The Australian Community Psychologist
The Official Journal of the Australian Psychological Society College of Community Psychologists
Volume 29 No. 1 June 2018
2 National Committee of the APS College of Community Psychologists
Chairperson Jenny Sharples, Victoria
Deputy Chair Helen Killmier, Victoria
Secretary Brona Nic Giolla Easpaig, New South Wales
Treasurer Renzo Vittorino, Victoria
Web Editor Neil Drew, Western Australia
Programme Accreditation Lynne Cohen, Western Australia
Professional Development Helen Killmier, Victoria
Membership Secretary Meg Smith, New South Wales
State Chairs Neil Drew, Western Australia
Meg Smith, New South Wales
Peter Streker, Victoria
Australian Community Psychologist (ACP) Editor Rachael Fox, New South Wales
Australian Psychologist Omnibus Journal Editorial Board Member Dawn Darlaston-Jones, Western Australia
Published by The College of Community Psychologists of the Australian Psychological Society Ltd
ISSN 1835-7393
Disclaimer: “The publication of an advertisement by ACP is not an endorsement of the Advertiser nor of the products and services advertised. Only those professional development activities carrying the APS logo and an appropriate endorsement statement can be considered to be specifically approved by the APS. Advertisers may not incorporate in a subsequent advertisement or promotional piece the fact that a product or service has been advertised in any publication of the society. The publications of the College are published for and on behalf of the membership to advance psychology as a science and as a profession. The College reserves the right to unilaterally cancel or reject advertising which is not deemed to be in keeping with its scientific and professional aims”.
The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 29 No 1 June 2018 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
3 Contents
Contents 3
General Information 4
Editorial Heather Gridley 5
Articles Mobilising decolonial approaches for community-engaged research for racial justice 8 Christopher C. Sonn
‘It hurts to help’: Vicarious trauma in sensitive research and community projects in South 22 Africa Simóne Plüg and Anthony Collins
Bringing a community psychology lens to understanding suicide 36 Lyn O’Grady
Complexities of a Bhutanese school counselling community: A critical narrative insight 54 Kuenga Dem and Robbie Busch
The intercultural collaborative processes underpinning the development of the KidsMatter 72 resources to support the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal children Samantha Smith, Lyn O'Grady, Fletcher Curnow and Lone Pearce
Critical conversations around mothering: Mothering as marginal and mothering from the 88 margins Emma Sampson, Sharon Dane, Shannon Elizabeth McSolvin, Sally Northfield, Harriet Radermacher and Liz Short
The status of diverse sexualities and genders in community psychology research and practice: 108 Reflections from the Trans-Tasman context Bróna Nic Giolla Easpaig, Rachael Fox and Sarah Bowman
Access to healthcare: Opioid substitution treatment following a disaster in Aotearoa New 121 Zealand Denise Blake
Investigating nature strip gardens as sites for transformative change 139 Margaret Schubert and Julie van den Eynde
Corrigendum 154
Preparation, Submission and Publication of Manuscripts 155
The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 29 No 1 June 2018 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
4 General Information
The Australian Community Psychologist is the Journal of the College of Community Psychologists of the Australian Psychological Society
Editor Dr Rachael Fox, Charles Sturt University, NSW
Editorial Board Professor Lynne Cohen, Edith Cowan University, WA Dr Leigh Coombes, Massey University, Aotearoa/New Zealand Dr Tanya Graham, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Heather Gridley, Victoria University, Vic Professor Bernard Guerin, University of South Australia, SA Dr Meg Smith, Western Sydney University, NSW Dr Chris Sonn, Victoria University, Vic Dr Tahereh Ziaian, University of South Australia, SA
Associate Editors Dr Kelly-Ann Allen, University of Melbourne, Vic Dr Eddie Ng, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Dr Brona Nic Giolla Easpaig, Macquarie University, NSW Dr Harriet Radermacher, Monash University, Vic Dr Renzo Vittorino, Victoria University, Vic
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All payments to be made out to: APS College of Community Psychologists The Australian Psychological Society PO Box 38 Flinders Lane Post Office Melbourne Vic 8009
Current and past issues of ACP can be accessed through Australia’s web archive system PANDORA (http://pandora.nla.gov.au/tep/84823)
PANDORA is an initiative of the Australian National Library in conjunction with nine other collections. The name is an acronym derived from its mission: Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia.
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5
Editorial
Heather Gridley Victoria University
The 13th Trans-Tasman Community Community Psychology Aotearoa. Psychology College Conference in Melbourne Parallel to the conference planning, the was one of the biggest ever, with more than 80 prospect of the proceedings constituting the delegates attending across 3 days in April next issue of the Australian Community 2017. Now the latest edition of The Australian Psychologist emerged. All conference Community Psychologist features a selection presentation proposals had been subjected to a of peer-reviewed papers from the conference, review process, and each of the papers including Chris Sonn’s welcoming keynote submitted for the Proceedings special issue was address. further considered by at least two reviewers. The Melbourne Conference came The review panel included Heather Gridley, together in less than six months, and forged its Ben Moberley, Lynne Cohen, Harriet own place in the folklore of Trans-Tasman Radermacher, Chris Sonn, Lyn O’Grady, Craig conferences - Pakatoa, Maralinga, Rotorua, Wallace, Katie Thomas, Julie Dean, Meg Yarrabah, Toodyay, Hamilton, Melbourne, Smith, Niki Harre, Susie Burke, Libby Gawith, Hillary’s Harbour (Perth), Tauranga, Sydney, Emma Sampson, Robbie Busch, Neil Drew, Fremantle, Tapu Te Ranga Marae, Island Bay Joanne O’Connor, Rachael Fox and Dallas (Wellington), and back to Melbourne. This is Ambry. Thank you all for the serious not the place to revisit the conference itself, but consideration and constructive feedback you I do want to acknowledge the work of all the offered. And special thanks to Rachael Fox as contributors to the Conference Committee, incoming ACP editor for editorial back-up and which I chaired: Harriet Radermacher, Emma moral support, and to Anne Sibbel who waited Sampson, Jenny Sharples, Ben Moberley, patiently as production editor for the drip feed Rebecca Hogea, Helen Killmier, and Renzo of completed articles. Vittorino, plus Neil Drew, Katie Thomas and The specific focus of the conference was Dawn Darlaston-Jones from WA and a bevy of to revisit the foundations of community indispensable student helpers from Victoria psychology to promote critical reflexivity and University. We also very much appreciated the identify opportunities for change. While not support of the Community College National representative of the entire range of keynote and Victorian Section Committees, Victoria addresses, symposia, nuts and bolts sessions, University and the APS National Office staff, posters, and creative activities that took place at and our international sister groups, APA the conference, the nine papers featured in this Division 27 (SCRA) and the Institute of special issue continue the theme of Critical
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Conversations, covering a diverse array of invites critical reflection on the impacts on content from Australia, Bhutan, South Africa, researchers themselves. And in applying and Aotearoa New Zealand. Topics include community psychology principles to vicarious trauma in sensitive research and contextualise historical and theoretical community projects, promoting the social and understandings of suicide, Lyn O’Grady argues emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal children, that the phenomenon cannot be separated from applying community psychology principles to questions of social (in)justice and (dis) the study of suicide, the status of diverse empowerment. Both of these papers disrupt sexualities and genders in community intradisciplinary boundaries that are typically psychology research and practice, and the erected (from both ‘sides’) between community transformative potential of nature strip gardens. and clinical/counselling psychology. We are delighted with their freshness more The next two papers shift the focus onto than twelve months on from the conference, the psychosocial wellbeing of children in two and congratulate all the authors for the way very different cultural contexts: the tiny they have managed to balance accessibility Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan and urban and with intellectual and critical challenge. remote Aboriginal communities in Australia. In When it came to determining an order of both cases, communities dealing with the publication for the nine papers that make up systemic, social and emotional impacts of this issue, or identifying any thematic colonisation are grappling with issues of how groupings, I drew a complete blank. Nature far to resist or/and accommodate ‘Western’ strip gardens and school counselling in notions of education, mental health, help- Bhutan? Suicidality and opioid substitution seeking and counselling. Kuenga Dem and treatment? Decolonising approaches and Robbie Busch examine this question from the vicarious trauma? Something for everyone in standpoint of a first generation Bhutanese our first issue for 2018, but were there any school counsellor trying to balance traditional links between these diverse offerings? expectations of young people and It made sense for Chris Sonn’s paper to conceptualisations of schooling with the open this special issue, not only because it emergence of ‘new’ social problems such as opened the conference itself, but more substance use and youth suicide. In the importantly because his work invariably invites Australian context, the national Kidsmatter readers (and students) to stretch themselves, to child mental health initiative identified a need think beyond taken-for-granted standpoints and for specific resources in relation to Aboriginal world views by engaging in critical discussions children’s social and emotional wellbeing, and and joint learning. His paper explores critical here Smith, O’Grady, Curnow and Pearce epistemologies and creative methodologies that outline the intercultural collaborative processes he and his colleagues at Victoria University in that were set in motion to ensure the resources Melbourne’s west are deploying locally to developed would be culturally-appropriate and document and respond to racism and racialised meaningful for Aboriginal families. Although exclusion, and to support individuals and one of these papers is a research report and the groups within and beyond the university other is practice-oriented, both employed confines and constraints. critical narrative approaches in their principles There is no logical order to the remaining and processes, and both are place-based and eight papers, beyond a loose thread from one to highly sensitive to their respective community the next, and a recurring emphasis on what are settings. understood to be core community psychology Conference delegates were treated to an values, principles and approaches irrespective exhibition of images from Motherhood of content area. The paper by Simóne Plüg and Unmasked, a community arts project which is Anthony Collins picks up the issue of one of four initiatives highlighted in a paper undertaking research and community projects critically reflecting on the role of mothers in in the context of structural and racial violence society and how mothering is valued more and trauma, this time in South Africa, and generally. Sampson, Dane, McSolvin,
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Northfield, Radermacher, and Short have set parkway…). They speculate about the out to interrogate constructions and transformative potential of this highly place- experiences of mothering; they argue that based and communal activity. Community mothering remains marginalised in Western, psychology has relatively recently applied its developed (neoliberal) contexts, and explore emphasis on transformative change to the particular tensions associated with ‘mothering increasingly urgent imperative for society to from the margins’, whether of sexuality, family reduce and adapt to the effects of climate formations, mental health or sheer isolation, change. Could the processes and experiences of disempowerment and gendered oppression. joining with neighbours or fellow activists to Their analysis is grounded in community plant a publicly visible and accessible edible psychology principles of social change, social garden help to promote ecological justice, valuing diversity and subverting power consciousness, share learnings about the relations. operation of power, and eventually facilitate In somewhat similar vein, Bróna Nic policy change? Giolla Easpaig, Rachael Fox, and Sarah Taken together, all nine papers identify Bowman present three pieces of community principles for ensuring that our work is all- research and practice that shared the aims of inclusive, recognises diverse and multiple promoting the wellbeing of LGBT identities, cultures and family and social communities and groups within the Trans- structures, and is an empowering rather than an Tasman region. Each of these projects offers oppressive experience for the communities we learnings for researchers and practitioners alike serve (and of which we are all a part). Perhaps and highlights the connections between the take-home message from these disparate community psychology frameworks and LGBT papers is that community psychology is not knowledge and practice. Both of these papers defined by its content but by its values and foreground some of the tensions and processes – echoing yet again James Kelly’s oft opportunities that emerge for community -cited trope 'Tain't What You Do (It's the Way psychologists in our region who work with That You Do It)’ (2006, p.113). individuals, groups and communities We were proud of both the quality of marginalised by patriarchal and presentations and the processes that supported heteronormative social arrangements. them in making the Thirteenth Trans-Tasman The final two papers share the distinction Conference in Community Psychology so of inviting consideration of very specific memorable for visitors and locals, veteran and community-based issues that I am confident neophyte community psychologists alike. We have never previously appeared in the are equally proud of this special “Proceedings” community psychology literature anywhere in edition of ACP, which brings together research the world. Denise Blake examines particular and practice in community psychology, and challenges to provision of and access to opioid encapsulates some of the most pressing substitution treatment following a disaster like theoretical and political issues confronting the the 2011 earthquake in Christchurch. She field. draws on a social determinants of health framework that should be familiar to Address for correspondence community psychologists, to consider the way [email protected] in which disaster preparedness planning might minimise harm and maximise psychological, Reference social and physical health and wellbeing for Kelly, J.G. (2006). 'Tain't What You Do (It's the people, their families and communities. Way That You Do It), in J.G. Kelly (Ed.), In contrast, Margaret Schubert and Julie (2006), Becoming Ecological: An Expedition Van den Eynde take a much more mundane into Community Psychology, Ch. 7, pp.113- and benign activity, the planting of a nature 136, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN strip garden (is this term unique to Australia?? -13: 9780195173796. Try verge, curb lawn, berm, sidewalk plot,
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Mobilising decolonial approaches for community-engaged research for racial justice1
Christopher Sonn Institute of Health and Sport, Victoria University
This article will describe some projects at Victoria University that have sought to enact community-engaged scholarship concerned specifically with matters of race, racism and racialised exclusion. I will discuss some of this research within the changing broader landscape of critical community psychology contexts. The projects discussed sit within a program of work broadly focused on the challenges to living that people face in different contexts because of histories of colonialism, racism, displacement and exclusion. Community-based projects are described to show efforts to contribute to empowerment- oriented, community-engaged work. Important features of this work have included the creation of spaces within the university that are committed to inter-disciplinarity, creativity, support and survival within a neoliberalised institution. The connections made with community agencies and groups are equally important: they help to reduce the distance between university and community. Through these relationships, we participate in producing new ways to support individuals, groups and communities in actions aimed at individual and group self-determination and wellbeing.
