Finnish Women Making Religion Between Ancestors and Angels

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Edited by Terhi Utriainen and Päivi Salmesvuori

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First published in 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.

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ISBN: 978-1-137-38868-1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Finnish women making religion : between ancestors and angels / edited by Terhi Utriainen and Päivi Salmesvuori. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-137-38868-1 (alk. paper) 1. Women and religion—Finland. 2. Lutheran women—Finland. 3. Women in Christianity—Finland. I. Utriainen, Terhi, editor of compilation.

BL458.F56 2014 274.89082—dc23 2014002965

A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.

Design by Scribe Inc.

First edition: July 2014

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Contents

Preface vii Introduction: Critical and Creative Turns 1 Terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari

Part I 1 “Feeding the Dead”: Women “Doing” Religion and Kinship in Traditional Russian Orthodox Karelia 21 Marja-Liisa Keinänen 2 Convincing One’s Self and Other People: The Case of Trance Preacher Helena Konttinen 43 Päivi Salmesvuori 3 Alexandra Gripenberg’s Feminist Christianity 61 Tiina Kinnunen

Part II 4 “Our Life Work”: Professional Women and Christian Values in Early Twentieth-Century Finland 83 Heini Hakosalo 5 “A Touch of the Spiritual World”: An Anthroposophical Core in the Life and Work of Kersti Bergroth (1886–1975) 103 Tiina Mahlamäki 6 Intersections of Gender, Religion, and Ethnicity in Christian Missions 123 Seija Jalagin

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Part III 7 “I Was Both Lutheran and Orthodox”: Evacuee Karelian Orthodox Women, Bidenominational Families, and the Making of Religion 143 Helena Kupari 8 Life-Based Theology of Finnish Women Theologians 161 Anni Tsokkinen 9 Servants and Agents: Gender Roles in Neocharismatic Christianity 177 Tuija Hovi

Part IV 10 Finnish Women Sacralizing Nature 197 Heikki Pesonen and Terhi Utriainen 11 Finnish Women’s Turn toward India: Negotiations between Lutheran Christianity and Indian Spirituality 217 Johanna Ahonen 12 Angels, Agency, and Emotions: Global Religion for Women in Finland? 237 Terhi Utriainen Bibliography 255 List of Contributors 281 Index 285

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Introduction

Critical and Creative Turns

Terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari

esearch on religion and gender (and in practice, often, religion and Rwomen) has, by now, a history that is several decades long. The central approaches within this field of inquiry are feminist theology, secularist- critical feminist study, and analytic descriptions of gendered religious beliefs and practices in different times and places. Over the years, this research field has opened up various new thematic and methodological routes and taken several critical and creative turns.1 One important development, crucial to the emergence of gender- sensitive historical and ethnographic research on religion, has been to dis- tance oneself from the master narrative that concentrates on the male and often elite model of doing religion;2 within that model, research has mostly focused on the official leadership of churches and dogmatic systems. The turn toward studying “lived religion” means that religion is increasingly approached without theological or other normative lenses in all its real-life complexity. This means that religion is explored wherever people take it, make it, and practice it. The lived religion approach closely parallels the turn toward understand- ing religion as a variety of situated discourses and practices—that is, as the many ways of making religion. Practice-centered perspectives avoid auto- matically privileging particular materials or cases, such as “sacred texts” or official rituals; instead they often make use of materials and cases that the perspectives favoring elite religion have deemed not religious enough—or wrongly religious, heretical. Moreover, practice-base d approaches often also emphasize human bodies, social relationality, and myriad aspects of material life as relevant and necessary foci for the study of religion. Quite often religion is found in “ordinary” and quotidian materials and places,

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2 terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari which can be related to institutionalized practices and locations in many complex ways.3 As is well known today, the majority of grassroots religiosity all over the world is constituted by women’s undertakings.4 Our point of departure is that women’s religiosity can provide invaluable material and insights for problematizing religious power, practice, identity, and agency in general. For instance, when we read Saba Mahmood’s now-famous Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject,5 we learn not only about the Egyptian Muslim women’s piety movement in a particular historical situ- ation; we also learn about one possible way human agency is constructed, negotiated, and lived in a world where religious and secular powers and realities often coincide and clash. “Religion” and “the secular” have often been seen as separate spheres of life, both in the earlier history of religion and in sociological secularization theories. However, to the authors in this collection, as well as to many other scholars in the study of religion and in related fields of research today, “religion” and “the secular” are closely and often in complex ways tied to one another. Feminist theory has also recently awoken to the postsecular per- spective in order to realize that religious symbols, discourses, and disciplin- ary practices are far from absent in people’s lives and society today.6 All the aforementioned emphases and turns can be encountered inform- ing and inspiring the chapters of our book. The writers very much operate within lived religion and practice approaches. They also pay close atten- tion to concrete social settings, changing subjectivities and embodiments, as well as many quotidian sides of religious life. What we want to add to the study of religion and gender today is a historically sensitive picture of religion-making in one society from the angle of well-selected case studies that analytically describe how women do things with or in relation to religion and how their religion-making relates to the many aspects of life. Our case studies range from women’s folk religion to women’s theology. Prior to this book, Finnish women’s religion-making in the different layers and corners of life and society had not been brought together in this way.

Political and Religious History of Finland: An Overview

The cases presented in the chapters of this book come from Finland, one of the most northern and eastern of the European countries. The 12 chapters provide windows on the changing religious landscape in Finland over approximately one hundred years to the present day. Historically, Finland is predominantly a Lutheran society; even today, statistics count 76 percent

