achieved through other • benzo(b)fl uoranthene, agricultural use. Th e Danish government measures. In response, all waste incineration • benzo(k)fl uoranthene and has as a response made a pesticide action plants were equipped with dioxin abatement plan, with the goal of reducing the use of capabilities such as the injection of activated • indeno-(1,2,3-cd)pyrene. pesticides in Denmark by 40 % over the charcoal into fl ue gas prior to it passing period 2011 to 2015. In Denmark, there has though particle removing instruments. In response to the increasing emissions been a general movement towards use of As a result of this regulation, emissions of from small scale combustion plants, and the more environmentally friendly compounds. dioxins and furans decreased by about 96 % increasing emission share of these plants, In 1998, the Danish government agreed with between 1990 and 2012. Other sectors, such a statutory order was issued in 2007 that local authorities that the use of pesticides as cement production and steel production, established emission limit values that entered on all public areas in Denmark would be also reduced the emissions of dioxins and into eff ect on January 1 2008. For stoves, phasing out. Th is agreement was renewed furans during this period, while emissions an emission limit value was established for in 2007. from small combustion installations in particulate matter, while for boilers, emission Concentration (μg/m3) Emission (tons/year) 2.5 1000 Concentration Emission 2.0 800

1.5 600

1.0 400

Limit value 0.5 200

0 0 1970 1977 1984 1991 1998 2005 2012 Year Emissions of lead from the transport sector have decreased rapidly due to Danish regulation. Ambient atmospheric concentrations of lead have been measured in traffi cked urban roads since 1983, and show a decrease that agrees with the change in emissions. The EU limit value, which was adopted by Denmark, entered into force in 2005 and has never been exceeded, with ambient concentrations far below this value.

It has long been known that heavy metals can have a serious impact on human health, and that the intake of high concentrations of heavy metals will lead to death. However, sub lethal concentrations can also have a serious impact on human health and wellbeing. As an example, it has been shown that even relatively low concentrations of lead can reduce the function of the brain and lower a child’s intelligence. Moreover, heavy metals become accumulated within food webs, and hence emissions of heavy metals to the atmosphere can result in high concentrations in human food.

In general, the most important sources of heavy metals are emissions of heavy metal-containing particles from the combustion of fossil fuels and waste. An example is battery waste, which when not recycled can be a signifi cant source of mercury. Photo: Britta Munter, Aarhus University. Britta Munter, Photo: HEAVY METALS AND HEALTH | 41