This article will describe some projects Race and racism have been central to that have sought to enact community- the colonisation of Indigenous Australians. engaged scholarship that is concerned Stratton (2011) described Australia as a specifically with matters of race, racism and settler colonial nation with a shameful racialised exclusion. As part of the article, I history of colonising Indigenous outline the broader critical scholarship Australians. Colonisation and the ideology pertinent to critical community psychology of race and racism are not phenomena of that we have mobilised at Victoria University the past. Quijano (2000) argued that even (VU) to articulate a decolonising standpoint though colonialism may formally have for community-engaged research and ended, “coloniality of power” names the pedagogy. Community psychologists in continuities in the so called “post-colonial different countries around the world have a era” of the social hierarchical relationships history of working in various social justice of exploitation and domination between causes (Reich, Riemer, Prilleltensky, & Europeans and non-Europeans built during Montero, 2007). In Australia, such causes centuries of European colonial expansion have included supporting Indigenous self- basedon cultural and social power relations. determination, advocacy for peace and the Maldonado-Torres (2007) suggests that; prevention of war, and the promotion of … coloniality survives colonialism. It gender and racial equality (Gridley & Breen, is maintained alive in books, in the 2007). More specifically, at Victoria criteria for academic performance, in University situated in the western region of cultural patterns, in common sense, in Melbourne, different groups of researchers the self-image of peoples, in have been involved in various projects that aspirations of self, and so many other focus on tackling issues of racism and aspects of our modern experience. In racialised inequalities that continue to shape a way, as modern subjects we breathe the everyday lived experiences and life coloniality all the time and every day. opportunities of Aboriginal Australians and (p. 243). various immigrant groups. In the Australian context researchers have similarly argued that colonisation and
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coloniality are not phenomena of the past. Race and racism have also played a For example, Krieg (2009) commented that significant role in shaping Australia’s early “colonisation was not a moment–but is an immigration policies, which privileged white ongoing experience with multiple persistent immigration under the immigration contemporary traumatizing events continuing restriction Act of 1901 (known as the White to impact daily on Aboriginal families and Australia Policy) until its removal in the communities” (p. 30). 1970s (Hage, 1998; Stratton, 2011). These The colonising experience of Victorian historical policies alongside histories of Aboriginal people has included the colonialism and subjugation of Australia’s systematic dispossession of culture, land, First Nations, have led to a racialised white language, family and community. Colonial Anglo national identity, positioned against a projects were realised through “massive marginalised and excluded black violence, forcing the history, culture, and “other” (Ahluwalia, 2001). While policies genealogy of blacks into oblivion” (Bulhan, have changed towards social inclusion of 1985, p. 297). For Aboriginal people, immigrants, several studies have highlighted particularly those removed and that racism and racialisation continues to institutionalised, and their descendants, this characterize the experiences of immigrant has been further compounded by a removal groups, in particular those of African origin. of identity, including their legal identity and Markus (2016), for example, reported that 60 disconnection from Aboriginality, and by -77% of migrants from African countries racism, as well as institutionalised physical, (including Ethiopia, Kenya, South Sudan, sexual and emotional abuse (Atkinson, Zimbabwe) reported having experienced Nelson, Brooks, Atkinson & Ryan, 2014; discrimination that it is linked to the colour Dudgeon, Wright, Paradies, Garvey, & of their skin. The Australian Human Rights Walker, 2014; Quayle, 2017). But while Commission (2010) also found that the violence and removal impacted severely majority of African-background Australians upon the lives of Aboriginal people, such reported that their appearance influences negative forces did not completely break their experience and manifests in racism and connections with family and community. prejudice. There is also continued pernicious Indigenous people continue to face racialisation of Africans within media and various forms of exclusion, such as racism political discourse, often constructing and marginalisation, that require responses African people as criminal, culturally from them and that have implications for the incompatible, and as being hampered by health and social emotional wellbeing of experiences of trauma and lack of education individuals and communities. Consultation (Baak, 2011, 2018; Hatoss, 2012). with Aboriginal groups in the western region In order to tackle racism and its of Melbourne has identified a priority need consequences, it is important to contextualise for specific support for people who come to current dynamics of exclusion within these discover their identity as Aboriginal, longer histories of colonization and racism. particularly children and young people, and Fine and Ruglis (2009) suggest critical also people displaced through dispersal inquiry needs to disrupt the circuits and whose needs for understanding and care are consequences of dispossession because of its insufficiently acknowledged or satisfied at deleterious psychosocial consequences for present (Balla, McCallum, Sonn, Jackson, racialised groups, as well as the attendant McKenna, & Marion, 2009). This population privilege that accrues to those in dominant is diverse, because people have moved into social positions. There is a growing the area from other parts of Victoria and movement in many countries in the global Australia for a host of reasons, including to South and North, calling for a reinvigoration connect with family and to be closer to of community psychology research and family members in prison. action, advocating critical scholarship inspired by decolonising methodologies,
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liberation psychologies, and the need for commonly employed by Indigenous epistemic justice (Adams, Dobles, Gómez, peoples struggling for justice. (p. 34) Kurtiș, & Molina, 2015; Dutta, Sonn, & More recently, and within the context of a Lykes, 2016; Evans, Duckett, Lawthom, & growing modernity/coloniality project, Kivell, 2017; Seedat & Suffla, 2017). Maldonado Torres (2016) wrote: Approaches to Decolonisation and … decoloniality refers to efforts at Liberation rehumanizing the world, to breaking Critical scholars have advocated the hierarchies of difference that need for the retrieval, reclamation, and dehumanize subjects and renewal of subjugated knowledges and communities and that destroy nature, practices, and argued that these are central to and to the production and counter- processes and practices of self- determination discourses, counter-knowledges, and emancipation of oppressed groups counter-creative acts, and counter- (Montero, Sonn, & Burton, 2017). In Latin practices that seek to dismantle America, Martín-Baró (1994) advocated that coloniality and to open up multiple psychology should develop a new praxis that other forms of being in the world recognises people’s virtues, based in the (p.10). lived realities of the oppressed to engage in Decolonising methodologies and the recovery of historical memory, and to de- decolonial theory have their roots in different ideologise taken-for-granted social realities countries in the Global South (Mignolo, in the process of reconstructing identities and 2009; Smith, 1999/2012). Connell (2007) has communities. Dialogue and ethics are central referred to this as Southern Theories, and to this paradigm as it positions the other as a Santos (2007) has highlighted the need to “social actor, who must be respected, who challenge the ignorance that has been constructs knowledge, who has history. So produced by “epistemicide”: the silencing of there must be mutual respect. In those and ignorance to ways of knowing via the relationships, both human actors and the very privileging of Eurocentric epistemologies. relationship changes” (Montero & Sonn, The decolonial project, as Ndhlovu (2016) 2009, p.2). Watkins and Shulman (2008) and others (e.g., Santos, 2007) have describe the work of liberation and suggested, is not dismissive of knowledges decolonisation this way: “…claiming that have been developed in western resources; testimonies, storytelling, and contexts. Instead, the decolonial project remembering to claim and speak about contests universal master narratives and extremely painful events and histories; and seeks to promote epistemological justice by research that celebrates survival and including that which has been excluded, resilience and that revitalizes language, arts, silenced, dismissed and distorted (Santos, and cultural practices” (p. 276). Linda Smith 2007). (1999/2012) has argued for decolonising This writing has been central to efforts methodologies and strategies: to promote racial justice through our Coming to know the past has been community-based research in Australia, and part of the critical pedagogy of in other contexts. My Puerto Rican colleague decolonization. To hold alternative Mariolga Reyes Cruz and I (Reyes Cruz & histories is to hold alternative Sonn, 2015) have advocated for a knowledges. The pedagogical decolonising standpoint, one that seeks to implication of this access to disrupt alternative knowledges is that they essentialist understandings of cultural can form the basis of alternative ways matters that have served historically of doing things…. Telling our stories to marginalize others. This standpoint from the past, reclaiming the past, brings into clearer view ways in giving testimony to the injustices of which power/privilege/oppression are the past are all strategies, which are reproduced and contested through
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racialized and ethnicized practices human condition that defines and discourses; that is, how social normality and inhabits it (p. 172). inequality is maintained and Whiteness studies (see Green, Sonn & challenged through culture (Reyes Matsebula, 2007 for a review) have played Cruz & Sonn, 2015, p. 128). an important role in our work. Theories from The standpoint in question is not the area have been valuable in understanding limited by a discipline; it is transdisciplinary how racialised privilege is reproduced and it has been stitched together over time through discourses and the implications of through engagement with critical theories of this for immigrants, refugees and asylum race and whiteness studies and Indigenous seekers who are negotiating ways to approaches. The domains of displacement, belonging in everyday settings in Melbourne racism, sexism, and the challenges in (Sonn, Quayle, Mackenzie, & Law, 2014). everyday life that result from injustice are the These approaches have helped us to name starting point. As we have progressed our symbolic power and how it shapes work we have drawn on various critical Indigenous and non-Indigenous people’s theoretical and methodological resources to relationships in Western Australia (Green & elaborate liberation-oriented community Sonn, 2006; Quayle & Sonn, 2013). Central research and action to contribute to social to the critical race work and whiteness justice and empowerment - for it to be studies and the approach that we have socially engaged, responsive and progressive adopted is the notion of racialisation, which (see Coimbra, et al. 2012; Kagan, Burton, as Dhamoon (2009) writes, “alerts attention Duckett, Lawthom, & Siddiquee, 2011; to the social processes of meaning making Quayle & Sonn; 2013; Montero & Sonn, and highlights the significance of techniques 2009). of power, …” (p. 28). This approach means Critical theories of race and whiteness that we are able to focus on the way in which studies. A key strand of our work draws from racialisation gets under the skin (Fanon, critical theories of race and whiteness to 1967), but also the diversity of white examine how race thinking continues to subjectivities and positioning within the structure injustice in society and everyday context of racialised power relationships in life. To this end, we have drawn from critical efforts to form alliances and solidarities whiteness studies, where the focus is on the across lines of separation. critique of dominance, normativity and Indigenous approaches: Challenging privilege. According to Frankenberg (1993), epistemological ignorance. Indigenous whiteness signals the “… production and scholars and activists in Australia and other reproduction of dominance rather than countries, alongside critical scholars of race subordination, normativity rather than have argued for Indigenous and Indigenist marginality, and privilege rather than methodologies (Martin & Miraboopa; 2003; disadvantage’ (p. 236). According to Moreton Robinson & Walter, 2009) as part Moreton-Robinson (2004): of a broader set of responses to the history of Whiteness in its contemporary form colonisation and dispossession from an in Australian society is culturally Indigenous Australian perspective. A vital based. It controls institutions that are part of this process entails contesting and extensions of White Australian making visible the processes and practices culture and is governed by the values, through which Western hegemonic ways of beliefs and assumptions of that knowing have contributed to the production culture. Whiteness confers both of ignorance about Indigenous ways of dominance and privilege; it is knowing, being and doing (Moreton- embedded in Australian institutions Robinson, 2004; Smith, 1999/2012). In and in the social practices of everyday psychology, Dudgeon and Walker (2015; see life. It is naturalised, unnamed, also Glover, Dudgeon & Huygens, 2005) unmarked and it is represented as the have provided an argument for the
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decolonisation of the science of psychology around issues of identity, displacement and and provided several strategies for doing so. community in a global and local context. These strategies include disrupting racism Given that this network is concerned and Eurocentrism, the development of new with the social and political dynamics of a discourses and narratives that challenge sense of place, Footscray with its rich history mainstream conceptions of people and the of migration and diversity provides an origins of problems, challenge privilege and important site for the investigation of whiteness, and promote resources and displacement, identity, community and strategies that are Indigenous-led and hence change and the interaction between the local vital to self-determination and social and global. Some researchers have focused emotional-wellbeing (see also Walker, on the dynamics of place and place making Schultz & Sonn, 2014). in Footscray with specific reference to notion Given this overview of the context and of everyday multiculturalism and the theoretical landscape, I now turn to describe meaning of diversity there (Oke, Sonn, & three examples of our current work to McConville, 2016). That work has provided illustrate how we are doing community- important insights into unique and shared engaged inquiry in local contexts, “across the meanings that different population groups road”, as Julie van den Eynde, my local give to diversity as well as the positive colleague referred to it, pointing to the fact symbolic capital afforded by the collective that the work is literally with agencies in the understanding of the city as a “migrant” city. same suburb. The stories described below are McConville and Oke (2018) have also illustrative of efforts at our University to provided insight into the ways in which produce community-engaged scholarship urban renewal projects are displacing longer- (Boyer, 1996), a scholarship in the academy term residents, and they call for a much more that is a more “vigorous partner in the search nuanced use of the term gentrification in for answers to our most pressing social, contexts of transformation. civic, economic, and moral problems” (p.11). The network launched in 2011 and held Making Spaces for Creativity, Resistance its first very successful conference in 2012, and Self-determination and a follow up conference in 2017 on the Making the Community Identity and topic of Place, Politics, Privilege. The idea Displacement Research Network (CIDRN) for the network arose from a combination of The first example is about the research factors including reports that higher degree network called CIDRN that we have created researchers felt isolated and that there was at VU. It is a community of learning based not a strong culture of research in our school on collegiality and mutual support within the at the time. At that time in 2011, I had also neoliberalising university. CIDRN is a broad just returned from a visit to a university in network that draws together and fosters South Africa to work on a project called the scholarly investigation of new diasporas and Apartheid Archive Project (AAP) (Stevens, changing meanings of displacement and Duncan & Hook, 2013). The AAP project is identity. The network is conceived as an focused on race and racism in post-Apartheid intellectual space where new questions about South Africa and involves more than 20 indigeneity, racism, refugees, sense of place, researchers from various disciplines, but social inclusion, social justice, mostly critically oriented psychologists and transnationalism and xenophobia can be numerous students from fourth year to PhD. raised, debated and discussed. Research The project is multifaceted and has generated activities, such as the two projects described many outputs and various spin-off projects below, span across disciplinary boundaries since it was launched in 2010. For me the and advance multidisciplinary and project was a model of academic transdisciplinary perspectives. The network collaboration anchored in a commitment to also aims to explore and enable new social justice and change, and to scholarly theoretical and methodological interventions activism. The lead researchers promoted a
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mentoring model, focused on empowering in collaboration with Aboriginal and Torres and supporting women and black academics, Strait Islander people in that region, and the and being collegial and supportive. I was subsequent establishment of the Wyndham keen to see something similar at VU where Aboriginal Community Centre Committee we have many people researching and (WACCC). The collaboration between teaching about issues of race, migration, members of the Aboriginal Community and displacement, and so forth. Hence, the the City of Wyndham has been ongoing for proposal for a research network organised some years and was a response to Aboriginal around themes that resonated with people’s expressed needs for permanent researchers in different disciplines, and that places where people can come together, was open enough for people to shape the access services, foster community, and direction of projects within the framework of strengthen cultural identities. The specific the network. research project evolved from initial research As I reflect on CIDRN since its questions posed of Aboriginal community beginnings, I can say that we have survived members, the WACCC and the Care Connect and have operated inside the university, Planned Activity Group (PAG). Members of where restructuring and neoliberal these groups are seeking to establish spaces managerial practices are seemingly the norm, in which they can feel cultural safety and without becoming a formal institute, group, create new community narratives together. or centre, yet. The group runs with an open The purpose of the research was to gather the structure and people opt in. In some ways, stories of members of these groups, many of we are protesting productively within the whom were members of or children of Stolen system. We are producing work on our terms Generations. As Maori scholar Linda and we are seeking to be community- Tuhiwai Smith (1999/2012) has noted, engaged, both within and outside the “Telling our stories from the past, reclaiming university. We are making progress, but still the past, giving testimony to the injustices of need to work on practices to make welcome the past are all strategies which are different groups from our surrounding commonly employed by Indigenous communities and organisations. We are peoples… ” (p.34). Central to the looking to speak across disciplinary engagement was our effort to build boundaries, to maintain spaces for counter relationships, enact reciprocity, and to follow work within the neoliberal university and the the needs of the group. rigid managerial practices that are Making links and negotiating research constraining our roles, scholarship, and process. We embarked on a small creativity. We want to do more than survive collaborative study with Karen Jackson, in the system. Through CIDRN we are Director of the Moondani Balluk, Indigenous seeking to maintain and reinforce academic unit at VU, who has played a key collegiality, critique, scholarship, and to role in connecting VU researchers with local open our own horizons to the various ways Indigenous communities as well as forging of knowing and doing as they pertain to relationships with researchers at VU. Guided pressing local and global issues. The next by a commitment to self-determination and two projects sit within the CIDRN research the principles of reciprocity, the project theme of Race and Coloniality. unfolded over time. The first stage of the Aboriginal People Making Place in community engagement process included Melbourne’s West visiting the group and sharing lunch with This is an Indigenous-led project them. The purpose of the first visit was to developed over several years of collaboration introduce the researchers and the research between university and community. The and to gauge interest and levels of interest in research involves people brought together the story-telling project. At this stage, we through a community development project discussed our roles, the project design, and initiated in 2013-14 by the City of Wyndham the group’s ideas about the research. We