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Criti cal and Creative Turns 3 of the population, which altogether amounts to 5.4 million people, as members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.7 Christianity, in the form of Roman Catholicism, came to Finland during the High Middle Ages. Traditionally, the eleventh century has been seen as the arrival of institutional Christianity in Finland, although archeologi- cal findings suggest that some Western and Eastern Christian influences had reached Finland already well before the end of the first millennium. At this time, Finland as a unified, centrally governed country did not yet exist. Instead, the Christianization of the peoples populating the area of present-day Finland went hand in hand with the annexation of the lands they inhabited to the kingdom of Sweden.8 In the 1520s, King Gustav Vasa carried out the Protestant Reforma- tion in Sweden. His reasons were not primarily religious; in fact, Gustav Vasa’s actions are an apt example of how European rulers used the religious tumults of the era to their own secular purposes. The king wanted to bal- ance the economy of his poor country by confiscating the lands and prop- erty of the Catholic Church, and to facilitate this move he embraced the newly emerged protestant denomination of Lutheranism, created by the German monk Martin Luther (1483–1546). Unlike in Germany or in Eng- land, in Sweden (and in Finland, as part of Sweden) the break caused by the Reformation was not violent but gradual. The Catholic bishops were, indeed, replaced with Lutheran theologians. However, the common people continued to go to the same churches, where the liturgy, now in the vernacular, sounded about the same. All in all, perhaps the most remarkable difference compared to the Catholic times was that the Lutheran priest or vicar could be officially married and have a family.9 During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Sweden fought many wars with the rising realm of Russia. Finland was often the area that suffered most from these battles. In 1808, as an offshoot of the Napoleonic Wars raging in continental Europe, Emperor Alexander I of Russia ordered his troops to invade Finland. In the resulting War of Fin- land, Russia was victorious: the territory of Finland was transferred from Swedish rule to Russian rule.10 From 1809 to 1917, Finland belonged to the Russian Empire as an autonomous grand duchy. This period, the so-called Age of Autonomy, saw the birth of Finnish political institutions, nationhood, and economy.11 A particularly important reform with respect to gender relations occurred in 1906, when all men and women 24 years of age and older became able to vote for Parliament. Finland was thus the first country in Europe to give women the right to vote.12 During the era of the grand duchy, Finland remained overwhelmingly Lutheran in religious orientation, even though within the Russian Empire

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4 terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari as a whole, Eastern Orthodoxy was the dominant religion. Under Russian rule, the administrative ties between the Church of Finland and the Church of Sweden were cut. Moreover, in 1869, the Diet of Finland passed a new Church Act, which separated the church and the state. The central synod became the highest legislative organization in the Church of Finland.13 Even at this time, however, Finland was not wholly Lutheran. In the easternmost part of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Karelia, a significant proportion of the inhabitants were Orthodox Christians. Their Orthodoxy dated from the Middle Ages, when the Orthodox Church had first gained a foothold in Karelia. Well into the late nineteenth century, the religion of the Karelian Orthodox people was a syncretistic fusion of ethnic and even pre- Christian traditions and Russian Orthodox elements. On the other hand, throughout the period of Russian rule, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials continually immigrated into the country, forming small Orthodox communities in the biggest Finnish cities.14 Finnish revivalism first originated inside the Lutheran Church in the eighteenth century. By the end of the nineteenth century, it had organized under several distinct movements and increased in importance. The revivals were typically founded and dominated by laymen who upheld the values of rural village culture and were critical toward urban and elite clergy. Influenced by German Pietism, revivalism emphasized personal spiritual life, practical Christianity manifesting in a proper way of life, as well as the spiritual brotherhood found in communities of believers. The revivalists, nevertheless, remained within the church; they have been a characteristic feature of Finnish Lutheranism ever since.15 In addition to such indigenous religious pluralism as the revivals, by the end of the nineteenth century different protestant denominations, including Methodist, Pentecostal, and Baptist churches, had also arrived in Finland. All in all, the country was caught up in a process of modernization, in which a unified culture and a unified religious world view were slowly but steadily giving way to a plurality of lifestyles, morals, and beliefs. The rise of the civil society was also revealed by the burgeoning of various kinds of popular movements, such as the temperance movement, the women’s movement, and the labor movement, which, in the beginning of the twentieth century, were rapidly gaining influence among different classes and social circles.16 After the October Revolution in Russia, in December 1917, Finland declared independence. As to religion, the newfound state was a firmly Lutheran country: around 98 percent of the three million Finns belonged to the Lutheran Church. In 1918, however, the Orthodox Church of Fin- land (until 1950 actually called the Greek-Catholic Church of Finland) received an equal standing to that of the Lutheran Church. This was a measure, on the part of the administration of the republic, to secure the

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Orthodox minority’s identification with the state. In 1923, the freedom of religion was guaranteed in yet another legal reform: it became possible to change one’s religious affiliation freely—as well as to opt out of membership in religious organizations altogether.17 The battles of the First World War did not reach Finland. However, the country went through a short but bloody civil war between January and May 1918, after the radical wing of the Social Democratic Party had man- aged to convince the other party members of the need for a revolutionary coup against the government. After a few months of battles, the government’s White Guards succeeded in winning a clear victory over the Red Guards of the Social Democratic Party radicals. During and after the war, most of the Lutheran priests supported and sympathized with the winning side, the right-wing “White Finns.”18 Two decades later, Finland participated in the Second World War by fighting two wars against the Soviet Union (the Winter War, 1939–40, and the Continuation War, 1941–44) and one war against Germany (the Lap- land War, 1944–45).19 It is often said that it took the Second World War to reunite the Finnish people after the divisions caused by the civil war. World War II, moreover, also reunited the people with the Lutheran Church— briefly reversing the processes of secularization that had characterized the first decades of the twentieth century. Thus during wartime and the first postwar years, the Lutheran Church was seen as a source of strength, sup- port, and comfort; people once more flocked to churches. In this respect, however, the effects of the war were only temporary. Indeed, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s, the church became the target of increasing criticism. It was seen as undemocratic, alienated from the people, and a stronghold of outdated values and ideas. By the end of the 1980s, the sever- est of these antichurch sentiments had waned—partly due to the efforts of the Lutheran Church at renewing its governance and policies and at becoming more involved in social issues and social work.20 The first postwar decades, and especially the 1960s and 1970s, were also a time of intensive structural changes in Finland. The country went through large-scale urbanization, industrialization, and expansion of the service sector—transforming Finland, in the span of just one generation, from a predominantly agricultural society to a modern industrial and service society. In step with these developments, Finnish women’s entry into the paid work force became more and more common. Moreover, starting from the 1960s, this move was spurred also by the development of the Finnish welfare system. Since that time, it can be stated that the conception of women as working mothers has been decisive in defining the position of women within the Finnish society.21