HEAVY METALS AND HEALTH

The serious impact of heavy metals lead due to increase in the number of and mercury. However, mercury diff ers from on human health, either via direct mileage covered by road traffi c vehicles. In the other heavy metals in that it is a liquid exposure or via food webs, has led 1972, Danish environmental concern of the at typical temperature and pressure, and to both national and international negative impact of lead emissions resulted in hence it is present in the atmosphere both regulation of their emission. In the EU, a proposal for an upper limit of 0.40 g lead as a gas and in particles. Moreover, it has a the focus has been on nickel, arsenic, per litre petrol, down from the standard of complex atmospheric chemistry. Due to cadmium, lead and mercury. These fi ve 0.54 g/litre. Adoption of this legislation was mercury’s physical and chemical properties heavy metals are here used to illustrate postponed due to negotiations on a similar it has been used in amalgam tooth fi llings, measures taken in Denmark to reduce regulation in the EEC (European Economic thermometers, pressure gauges etc. Besides the negative eff ects of heavy metals. Community, the former EU). Th e Danish man-made emissions, there are also large legislation and statutory order was fi nally natural emissions of mercury. Mercury is COMBUSTION AND WASTE adopted in 1977, and came into force in highly toxic, and there are various examples Regulations concerning the emission of January 1978, two years in advance of the where mercury pollution has led to both heavy metals are connected to the general EU. In 1981 Denmark lowered the limit to acute and chronic illness as well as death. regulations concerning emissions from large 0.15 g/litre. Four years in advance of EU. In Th e life time of mercury in the atmosphere combustion plants and waste incinerators. the mid-1980s, Denmark increased the tax is long, and it has entered the atmosphere Most important are the regulations that levied on leaded petrol, and this decreased it will be spread over the entire globe. It is ensure the use of desulphurisation “fi lters” emissions further. Denmark has not banned readily taken up by animal fat, and mercury and the purifi cation of fl ue gas. Moreover, leaded petrol, but since 1994 leaded petrol thus bio accumulates up through food webs. the large decrease in the use of fossil fuels, has not been sold in Denmark. Th ese Th is gives problems in Greenland, because especially coal, has signifi cantly reduced regulations have resulted in a rapid decrease their diet consists to a relative large extent of emissions of heavy metals. As an example, in emissions of lead, beginning in 1978. In fi sh and marine mammals. Th ere has been there has been a 90 % reduction in Danish 1977, Danish emissions of lead were about strong public concern about the negative emissions of cadmium since 1990. 920 tons annually, mostly coming from environmental impact of mercury, and this Reductions in energy production have alone the transport sector. In 1984 it was about has led to series of national and international been responsible for 90 % of this reduction. 200 tons, in 1994 only about 20 tons, and regulations concerning the use and emissions Similarly, there has been a reduction of about emissions today are only 1 % of those prior to of mercury. 80 % for arsenic and nickel. Concentrations the onset of regulation. Th ough the majority of cadmium, nickel and arsenic in ambient of the reduction has been due to the ban on Danish mercury emissions have fallen air have decreased by about 50 % since 1990. leaded petrol, transportation still accounts by about a factor of ten since 1990. Th is Th is is somewhat less than the reduction for 2/3 of the total emissions, with this is mainly due to the general regulation of in Danish emissions, but the diff erence being deriving from break dust. Th e rapid power plants which resulted in the cleaning is due to the long range transport of these decrease in emissions has off course been of fl ue gas and the decreasing of coal compounds to Denmark from other followed by a rapid decrease in atmospheric combustion. In addition, the use of mercury European countries where the decrease in concentrations. Th e longest Danish time in many products has been banned, whilst the emission of these compounds has been series of lead measurements began in waste incinerators now have increased fl ue less pronounced than in Denmark. For all 1983 at street stations in Copenhagen and gas cleaning etc. Similar reductions have three of these heavy metals, concentrations Aalborg, and these were later followed up by occurred in other European countries, are less than 15 % of the EU limit value. measurements in Aarhus and Odense. Th ese and as a consequence the atmospheric data show a more than hundred fold decrease mercury burden has decreased. Th ere is LEAD IN PETROL in lead concentrations, from about 0.8 μg/ no atmospheric monitoring of mercury Lead is emitted during the combustion m3 back in 1983 to about 0.005 μg/m3 today. in Denmark, but Swedish measurements of fossil fuels, but in the past the main Th e result is that today’s level is a factor of one document a signifi cant decrease in the wet emissions of lead were related to use of lead hundred below the EU limit value. deposition of mercury - a decrease that is as an anti-knocking agent in petrol. Lead also in line with reduced emissions. Despite was fi rst introduced to petrol in 1923, and MERCURY this, there is still concern over the content during the following decades – especially As for many other heavy metals, the of mercury in for example salmon from the aft er the Second World War – there was main source of mercury emissions is the Baltic Sea. Part of this mercury originates a rapid increase in global emissions of combustion of coal, which naturally contains from atmospheric depositions. Ozone depleting substances (ODS) is a Index term used for a group of gases, including 120 CFCs CFCs (chloro-fl uoro carbons), HCFCs (hydro-chloro-fl uoro carbons), halons and Trichloroethane methyl bromide. The most signifi cant ODSs 90 HCFCs were CFCs. All of these substances are industrially produced gasses, and are under Halons normal conditions extremely stable and 60 Tetrachloromethane generally non-toxic. They have therefore Methyl bromide had a series of practical applications, for Total example, CFCs and HCFCs have in particular 30 been used as propellant s in aerosol cans, in the production of insulating foams, for chemical cleaning and degreasing, and for 0 laboratory analysis. Halons have been used 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 primarily for fi re extinguishing, and methyl bromide for disinfection and as a pesticide. Year For many years they were considered an Danish consumption of ODSs, calculated as ozone depleting capacity. (1986 = index environmental asset. 100). Source: Danish EPA. Photo: Søren Kjeldgaard, Aarhus University. Kjeldgaard, Søren Photo: CFC’S AND THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER | 43

CFC’S AND THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER

In the beginning of the 1980s, it became evident that the great stability of CFC’s and halons might be the explanation for a newly observed global environmental threat: the depletion of the atmosphere’s ozone layer.

DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER Th e Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, Th e ozone layer protects the Earth’s surface contained binding agreements on the from harmful solar ultraviolet radiation. reduction of the consumption and production At ground level, ozone is an air pollutant of a number of ODSs. Th e protocol is regularly that has negative eff ects on human health revised, based on scientifi c, technical, and vegetation (see chapter 10). However, environmental and economic assessments. further up in the atmosphere (15-50 km in Th is has ensured a dynamic protocol that has the stratosphere), the ozone layer forms a developed in line with scientifi c discoveries protective shield. and technological innovations. All members of the United Nations are Parties to the Th e great stability of the ODSs, and thus original protocol, however fewer are Parties their long lifetime in the atmosphere, to the revised versions from 1990, 1992, 1995, Photo: Colourbox. means that they can be mixed into the 1997, 1999 and 2007. stratosphere. In the stratosphere the ODSs are broken down by ultraviolet radiation to In 1990, it was agreed that a temporary the development and use of alternative form free chloride or bromide atoms that fund to assist developing countries in substances, technologies, etc. By 1995, reacts with ozone, converting it to oxygen. paying for the expenses incurred through Denmark had phased out all use of the reducing the production and use of ODSs majority of ODSs, and only very small Depletion of the ozone layer results in an should be set up. Th is fund was later made amounts of HCFCs remained as it was legal increase in UV-B radiation at ground level, permanent, and has been an important tool to refi ll fridges with regenerated HCFCs with a range of unwanted eff ects for health in ensuring the global ratifi cation of the until 31 December 2014. and the environment. Th e most feared human protocol and its amendments. health eff ect is the increased incidence of e.g. Phasing out has also been successful at the skin cancer. DEVELOPMENT IN DENMARK AND international scale, although a fall in the THE WORLD production of CFCs has been accompanied On a larger scale, plankton algae can be In 1988 an action plan was developed by an increase in the production of less harmed. As they constitute the fi rst link in Denmark to combat ODSs. Th e main harmful substitutes. Concentrations of in the marine food chain, this may have initiatives in the plan were: international CFC-11, a dominant ODS, has decreased. consequences that can escalate through the cooperation at all levels, a national plan for Concentrations of trichloroethane also whole food system. reducing the consumption of ODSs with the decreased signifi cantly, while HCFC- goal of reducing their consumption by 50 % 22 concentrations are still increasing. INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS by 1995 and to end their use to all intents Furthermore, while many of the substitutes Th e work on establishing international and purposes by 1999. Furthermore, a tax used are not being ozone depleting, they regulation of ODSs started in 1980, under the on CFCs and halons of 30 DKK per kg was have proven to be potent greenhouse gases auspices of the United Nations Environment put in place, as was legislation that only which contribute to climate change. Hence Program, and the fi rst result of this work permitted the use of ODSs until alternatives there is still the need for international was the Vienna Convention, signed in 1985. became available. focus on the development of scientifi c and Th is Convention mainly stated the intent for technological solutions to the growing countries to cooperate on research and the A scientifi c and technological development need for refrigeration and air conditioning. exchange of information. program was put in place to promote GREENHOUSE GASES AND A CHANGING CLIMATE

The importance of the composition of the Greenhouse gas emission (106 tonnes CO2-eqvivalents) atmosphere for the energy balance of the 100 CO CH N O F-gases Total earth, and thus for the global climate, has been 2 4 2 th recognized since the beginning of the 19 80 century. In the 1890s, the Swedish meteorologist Arrhenius calculated that the doubling of the 60 concentration of carbon dioxide could result in a global warming of 5-6°C. 40 At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro 20 in June 1992, more than 150 countries signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate 0 Change (the Climate Convention). 1990 2001 2012 Year On 21 December 1993 the Climate Convention was ratifi ed by a suffi cient number of countries, The total Danish emission of greenhouse gases has including Denmark, and it entered into force on decreased by 25 % since 1990. Emissions of all three 21 March 1994. Currently, there are 195 Parties major greenhouse gases have decreased, while (194 States and 1 regional economic integration emissions of hydrofl uorocarbons, perfl uorocarbons organization) to the Climate Convention. and sulphur hexafl uoride have increased.