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highlighted the storytelling component and leaving the venue untidy. This setting was an that we were interested in their stories of Indigenous space, but within a broader non- making place in Melbourne’s west. We also Indigenous structure of the Community offered the group a storytelling workshop Centre. In the broader structure and power delivered by renowned Indigenous author, relations non-Indigenous staff seemingly Tony Birch. In order to continue building took “over” the space, responding to links, two emerging Indigenous researchers provocations and invitations to share stories. with experience in working with Aboriginal We made this observation as participants in people, including those who are members of the session and named it at our subsequent the Stolen Generations, spent time with the debriefing as a group. Importantly, this group over several weeks, in a sense insight provided additional context for becoming participant observers at the PAG understanding the interview data in relation setting. to people’s experiences as members of PAG The two researchers spent several days and their need for an Aboriginal-controlled over a 16-week period with the PAG group. space. During this period, nine stories were A key theme in the stories that people collected (from eight women and one man) relayed centred around the impact of forced from a possible 35. While many expressed an removals on their families and subsequent interest in sharing stories for the project, it generations. Some of the effects were was often very difficult to get access to expressed in terms of the dispossession of people because many members are older and culture and identity, disconnection from have health and mobility issues, and we had family and community, and racism and time constraints. The stories were transcribed racialisation and its harmful psychosocial and copies of the transcripts were returned to consequences. One person shared a story each of the interviewees for them to keep and illustrating that she was othered as a young to ensure that they were happy with the person – referred to as different and needing record. to be with “your kind”. She noted that: “… After the story gathering, the next step as a child I was seen by the Greeks and the was to organise and deliver the creative Cypriots, Italians, Maltese in Fawkner when writing workshop. Tony Birch delivered the I lived there, ‘you not Australian what are workshop to a small subgroup because other you?’ I was put down because I was darker. people were away on the day. He introduced And because my hair was different and I was strategies and techniques for writing, which always picked on that I didn’t belong. Now I included memory triggers and suggestions know where I belong”. Several of the for writing – mnemonic devices to help participants said that they affirmed their trigger memory and story writing. The Aboriginal identities later in their lives workshop setting was interesting and because it was hidden or concealed. Some revealing in and of itself because of the participants described the importance of this dynamics between group members and affirmation, but also the painful task of seeming non-Indigenous staff. For example, reconnecting and restoring these aspects of while the workshop was aimed at the self and culture denied to them. People Aboriginal participants, staff members were expressed the challenges that they have had free to participate. During the process of in dealing with various institutions to get story sharing non-Indigenous members took access to documents that are important to over the opportunities to share stories. While affirm their Aboriginal identity. in itself this may seem innocent, through the As a research group our initial analysis field work process it became clear that some of the data also suggested that the PAG of the Aboriginal group members described setting is central to the everyday life of this incidents which they felt were examples of group. Participation is meaningful in differential treatment, such as being accused different ways to people; for example, it of not packing up equipment and tables and fosters a sense of belonging derived from
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strong family and social relationships as everyday institutions’ social settings. The Aboriginal people making place together. project follows on from initial student The setting that people have created is placements with an agency called cohealth productive and linked with other community Arts Generator (cAG). Their work is settings and Indigenous community networks premised on the knowledge that access to the in the west of Melbourne and beyond. The arts is fundamental to enriching people’s data also suggested that participants engage lives and therefore increasing their in arts and creative practices to reclaim their wellbeing. The organisation specializes in cultural identities. These activities included engagement with a range of African knitting various items using coloured wool, communities, in particular the Melbourne typically, black, red and yellow symbolising South Sudanese community, which is the Aboriginality, and creating paintings of largest in Australia. landscapes and of places using dot-painting cAG uses creative and participatory techniques. Importantly, the group members arts methodologies, where art is both a sometimes sell the artefacts that they make process and an outcome. Through arts-based through networks at different venues and the and arts-informed practice, Arts Generator is funds are used to support other initiatives. seeking to: The participants also send outputs to young engage with Africans in Australia who people who are in juvenile detention centres. experience limited access to arts and Through this practice of sharing, the group cultural opportunities, with the aim of members are enacting support and solidarity, improving wellbeing and increased reminding the young people that their agency through culturally appropriate Aunties and Uncles are thinking of them. arts-based practice that utilises a model Through this Indigenous-led project, of “embodied practice”; we have been able to identify the various support community mobilisation and ways in which the PAG has come to play a leadership opportunities that increase central role in the everyday lives of its social inclusion, reduce discrimination members. The project affirmed that PAG is a and increase economic participation in primary social setting and a main point of African communities in cohealth’s “access to such group-based resources that catchments; include but are not limited to instrumental Promote mental wellbeing in the support for action, leadership, channels of African communities of Australia communication, trust, and solidarity” (Çakal, through intercultural dialogue with Eller, Sirlopú, & Pérez, 2016, p. 356). The Aboriginal communities. information provided also points to the cAG is involved in an initiative to contribute importance of providing space and to these objectives, the Afrobeat initiative. opportunity for people to have support in This initiative aims to empower young their efforts to establish links with different people through the creative documentation of Aboriginal groups, as part of the process of the Afro Australian experience in Australia reclaiming identities and contributing to and to contribute to racial justice. The epistemic justice. The collaborative process initiative involves three components: of inquiry is guided by the ethic of ‘In Our Eyes’ (working title): photo- reciprocity; it shares with participatory documentary of Young Leaders in the research the goal of being open and African communities dialogical, centering the experiences and ‘In the Flesh’ (working title): writing voices of people who are marginalized about lives - intergenerational stories (Martín-Baró, 1994, Montero & Sonn, 2009). about identity and belonging with arts What’s in a Name: From Afrobeat to Amka. outputs of spoken word, storytelling A second distinct project illustrates the way and musical performances (live and in which we seek to be participatory and video) dialogical in centering the experiences of groups often silenced or misrepresented in mainstream media, political discourse, and The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 29 No 1 June 2018 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
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‘In the Spirit’ (working title): work with a broader project that we have intercultural dialogues with Aboriginal been pursuing with an international group Australians on place and country. (Stevens, Bell, Sonn, Clennon, & Canham, Critical conversations. My role has 2017), and with colleagues at VU into varied from mentor and critical friend, to meanings of Blackness in Australia (Smith, evaluator researcher, to co-researcher since I Sonn, & Cooper, in press). In this work, we first became involved with the group a few are investigating experiences of being black, years ago. I have provided support for some recognising that such experiences vary across of the staff through critical discussions about context, time, and place. Michelle Wright race and whiteness, and I have provided (2015) noted that blackness is not a matter of critical feedback on the art of radical asking what, but “about when and where it is listening workshops that the group has being imagined, defined, and performed and facilitated with Government organisations. in what locations, both figurative and These conversations are important ways of literal” (p. 3). The group was very positive connecting with local groups and bridging about these projects, so we agreed to move the gap between the university and the forward, and this meant getting ethics community. To date, we have had several approval and a research agreement in place. meetings with the broader group constituted Some time has passed and several key by the cultural workers and the manager of members of the group (all creative workers cohealth Arts Generator. who are also students at university or have While we initially discussed how we employment) have since travelled to various could complement the project by countries in Africa, and some have attended documenting it and gathering information to the decolonial summer school that is held inform the evaluation of the project, I floated annually at the University of South Africa, the possibilities for this project to follow a Pretoria. For those who attended the model of participatory and collaborative experience was significant, in fact, research. I attended several meetings and transformative and liberating. They spoke of provided input into a staged dinner major mind shifts, about a new awareness, conversation on the issue of race and and that they now have a language to name representation that emerged in relation to the their project, which until this time, was first part of the “Afrobeat” initiative. That constrained by a Manichean binary of black discussion raised many issues and challenges and white, colonised and coloniser, and with including the young people expressing the title “Afrobeat”. Through various critical concerns about an ostensibly white and reflective conversations, deeper and photographer re-presenting images of them. more profound discussion happened This discussion pointed to race and spontaneously as they began to share stories whiteness, and signaled deeper ethical and of their re-imagined and renamed project, political matters related to voice, one that recognises and acknowledges representation, and agency and its Indigenous peoples and their knowledges, implications for differently positioned social Aboriginal sovereignty, their/our positions as actors within Australia’s racialised social settlers of colour in Australia. This shift in system. gaze, of centering Indigenous people and The conversation also showed the their own speaking positions is a decolonial diverse ways in which the young people of action. The project was no longer tentatively African ancestry constructed their social and named Afrobeat: the group have done some cultural identities in Australia. Subsequent to deep thinking and have proposed to the these discussions, I drafted a document manager of cAG that they want to pursue a proposing that we conduct a participatory decolonial agenda through the project, as case study that would capture the well as within the broader organisation and development and delivery of the second specifically in relation to the project. component of the project – called “In the Flesh” at the time. At the next meeting we had, I presented the proposal and linked the The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 29 No 1 June 2018 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
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The first part of their critical action practices, and have been important for was the act of renaming the project and contesting epistemological ignorance and producing a new vision and mission promoting cognitive justice (Santos, 2007). statement for it. This was a significant These tasks entail deconstructing dominance moment. The group discussed questions and while normalising the worldviews and experiences that were wide ranging, experiences of the other (Adams et al., including, racism, othering, being third 2015), which is an important goal of culture young people, oppression, imagining decoloniality: to expand our ways of new futures beyond the coloniality of knowing, doing and being (Fanon, 1967; whiteness, and importantly, connecting with Santos, 2007). their communities and the global African In our community-engaged projects, diaspora and other cultures. In many ways, which include engaging with Indigenous the discussion signaled transgression, and the agendas through Indigenous-led research, we expression of place-making within the are being careful to respond to whose African diaspora reflective of rich social and questions we address, whose perspectives cultural histories and their own complex count, and what knowledge counts. We are subjectivities (Agung-Igusti, 2017). This was looking for new and alternative ways to one of the many intentional dialogues, each broaden knowledge production processes in person giving meaning to their engagement critical community-engaged inquiry. This has through decoloniality, expressing ways in included finding new roles such as critical which they, as cultural workers, are seeking friend, mentor, evaluator and researcher as to claim their place in the world through their well as using methods to support the goals activist art and creative practice, as well as and aspirations of groups who are often claiming a speaking position, to assert who excluded from knowledge production they are in the world. The group decided that processes. These groups include the decoloniality was going to be the basis for community agencies and the various people their project named Amka, which in Swahili that they support in their pursuit of health means to rise up or arise. This act of naming, and wellbeing, valued identities and reclaiming, and grounding the project in their supportive communities. We are also seeking own lived experiences and community and to find ways to provide psychosocial support cultural histories was a decolonising act, an and education, to create and participate in empowered act. community conversations about issues, to Summary and Conclusion speak about difficult questions and sit in There has been a growing number of spaces with vulnerability and discomfort. I calls for more radical and politically oriented concur with Watkins and Shulman (2008) community research and action (Dutta et al., when they say that: 2016; Evans et al., 2017; Fine, 2012). One of Liberation research is provisional. Its the strands of these calls is the turn to results do not seek to be overly decoloniality along with the powerful call for generalized or to make the kind of decolonising methodologies (Smith, universal truth claims that natural 1999/2012). For our group, our engagement science has accustomed us to. It with calls for decolonial work is reflected in actively acknowledges the local our efforts to enact research and knowledge context of most of its efforts. In some production alongside community groups and ways, it is a humble enterprise, self- to collaborate with those who are typically conscious, self-correcting, and excluded or problematised. Over time, we confessing of limitation. We place have articulated a decolonising standpoint aside what we already know so that that draws from various areas of critical we can learn from what comes scholarship, including critical studies of race forward as new, surprising, and and whiteness studies and Indigenous contradicting of our assumptions and studies. These areas bring into focus the biases. (p. 297) dynamics of power in our research and
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As applied social and community Atkinson, J., Nelson, J., Brooks, R., psychologists we have roles to play in Atkinson, C., & Ryan, K. (2014). different settings, to be listeners, to Addressing individual and community document stories, to record oral histories and transgenerational trauma. Working testimonies, to help create new ways of together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait knowing, based on relational ethics and that Islander mental health and wellbeing can help produce supportive cultures rather principles and practice, 2, 289-307. than exclusionary cultures. Australian Human Rights Commission. As I reflect on these projects in the (2010). In our own words. African context of critical community psychologies, Australians: A review of human rights and as well as the virulent racism that continues social inclusion issues. Retrieved from to affect lives in Australia and elsewhere, the https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/ need for critical community engaged default/files/content/africanau/review/ research as action becomes even more in_our_own_words.pdf pressing. It is vital to support communities in Ahluwalia, P. (2001). When does a settler their pursuits for self-determination and to become a native? Citizenship and identity make visible the ways in which they resist, in a settler society. Pretexts: Literary and survive and create meaningful lives within Cultural Studies, 10(1), 63-73. hostile contexts. This requires new Baak, M. (2011). Murder, community talk approaches and epistemologies, rooted in a and belonging: An exploration of relational ethics, one that affirms the ways of Sudanese community responses to murder being and knowing of communities who are in Australia. African Identities, 9(4), 417- marginalised and excluded (Dutta et al., 434. 2016). It is also equally imperative to tackle Baak, M. (2018). Racism and othering for the coloniality of power and whiteness to South Sudanese heritage students in make visible, contest, and challenge the Australian schools: Is inclusion possible? discursive and material practices through International Journal of Inclusive which it finds expression in everyday ways Education, 1-17. in institutions, community settings, and Balla, P., McCallum, D., Sonn, C., Jackson, social life. K., McKenna, T., Marion, C. (2009). Interventions in Aboriginal Child References Removal in Melbourne's West: A Scoping Adams, G., Dobles, I., Gómez, L. H., Kurtiș, Study, Melbourne: ARACY. T. & Molina, L. E. (2015). Decolonizing Boyer, E. L. (1996). The scholarship of psychological science: Introduction to the engagement. Journal of Public Service special thematic section. Journal of and Outreach, 1, 1, 11-20. Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 213 Bulhan, H. A. (1985). Frantz Fanon and the –238. doi:10.5964/jspp.v3i1.564 psychology of oppression. New York, NY: Agung-lgusti, R. P. (2017). "I'm forming a Plenum Press. new identity because there is no two of Çakal, H., Eller, A., Sirlopú, D., & Pérez, A. me": Narratives of identity from the (2016). Intergroup Relations in Latin African Diaspora in Melbourne, Australia America: Intergroup contact, common (Unpublished Honours Thesis). Victoria ingroup identity, and activism among University, Melboure, Australia. Indigenous groups in Mexico and Chile. Ahluwalia, P. (2001). When does a settler Journal of Social Issues, 72(2), 355-375. become a native? Citizenship and identity Coimbra, J. L., Duckett, P., Fryer, D., in a settler society. Pretexts: Literary and Makkawi, I., Menezes, I., Seedat, M., & Cultural Studies, 10(1), 63-73. Walker, C. (2012). Rethinking community psychology: Critical insights. The Australian Community Psychologist, 24 (2), 135-142.