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6 terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari

Although Finland has the reputation of being a forerunner in the mat- ters of gender equality, the Lutheran Church has not necessarily actively endorsed issues related to equality. Finnish women received pastoral rights in the Lutheran Church of Finland in 1986 and the first women were ordained in 1988; this is rather late compared to other Lutheran countries like Denmark, where women have been ordained since 1948, and Sweden, which got its first female priests in 1960.22 Moreover, even though there have been active female theologians in the country, feminist theology has not developed into a recognized or stabilized academic activity or curricu- lum in Finland. Instead, women have voiced and performed their religious views in several other ways, as the chapters of our book make explicit. In the 1990s, the Lutheran Church took a more public role in society, starting to take active part in current discussions, in particular concerning the future of the welfare state but also concerning various ethical questions, often to do with sexual ethics. Moreover, during the economic depression of the 1990s, the church also intensified its contribution in the field of welfare work.23 The image of the church as a defender of the downtrodden has remained with it since; in fact, the Lutheran Church continues to be a relatively well-respected institution among the Finnish general population, especially for its wide range of social work. In recent national crises, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (179 Finns lost their lives) or the school shootings of 2007 and 2008, Lutheran church leaders as well as local parish clergy have taken an active role. The churches have been welcomed places for both counseling and memorial services. In addition, the church continues to play a visible role in many civil institutions and stately ceremo- nies. Its participation in these various functions goes mostly unquestioned, highlighting the enduring status of Lutheranism as a standard part of the national identity. Sociologists of religion have described the religiosity of Finns at the turn of the twenty-fir st century as characterized by increasing individualism. Possibilities of democratic participation, experientiality, and personal empowerment are considered important, whereas the willingness to sub- mit to religious authorities is low.24 In accordance with this trend, leaving the Evangelical Lutheran Church has become more and more common throughout the twentieth century and down to the present day. Only during the Second World War did more people join than leave the church. Thus, whereas in 1950, 95 percent of Finns were members of the Lutheran Church, in 1980 the proportion was down to 90 percent and in 2000 to 85 percent. This development has gained pace in recent years; in the beginning of 2013, 76 percent of the Finnish population belonged to the Lutheran Church.25

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Church membership does not necessarily translate into adherence to particular beliefs, the observation of religious practices, or active participation in church functions. According to survey material, Finns’ belief in core Christian doctrines has remained on the same steady level over the past few decades. Finns’ participation in church functions, on the other hand, has been low throughout the twentieth century and has further diminished over the course of time. In 2000, for example, only 8 percent of people participated in a “Divine Service” on a monthly basis. By contrast, the active practice of praying has not lost ground among the Finnish people over the course of recent decades. In 2000, 40 percent of Finns prayed at least once a week. These examples highlight the primarily private nature of the religiosity of Finns.26 As to gender, Finnish women seem to be more religious than men, in terms of both public and private belief and practice. Accord- ing to statistics, at the beginning of the third millennium, the rate of active believers was 36 percent for men and 64 percent for women; men also leave the church more often than women. These figures and trends are relatively typical of many European societies.27 For a long time Finland was a country of emigration and has only lately turned into one of immigration. More than one million people have left the country over the last 150 years, mostly to Sweden and the United States. Even today, Finnish multiculturalism, in terms of large-scale immigration or alternative religions, is still relatively fresh and modest when compared to many neighboring countries. The increasing immigration of recent decades can, to a large extent, be traced back to the collapse of the Soviet Union, which changed the political structures in both Europe and the Middle East. Most of the immigrants coming to Finland are of Western or European origin, but one third has arrived from Asia and Africa; many are from Russia, Estonia, Sweden, and Somalia. Two thirds are estimated to be of Christian background, and one in five is a Muslim; there are today also a few thousand Buddhist and Hindu immigrants in the country.28 The oldest Muslim as well as Jewish communities came to Finland in the late nineteenth century from Russia and received the right to practice their religion with the law of religious freedom that came into force in 1923. These were both small groups; they have been well integrated into Finnish society for a long time now. Whereas the size of the Jewish population has remained on the same level throughout the twentieth century, at some 1,000 people, the number of Muslim individuals in Finland has risen, by 2013, to approximately 60,000. The number of Muslims is therefore on par with that of both Orthodox Christians and Pentecostals; at present, the members of all these groups make up about 1 percent of the Finnish population.29

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8 terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari

Today, the Somalis form the most visible Muslim community in Fin- land. Somali refugees, most of them Sunni Muslims, started arriving after the outbreak of the civil war in Somalia in the early 1990s, and presently there are an estimated 15,000 Somali-speakers in the country. Perhaps more than any other Muslim group, the Somalis have made Islam visible in the Finnish religious landscape and gradually familiarized the Finns with cultural and religious difference; therefore they have been characterized as the “pioneers of multiculturalism.”30 Currently there are signs of increasing efforts to bring the multiple Mus- lim associations and communities into closer dialogue with society as well as with the Evangelical Lutheran Church. This development is important, considering that the number of Finnish Muslims will continue to grow in the near future, in step with the further diversification of Finnish society and its religious landscape. New religions and alternative spiritualities have arrived in Finland in several waves during the span of time covered by our book. Theosophy, a new Anglo-American religion that combines Eastern and Western ideas, reached Finland in the late nineteenth century and first became popular among the educated Swedish-speaking population. Soon interest in Theos- ophy spread, through the press, into the working class and gained ground partly for being critical toward the Lutheran Church. The Finnish Theo- sophical Society was founded in 1907. Ruusu-Risti (Rosicrucians), founded in 1920, on the other hand, is a special branch of Theosophy that considers the Finnish national epos Kalevala as sacred and combines Christianity and national folk mythology.31 The countercultural trends of the 1960s and 1970s saw a more wide- spread appearance of Eastern religions as well as New Age religions into the country. For instance, the Finnish Transcendental Meditation Association was founded in 1972. Hinduism became known in the country through the founding of the Hare Krishna movement (International Society for Krishna Consciousness) in 1979. Both are still present in society. Bud- dhist ideas gained ground soon after the Second World War, and currently there exist approximately twenty small Buddhist associations that teach meditation techniques in Finland, mainly representing Zen and Tibetan Buddhism.32 New Age has been represented in Finland since the beginning of the 1970s, in particular by the association Rajatiedon yhteistyöryhmä (Border Knowledge), which takes its model from Germany, setting itself the task of mapping the border areas of human knowledge. The most notable mind, body, and spirit fairs in Finland today are Hengen ja tiedon messut (the fair of “Spirit and Knowledge”) and Minä Olen-messut (the “I Am” fair). These fairs display a wide range of Western and Eastern alternative spirituality as