Middelgrunden off shore wind farm (40 MW) in Øresund, close to Copenhagen. Photo: Kim Hansen from Wikimedia Commons. GREENHOUSE GASES AND A CHANGING CLIMATE | 45

Th e Climate Convention and the Kyoto diff erent sectors. In the following years, a In Denmark there is a strong cooperation be- Protocol covers the greenhouse gases number of ministries have prepared sector tween the government, and state level agencies carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, action plans in which the environment is and local municipalities. Th e government and hydrofl uorocarbons, perfl uorocarbons an integral element. Th e sector action plans the municipalities have agreed that the mu- and sulphur hexafl uoride. From 2015, deal with the entire development in a sector nicipalities will increase investment in climate nitrogen trifl uoride will be added to the combined with solutions to environmental change adaptation of wastewater treatment by list of gases covered by the convention and problems caused by the sector. While some DKK 2.5 billion. Th is agreement also requires the protocol. One of the provisions was to measures were directly targeting reductions that all municipalities carry out a risk assess- stabilise greenhouse gas emissions from in greenhouse gas emissions, others were ment and prepare municipal climate change industrialised nations by the end of 2000. At adopted to combat other environmental adaptations plans. the fi rst conference under the UN Climate issues, e.g. the pollution of the aquatic Convention in March 1995, it was decided environment and the reduction of waste CO-BENEFITS WITH AIR POLLUTION that the stabilisation goal was inadequate. generation. Th ese measures also led to As mentioned, a number of the mitigation At the third conference in December 1997 a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions measures that have been put in place have in Kyoto in Japan, a binding agreement caused by reduced emissions from nitrogen had multiple benefi ts and side-eff ects. A was reached, committing industrialised leaching and reduced emissions from number of measures implemented to reduce countries to reduce emissions of six landfi lling. air pollution have had a benefi cial eff ect on greenhouse gases by 5.2 % by 2008–2012 the emissions of greenhouse gases, and the compared with the corresponding base Th e implemented measures are wide ranging, other way around. An example is the diff erent year value (1990 levels for carbon dioxide, and cover many diff erent types such as taxes measures implemented to reduce fuel methane and nitrous oxide, and 1995 levels (on fuels, electricity, waste, methane, carbon consumption in order to reduce greenhouse for the fl uorinated gases). On May 16, 2002, dioxide and fl uorinated gases), public gas emissions. Th ese measures have also the Danish parliament voted for the Danish information campaigns, energy labelling, served to reduce emissions of air pollution, ratifi cation of the Kyoto Protocol. subsidies, and bans. Danish measures have mainly nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides. meant a signifi cant increase in the production Th e European Union had a reduction of wind power in Denmark, and have made A reverse example is the measures commitment of 8 % for 2008–2012 compared Denmark a world leader in wind power implemented in agriculture to reduce the with the base year. Under the European technologies. Th e current Danish domestic emission of ammonia. Th ese measures Union Burden Sharing Agreement, target is a reduction of 40 % in greenhouse have led directly to a decrease in emissions Denmark must reduce emissions by an gas emissions by 2020 compared with the of nitrous oxide. average of 21 % in the period 2008–2012 level in 1990. compared with the base year emission level. Occasionally, measures implemented to Th e second commitment period under the DANISH ADAPTATION MEASURES combat one environmental problem can have Kyoto Protocol is agreed to cover the years In March 2008, the Danish government an adverse eff ect on other environmental 2013–2020. Th e European Union has a launched the fi rst Danish strategy for issues. Th is is for instance the case with the reduction commitment of 20 % for 2013– adaptation to a changing climate. In increased use of biomass in the production 2020 compared to the base year. December 2012 an action plan for a climate- of power and heat. Th e use of biomass in the proof Denmark was launched. Th is action Danish energy sector has more than doubled DANISH MITIGATION MEASURES plan contains a number of initiatives that since 1990, and this increase is signifi cant Since the Brundtland Commission’s in general fall within fi ve major areas, both in large combined heat and power report, “Our Common Future”, in 1987, – an improved framework for climate plants and in small domestic combustion Danish climate policy has developed in change adaptation, knowledge sharing installations. Th e increased use of biomass collaboration with the diff erent sectors and the need for a common knowledge as a replacement for fossil fuels caused a of society, and in line with international base, strengthened domestic collaboration decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, but climate policy, and results from related and coordination, green transition, and simultaneously caused signifi cant increases scientifi c research. Since the late 1980s, a international adaptation eff orts. Adaptation in emissions of specifi c air pollutants (see considerable number of measures to reduce to climate change is to a large extent chapters 9 & 11 on particles and organic emissions of greenhouse gases have been based on local activities, and relies on the hazardous compounds). Th e negative implemented. In 1988 the government eff orts of local authorities, companies and impact on air pollution is largest for small issued the Government’s Action Plan for citizens. Th e best knowledge of the specifi c combustion installations, but for the large Environment and Development. One of the circumstances relevant to a given area is plants there can also be issues related to main messages in this plan was the need to found with the local stakeholders, and this reducing the effi ciency of the nitrogen integrate environmental considerations forms the best basis for decisions related to oxides abatement, and slight increases in into decisions and administration within adaptation measures. emissions of particulate matter. 46 | CLEAN AIR IN DENMARK