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Maldonado-Torres, N. (2016, Oct). Outline Montero, M., Sonn, C. C., & Burton, M. of ten theses on coloniality and (2017). Community psychology and decoloniality. Available at: http:// liberation psychology: A creative synergy frantzfanonfoundation- for an ethical and transformative praxis. In fondationfrantzfanon.com/IMG/pdf/ M. A. Bond, I. Serrano-García, & C. B. maldonado-torres_outline_of_ten_theses- Keys (Eds.), APA Handbook of 10.23.16_.pdf [date accessed 28 March Community Psychology: Vol. 1. 2017). Theoretical foundations, core concepts, Markus, A. (2016). Australians Today: The and emerging challenges, (pp. 149-167). Australia@2015 Scanlon Foundation Washington, DC: American Psychological Survey. retrieved from http:// Association. scanlonfoundation.org.au/wp-content/ Moreton-Robinson, A. (2004). Whiteness, uploads/2016/08/Australians-Today.pdf epistemology and Indigenous Martin, K. & Miraboopa, B. (2003). Ways representation. In. A. Moreton-Robinson, of knowing, being and doing: A Whitening race: Essays in social and theoretical framework and methods for cultural criticism (pp. 75-88). Canberra, Indigenous and Indigenist re-search. ACT: Aboriginal Studies Press. Journal of Australian Studies, 27(76), 203 Moreton-Robinson, A., & Walter, M. (2009). -214. Indigenous methodologies in social Martín-Baró, I. (1996). Writings for a research. In M. Walter (Ed), Social liberation psychology. Cambridge: research methods: An Australian Harvard University Press. perspective (2nd ed), (Chapter 22). South McConville, C. & Oke, N. (2018). Meblourne, Vic: Oxford University Press. Gentrification: Power and privilege in Ndhlovu, F. (2016). A decolonial critique of Footscray. In N. Oke, C. C. Sonn, & A. diaspora identity theories and the notion M. Baker (Eds). Places of Privilege: of super diversity. Diaspora Studies, 9(1), Interdisciplinary perspectives on 28-40. identities, change and resistance. Leiden, doi:10.1080/09739572.2015.1088612 The Netherlands: Brill. Oke, N., & McConville, C. (2016). Making a Mignolo, W. D. (2009). Epistemic place in Footscray: Everyday disobedience, Independent thought and de multiculturalism, ethnic hubs and -colonial freedom. Theory, Culture, & segmented geography. Identities, 1-19. Society, 26(7-8), 1-23. https:// Montero, M. (2007). The political doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2016.1233880 psychology of liberation: From politics to Quayle, A. F. (2017). Narrating oppression, ethics and back. Political Psychology, 28 psychosocial suffering, and survival (5), 517-533. through the Bush Babies Project. Montero, M. & Sonn, C. C. (2009). About Unpublished doctoral dissertation, liberation and psychology: An Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. introduction. In M. Montero & C. C. Sonn Quayle, A. F., & Sonn, C. C. (2013). (Eds), Psychology of Liberation: Theory Explicating race privilege: Examining and applications (pp. 1-11). New York: symbolic barriers to Aboriginal and non- Springer. Indigenous partnership. Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 19(5), 552-570. doi:10.1080/13504630.2013.796881 Quijano, A. (2000). Coloniality of power, eurocentrism, and Latin America. International Sociology, 15(2), 215-232.
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Reich S.M., Riemer M., Prilleltensky I., Walker, R., Schultz, C., & Sonn, C. (2014). Montero M. (Eds) (2007). International Cultural competence: Transforming Community Psychology. Boston, MA: policy, services, programs and practice. In Springer, P. Dudgeon, H. Milroy, & R. Walker. Reyes Cruz, M., & Sonn, C. C. (2015). (De) (Eds.), Working together: Aboriginal and colonizing culture in community Torres Strait Islander mental health and psychology: Reflections from critical wellbeing principles and practice (2nd ed) social science. In R. D. Goodman & P. C. (pp. 195-220). Barton, ACT: Gorski (Eds.), Decolonizing Commonwealth of Australia. “multicultural” counseling through social Watkins, M., & Shulman, H. (2008). Toward justice (pp. 127-145). New York, NY: psychologies of liberation. New York: Springer. doi 10.1007/978-1-4939-1283- Palgrave Macmillan. 4_10 Wright, M. M. (2015). Physics of blackness. Santos, B. (2007). Beyond abyssal thinking: Minnesota, Mpls: University of Minnesota From global lines to ecologies of Press. knowledge. Date Accessed:1.10.2017. Retrieved from: http:// Note www.eurozine.com/beyond-abyssal- I A version of this paper was presented as an thinking/ opening address to the 13th Trans-Tasman Seedat, M. & Suffla, S. (2017). Community Conference in Community Psychology psychology and its (dis)contents, archival held in Parkville, Australia in April 2017 legacies and decolonization. South African Journal of Psychology, 47(4), 421-431 Address for correspondence Smith, L. T. (1999/2012). Decolonizing [email protected] methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples, (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Zed Acknowledgements Books. Thank you to all the members of the CIDRN Smith, K., Sonn, C., & Cooper, T. (in press). and the discussion group for their Being Black in Australia. In C. Boyce contributions to a vibrant community of Davies (Ed), The General History of learning at VU. Thanks also to my Africa, VOL. IX, Book II, Paris: colleagues Amy Quayle, Urmitappa Dutta, UNESCO. Sam Keast, Rama Agung-Igusti, and Julie Stratton, J. (2011). Uncertain lives: Culture, van den Eynde for providing me with race and neoliberalism in Australia. New feedback on drafts of this paper. Castle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing. Author Biography Sonn, C. C., Quayle, A. F., Mackenzie, C., & Law, S. F. (2014). Negotiating belonging Christopher C. Sonn, PhD, is an Associate in Australia through storytelling and Professor in Community Psychology at encounter. Identities: Global Studies in Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia on Culture and Power, 21(5), 551-569. the land of the Wurundjeri of the Kulin nation. His research examines forms of Stevens, G., Duncan, N., & Hook, D. (2013). structural violence such as racism, its effects Race, memory, and the Apartheid Archive. on social identities, intergroup relations and Johannesburg, South Africa: Wits belonging, and individual and group University Press. responses that are protective, resistant and Stevens, G., Bell, D., Sonn, C., Canham, H., resilient. He draws on participatory, creative & Clennon, O., (2017). Transnational and arts-based approaches to community perspectives on black subjectivity. South research and action. African Journal of Psychology, 47 (4),
459-469.
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‘It hurts to help’: Vicarious trauma in sensitive research and community projects in South Africa.
Simóne Plüg Durban University of Technology Anthony Collins La Trobe University
Vicarious traumatisation is a recognised issue in psychotherapeutic practice. There is growing literature exploring the necessity of recognising and managing the negative effects of vicarious trauma for both practitioners and clients alike. Less research, however, has explored the parallel experiences of researchers working on community- based projects dealing with emotionally challenging issues. This work can entail engaging with the life experiences of vulnerable groups and individuals who live with the traumatic impacts of both direct and structural violence. This is especially true in developing contexts such as South Africa, where gross inequality, poverty, violence and physical vulnerability are major problems, and the protective social infrastructure is both inadequate and unevenly accessible. This research aims to explore the risks researchers working on sensitive topics and/or in vulnerable communities experience. It maps the ways in which these experiences shift their engagement with the research material and participants they are working with, identifying the consequent risks of harm to both researchers and their participants. Furthermore, this research aims to highlight a need for more nuanced theory for teaching research methods and social engagement with vulnerable groups in community psychology, allowing researchers to be prepared for, and supported through, the complex ethical challenges of engagement with sensitive topics and vulnerable communities.
This paper draws on the experiences of researchers’ engagement with the research several researchers, facilitators and support material and participants they are working workers (hereafter referred to as researchers) with, and identifies the consequent risks of working on community-based projects in harm to both researchers and their South Africa, in order to explore a participants. It further highlights the complex commonly-shared problem of traumatic ethical challenges of engagement with exposure in this work. It is argued that there sensitive topics and vulnerable communities, are three key ways in which these researchers and a need for more ethically refined encounter trauma in their work, namely: conceptualisation of research methods in primary trauma, vicarious trauma (VT), and community psychology to ensure that traumatic helplessness (stemming from an researchers are prepared for, and supported inability to fully protect project participants). through, emotionally risky engagement This paper aims to highlight a critical and processes. complex dialect in the nature of critical Defining Vicarious Trauma community intervention work - the tension Over two decades of research has made between needing to create safe spaces for it abundantly clear that experiences of participants to explore and share their lived distress around traumatic events are by no experiences; and the inherent risk of (re) means restricted to primary victims. VT traumatisation for all those involved in this refers to the stress reaction experienced by process. More specifically, this paper maps those who have not directly (personally) the ways in which traumatic exposure shifts experienced a traumatic event, but have
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exposure to a traumatic incident through the of violence or catastrophic natural events. accounts of others. “Bearing witness to an VT is a common experience of people event, having to listen to explicit accounts of working in social work (Goelitz, & Stewart- a traumatic event or even having explicit Kahn, 2013), palliative medicine knowledge of an event have been shown to (O’Mahony, Gerhart, Grosse, Abrams, & cause serious, prolonged anxiety in varying Levy, 2016), nursing homes (Mandiracioglu degrees” (Lerias & Byrne, 2003, p. 129). & Cam, 2006), hospice homes (Capretto, People suffering from VT have been 2015; Sinclair & Hamill, 2007) and the indirectly exposed to a very threatening police service (Carlier, Lamberts & Gersons, situation (or in this work, typically many 2000; Leigh Wills, & Schuldberg, 2016), as situations) which has caused a shift in the well as amongst firefighters (Beaton, way that they experience themselves and the Murphy, Johnson, Pike, & Corneil, 1999; world (Pearlman, & Mac Ian, 1995; Sui & Sun, Hu, Yu, Jiang, & Lou, 2016), Padmanabhanunni, 2016). This shift causes paramedics (Beaton, Murphy, Johnson, Pike, them to experience the world as an & Corneil, 1998), journalists (Pyevich, overwhelmingly harmful and dangerous Newman, & Daleiden, 2003; Weidmann, place, and to experience others as threatening Fehm, & Fydrich, 2008) and educators and untrustworthy (Schauben & Frazier, teaching on sensitive topics (Collins, 2013a). 1995). These effects appear to be Relatively little research explores the parallel “cumulative across time and helping experiences of researchers working on relationships” (Pearlman, & Mac Ian, 1995, community-based projects on sensitive topics p. 558). or with vulnerable communities. VT is related to a number of similar For many social science researchers, constructs including Secondary Traumatic data collection involves interviewing Stress, Compassion Fatigue, and Burnout individuals or conducting focus group (Du Plessis, Visagie, & Mji, 2014; Hill, discussions, which includes talking to people 2011; Lerias & Byrne, 2003). Although VT, about their lived experiences (Kvale, 1996). itself, is not officially listed in the Diagnostic In South Africa where there is amongst the and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, most extreme inequality in the world, and the current edition (DSM-5, published in very high prevalence of poverty, violence 2013) does include vicarious experiences of and chronic illness (Atwoli et al., 2013; trauma, namely “learning that a relative or Demombynesa & Özler, 2005; Hunter, 2010; close friend was exposed to a trauma” or Klasen, 1997), these narratives are often “indirect exposure to aversive details of the extremely distressing. This is exacerbated by trauma, usually in the course of professional the need for research and community duties” (American Psychiatric Association, projects to address the most serious social 2013), in the diagnostic criteria for Post- problems and vulnerable communities. These Traumatic Stress Disorder. factors create a high risk of VT for both Vicarious Trauma beyond Psychotherapy: researchers and those project participants Outlining the Research Context engaged in collective activities and sharing Vicarious Trauma is a commonly of experiences. recognised experience of practising More specifically, this paper stems psychotherapists. There is a well-developed from preliminary research which explores the literature exploring the necessity of experiences of ten social science researchers recognising and managing the negative and community activists working on effects of VT on practitioners and the “sensitive topics” in the South African resulting risks for clients (Brady, Guy, context. Non-probability, purposive and Poelstra & Brokaw, 1999; Dalenberg, 2000; snowball sampling techniques (Neuman, Sui & Padmanabhanunni, 2016; Wastell, 2011) were used to deliberately select 2005). Yet the experience of VT is not individuals who were engaged in “high risk” limited to counsellors working with survivors research areas/community projects – in other
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words, projects that asked people to share offers a seminal clarification of these their experiences that, or discuss issues that, symptoms by conceptualizing PTSD as are emotionally distressing, extremely having three core symptom clusters: personal, or socially taboo (Dickson-Swift, Intrusion, Constriction and Hyperarousal. James & Liamputtong, 2008). This is Hyperarousal refers to the cluster of consistent with Lee and Renzetti’s (1993) symptoms that highlight a traumatised definition of “sensitive research” which individual’s tendency to perpetually includes research which may be considered anticipate danger, or the state of permanent threatening by “intrud[ing] into the private alertness in which these individuals remain, sphere or delv[ing] into some deeply as a means of self-preservation. The main personal experience” or “where the research symptoms in this cluster involve intensified deals with things that are sacred to those physiological arousal such as heightened being studied that they do not wish startle responses, exaggerated irritability or profaned” (Renzetti & Lee, 1993, p. 6). aggressive responses to relatively minor Examples of some of the research or provocations and hypervigilant scanning of community-engagement projects that these one’s surroundings for signs of danger. In participants were engaged in include the addition, hyperarousal tends to cause organisation of a large anti-rape and sexual nightmares, lack of sleep, intense anxiety and violence awareness campaign, developing psychosomatic complaints (Herman 1992). and implementing a training programme for Several researchers working on lay counsellors dealing with intimate partner community-based projects spoke to a number violence, and designing and facilitating of these different symptoms. One described university courses, discussion forums and how her nightly bedtime routine changed support interventions relating to a range of dramatically after she began her research. vulnerability and forms of violence including She could no longer go to sleep without sexual violence, xenophobia, homophobia repeatedly checking that all the doors were and violence against children. In addition, locked and windows were closed. She also the participants in this research personally reported persistent difficulty falling asleep, identified the research process and/or as she listened for footsteps or any possible activism as challenging, complex and/or sounds of threat, and waking consistently overwhelming. during the night due to frightening dreams. Data was collected using semi- Another participant similarly described the structured individual interviews, conducted onset of dramatically increased alertness and by the authors. Although none of the hypervigilance corresponding with her researchers’ participants were directly involvement in a community-based project. sampled in this study, many of the She recalled her fear of driving alone at researchers discussed and actively reflected night. When this was unavoidable she drove on concerns about how their research, or with an intense focus on her surroundings, engagement more broadly, may have often surveying them incessantly for possible negatively affected their participants. approaching danger. Many of the researchers Understanding the Symptoms of noted a considerably heightened sense of Vicarious Trauma emotional agitation which was most often Research suggests that the process of experienced as intense emotional responses Vicarious Trauma is very similar to that of such as anxiety, sadness, anger and survivors who have experienced trauma irritability. Several identified the emergence directly (Pearlman & Mac Ian, 1995). This of irritability and emotional outbursts in their includes the experience of many of the intimate and family relationships. symptoms specified within the criteria Additionally, experiences most commonly stipulated for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder included physical complaints, constantly (Lerias & Byrne 2003; Sui & feeling ill, body pain and headaches and Padmanabhanunni, 2016). Herman (1992) intense exhaustion. This included repeated