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Criti cal and Creative Turns 9 well as a multitude of general well-b eing practices and material; both of them attract several thousands of visitors per year.33 Like in many other Nordic countries, well-being and therapeutic spirituality are becoming increasingly cross-religious; furthermore, they often thoroughly mix the religious with the secular. Yoga, for example, first gained popularity in Finland in the late 1960s mostly as a nonspiritual physical exercise; the second wave from the late 1990s includes several varieties from secular to openly spiritual. According to the Gallup Eccle- siastica of 2011, 5 percent of Finns claim to practice yoga or some form of “spiritual growth” weekly.34 Various practices of alternative healing provide spiritual agency and empowerment as well as everyday ritual techniques that seem to have a growing appeal particularly among women. Neopaganism has gained relatively little ground in Finland in com- parison to the Scandinavian countries.35 In 2001, Suomen Vapaa Wicca Yhdyskunta (The Finnish Free Wicca Association) applied for the status of a registered religious community but failed because the legislator found the views and ritual practices of the movement heterogeneous and fluctu- ating.36 There are also indigenous forms of paganism represented by small groups such as Karhun kansa (The Bear Folk) that build on ideas from ancient Finnish folk religion. The future of paganism and nature religions in Finland remains open. At the same time the Finnish people became attracted to Eastern religions, new religious movements, and alternative spirituality, they also grew more interested in other Christian churches, in particular in Charismatic and Neocharismatic Christianity. For instance, Pentecostalism gained popularity in several waves after the Second World War, mostly in urban areas.37 In general, the interest in different alternative forms of religion is growing both within and outside the Lutheran Church. For example, the growing interest in angel religion in Finland, as well as in Norway,38 has been noticed in the latest report of the Lutheran Church as something that combines different religious traditions and addresses the spiritual needs of many contemporary people.39 All these new forms of religiosity, from Eastern to Charismatic, even if they often differ with regard to their value systems, seem to respond to modern needs and aspirations in providing emotionally and ritually appealing spiritual environments.

Outline of the Book

The 12 case studies in Finnish Women Making Religion—Between Ances- tors and Angels build on diverse perspectives and a multiplicity of source materials; some focus on individual women, whereas others build on larger

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10 terhi Utriainen, Päivi Salmesvuori, and Helena Kupari groups. All the chapters put forth the complex intersections that Lutheran- ism has had with other religions as well as with the larger society, the Zeit- geist, and politics not only inside Finland but also internationally. Finnish women’s practical and relational religiosities paint a colorful landscape of religious practice as well as its involvement with the process of the Finnish welfare society. The authors come from several disciplines, including the study of religion, history, church history, anthropology, and gender studies. The book is organized into four parts in a loosely chronological order. The first part starts with late nineteenth-century folk religion and ends around the time of the First World War. In Chapter 1, Marja-Liisa Keinänen discusses women’s death-related rituals on both sides of the Eastern Finn- ish border as work of kinship. She emphasizes the processual nature of kinship as something that is done and redone in everyday social interac- tion. Thus, through regular commemorative practices, such as feeding and remembering, the women of Keinänen’s study kept the dead as active members of society. Mortuary rituals, especially lamentation, served an important therapeutic function, whereas the collective meals the women organized joined the two parts of the family together as a moral community. This was particularly important during the historical-political context of the Soviet rule. A prophetic woman, the trance preacher Helena Konttinen (1871– 1916), is the focus of Päivi Salmesvuori’s analysis in Chapter 2. Trance preaching or sleeping preaching, as it is also called, is a phenomenon in the history of Christianity that seems to have been exercised especially by women. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, sleeping preaching became very popular in Finland: there were more than one hundred sleeping preachers in Finland at the turn of the twentieth century. The most famous was a poor peasant woman named Helena Konttinen. Her career started around 1905 and lasted until her death in 1916. People came to see her performances even over long distances. With the help of performance theory, Salmesvuori focuses on how and why Konttinen succeeded in becoming a religious authority. What did she do with religion, and how did her audiences respond to her actions? Finnish feminist activists in the nineteenth century were divided over the meaning of Christian religion for women’s emancipation. In Chapter 3, Tiina Kinnunen studies the relation between Christianity and feminist activism in the context of late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Finnish middle-class feminism. The analysis centers on Alexandra Grip- enberg’s (1857–1913) Lutheran-inspired advocacy of gender equality. One aspect of this advocacy was her combat against the spread of secular ideas, which within Nordic feminism were represented especially by the Swedish writer Ellen Key. Based on close reading of archival sources and published