SUMMARY

This section provides a summary of the Another example is the lead additive that Th e European agreements relating to the text in the previous sections, and high- is used to increase the octane rating in NEC directive have substantially reduced lights the Danish lessons learnt relating petrol. Danish legislation removed lead emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen to the problems that have arisen from from petrol in 1984 (EU regulation of oxides and ammonia. Th ese pollutants air pollution in Denmark and how these lead in petrol came in 2000) in order to act as precursors of fi ne fraction particles have been dealt with in the past. protect the population from the serious (PM2.5). Th ese reductions in precursor negative health eff ects of exposure to lead, emissions have substantially lowered

meaning that emissions and consequently ambient air PM2.5 levels in Denmark over also concentrations dropped tremendously the past two decades. DANISH ENVIRONMENTAL within a very short period of time. LEGISLATION TECHNOLOGY PROMOTION Danish environmental regulation has INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL Environmental regulation has promoted been a key driver in relation to reducing LEGISLATION environmental technology development atmospheric pollutant emissions, and as International environmental regulation by creating a market for end-of-pipe well as in relation to improving air quality under the United Nations (the Geneva technology and clean technology. Th e in Denmark and its neighbouring countries. Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary environmental technology has thereby Air Pollution, the Kyoto protocol), the Air provided a platform for companies working An example of such legislation is the Quality Directives, the European Emission within this environmental technology sector Danish regulation of application of manure Standards, the National Emission Ceiling in Denmark. from animal production in agriculture. (NEC) Directive, Integrated Pollution Danish farmers are required to restrict the Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive, Examples are the cleaning technology application of manure to fi elds during the and its revision, the Industrial Emission industry, wind turbine producers, and also growth season of crops. Th is restriction Directive) and the implementation of these companies involved in the production of means that Danish farmers have been regulations in Danish legislation as well as in energy effi cient windows and insulating forced to invest in manure storage facilities the legislation of other European countries, materials, both of which help to reduce - facilities that are necessary in order to has for some pollutants substantially energy consumption. Th e Danish wind store manure e.g. during the winter, when reduced atmospheric pollutant emissions turbine industry is one of the strongest in the there is no crops in the fi elds. Spreading and improved air quality in Denmark and world, and has benefi tted substantially from of manure has furthermore been banned, its surrounding countries. top class research in governmental research and manure now has to be injected directly institutes through close cooperation. into the soil. Th ese combined restrictions Emission standards means that road traffi c Another example within Danish industry have substantially lowered ammonia emissions have dropped substantially in is the insulation material industry, which emissions, by reducing evaporation to the past two decades, and this decrease likewise has a strong international position. the atmosphere. Th e result has been a will continue as future emission standards reduction in the nitrogen loading of the for vehicle engines come into force and as High energy taxes, together with a general surrounding environment. existing car fl eets are replaced with new environmental concern amongst the vehicles that comply with the new standards. public, have led to a general public interest in energy effi cient housing. Th is means that Danish houses in general are well