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headaches after conducting focus groups, and repeating a traumatic narrative she had heard overwhelming exhaustion after running from her participants. Another researcher support workshops. described her experiences of obsessively The second cardinal cluster of thinking about the stories she had been told, symptoms that Herman (1992) identifies is and continually replaying the scenarios in her called intrusion: “the indelible imprint of the mind. Several researchers also recalled traumatic moment” (Herman 1992: 35). experiencing trauma-related nightmares. Intrusion refers to the various different ways Perhaps most notable, again, was the that traumatised individuals continue to intensity of the emotional responses with relive or re-experience moments of terror which these all occurred (Wastell, 2005). from the past, as if they were recurring in The final cardinal symptom cluster that present time. “The traumatic moment Herman (1992) refers to is constriction. becomes encoded in an abnormal form of Constriction, commonly referred to as memory, which breaks spontaneously into numbing, tends to be a direct response to the consciousness” (Herman, 1992, p. 37). overwhelming emotions triggered by People may experience this as flashbacks intrusion, where a person feels entirely when they are awake, as terrifying powerless and, as a result, falls into a “state nightmares when they are asleep, or through of surrender” (Herman, 1992. p. 42). In their actions in the form of re-enactments. Re contrast to the intense fear and rage -enactment refers to the process whereby associated with intrusive symptoms, trauma survivors “feel impelled to re-create constriction includes an unusually detached the moment of terror, either in literal or in sense of calm and/or profound passivity. disguised form” (Herman, 1992, p. 39). “The helpless person escapes from her Returning traumatic memories are often situation not by action in the real world but triggered by seemingly innocuous cues in the rather by altering her state of individual’s environment. These intrusive consciousness” (Herman, 1992, p. 42). memories are often accompanied by intense Although this altered state of consciousness, emotional distress, most commonly in the referred to as dissociation, can be an adaptive form of terror and rage, and as a result response during moments of danger, it people make extreme efforts to defend severely hinders recovery once the individual themselves against this process. is safe. Dissociative responses ensure that Although this symptom cluster usually traumatic memories, and their associated presents more intensely amongst those who emotions, are kept split or sealed off from have, themselves, been directly victimised, it conscious awareness, only appearing in is still common for those with VT to also re- painful splintered fragments (intrusive experience aspects of the trauma. Most often, symptoms). This splitting denies the person hearing explicit descriptions of the trauma the opportunity to understand, process and seems to create mental visualizations which reintegrate the traumatic experience and also tend to be repeatedly triggered by reminders tends to impair an individual’s ability to of the victims or events (Herman, 1992; Sui experience a full range of human emotion & Padmanabhanunni, 2016). Furthermore, and relationships, leaving them blunted and when people deeply empathise with withdrawn. Furthermore, the “constrictive another’s experience, they are likely to symptoms of the traumatic neurosis apply develop similar emotional responses as the not only to thought, memory, and states of victim. One of the researchers recalled an consciousness but also to the entire field of example of re-enactment. She and her partner purposeful action and initiative” (Herman, were having a minor disagreement at home 1992, p. 46). In other words, people with and during their discussion, her partner PTSD tend to restrict or confine their lives as touched her, gently, and she angered a means of establishing a perceived degree of immediately, saying “Don’t you lay your safety and control, and managing their hands on me!” with unnecessary hostility, persistent terror. This tends to include
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avoiding all possible reminders of the rights of all research participants, it can be trauma, intimacy, and previously enjoyable argued that this focus is insufficient as it is activities, and is often accompanied by social too rigid and therefore does not always withdrawal and reduced interest in one’s account for the vast array of experiences and future. situations that researchers will encounter Constrictive symptoms were extremely once they commence research in the field common amongst researchers. Many (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004). This is reported withdrawal from loved ones, social particularly relevant in qualitative research, activities and society in general. The woman where the researcher is closely involved with who developed a fear of driving at night research participants, and the participants went to great lengths to avoid it. When she themselves are regarded as an integral part of had no option, she began treating traffic knowledge production (Willig, 2008). lights as four way stops: she stopped only One of the most challenging aspects of briefly, frantically checking for traffic, qualitative research is ensuring that one before hurriedly driving on. Another maintains a non-exploitative pattern of researcher recalls how she began avoiding interaction with all participants while at the the site where her interviews had taken place, same time fulfilling the purpose and role of saying she often chose to walk a researcher (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004). In considerably longer distance than to walk order to move beyond procedural ethics and past those buildings. Other examples include produce critically ethical work, researchers no longer attending church, a reluctance to need to acknowledge the ways in which “look pretty” by a researcher who worked theory, research and action can all be both with sexual violence, and reduced emancipatory and oppressive in nature and, enthusiasm and patience with spouses and therefore, to actively adopt values, children. A recurring theme of helplessness assumptions and practices which foster the emerged in working with survivors and liberatory effects of knowledge production vulnerable groups, as a growing insight into, (Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002). Here the and empathy with, these situations was shift in emphasis is both away from simply accompanied by loss of optimism in being avoiding harm and towards actively striving able to provide effective support. This played towards positive outcomes, and towards out as emotional disconnection from the expanding the understanding of the kinds of work, difficulty in completing projects, and/ harm that are possible. This is particularly or a pervasive sense of despair. relevant in a South African multicultural Expanding Ethics in Social Science context. With a history of racial and gender Research based inequality and a severe disparity in Ethics in the social sciences tends to be economic wealth distribution, there is a strongly focused on not harming participants. broad scope for abuse of power and In most research courses, students are taught entrenchment of oppressive practices of at length about the well-developed which researchers need to be critically aware. conceptualisation of procedural and practical Guillemin and Gillam (2004) highlight ethics aimed at upholding the rights of that this requires competence in recognising participants. This has historical roots in the ethical issues when they arise, as well as the medical sciences and the principle of not ability to consider all the possible courses of causing physical harm (primum nil nocere), action and respond most appropriately. This and has subsequently been expanded in the process is greatly facilitated by critical social sciences to include avoiding emotional reflexivity. In other words, one of the most harm (Hugman, Pittaway & Bartolomei, crucial elements of research which is 2011). Although procedural ethics, as pragmatically ethical involves paying great established by the ethics committee and attention to one’s own role in the research policies and principles they assert, are process and critically reflecting on the essential in all studies in order to protect the process as a whole. Here Freire’s (1993)
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work on “critical consciousness” is essential Askeland, 2007). Several authors have begun for understanding and managing the power to explore this area in different ways. imbalances (Straubhaar, 2015). For example, Dickson-Swift, James, Kippen and some of the researchers working with victim- Liamputtong (2009), for example, discuss the survivors of intimate-partner violence came “emotional labour” involved in conducting to realize that by simply asking questions qualitative research, and Finlay (2002) about the context in which violence had provides a detailed articulation of reflexivity, occurred, they were re-victimising including an exploration of the importance of participants, as the received meaning of the emotions in this process. This is a questions was framed by the existing victim- psychologically complex and emotionally blaming culture in which victim-survivors taxing process that requires much more where implicitly or explicitly judged for attention, specifically within the South remaining in potentially dangerous African context. relationship, and/or have failed in their Linking Vicarious Trauma and ‘feminine duty’ of de-escalating conflict. Research Roles Even neutral questions were understood In qualitative enquiry, the researcher is within this dominant system of persecutory frequently the main “instrument” in the meaning, and thus a combined socially research process. To a large extent, the critical and personally empathic style had to “success” or “failure” of qualitative research be adopted to prevent re-traumatising relies on her involvement during the entire participants. research process (Holliday, 2002). Firstly, Despite this increasingly more nuanced gathering in-depth and detailed qualitative and thoughtful consideration of ethics in data requires her to have the ability to engage qualitative work, some lingering problems with participants in an open and empathetic need further attention. More specifically, in way. The researcher is responsible for social science research methodology courses creating a safe and trustworthy space where in South Africa, ways of protecting oneself participants feel comfortable enough to share as a researcher are often insufficiently their experiences. Researchers need to be covered or simply overlooked altogether. consistently present within these spaces, While attention may be given to the physical listening actively and responding in ways safety of the researcher, emotional that both affirm participants’ experiences and vulnerability in the research process tends to encourage them to share further. Secondly, be overlooked. There is also inconsistency once these accounts have been gathered, the and great variability between disciplines and analysis of qualitative data requires spending institutions in terms of how they deal with considerable amounts of time immersing these issues. Significantly, what is often oneself in detailed descriptions of neglected in this research methodology participants’ experiences (Holliday, 2002). teaching is the way in which a “protected” Where these experiences and accounts are researcher is fundamental if the rights of deeply distressing, this ongoing constant participants are to be satisfactorily upheld. exposure increases the researchers’ risk of This is explored in more depth in the experiencing VT. following section. Vicarious Trauma appears to have a In addition, much more thought could troubling double effect for qualitative (and should) be given to the ways in which researchers. Firstly, VT is an emotionally the processes of reflexivity and critical painful and potentially overwhelming consciousness, previously shown to be experience. As mentioned earlier, the essential to conducting practically ethical symptoms strongly resemble primary PTSD, research, require the researcher not only to yet with no overt incident of a personal cognitively reflect on their subject positions, trauma the symptoms may be ignored or but to unpack their emotional responses to misinterpreted. This is exacerbated by the various aspects of their work (Fook & professional role of “researcher” and the
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burdens with which that self-definition is ethically questionable as they are laden. Researchers can feel as though the “abandoning” project participants to whom role requires them to be “superhuman” - any they had made a commitment to provide signs of vulnerability or emotionality are assistance and support. perceived as weakness, inadequacy or An important aspect of VT to consider incompetence (Dickson-Swift et al., 2009; here is the subtle but significant shift of Howlett & Collins, 2014). These ideas are worldview that occurs from persistent closely linked to, and further reinforced by, exposure to distressing narratives. Janoff- the ideals of objectivity, neutrality and Bulman (1985, 2010) asserts that people live critical distance traditionally valued in by a set of core positive assumptions about traditional research and still commonly the world, how it operates and the people in revered today, despite an attempt to move it, including the self. In particular, they see toward the inclusion of researcher the world to be benevolent, meaningful and subjectivity in qualitative methodologies predictable: people are viewed as generally (Willig, 2008). A dangerous dichotomy is good and kind; and they have a positive and created between the researcher/researched or worthy sense of self. These positive the helper/helped. This prevents one from assumptions are also closely linked to early seeking assistance when one feels childhood experiences where we learn that overwhelmed or distressed (Dalenberg, 2000; we are safe, secure, protected and not Wastell, 2005). vulnerable. A person experiencing VT has Most of the interviewed researchers been faced with a much darker and revealed that they did not recognise or attach malevolent account of humanity and the meaning and significance to their presenting world which directly challenges, disrupts, or symptoms at the time, and often required “shatters”, these previously held positive another person to point these out. assumptions (Janoff-Bulman, 2010). Researchers who were able to identify This process is particularly relevant to concerning responses at the time reported researchers working on sensitive topics. being reluctant to discuss their difficulties More often than not, the researcher occupies with others, specifically with supervisors, a more privileged position in society, and has colleagues or their organisation, as they therefore been able to take their assumption feared appearing incompetent and were of safely relatively more for granted than the concerned about the intensity of their vulnerable project participants. When they emotional responses. This was similarly encounter the participants’ greater discussed in Fook and Askeland’s (2007) experience of vulnerability, these firmly held work on critical reflection. They found that assumptions of worldly safety and human “participants may feel an unwanted pressure decency are seriously challenged. This can to disclose incompetence… [and] lead to a significant, but not always participants also express the desire to immediately obvious, shift in the emotional ‘protect’ others from strong feelings” (Fook and cognitive outlook of the researcher. This & Askeland, 2007, p. 2). This led to one of shift toward a pessimistic worldview and a the most significant problems that negative view of self can produce an researchers experiencing VT evidenced: overwhelming sense of helplessness and failure to complete projects, and withdrawal cynicism, or a feeling of futility, for those from community engagement work. Many researchers suffering from VT (Janoff- researchers experiencing symptoms of VT Bulman, 2010; Wastell, 2005). This, in turn found themselves uninterested or frustrated has a significant influence on the ways in with their projects, were unable to continue which the researcher responds to participants conducting interviews, or abandoned their they are working with, and specifically, tends analyses before they could complete their to produce a number of countertransference work. Not only is this personally problematic reactions (Dalenberg, 2000), discussed in for the researchers themselves, but it is also more detail below.