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Index

Aberdeen, Isabel (1857–1939), 63, 71, atheism, 62, 68, 74, 109 77 authority, 10, 13, 14, 43–57, 61, 66, 68, Åbo Akademi University, 107 93, 105, 128, 130, 137, 173, 178, affect. See emotion 180, 182, 183, 186, 187, 188, 220, Africa, 7, 92–93, 125, 129, 135–36 226, 248 See also Namibia; Somalia autobiography, 45, 48, 92, 99, 107–9, agency, 2, 9, 12, 13, 24, 63, 65, 66, 71, 110, 114, 117, 205, 207, 209, 248 129, 153, 177–90, 197, 207, 208, 237–50, 252, 253 Baker, Rachel (1794–1843), 47 Ahearn, Laura, 239 Bandura, Albert, 182–84 Ahola, Suvi, 237 Baptism, 4, 77 Alexander I, Emperor of Russia Bartkowski, John P., 179 (1777–1825), 3 Beck, Ulrich, 145 alternative spiritualities, 8, 9, 144, 199, Beck-Ge rsheim, Elisabeth, 145 205–7 Bell, Catharine, 35–36 See also New Age; spirituality Bergroth, Kersti (1886–1975), 11, 103– Althusser, Louis, 239 18, 119, 121 America. See United States Besant, Annie, 106, 111–12 Amma, Mother (b. 1953), 13, 199, Bible, 48, 52, 53–55, 61, 63–64, 66, 217–30, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240 67–69, 74–75, 115, 127, 163, 166, Ammerman, Nancy, 186 177, 180, 182, 185, 186, 188, 226, Amritanandamayi, Mata. See Amma, 227, 228, 229 Mother New Testament, 47, 48, 49, 65, 68 angels, 13, 33–34, 41, 49–50, 52–53, Old Testament, 48, 51, 127 205, 208, 224, 237–50, 251, 253 Bird-David, Nurit, 24 Anthroposophy, 11, 103–18, 241 Braidotti, Rosi, 239 Finnish Anthroposophical Society, Bremer, Fredrika (1801–1865), 65, 67, 105, 107, 119 69, 71, 73–74 Anttonen, Veikko, 208 Britain. See United Kingdom art, 103–18, 237, 247 Brouwer, Ruth Compton, 124, 134 ashram, 220, 222, 240 Buddhism, 7, 8, 116 Asia, 7, 231 Butler, Josephine (1828–1906), 67, See also China; India; Japan 71, 75 Askola, Irja (b. 1952), 12, 161–62, 166– Butler, Judith, 239 71, 174, 175 Byrne, Lorna, 237, 240, 244, 253

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286 INDEX calling, 47, 49, 71, 83–84, 87–89, 91–92, Donner, Uno (1872–1958), 106–8 94–96, 124, 128, 132, 134, 174, Donner Institute for Research in 180, 219 Religious and Cultural History, Campbell, Colin, 218–19, 229 107 Campbell, Karlyn, 239, 246 dreams, 24–25, 28–29, 33, 179 Carsten, Janet, 22–23 dualism, 170, 201 Catechism, 166–67, 169, 174 Catholic Christianity, 3, 65, 77, 127, Eakin, Paul John, 108 136, 160, 192, 219, 223, 225, 226, Easternization, 219, 229 241, 251, 252 Ehrenberg, Alain, 248 charismata, 177, 180, 181–82, 185, Eller, Cynthia, 200, 204 187–88 emancipation, 10, 61–75, 200, 203, 211 Charismatic Christianity. See embodiment, 1, 2, 14, 31, 54–55, 56, Neocharismatic Christianity 114–15, 189, 198, 202–4, 206, 221, China, 84, 92–93, 125, 136 223–24, 229, 238, 243, 254 Christ. See Jesus emotion, 9, 13, 24–25, 28, 30, 56–57, Christianity 93, 220, 229, 237–50, 253 feminist Christianity, 61–75 empowerment, 6, 9, 61, 184, 187, 200, fundamentalist Christianity, 177, 202, 220, 238, 248 178, 179, 181, 182, 186, 188, enchantment, 238, 247, 249 190, 190 England. See United Kingdom socioethical Christianity, 162, 166, environmentalism, 197–98, 202, 203, 198 204, 206, 207, 211 See also individual movements Estonia, 7, 135 Christian Medical Society, 94–95 ethnicity, 11, 123–34 Clark, Candace, 24 Europe, 2–3, 7, 65, 69, 71, 106, 110, cognitive restructuring, 187, 190 218, 219, 230, 241 Coney, Judith, 221 See also individual countries confirmation training, 163, 172 Evangelicalism, 68, 70–71, 77, 125, consumerism, 206, 239 127, 135–36, 177, 178, 179, 186 conversion, 86, 107, 108, 110, 145, 149, Evangelical Lutheran Church. See 178, 185–86, 192, 229 Lutheran Church of Finland Cooper, Diane, 237, 253 evangelizing, 124, 128–29, 132, 133, 177, 179, 181, 182, 186 Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), 111 See also missionary work darshan, 220, 233 Davie, Grace, 218 family death, 21–37, 112, 113–14, 115–16, ancestors, 21–37, 37 129, 137, 154, 165, 167, 241, 242 bidenominational families, 143–56 deism, 62 children, 26–30, 143–56, 159, 178, Denmark, 6, 87–88, 171 207–8, 240–41, 245–46 divinity, 12, 198, 202, 203, 210, 220, Christian family model, 12, 61–62, 224, 233 65, 67, 70, 81, 96, 124, 144, 156, See also God; goddess 177–82, 186–87 Donner, Olly (1881–1956), 106–7 family myths, 160

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INDEX 287

husbands, 26–27, 33, 146–48, 150– Finnish Association of Medical 51, 153, 155, 159, 178–80, 184, Women, 95 186 Finnish Christian Students’ work of kinship, 10, 21–37 Federation, 86 fasting, 32, 49–51 Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission feminism, 10–11, 61–75, 124, 169, 174, (FELM), 125, 136 199, 204–5, 234 Finnish Missionary Society, 92–93 eco-feminism, 12–13, 199, 204, 210 Lestadian Auxiliary of, 92 feminist Christianity, 61–75 Finnish Women’s Association, 62–64, feminist spirituality, 198–205, 66, 69–71 210–11 food, 22–37, 49, 150 feminist theology, 1, 6, 165, 168–71, Franzén, Ruth, 87 173, 174–75 Fries, Ellen (1855–1900), 73 Finland Åbo (see Turku) Christianization of, 3, 4 Gallup Ecclesiastica, 9, 218, 225 church–state relations in, 4, 161, 232 gender and ethnicity, 123–34 civil war, 5 gendered division of labor, 21, 27, 36, emigration from and immigration 93, 96, 132 to, 4, 7 gender ideals, 11, 74, 83–85, 96, 124, Fennoman movement (see 134, 139, 148, 179, 185–86, 189, nationalism) 220, 221, 224 freedom of religion legislation in, gender relations, 3, 61, 65–66, 73, 201 5, 7, 146 difference, 70, 72–73, 189, 190 Grand Duchy of (see Finland: equality, 6, 10, 61–75, 167, 174 Russian rule of) hierarchy, 11, 123–34, 178, 187, Helsinki, 56, 64, 83, 84, 86, 90, 95, 201 109–10, 112, 161, 163, 174–75, partnership, 181–82, 184, 190 180, 205, 222, 237, 240–41 Pauline principles, 68, 178–80, independence of, 4, 110 185–87 modernization of, 4, 144 rhetorical asexuality, 185–87, national epic of (see Kalevala) 189–90 Russian rule of, 3–4, 44 separate spheres, 65, 96, 124, 144 Swedish rule of, 3 women’s subordination, 65, 127, Turku, 107, 178, 190 178–80, 182, 184–85 Uukuniemi, 44 See also family: Christian family Viipuri (Vyborg), 104, 109 model welfare system in, 5, 6, 10, 224, 239– gender roles, 12, 48, 61, 65, 70, 96, 129, 40, 250 143, 146, 148–50, 155–56, 177–90, women’s ordination in, 6, 16, 124, 192, 220, 221, 245, 253 129, 132, 134, 161, 166, 171, 174 gender system, 36, 66, 129, 132, 134, women’s right to vote in, 3, 71 143, 144, 146 in World War I, 5 heteronormativity, 182, 189, 233 in World War II, 5–6, 109, 145, 162 Germany, 3, 5, 8, 47 See also Karelia Dresden, 106