Photo: Kirsten Bang, Aarhus University. SUMMARY | 47

insulated, and oft en feature energy effi cient In relation to emissions of atmospheric COOPERATION BETWEEN windows. Th is has during certain periods pollutants, the cooperative heating systems in AUTHORITIES been governmentally supported through building complexes and cooperative organic Cooperation between the Danish govern- the subsidizing the salary of craft smen farming are examples where the cooperative ment and the local municipalities means providing both repair work and the energy model has been applied in Denmark, played that various climate change adaptation improvement of domestic housings. a role in promoting environmental concern, measures have been taken. Many of these and reducing the pollutant loads exported concern avoiding or reducing the worst INITIATIVES FROM INDUSTRY, to the environment. Central heating means eff ects of fl ooding during extreme precipi- FARMERS ETC. more effi cient energy management and tation events, but also various initiatives to During the 1980s various initiatives were lower emissions of sulphur dioxide, carbon decrease greenhouse gas emissions. taken to reduce ammonia emissions as a monoxide and nitrogen oxides. result of eutrophication problems in Danish Danish urban development takes place in aquatic and terrestrial natural environments. Green farming means no use of pesticides accordance with Danish planning law. Th e Th ese initiatives were taken during a period and thereby a reduced impact on local municipalities defi ne local industrial areas, in which Danish pig production doubled. nature, although ammonia emissions are separated from residential areas, and thereby One of the reasons for achieving substantial not necessarily reduced in green animal reduced the exposures of the population reductions in ammonia emissions during production. to industrial emissions. Th e municipal this period of increasing animal production plans have to be approved by governmental was the dedicated research eff orts of INFLUENCE FROM LOCAL NGOS authorities. agricultural organisations, in which their Local NGOs have played a key role in own research institutes cooperated with improving public environmental awareness Environmental zones are established around Danish universities. One of the effi cient in Denmark, and have had an impact on streams and natural areas within which changes in animal production was the political decision making. An example is restrictions are placed on pesticide use, the implementation of food with low nitrogen the Danish Bicyclist Organisation, who application of manure, and ploughing. Th is content. Th is initiative substantially lowered has strongly promoted the use of bicycles has proven to be an effi cient way to protect the nitrogen content of manure from pig for commuting between home and work, the environment by reducing the deposition production, and thereby also reduced and has cooperated with local authorities of airborne pollutants. ammonia emissions from stables and the on how to improve conditions for cyclists application of manure. in general. In larger Danish cities like Another example in this context concerns Copenhagen, the local authorities have wood stove emissions. Domestic wood Another initiative came from the Danish established bicycle lanes for safety reasons, stoves constitute the largest source of local shipping industry, which has reduced by separating cyclists from vehicular fi ne fraction particle emissions in Denmark. sailing speed and thereby – with the cost road traffi c. Th e infl uence of NGOs and According to Danish law, municipalities of higher transport time – substantially authorities means that in larger Danish may in certain cases place restrictions on the reduced energy consumption and thus also cities like Copenhagen and Aarhus, up to use of wood stoves, when local conditions the emission of air pollutants related to the 45 % of commuting between home and make the dispersion of emissions at low use of fossil fuels. work is done by bicycle. Th is is amongst altitude less effi cient. Th ere are, however, the highest use of bicycles in the western only single case examples of this. THE COOPERATIVE MODEL world, and contributes signifi cantly to Th e cooperative model has in general reducing road traffi c emissions. played an important role in relation to the public participation and awareness about Green products have been strongly environmental issues and reducing en- promoted by NGOs, and a substantial part vironmental pressures in Denmark. Th e of the Danish population buy mainly green cooperative movement started in Denmark products in order to reduce environmental in the late nineteenth century by share- impacts. owner grocery shops, and was later used by various types of business. http://envs.au.dk/en/knowledge/air/

http://eng.mst.dk/topics/air/

Learn more about Danish clean air solutions, fi nd cases from around the world and connect with Danish expertise at: www.stateofgreen.com/air-quality-treatment

The political ambition is to make Copenhagen the world's leading bicycle city by the end of 2015 and the Danish capital has a vision of becoming CO2 neutral in 2025. Photo: Tuala Hjarnø, www.copenhagenmediacenter.com