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Secondly, VT has serious particularly relevant to researchers consequences for project participants. As experiencing VT. previously discussed, VT is experienced as a Recovery from trauma requires a series of complex and contradictory healing relationship (Herman, 1992). symptoms, with intense and conflicting Survivors need to recover from the alienation emotional responses. These primarily and isolation of traumatic events and form negative emotions make it very difficult for new connections with people. Ideally, researchers to interact ethically with community-engaged work should share these participants for a number of reasons. Herman common aims. For this to occur, researchers (1992) describes various stages of recovery and activists must be consistently through which the survivor needs to mend empathically attuned. This, however, the different capacities that were damaged becomes very difficult if the researcher is during the trauma: “trust, autonomy, experiencing VT as the need to “invoke initiative, competence, identity and (voluntarily or not) defences in order to intimacy” (p. 133). If community-engaged contain and bind their own researchers are to be helpful rather than distress” (Wastell, 2005, p. 119) becomes detrimental to this process, it requires them overwhelming. The increased anxiety and to be consistently present, reliable, arousal, and the avoidance symptoms empathetic and accepting. This is also often associated with VT, often leave people required for the projects themselves to be numb, detached, irritable or angry. These successful. Unfortunately, VT makes these negative emotions make it very difficult for key responsibilities much more difficult. researchers to have consistent empathy and The problematic responses of the caring attunement to the person or researcher detailed above can be framed, and communities they are trying to assist, which more fully understood, by the concept of then severely undermines the ability to form countertransference. According to Bouchard, a safe and trusting bond with them Normandin and Seguin (1995), (Trippany, White Kress & Wilcoxon, 2004). countertransference can be described as “the Furthermore, Dalenberg (2000) adds that the entirety of the analyst’s emotional reactions countertransference responses of withdrawal, to the patient within the treatment avoidance or irritation may also undermine a situation” (p. 719) or, as Wilson and Lindy survivor’s “sense of reality” (p. 92) as they (1994) define, “the reciprocal impact that the may be interpreted as disbelief, judgement or patient and the therapist have on each other blame. In these circumstances researcher during the course of psychotherapy” (p. 9). distance and neutrality begin to be The critical element tends to be the negative experienced less as professional objectivity reactions that are triggered in the therapist by and more as insensitivity and victim blaming the clients’ experiences. Dalenberg (2000) (Wastell, 2005). highlights key characteristics of In addition, survivors, and countertransference of therapists treating marginalised groups in general, need to traumatised patients, including both a feeling experience (re)empowerment. Taking charge of strong attachment toward the patient as of their recovery is the first step to re- well as “conflict-based responses” that the establishing control over their lives. Herman therapist has in relation to the patient and the states “others may offer advice, support, “trauma related material” (p. 11). Wilson and assistance, affection and care, but not Lindy (1994) conceptualise cure” (p. 133). People experiencing VT are countertransference as consisting of two key often inclined to manage their own emotional dimensions. The first dimension refers to vulnerability by trying to “fix” those they are “the degree to which the therapist either over supporting. Anxiety and feelings of being -identifies or the therapist avoids helpless and overwhelmed can make them identification with their client” (Wastell, desperate to solve others’ problems as a way 2005, p. 134). Both of these responses appear of alleviating their own distress. In these
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cases, people feel compelled to act well These examples are taken from beyond their jurisdiction, often adopting the community-based violence reduction role of the “rescuer” (Wastell, 2005). This interventions where facilitating a shift in countertransference response commonly ideas or understandings about the world and involves over-identification with the survivor one’s self is a central goal. This is a complex and “empathetic enmeshment (over and challenging task that requires repeatedly involvement)” with their shared experience deconstructing firmly held beliefs (which are (Dalenberg, 2000, p. 74). This “if you feel often negative, stereotypical, prejudiced) better, I feel better” dynamic often leaves about other people and the world more survivors feeling at best misunderstood, and broadly. Before these ideas can be at worst, re-traumatised by re-experiencing a deconstructed they are often shared as “fact”, lack of control similar to that of their common sense or “just” one’s personal traumatic experience(s) (Herman, 1992). opinion. People “merely” sharing their Allowing survivors to re-establish a sense of opinions/ideas often involves the negation of autonomy in their lives, and to independently particular participants and groups, including redevelop the personal competencies they the facilitators themselves. In this sense, need to achieve this, requires a degree of many people, at least initially, appear to emotional consistency, attunement and display an “anti-social” or hostile attitude ‘boundary-maintenance’ that VT hinders in toward positive social change as this those that experience it. This is particularly involves relinquishing ideas or beliefs that difficult in community-engagement settings, either serve them socially, or act as a defence where the balance of power is already mechanism protecting them from anxiety or heavily skewed in favour of the fear (Festinger, 1962). As Fook and “professional” coming to “fix” a Askeland (2007) argue: community’s problems (Fook & Askeland, The challenge of confronting 2007). more culturally embedded ideas Experiencing Primary Traumatisation in constitutes one of the major Community-Based Work challenges of critical reflection. Although experiences of VT proved We have termed it a challenge challenging for community-based because we see it as a ‘double- researchers, it was not the only trauma- edged sword’: it can be a very related issue they faced. When discussing potent way of confronting ‘sticking their experiences of hearing others’ points’ or previously unresolvable distressing narratives, another key issue was dilemmas; but its effectiveness raised: What happens when participants’ may be limited because of the ideas and actions, not just their accounts of misunderstanding, resistance and their experiences, cause distress? Two anxiety which can result when examples to frame this question include a deep-seated assumptions are self-identifying gay researcher facilitating a questioned (p. 2). group in which a participant stated that “all Consider the previous example of a people deserve equality, except the gays, participant supporting the xenophobic slur that’s just wrong”, or an African immigrant that all foreign African nationals are researcher being told “but foreigners are criminals. Alternate narratives which directly cockroaches who steal our jobs, you are an challenge this belief construct the example”. The deeply threatening nature of participant’s view as not only as factually these comments is to be understood in an incorrect, but also as hurtful and contributing environment where homophobic assaults to ongoing systems of violence. But being (Ferim, 2016; Msibi, 2009; Reid & open to new narratives can produce feelings Dirsuweit, 2002) and xenophobic murders of shame and guilt regarding one’s past (Harris, 2002; Mutanda, 2017; Neocosmos, thoughts, feelings and behaviours toward 2008) are regular occurrences. other people, and could directly undermine
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the positive sense of self that is protected by come to terms with her experience of a man the original narrative (Gilligan, 1996). Thus arguing that all women, including his own the gratifying sense of superiority given by sister, deserve to be raped if they are ‘dressed the good citizen/criminal foreigner provocatively’. This statement was not only dichotomy is replaced by a shameful threatening for the researcher as a woman, it acknowledgement of oneself as an agent of was expressed in a group that included self- xenophobic prejudice that is both irrational identifying female survivors of sexual and harmful to others. assault. Furthermore, firmly held beliefs may In scenarios similar to these, be developed as a response to threatening researchers encounter a third extremely and overwhelming personal experiences of distressing experience: a sense of traumatic violence. In these cases, individuals adopt helplessness from being unable to effectively the beliefs, values and behaviours of those protect the participants in their care. In this who are threatening or attacking them as a sense researchers tended to experience means of protecting themselves from the themselves as being channelled into the traumatic acknowledgement of their own position of a bystander (Herman, 1992), vulnerability and suffering. In observing harmful events without being able psychodynamic terms this is referred to as to fully challenge or control them. Thus the “identification with the aggressor” (Adorno well-intentioned and seemingly positively et al., 1950; Miller, 1990) or in certain ethical attempt to produce more respectful instances as Stockholm Syndrome (Herman, social relationships can itself become 1992). To prevent a sense of emotional differently traumatic for all of the annihilation, individuals may repress from participants, including the facilitators. awareness the “experience of being an This highlights a critical dialect that overwhelmed victim, and instead imagining exists between openness and safety within oneself to be in the position of the these projects. Openness is the primary threatening aggressor” (Collins, 2013, p. 78). requirement for transformative engagement Any challenge to these firmly held beliefs but, at the same time, the more open and then runs the risk of exposing this traumatic participatory we make spaces, the greater the vulnerability. From this perspective it can be risk that participants will be (usually understood that these disclosures are no inadvertently) harmful toward others. In longer simply pieces of data that the other words, the more democratic and open researcher can gather and interpret - they are our engagement practice is, the more it complex and risky social encounters that allows the risk of reproducing elements of have both emotional and intellectual impact, the violent power relations of the external and produce significant identity effects. world within the activities. This raises an An added layer of complexity is linked important question: how do we keep these to the group nature of this work. Community spaces both safe and open when openness -based projects, as their name suggests, tend comes at the cost of safety and safety comes to be interested in exploring issues amongst at the cost of openness? particular groups of people. This often Our conclusion, in highlighting and requires the facilitation of focus group exploring the problems of vicarious trauma, discussions or participatory discussions is not that it is simply a risk to be avoided, as where people are encouraged to share and research approval committees might be discuss their ideas and experiences together. inclined to assume. On the contrary, it is a In these cases, not only the researcher but the risk that increases precisely to the extent that other participants in the group are potentially social engagement and research is empathic, at risk of traumatisation through the attuned, participatory, and open – all primary offensive and potentially hateful ideas values of socially committed community disclosed by participants. An example of this psychology work. The point is rather that it is was revealed by a researcher who grappled to a risk to be recognised and managed as
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effectively as possible. This requires Brady, J. L., Guy, J. D., Poelstra, P. L., & integrating a clear understanding of vicarious Brokaw, B. F. (1999). Vicarious trauma into research and community traumatization, spirituality, and the engagement training. The minimum elements treatment of sexual abuse survivors: A here would entail being able to identify national survey of women potential risks and emerging reactions, being psychotherapists. Professional trained in appropriate self-care techniques, Psychology: Research and Practice, 30 and ensuring that social and organisational (4), 386-393. support processes and relationships are in Capretto, P. (2015). Empathy and silence in place. The specifics of these have already pastoral care for traumatic grief and loss. been mapped within psychotherapeutic Journal of Religion and Health, 54(1), frameworks – the challenge is to effectively 339-357. doi:10.1007/s10943-014-9904- transfer these insights and skills into 5. community engagement and research Carlier, I., Lamberts, R., & Gersons, B. settings. (2000). The dimensionality of trauma: A multidimensional scaling comparison of References police officers with and without Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick E., posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). Research, 9, 29–39. The authoritarian personality. New Collins, A. (2013a). Bullies, sissies and York: Harper & Row. crybabies: Dangerous common sense in American Psychiatric Association. (2013). educating boys for violence. Agenda, 27 Diagnostic and statistical manual of (1), 71-83. mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, Collins, A. (2013b). Teaching Sensitive DC: Author. Topics: Transformative Pedagogy in a Atwoli, L., Stein, D. J., Williams, D. R., Violent Society. Alternation Special Mclaughlin, K. A., Petukhova, M., Edition, 9, 128 – 149. ISSN 1023-1757. Kessler, R. C., & Koenen, K. C. (2013). Dalenberg, C. J. (2000). Countertransference Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder and the treatment of trauma. Washington, in South Africa: Analysis from the South DC, US: American Psychological African Stress and Health Study. BMC Association. Psychiatry, 13(1), 1–12. http://dx.doi. Demombynesa, G., & Özler, B. (2005). org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-182. Crime and local inequality in South Beaton, R., Murphy, S., Johnson, C., Pike, Africa. Journal of Development K., & Corneil, W. (1998). Exposure to Economics, 76, 265 – 292. duty related incident stressors in urban Dickson-Swift, V., James, E. L., & fire fighters and paramedics. Journal of Liamputtong, P. (2008). Undertaking Traumatic Stress, 11, 821–827. sensitive research in the health and social Beaton, R., Murphy, S., Johnson, C., Pike, sciences: Managing boundaries, K., & Corneil, W. (1999). Coping emotions and risks. UK: Cambridge responses and posttraumatic stress University Press. symptomatology in urban fire service Dickson-Swift, V., James, E. L., Kippen, S., personnel. Journal of Traumatic Stress, & Liamputtong, P. (2009). Researching 12, 293–307. sensitive topics: Qualitative research as Bouchard, M., Normandin, L., & Seguin, M. emotion work. Qualitative Research, 9 (1995). Countertransference as (1), 61-79. instrument and obstacle: A Du Plessis, T., Visagie, S., & Mji, G. (2014). comprehensive and descriptive The prevalence of burnout amongst framework. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, therapists working in private physical 44, 717-745. rehabilitation centres in South Africa: A descriptive study. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 44(2), 11–16.
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Ferim, V. (2016). The nexus between Howlett, S. L., & Collins, A. (2014). African traditional practices and Vicarious traumatisation: Risk and homophobic violence towards lesbians in resilience among crisis support volunteers the Eastern Cape province of South in a community organisation. South Africa. Gender & Behaviour, 14(2), 7410. African Journal of Psychology, 44(2), 180 Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. -190. Accessed 8th September 2017 from: Scientific American. 207(4), 93–107. https://www.academia.edu/7086308/ Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: Vicarious_traumatisation_risk_and_resilie The opportunity and challenge of nce_among_crisis_support_volunteers_in reflexivity in research practice. _a_community_organisation Qualitative Research, 2(2), 209-230. DOI: Hugman, R., Pittaway, E., & Bartolomei, L. 10.1177/146879410200200205. (2011). When ‘Do No Harm’ is not Fook, J., & Askeland, G. A. (2007). enough: The ethics of research with Challenges of critical reflection: 'Nothing refugees and other vulnerable groups. The ventured, nothing gained'. Social Work British Journal of Social Work, 41(7), Education, 26(5), 520-533. 1271–1287. doi:10.1080/02615470601118662. Hunter, M. (2010). Love in the time of AIDS: Freire, P. (1993). Education for critical Inequality, gender, and rights in South consciousness. New York: Continuum. Africa. USA: Indiana University Press. Gilligan, J. (1996). Violence: Reflections on Janoff-Bulman, R. (1985). The aftermath of a national epidemic. USA: Vintage victimization: Rebuilding shattered Books. assumptions. Trauma and Its Wake: The Goelitz, A., & Stewart-Kahn, A. (2013). Study and Treatment of Post-Traumatic From trauma to healing: A social Stress Disorder. New York: Brunner/ worker's guide to working with survivors. Mazel. New York: Routledge. Janoff-Bulman, R. (2010). Shattered Guillemin, M., & Gillam, L. (2004). Ethics, assumptions: Towards a new psychology reflexivity, and “ethically important of trauma. New York: The Free Press, moments” in research. Qualitative Simon and Schuster. Enquiry, 10(2), 262-280. doi: Klasen S. (1997) Poverty, inequality and 10.11.77/1077800403262360. deprivation in South Africa: An analysis Harris, B. (2002). Xenophobia: A new of the 1993 Saldru Survey. In: Møller V. pathology for a new South Africa? In (ed) Quality of life in South Africa. Social Hook, D. & Eagle, G. (eds) indicators research series, vol 1. Springer, Psychopathology and social prejudice, pp. Dordrecht. 169-184, Cape Town: University of Cape Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction Town Press. to qualitative research interviewing. USA: Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery: Sage Publications Ltd. From domestic violence to political Leigh Wills, J., & Schuldberg, D. (2016). terror. New York: Basic Books. Chronic trauma effects on personality Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and writing traits in police officers. Journal of qualitative research. London: Sage Traumatic Stress, 29(2), 185-189. Publications Ltd. doi:10.1002/jts.22089. Lerias, D., & Byrne, M. K. (2003). Vicarious traumatization: Symptoms and predictors. Stress and Health: Journal of The International Society For The Investigation Of Stress, 19(3), 129-138. doi:10.1002/smi.969.
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Mandiracioglu, A., & Cam, O. (2006). Renzetti, C. M., & Lee, R. M. (1993). Violence exposure and burn-out among Researching Sensitive Topics. Newbury Turkish nursing home staff. Occupational Park, CA: Sage Publications. Medicine, 56 (7), 501-503. doi:10.1093/ Reid, G. & Dirsuweit, T. (2002). occmed/kql073 Understanding systemic violence: Miller, A. (1990). Thou shalt not be aware: Homophobic attacks in Johannesburg and society’s betrayal of the child. London: its surrounds. Urban Forum, 13, 99. Pluto Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-002-0010- Mutanda, D. (2017). Xenophobic violence in 5. South Africa: Mirroring economic and Schauben, L. J., & Frazier, P. A. (1995). political development failures in Africa. Vicarious trauma. Psychology of Women African Identities, 15(3), 278-17. Quarterly, 19(1), 49-64. doi:10.1080/14725843.2017.1291325. Sinclair, H. A., & Hamill, C. (2007). Does Msibi, T. (2009). Not crossing the line: vicarious traumatisation affect oncology Masculinities and homophobic violence in nurses? A literature review. European South Africa. Agenda 23(80), 50-54. Journal of Oncology Nursing, 11, 348- Neocosmos, M. (2008). The politics of fear 356. doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2007.02.007. and the fear of politics: Reflections on Sui, X., & Padmanabhanunni, A. (2016). xenophobic violence in South Africa. Vicarious trauma: The psychological Journal of Asian and African Studies, 43 impact of working with survivors of (6), 586-594. trauma for South African psychologists, Neuman, W. L. (2011). Social research Journal of Psychology in Africa, 26(2), methods: Qualitative and quantitative 127-133. approaches. Boston: Pearson Education Straubhaar, R. (2015). The stark reality of Inc. the ‘White Saviour’ complex and the need O’Mahony, S., Gerhart, J. I., Grosse, J., for critical consciousness: A document Abrams, I., & Levy, M. M. (2016). analysis of the early journals of a Freirean Posttraumatic stress symptoms in educator. Compare: A Journal of palliative care professionals seeking Comparative and International Education mindfulness training: Prevalence and 45(3), 381-400. vulnerability. Palliative Medicine, 30(2), Sun, B., Hu, M., Yu, S., Jiang, Y., & Lou, B. 189-192. (2016). Validation of the compassion doi:10.1177/0269216315596459. fatigue short scale among Chinese Prilleltensky, I., & Nelson, G. (2002). Doing medical workers and firefighters: A cross- psychology critically: Making a difference sectional study. BMJ Open, 6(6), in diverse settings. New York: Palgrave e011279. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016- MacMillan. 011279. Pearlman, L., & Mac Ian, P. (1995). Thompson, M. (2014). Taking care: Vicarious Traumatization: An Empirical Reducing vicarious traumatization and Study of the Effects of Trauma Work on burnout by engaging in proactive sSelf- Trauma Therapists. Professional care. Relational Child & Youth Care Psychology: Research and Practice, 26(6) Practice, 27(3), 13-15. 558-565. Trippany, R., White Kress, V., & Wilcoxon, Pyevich, C., Newman, E., & Daleiden, E. S. (2004). Preventing vicarious trauma: (2003). The relationship among cognitive What counselors should know when schemas, job-related traumatic exposure, working with trauma survivors. Journal and posttraumatic stress disorder in of Counseling and Development, 82, 31- journalists. Journal of Traumatic 37. Stress, 16(4), 325-328.