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288 INDEX

God Heikel, Hannes. See Heikinheimo, as father, 47, 49, 164–66, 167, 168, Hannes 169, 173, 175 Heikel, Helmi. See Heikinheimo, as feminine, 168, 171, 223–24 Helmi as Lord, 35, 46, 51, 89, 168, 179, 185 Heikel, Karl Abiel (1846–1919), 85 love of, 45, 164–66, 168, 173 Heikinheimo, Hannes, 85, 92–94, 102 monarchial model of, 169–70, 175 Heikinheimo, Helmi (1879–1968), omnipotence of, 167, 186 84–96, 96, 102 power of, 48, 56 Heikinheimo, Väinö, 94 transcendence of, 175, 202, 203, 210 hell, 45, 55, 218 will of, 47, 49, 54, 55, 169, 185 Helsinki Deaconesses’ Institute, 90 See also prophesying Helsinki University, 64, 83, 84, 109, goddess, 201–4, 206, 219, 221, 231, 174–75 233, 234 hierarchical sisterhood, 134 Devi, 219, 221 Hinduism, 8, 116, 219, 221, 228, 229, divine feminine, 223 230, 230–31, 233, 234 Divine Mother, 217, 219 Finnish Transcendental Meditation Gaia, 206 Association, 8 Kali, 219–20 Hare Krishna movement, 8 Mother Earth, 207, 210 Mother Amma’s movement, 13, 217, Universal Mother, 219, 233 219–22, 229 Goddess Religion, 199, 201, 202, 203 Neo-Hinduism, 217, 228, 230–31 See also paganism Sahaja Yoga, 13, 217, 220–22, 229 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Shaktism, 227, 234 (1749–1832), 73, 104, 106, 111, Tantric tradition, 221, 233, 240 114, 115, 117 Hirdman, Yvonne, 132 Greenblatt, Stephen, 43–44, 51 Holy Spirit, 51, 89, 168, 177, 180, 181, Gripenberg, Alexandra (1857–1913), 187, 188, 189, 223 10, 61–75, 75–76, 77, 79 Hytönen, Rosa, 127, 129, 132 Gustav Vasa, King of Sweden (1496– 1560), 3 Iceland, 171 identity, 2, 6, 13, 43–44, 51, 54, 65, 107, Hagelin, Samuel (1877–1917), 110 124, 127, 134, 156, 184, 248, 249 Haggis, Jane, 133 imagination, 175, 201, 237, 239, 247–50, Hammar, Inger, 73 252, 254 healing, 9, 17, 94, 177, 183, 187, 199, India, 13, 215, 219–20, 222–23, 226, 203, 205–11 229–30 angel healing, 237, 238, 240, 242–43, Chindwara, 220 244–45, 253, 254 Kerala, 219, 222 Reiki, 207–9, 240 individualism, 6, 12, 144, 148, 155, See also therapy 156, 177, 244, 248 heaven, 33, 34, 114, 169, 218 International Council of Women Heelas, Paul, 210, 218, 224, 226, 228 (ICW), 62, 64–65, 71–72 Hegel, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Ishizaka, Masago, 133 (1770–1831), 66 Islam, 7–8, 77, 179, 188, 191, 211

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INDEX 289

Italy, 221 Laaksonen, Martta, 139 Genoa, 221 lamenting, 10, 21–23, 25–30, 32, 36–37 Meran, 111 land of the dead. See Tuonela Rome, 117 Lehtonen, Anni (1866–1943), 24–25, 29, 32–33, 35 Japan, 123, 125–34, 135, 136, 137, 138, Leming, Laura, 184, 189, 197 139 Leonardo, Micaela di, 22 Iida, 128, 132–33 Lilius, Amanda, 85 Kyûshu, 125, 128 Lilius, Anna (1851–1899), 85, 98 Nagano, 127, 128, 132 Lilius, Anton (1822–1893), 85 Sapporo, 131, 132–33, 138, 139 Lilius, Lilli. See Rainio, Lilli Shimosuwa, 127, 128, 130, 138 Lilius, Selma. See Rainio, Selma Tokyo, 127, 128, 131, 132–33, 139 Lipponen, Sanna, 138–39 Järvinen, Irma-Riitta, 24–25, 28, 31–32 LiPuma, Edward, 23 Jesus, 49, 51, 54, 65, 68, 89, 91, 94, 164, lived religion, 1, 2, 14, 17, 178, 186, 165, 167, 168, 169, 179, 185, 186, 189, 190, 205 225, 226–28, 235 folk religion, 2, 9, 10, 13, 17, 210 Johansson, Gustaf (1844–1930), 64, popular religion, 238, 251 66, 70 practical and relational religion, 10, Judaism, 7, 75, 77 238–39 vernacular religion, 22 Kailo, Kaarina, 200–205, 210–11 Lutheran Church of Finland, 3–6, 9, Kainulainen, Pauliina, 200–205, 160, 162–63, 166, 171, 173, 250, 210–11 251 Käkikoski, Hilda (1864–1912), 64 and environmentalism, 197–98 Kalevala, 8, 106 and gender equality, 6, 12, 70, 161, Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804), 106 174, 199 Karelia, 4, 21–37, 37, 104, 145–46 membership in, 2–3, 4, 6, 156, 177, Karelian evacuees of World War II, 218–19 145, 158 relationship with the state, 4, 161, Karén, Artturi, 138 232 karma, 116, 227 and revivalism, 4, 66, 123, 162, 172 Karpela, Tanja, 222, 234 women’s ordination in, 6, 16, 124, Kern, Kathi, 68 129, 132, 134, 161, 166, 171, 174 Key, Ellen (1849–1926), 10, 62, 63, Lutheran Evangelical Association of 72–73, 74 Finland (LEAF), 125, 127–30, 132, Kilpeläinen, Irja (1911–1999), 12, 161, 135–36, 137 162–66, 170–71, 173 Lutheranism, 3–4, 6, 162–63 Kirillova, Alexandra, 30 and angels, 237, 241, 250 Konttinen, Helena (1871–1916), 10, and ethnic Finnish religion, 12–13, 43–57, 59 201–5, 210–11 Konttinen, Matti, 45–46, 50, 53 and Indian spirituality, 13, 217–30 Kosambi, Meera, 133 and Orthodox Christianity, 149–56 Kurvinen, Esteri, 128–29 Luther, Martin (1483–1546), 3, 65, Kurvinen, Pietari, 129 167, 173, 174

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290 INDEX magic, 105, 198, 205, 210, 211, 238, Healing Rooms, 180, 191 244, 247, 249 New Wine, 177 Mahler, Peggy, 14 Toronto Blessing, 177 Mahmood, Saba, 2, 252 Vineyard, 177 Märkström, Katri, 33–34 Word of Faith, 177 marriage Word of Life, 178, 179, 181, 185, interracial marriages, 130–32 187, 190 mixed marriages, 143–56, 157 New Age, 8, 13, 205–6, 210, 241, 253 See also family Border Knowledge, 8 Märta-Louise, Princess of Norway, 237 See also alternative spiritualities Martynova, Valentina, 30 Niemelä, Kati, 219 McFague, Sallie, 169, 175 Niemi, Tyyne (1901–1991), 123, 133, McGinn, Bernard, 48 139 McGuire, Meredith, 249 Nietzsche, Friedrich (1844–1900), 73, media, 56, 161, 165, 205, 237 106 meditation, 8, 206, 218, 223, 226, 227, Nirmala Devi, Shri Mataji (1923–2011), 232, 237, 240, 244–45 217, 219–22, 227, 233, 234 Methodism, 4, 77 Norway, 9, 171, 232, 237, 250, 251 Milgram, Stanley, 183 Novalis (1772–1801), 111, 117 Minkkinen, Naimi, 128 Nylund, Jenny, 127, 129, 138 Minkkinen, Taavi, 128, 137 missionary work, 11, 84, 87, 91–93, 95, Orthodox Christianity, 4–5, 12, 143–56, 123–34, 179–80, 181 158 Mizoguchi, Dan’ichi, 138 in Karelia, 4, 21–37 motherhood, 72–74, 134 Orthodox Church of Finland, 4–5, mothering, 26–27 7, 143, 145, 156, 158, 232 social motherhood, 70–71 otherworld, 27–33, 35–36, 248 stay-at-home motherhood, 144, 221 See also Tuonela working motherhood, 5, 144 Ottonen, Liisa, 117 See also family; women’s religious Ovamboland. See Namibia roles: mother Ozorak, Elizabeth Weiss, 187 Mott, John R. (1865–1955), 86 multiculturalism, 7, 8 paganism, 9, 198–99, 202, 206, 213, 249 Myerhoff, Barbara, 27 ásatrú, 199 Bear Folk, 9 Nagai, Aya, 128 Finnish Free Wicca Association, 9 Namibia, 92, 101, 129, 134, 136 Finnish pre-Christian religion, 199 nationalism, 62, 66, 71, 73, 75–76, 110 Reclaiming Witches, 198 nature, sacredness of, 12, 112–13, Wicca, 198–99, 206 197–211 See also Goddess Religion; nature nature religions, 9, 197 religions See also paganism panentheism, 202 Nenola, Aili, 26 pantheism, 62, 67, 202, 224 Neocharismatic Christianity, 9, 12, pastoral counseling, 127, 162–65, 171, 177–92, 190, 191 172

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INDEX 291 patriarchy, 84, 198, 200–201, 203–4 Rainio, Selma (1873–1939), 84–96, of Christianity, 61, 68, 179, 202, 211, 96, 101 227, 229 Read, Jen’nan Ghazal, 179 Pentecostalism, 4, 7, 9, 177, 178, 185, Reformation, 3, 65, 167 1186, 189 reincarnation, 115–16, 218, 227, 253 Azusa Street Revival, 185 religious change, 13, 14, 219 performance, 10, 25, 27–28, 48, 50–51, Repstad, Pål, 189 55–57, 150, 151 revivalism. See Pietistic revivalism Perkins, Elaine, 180 Riis, Ole, 56, 243, 250 personhood, 21–37 rituals philanthropy, 61, 85, 92 commemorative rituals, 10, 21–22, Pietism, 4, 66–67, 109, 114, 166, 172 25, 30–37 Pietistic revivalism, 4, 66–67, 85–86, funerals, 22, 27–30, 219 109, 114, 118, 123, 162, 166, 171, puja, 220 172, 183 of purification, 50–51, 203, 205, Laestadianism, 85 242 Neopietism, 162, 165 rites of passage, 219, 243 New Awakening, 85 Rogel, Anna (1751–1784), 47 Roman Catholicism. See Catholic Piirainen, Kaisu, 138–39 Christianity Pimenova, Olga (1899–n.d.), 33 Rouse, Ruth (1872–1956), 83, 86–87 Pitkänen, Siiri. See Watanabe, Siiri Runeberg, Fredrika (1807–1879), 67 pluralism, 4, 12, 178, 229 Runeberg, Johan Ludvig (1804–1877), Poder, Poul, 24 67 popular culture, 237 Rupp, Leila J., 65, 77 Porio, Anja, 167 Russia, 3–5, 7, 104, 109, 143, 145, 162 power, 2, 11, 44, 48, 51, 57, 83, 123, See also Karelia 125, 134, 175, 182, 184, 187, 188, Russian Orthodoxy. See Orthodox 201, 221, 226, 234, 241, 247, 248 Christianity praying, 7, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 46, 48, 88, 151, 152, 224, 225 sacralization, 12, 197–211 private and public spheres, 65, 96, 124, Sanders, Constantine Blackman 144, 181, 187, 238 (1831–n.d.), 47 professional life, 11, 83–96, 104–5, Sarlin, K., 45, 51, 57 124, 127, 132, 134, 206, 240 Scandinavia, 9 prophesying, 10, 43–57, 177, 187, 188 See also individual countries prostitution, 67, 70–71, 89 Schantz, Dagmar von (1864–1936), Protestant Christianity, 3, 4, 47, 62, 106 64–65, 74, 124–26, 136, 178, 179, Schiller, Friedrich (1759–1805), 104, 223 106, 114 See also individual movements secularization, 5, 12, 62, 63, 72, 73, 74, Puttick, Elizabeth, 223 177, 178 theories, 2 race, 130, 133, 220 Selander, Edvard (1853–1928), 111, Rainio, Lilli (1861–1945), 85, 90 119