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Wastell, C. (2005). Understanding trauma of organisations dealing with intimate partner and emotion. Australia: Allen & Unwin. violence and gender-based violence. He is Weidmann, A., Fehm, L., & Fydrich, T. Professor of Media, Language and (2008). Covering the tsunami disaster: Communication at the Durban University of Subsuquent post-traumatic and Technology, and Visiting Professor in depressive symptoms and associated Psychology at Rhodes University and social factors. Stress and Health, 24, 129- LaTrobe University, Melbourne. His 135. academic work can be found online at https:// Wilson, J. P., & Lindy, J. D. (1994). rhodesza.academia.edu/AnthonyCollins and Empathic strain and countertransference. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ In J. P. Wilson& J. D. Lindy (Eds.), Anthony_Collins3/ Countertransference in the treatment of PTSD (pp. 5–30). New York: The Guilford Press. Willig, C. (2008). Introducing qualitative research in psychology. NY: Open University Press, McGraw-Hill Education.
Address for correspondence [email protected]
Acknowledgements This research was supported by Research Incentive Funding from the National Research Foundation, South Africa.
Author biographies Simóne Plüg is lecturer at the International Centre of Non-Violence at Durban University of Technology (South Africa) and a PhD fellow in Media Studies at the University currently known as Rhodes (South Africa). Her research interests include gender, identity, and consumer culture, violence, trauma and neglect, and transformative pedagogies. Her research involves critical theorisation by locating social issues within discursive constructions, and aims to defamiliarise common sense ideas in order to promote consciousness raising and provide the space for negotiation of less oppressive and destructive identities and social practices.
Anthony Collins is a theorist/activist working on violence reduction and survivor support. His primary interest is in developing a framework for interrupting the ongoing cycles of violence in all aspects of South African social life. He works with a variety
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Bringing a community psychology lens to understanding suicide.
Lyn O’Grady Independent Researcher
Suicide prevention has been an area of concern in Australia for several decades and recent statistics continue to highlight the extent to which this continues to be a community and public health issue. Historical and contemporary theories about why suicide occurs focus on a range of individual, social and broader societal factors and these are reflected in policy directions and program development. Community psychology principles can be applied to assist in understanding the phenomenon and this paper calls for action by community psychologists and policy and program developers to further enhance understandings based on evidence and principles of social justice and empowerment.
Suicide is a complex phenomenon throughout the paper to highlight how a which occurs within a context influenced by community psychology lens is consistent many social, cultural, economic and with a number of approaches to suicide psychological factors. Research continues to prevention. As with all writings about look towards identifying underlying factors suicide, it is acknowledged that, while best which may lead to suicide attempts and death efforts have been made to follow ethical by suicide. These factors include individual, guidelines in presenting the information, it is family and community factors, particularly possible that the content may be triggering as it is clear from the data that the risk of for some readers. suicide varies in ways which relate to social, Bringing a Community Psychology Lens economic and demographic factors. In this to the Forefront of Understanding way, principles and approaches of Suicidality community psychology can be useful in Community psychology incorporates a understanding suicidality and informing “core set of values, concepts, and principles suicide prevention. to guide research and action… By values we This paper explores some of the most are referring to conceptions of the desirable – well-known theories and approaches to that is, shared ideas about what our field suicide as well as some of the critical gaps should attend to and aspire to achieve – both (particularly in relation to culture) requiring in terms of process and content” (Bond, further analysis and inclusion. It begins with Serrano-Garcia, & Keys, 2017). The current Australian suicide statistics, policy strongest values have been identified as: directions and historical and contemporary the search for social justice, theories to understanding and preventing the belief in equality, suicide. It is acknowledged that recent years the importance of fostering have seen a flurry of activity in suicide participation in research and action, prevention activity and accompanying a focus on prevention, and research, all of which cannot be captured in fostering strengths versus identifying an article such as this. It is also noted that deficits (Bond et al., 2017). there will always be a lag between the It will become evident throughout this development and implementation of paper that the principles and practices of programs and interventions and the release of community psychology are relevant and evaluation reports. Accordingly, this article indeed could be used to enhance current does not focus on current programs or approaches to suicide prevention within initiatives. Concepts and principles of Australia and internationally. community psychology are considered
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Table 1 Gender breakdown of deaths by suicide in Australia in 2016 Males Females No. of deaths 2,151 715 Rate per 100,000 17.9 5.9
Ongoing Concerns about Suicide Rates in suicide death rate is highest among males 85 Australia years and over, although the number of It is clear that, despite a range of suicides in this age group accounted for 0.2% efforts to prevent suicide, the rates of suicide of all intentional self-harm deaths in 2016 continue to raise concerns in Australia and (ABS, 2017). globally. The most recent preliminary The issues around youth suicide began statistics available from the Australian to be addressed in Australia with the Bureau of Statistics (ABS) reveal that 2,866 appointment of the Youth Suicide Prevention people died by suicide in 2016 at a rate of Advisory Group by the Commonwealth 11.8 per 100,000 people. Table 1 shows the Department of Human Services and Health gender breakdown. This compared to 3,027 in 1995. The 1995-96 Federal Budget deaths in 2015 at a rate of 12.7 deaths per allocated $13 million over four years to 100,000. In 2016, preliminary data showed programs to reduce the rates of youth an average of 7.85 deaths by suicide in suicide. (Commonwealth of Australia, 1995). Australia each day (ABS, 2017). Youth suicide rates in Australia peaked in For those of Aboriginal and Torres 1997 with 122 male deaths (18.6 per Strait Islander descent in New South Wales, 100,000) and 33 female deaths (5.3 per Queensland, South Australia, Western 100,000). As a comparison, in 2016 in the Australia and Northern Territory there were age group 15-19 years there were 101 male 162 deaths due to suicide (119 male, 43 deaths (13.4 per 100,000) and 33 female female). Suicide was the fifth most common deaths (5.0 per 100,000). This may indicate cause of death in Indigenous communities. that the demonstration programs funded For those states and territories, the under the Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy standardized death rate for Aboriginal and from 1996 have had some effect on the rates Torres Strait Islander people (23.8 per of youth suicide in subsequent years. Youth 100,000) was approximately twice the rate of suicide continues to be prioritised as a non-Indigenous people (11.4 per 100,000) particular concern for governments. (ABS, 2017). Like the adult population, Aboriginal In 2016, the ABS reported that suicide and Torres Strait Islanders are over- was the leading cause of death among all represented in deaths by suicide of children people aged 15-44 years and the third leading and young people compared to non- cause of death among those aged 45-54 Indigenous people of the same age. The ABS years. The median age at death for suicide reported that over the 5 years from 2012 to was 43.3 years compared to a median age of 2016, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 81.9 years for all deaths. The highest children and young people accounted for proportion of suicide deaths of males more than a quarter of all suicide deaths in occurred among those 30-34 years of age, this age group (90 of the 337 deaths, 26.7%). while for females it was in the 50-54 age The age-specific death rate for Aboriginal group. Within the latter age group, females and Torres Strait Islander children and young make up a higher proportion of deaths by people was 9.8 deaths per 100,000 persons, suicide. For both males and females, the compared to 1.9 per 100,000 for non- proportion of suicide deaths decreases among Indigenous persons. those over 55 years of age, although it is Other groups which are not yet important to note that the age-specific recognized in data collection but are now
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recognised to be more at risk of suicide that impact on the individual during the lead include lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, up to and the point of time that suicide is intersex and queer (LGBTIQ+) people. being considered and carried out. Recent research undertaken by Reachout, an One area of ambiguity which Australian internet service for young people complicates the definition of suicide is the which provides information, support and issue of intention. This is because the resources about mental health, involved a intentions of the suicidal person are not longitudinal study of almost 2,000 young directly observable, and can even be Australians aged 16 – 25 years and found falsified. De Leo, Burgis, Bertolote, Kerkhof that nearly one half of all LGBTI young and Bille-Brahe (2006) note that “[w]hat is people surveyed (42.7%) were at high risk of intended by a suicidal act remains in the suicide compared to 23.7% of those who mind of the individual. If the act has a fatal identified as heterosexual (Reachout, 2017). outcome, then we are left to infer what was Other groups in the community who intended, unless a suicide note is found” (p. are at risk of suicide include young people 10). Following a suicide, there can be with mental health problems and mental questions raised about whether the person illness. A study in Adelaide in 1994 found was feeling suicidal but wanted to be found that mood disorders and depressive illness in before they died or whether the person young people in particular are a significant actually intended to die at all but died risk factor (Kosky & Goldney, 1994). In a accidentally. Conversely, when people die of Queensland study, more than half of the apparent accidental causes there may be young people who die by suicide were questions about whether there was actually clinically depressed (Cantor, 1994). an intention to die. This question of intention Unemployment and social is open to interpretation and lacks scientific disadvantage particularly affect young men, method as those who are investigating the with high rates for death by suicide occurring cause of death may rely upon a post-death during periods of economic downturn, for psychological autopsy where interviews with example in 1912, 1930, 1962 and 1987 people known to the person and other (Morrell et al., 1994). information are gathered and analysed. It is important to note that while the While this data may explain certain factors, ABS reports annually on those deaths there still remains an element of the identified through coronial processes as due unknown in relation to intent (De Leo et al., to suicide, there is no Australian-wide data 2006). available in relation to suicide attempts, Contemporary ideas around suicide although hospital attendances provide one prevention often draw upon a risk and source. This source is limited as not all protective factors framework including a people who attempt suicide attend hospital or wide range of factors that influence seek medical or psychological support. suicidality, with risk factors increasing the Understanding Suicide likelihood of suicidal behaviour and Defining suicide in a way which takes protective factors improving a person’s into account the complexity of the ability to cope with difficult circumstances phenomenon, yet is simple enough to (Department of Health and Ageing, 2008). A incorporate the key elements, has proved number of theories draw upon this challenging for both researchers and framework. For example, risk factors have practitioners. Mayo (1992) provided a simple been described in explanatory models of definition that “to commit suicide is to end suicide, such as the stress-diathesis model one’s own life intentionally” (p.88). He (Hawton & Van Heeringen, 2009). The stress acknowledged that, on first glance, this -diathesis model of suicidal behaviour is definition may appear uncontroversial, based on the recognition that stressful life however it is more complex. Suicide occurs events can trigger suicidal behaviour. It is within a context of social and cultural factors also noted that many people experience
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stress and negative life events but these do behaviours occur, as they occur or after they not always lead to suicidal behaviour, even occur. In addition, the activities can be when extreme stress is present. The stress- targeted at the universal level for the whole diathesis model therefore considers the population without any prior screening for development of suicidal behaviour involving suicide risk, targeted to those most a vulnerability or diathesis as a distal risk considered to be at risk (targeted/selected factor predisposing an individual to such approaches), or indicated, which involves behaviour when stress is encountered. The identification and treatment of those model is useful in the identification of individuals who exhibit early signs of suicide risk and preventing suicidal suicidal behaviour (Mrazek & Haggerty, behaviour, but further research is still 1994; Hadlaczky, Wasserman, Hoven, required to gain a better understanding of Mandell & Wasserman, 2011). how the stress and diathesis components The aim of primary suicide prevention relate to each other (Van Heeringen, 2012). is to prevent suicidal behaviour occurring. It Suicide Prevention therefore consists of “activities intended to Efforts to prevent suicide have been in discourage or interfere with completion of place for several decades, yet, as is evident suicides before the onset of suicidal from annual statistics, death by suicide behaviour is noted” (Hadlaczky et al., 2011, continues to occur. While the rates of suicide p. 47). Caine (2013) suggested that, as most in some groups in Australia have decreased deaths from suicide arise from the general since 1997, rates of suicide remain high in public, messages in the public arena which some communities – notably Indigenous target all community members are required, communities. Some researchers have become rather than interventions which target only critical of the efforts made to prevent suicide those who are known to be at high risk of as not being serious enough. Caine (2013), suicide. for example, argued that programs to prevent In recent years, the context in which suicide need to: suicide prevention occurs has been …deal with the fundamental recognised as crucial in that prevention factors that precede becoming activities need to be tailored in ways that suicidal – such as family turmoil, respect and acknowledge cultural factors. In early life abuse, alcohol and Australia, the disproportionately high rate of substance misuse, partner violence, suicides amongst Aboriginal and Torres employment adversity, and Strait Islander people has been recognized as encroaching medical comorbidities needing a tailored approach led by associated with poorly treated pain Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and functional decline. We must communities to understand the mental health pay as much attention to context as needs of communities and develop ways of we do to person. Put another way, preventing suicide. As indicated above, we must reduce the prevalence of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders adversities that drive human continue to be over-represented in suicide vulnerabilities toward distress and deaths compared to the non-Indigenous disease; at the same time we must population. Clifford, Doran and Tsey (2013), strengthen community support and in a review of suicide prevention increase people’s willingness to interventions targeting Indigenous peoples in accept help (p. 824). Australia, United States, Canada and New Consistent with community Zealand, suggested that tailoring best psychology approaches, prevention models evidence and culturally-specific individual in public health approaches to suicide strategies into a coherent suicide prevention prevention can be described as primary, program for delivery to whole Indigenous secondary and tertiary, depending upon communities and/or population groups at whether activities are targeted before suicidal high risk of suicide offers considerable
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promise. The authors argued that better ways national framework for Australian to evaluate and monitor the interventions are communities and more specifically for required to bring about improved Indigenous communities. This could be a understandings of what will in fact be most significant step in identifying concerns about effective in addressing this urgent issue suicide as well making an explicit link (Clifford et al., 2013). between mental health and suicide. A series Current Policy Directions of consultations were undertaken in early Efforts to reduce suicide have been in 2017 by the National Coalition for Suicide place for several decades in Australia. The Prevention, convened by Suicide Prevention initial focus on suicide prevention was on Australia, to discuss the 2025 framework for young people because the available evidence suicide prevention. The consultation since 1982 indicated that the suicide rate for identified the following key messages as men aged 15-24 years had been higher than instrumental in the design of improved the average suicide rate for men of all ages approaches to suicide prevention: (Commonwealth Department of Health and 1. A whole system approach to suicide Human Services, 1997). prevention In recent years there has been a 2. A properly resourced and funded significant move towards addressing suicide suicide prevention system prevention across all Australian communities 3. A whole of community support and with more consultation, growing the engagement model evidence-base and building suicide 4. A ‘person centric’ and integrated prevention into strategic policies. The approach in service delivery Australian National Suicide Prevention 5. High quality services through standards Strategy was initially developed in 2000 and and the regulatory framework was later supported by the national 6. A robust “knowledge to practice” framework document titled Living is for system Everyone (LIFE) Framework for Prevention 7. Research to have heavy focus on what of Suicide and Self-Harm in Australia works (2008). This Framework provides The focus on whole system approaches information, resource materials and strategies is consistent with the most recent approach that support population health approaches of the World Health Organisation Suicide and suicide prevention activities which are Prevention framework (2014), which expected to contribute to a reduction in identifies risk factors and accompanying suicide and suicide attempts. The Framework interventions across multiple levels – health acknowledges the requirement for “a number systems, society, community, relationships of interlinked and coordinated strategies that and individuals. This approach also reflects a reflect Universal, Selective and Indicated community psychology way of thinking approaches” (2008, p. 22). The Framework is about individuals within communities and now being updated to develop a systems- systems and the need to respond to complex based regional approach to suicide issues in systemic ways. prevention. Primary Health Networks The Role of the Media in Suicide (PHNs), local hospital networks and local The impact of the media on suicidal organisations will be able to access flexible behaviour was first noted in the late 18th funding to enable appropriate programs to be century following the publication of set up to address suicide prevention issues in Goethe’s “The Sorrow of Young Werther”. each community (Australian Government, In this text the hero killed himself after 2016). falling in love with a woman who was out of The Fifth National Mental Health Plan his reach. Following a spate of suicides released late in 2017 is now incorporating across Europe after its release, the novel was suicide prevention as a priority via the Fifth implicated as many of those who died were Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Plan, a dressed in a similar fashion to Werther,