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292 INDEX self Sweden, 3–4, 6, 7, 47, 88, 106, 171, 232 self-fashioning, 43–44, 48, 51, 57 Uppsala, 179 selfhood, 25, 156 Swedenborg, Emanuel (1688–1772), self-knowledge, 206, 242, 244 11, 103, 118 self-realization, 219, 220, 221, 224 Switzerland, 105, 107 self-sacrifice, 72, 83, 92, 95, 149 Seppänen, Anni (1895–1979), 84–91, Teresa, mother, 219, 228 94–96 theology, 12, 63, 66, 77, 161–71, 171– sexuality, 62, 64, 70–75, 78, 90, 130–31, 72, 173, 175, 241 181, 190, 203, 221, 223, 233, 240 feminist theology, 1, 6, 165, 168–71, Seymore, William J., 185 173, 174–75 Shakespeare, William (1564–1616), Theosophy, 8, 11, 76, 105–6, 111–12, 108, 111 115–17, 119 Simmel, George, 197 Finnish Theosophical Society, 8, Södergran, Edith (1892–1923), 106 105–6, 115 Soejima, Hide, 139 Rosicrucians, 8 Sointu, Eeva, 145, 206 therapy, 9, 13, 94, 172, 205, 237, 238, Somalia, 7–8 240, 244, 245, 247, 250, 253 Soviet Union. See Russia See also healing Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903), 73 Thompson, Edward, 182 spirits, 23, 29, 103, 201, 202, 206, 242, Topelius, Zacharias (1818–1898), 64, 247 66–67 fairies, 205, 206 trance preaching, 10, 43–57, 58 spirituality Tuonela, 27, 28, 29–30, 31, 40 angel spirituality, 13, 237–50 See also otherworld Eastern spirituality, 111–12, 218 Tuulio, Tyyni (1892–1991), 64 feminist spirituality, 198–205, 210–11 Union of the Student Missionary Indian spirituality, 13, 217–30 Volunteers, 86 Western spirituality, 115 Union Theological Seminary, 163 Srivastava, Nirmala. See Nirmala Devi, United Kingdom, 3, 44, 62–64, 67, 69, Shri Mataji 71, 126, 221 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815–1902), London, 87, 88 67, 68–69, 73, 74 United States, 7, 47, 64, 65, 68, 69, 126, Starhawk, 198, 202 199 Stark, Laura, 28 New York, 47, 163, 235 Steiner, Rudolf (1861–1925), 11, San Francisco, 198 105–6, 108, 110, 111–12, 114, 115, Washingon, DC, 64, 69 117–18, 119 Uusitalo, Siiri, 127–29, 131, 139 Stenbäck, Ottilia (1848–1939), 86 Stepanova, Alexandra, 26 Virgin Mary, 221, 223, 228, 233, 242 subjectivity, 2, 177, 238, 239 Virtue, Doreen, 237 Sulkunen, Irma, 134 Vivekananda, Swami (1863–1902), Suutala, Maria, 200–205, 210–11 219, 229, 233 Suydam, Mary, 51 vocation. See calling

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INDEX 293

Warner, Elizabeth, 30 mother, 12, 26–27, 29, 30, 71–73, Watanabe, Siiri, 130–31 143–56, 186, 219–20, 233 Watanabe, Tadao, 130–32, 138 pastor, priest, 6, 166, 179, 180, 181, Wellroos, Alfred, 129 189, 198, 199, 200, 220 Woman’s Bible, The, 68–69 pastoral counselor, 163–65, 172 Women’s Association Union, 63 poet, 12, 161, 172 women’s religious roles prophet, 10, 43–57, 59, 178, 180, avatar, 219, 227, 228, 241 188, 189 Bible woman, 125, 128, 133, 134 theologian, 6, 12, 161–71, 172, bishop, 12, 161–62, 171 173–74 deaconess, 89, 92, 100 trance preacher, 10, 43–57 evangelist, 180, 181, 185, 189 writer, 10, 11, 12, 62, 72, 74, 103–18, feminist, 10–11, 12–13, 61–75, 76, 161, 163, 172, 200, 240, 244 199–205, 210–11 Women Students’ Christian follower, 56, 57, 178, 217, 219–30, Association, 86 231, 233, 234–35, 238 Woodhead, Linda, 56, 145, 186–87, guru, 217, 220, 231, 234, 237 206, 210, 218, 226, 243, 250 healer, 178, 189, 205–8, 240, 242–43, World Council of Churches, 197 244–45 World’s Christian Student Federation lamenter, 21–22, 25–30, 32, 36–37 (WCSF), 83, 86 mediator, 22, 29, 52, 56, 178, 183, 188, 189 yoga, 9, 13, 217–18, 220–23, 229, 240 medical doctor, 91–95 yogaization, 13, 218, 219, 229, 230 missionary, 11, 84, 87, 91–93, 95, 123–24, 136, 138, 139 Zavou, Maria, 237