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adopted his method or were found with a for reporters (such as limiting the amount of copy of the book. The book was coverage, avoiding sensationalising in consequently banned in several European covering the story, and not including detailed countries (World Health Organization, information about the method of suicide) 2008). have been developed as a universal primary During the last four decades, scientific prevention intervention. Stack (2003) investigations have been undertaken to outlined two key questions that need to be further explore the concern that widespread considered in this area: under what coverage of a suicide in the media triggers conditions, if any, can suicide professionals copycat (or imitation) suicides in the mass influence the way in which suicide is public. For example, an increase in suicide reported and which aspects of reporting, if deaths of 12% was reported following the any, make a difference in generating copycat death of movie star Marilyn Monroe (Stack, effects? He found that efforts in Austria and 2003). Despite this kind of reported increase, Switzerland to change the quantity and/or research results have been inconsistent in quality of news reporting on suicide did suggesting the degree of impact the reporting appear to contribute to a reduction in suicide of a suicide might have. Generally, social (Stack, 2003). learning theory has been used to explain how Since Stack’s review, much work has this works. According to this theory, one been undertaken within Australia and learns that there are troubled people who internationally to work with reporters in solve their life’s problems through suicide, promoting better understanding about the and that they may have copied this behaviour ways in which the media influences the risk after hearing about it. A more sophisticated of copycat suicides, and in creating a range aspect of the theory suggests that people of resources to support the media in taking identify with the person they heard about and responsibility for this risk. As part of its this in turn increases their own risk of Action Area to improve community strength, suicide. A further version of this theory resilience and capacity in suicide prevention, suggests that hearing stories when societal the Australian Government’s LIFE suicidogenic conditions are high (e.g. Framework (2008) included a strategy to unemployment, divorce rates) will have more “work with the mainstream and multilingual of a copycat effect (Stack, 2003). media to improve community knowledge and Stack’s 2003 review of 42 scientific understanding of suicide and suicide articles found that there are particular aspects prevention and encourage responsible of media coverage which increase the coverage of these issues” (p. 30). likelihood of copycat suicidal behaviour. The World Health Organization Celebrity suicides or deaths by suicide of (WHO) (2014) highlighted the increasing well-known people were 14.3 times more concerns about the supplementary role that likely to uncover a copycat effect than the internet and social media are playing in studies about less well-known people. The suicide communications, stating that there meta-analysis also found that studies based are sites which inappropriately portray on real suicide stories are 4.03 times more suicide, with some implicated in inciting and likely to report copycat effects than studies facilitating suicidal behaviour. Uncensored based on fictional studies. The study also suicidal acts and information can easily be found that research based on televised stories posted on internet and social media sites. was 82% less likely to report a copycat effect Despite these concerns, WHO outlines the than research based on newspaper stories. It potential role that the internet and social is important to note that Stack’s review was media can play as a universal suicide undertaken prior to the advent of online prevention strategy. By promoting mental media usage, or on demand television or health, they can assist in promoting health- movie viewing. seeking behaviours. Examples include online It is within this context that guidelines chats by people experiencing suicidal
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ideation with professionals, self-help Torres Strait Islander Australians are affected programs and online therapy. To date, by reports of people who have died by however, WHO reports little evidence of the suicide whether or not the person who died effectiveness of the internet and the role of was Indigenous, especially if they identify social media in preventing suicides. with them in some way. Identification with a The World Health Organization (2000, person in a media report is seen as a risk 2008, 2014) lists a range of ways that factor for copycat suicide, especially among responsible reporting should occur, including young men and boys; and in many avoiding sensationalism, using responsible communities mentioning or using the name language, avoiding oversimplifications and of a person who has passed away can cause providing information on where to seek help. great distress, as can showing their image Further, the Hunter Institute of Mental through visual media (Hunter Institute of Health (2014) outlines characteristics of Mental Health, 2014). reporting associated with decreased risk of Understanding Suicide and its suicidal behaviour as follows: portrayal that Causes – Historical and Contemporary positions suicide as a tragic waste and an Theories avoidable loss and focuses on the devastating Durkheim’s Sociological Theory effects on others; not reporting method or Sociological theories for understanding location; and reports about overcoming suicidal behaviour first began with the work suicidal thinking. of French social philosopher/sociologist MindFrame, an Australian media Emile Durkheim in the late 19th century. initiative, was developed to provide a Durkheim defined suicide as an act comprehensive approach using active undertaken by the subject to achieve death dissemination strategies including resources which may be direct or indirect, active or and capacity building for groups working passive. In his view it seemed that the most with media. This initiative “advocates not for important element of agency in relation to the avoidance of suicide coverage in the suicidal acts is the responsibility for the media, but rather attention to ensuring outcome, not the performance of the accuracy and examining the framing of such behaviour, concluding that suicide should be reports” (Skehan, Maple, Fisher & Sharrock, defined as an act that is self-initiated (De Leo 2013, p. 224). The authors note that there et al., 2006). However, Durkheim began to have been some indications from media explore suicide as a social act impacted by monitoring studies of a significant social structures and social forces. He began improvement in the quality of media reports to explore possible imbalances between about suicide. They also noted that there are centrifrugal forces (too much individualism a number of gaps remaining in the research within a society) and centripetal forces (too and in program responses. The complexity of much social pressure) (Thompson, 2003). suicidal behaviour, particularly the specific Accordingly, Durkheim hypothesized that responses of different audiences to “suicide varies inversely with the degree of presentations about suicide, is an area social integration of the social group of requiring further research. They explored one which the individual forms a part” (Maris, such group as those bereaved by suicide, Berman, Silverman & Bongar, 2000, p.44). noting that they have described the actions of According to this model, when people are the media as often exacerbating their distress socially involved they are protected against throughout the coronial process. suicide. When people become disconnected Another group of particular concern from their social networks both integrative noted by the Hunter Institute of Mental and regulative social supports are reduced Health is Aboriginal and Torres Strait and accordingly suicide rates are likely to Islander Australians. In a consultation increase. conducted under their MindFrame initiative Durkheim’s major contribution to the study in 2004 they found that Aboriginal and of suicide has been considered to be his “…
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carefully argued rejection of psychological, the risk and protective factors prior to geographical, sexual and similar approaches suicidal intention forming as well as enabling to an understanding of suicide. Instead he mediating factors to come into play to placed an overriding emphasis on social prevent a suicidal act occurring. It has a characteristics” (Pickering & Walford, 2000, particular focus on suicide as a “behavior or p. 4). Durkheim’s efforts in shifting the focus an action, [which] should be conceptualized to sociological factors and particularly the as such” (2011b, p. 185). paradigm of integration versus regulation has The model drew upon three previous been credited as beginning a focus on an frameworks (O’Connor, 2011a). The first epidemiological approach which continues framework, the Theory of Planned (Van Hoof, 2000). Others critique the Behaviour, is a social cognitive model of Durkheim model as being too simplistic and behaviour developed by Ajzen in 1991 useless in predicting suicide, suggesting that (O’Connor, 2011b). This model identifies the a model of suicide should have more behavioural intention as a proximal predictor variables, including psychological, biological of any behaviour. The intention is thought to and temporal variables as well as the social be determined by a range of attitudes, variables, all of which interact with each subjective norms and perceived behavioural other (Maris et al., 2000). control. Attitudes are described as positive or Shneidman’s psychache negative evaluations of the behaviour and Shneidman (1993) coined the term subjective norms represent the social “psychache” as the cause of suicide. He pressure to engage (or not) in a behaviour. described psychache as “the hurt, anguish, When perceived control is high it can soreness, aching, psychological pain in the directly relate to behavioural enaction. psyche, the mind. It is intrinsically O’Connor (2011b) stressed that through psychological – the pain of excessively felt focusing on the behaviour associated with shame, or guilt, or humiliation, or loneliness, suicide, rather than “merely seeing it as an or fear, or angst, or dread of growing old or epiphenomenen of mental disorder … a of dying badly, or whatever” (p. 145). He number of theoretical and prevention stated that suicide occurred when the possibilities which may yield considerable psychache became unbearable for the fruit” are opened up (p. 186). individual, noting that there were different The second theory O’Connor (2011a) individual thresholds for enduring draws upon is the diathesis-stress hypothesis psychological pain and a range of highlighting the key role of vulnerability psychological needs which could be blocked factors which become most damaging when and lead to psychache. activated by stress. These diatheses, together O’Connor’s Integrated Motivational – with environmental influences and negative Volitional Model of Suicidal Behaviour life events, are related to the pre-motivational A model that incorporates social phase of the IMV Model as they set the factors along with other factors is the biosocial context in which suicidal ideation Integrated Motivational-Volitional (IMV) and/or behaviour may develop. The third Model developed by O’Connor (2011a). This theory O’Connor (2011a) draws upon is the model incorporates a range of previous flight model of suicidal behaviour which theories in an attempt to recognize the “informs the central pathway within the complexities associated with suicidal Model, describing the development of intentions and behaviour. O’Connor suicidal ideation (i.e. motivational phase) and described his model as a “… tripartite model behavior (i.e. volitional phase)” (p.297). He [which] maps the relationship between describes the flight model as focusing on background factors and trigger events, and situations of arrested flight whereby people the development of suicidal ideation/intent feel defeated or trapped as the setting through to suicidal behavior” (2011b, p. conditions for suicidal behaviour, which can 181). The model therefore aims to identify arise out of actual traumatic experiences,
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such as sexual abuse, or from perceptions of IPTS is based on the assumption that one’s life experiences, such as feeling like a people die by suicide both because they can failure. The IMV Model, O’Connor argues, and they want to. Thwarted belongingness is extends the flight theory model by specifying related to social isolation, which is one of the the moderating factors which account for the strongest and most reliable predictors of transition between defeat and entrapment suicidal attempts and lethal suicidal from entrapment to suicidal ideation and behaviour across the lifespan. When the need from ideation to behaviour. to belong is unmet, referred to in the theory It could be argued that O’Connor’s as thwarted belongingness, a desire for death IMV model builds upon the ideas of the develops. In this way the theory has links to original sociological theory developed by Durkheim’s theory related to social Durkheim over 100 years earlier as it integration although it highlights the need to recognizes social factors as playing a role in belong as the specific interpersonal need the overall suicide planning and action involved in the desire for suicide. It also phases. O’Connor’s efforts to determine the recognizes that thwarted belonging is a pathway between suicidal thoughts and multidimensional construct, including the behaviour overcome some of the criticisms need for positive interactions with the same aimed at Durkheim that his theory did not go individuals over the long-term and far enough in explaining why suicide might reciprocally-caring relationships (Van Orden happen and predicting when it is most likely et al., 2010). to happen. Leenaars’ model Joiner’s Interpersonal-Psychological Theory In developing approaches to manage of Suicide (IPTS) suicidal behaviour, underlying The Interpersonal-Psychological understandings of suicidal behaviour need to Theory of Suicide (IPTS) focuses more on be taken into account. This provides the the factors which lead to suicide ideation, framework in which management strategies and proposes that suicide ideation occurs due can be developed, particularly in relation to to the interaction of perceived burdensome particular risk and protective factors which and thwarted belongingness, in which each may be impacting on the client. According to predictor amplifies the harm of the other Leenaars (2011), suicide can be clinically (Cero, Zuromski, Witte, Ribeiro, & Joiner, understood from at least two patterns, 2015). Further, the model proposes that intrapsychic and interpersonal, within the “suicidal behavior is so frightening that in context of a larger multidimensional order for an individual to engage in suicidal perspective. He described the intrapsychic behavior, desire for suicide must be clusters as including unbearable accompanied by the capability to do psychological pain, cognitive constriction, so” (Ribeiro et al., 2014, p.544). According indirect expressions (e.g., ambivalence, to the theory, the desire to die by suicide is unconscious processes), inability to adjust not sufficient for lethal behaviour to occur. (or psychopathology) and (vulnerable) ego. This is because individuals must lose some Interpersonal clusters include disturbed of the fear associated with suicide before interpersonal relations, rejection aggression death by suicide can occur. The authors and identification egression (or escape) speculate that this may be related to the (Leenaars, 2011). From this basis, he stressed adaptive value of fear related to the the importance of not losing sight of the evolutionary survival instinct. The theory person and recommended using a person- suggests that it is possible to acquire the centred approach to working with clients capability for suicide through habituation and who are suicidal. He stated that “it is the activation of opponent processes, which may relationship that lies at the heart of successful relate to lowered fear of death and increased intervention with suicidal behaviour… physical pain tolerance (Van Orden et al., Suicidal people need a human exchange” (p. 2010). 238). He affirmed that this is evidence-based
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practice as it is consistent with the common From a Community Psychology elements of effective therapy relationships: perspective, culture is an important and therapeutic alliance (or rapport), therapist necessary consideration in understanding empathy, and patient-therapist goal individuals within the context of their family consensus and collaboration (Leenaars, and community. Research which explores 2011). suicidal behaviour in various countries and Leenaars (2011) noted that some across cultures highlights that suicidal clients who are suicidal can be difficult to behaviour is “differently determined and has treat and in such a case suggested that a different meanings in different multimodal approach is taken. This means, in cultures” (Lester, 2008, p. 53). Lester (2008) addition to more traditional approaches such explored a number of theories which relate to as psychotherapy, medication, hospitalisation the way in which culture may affect and direct environmental control (such as suicidality, including the impact of culture gun control and restriction of access to conflict, where pressures to acculturate lead medications), active outreach and community to stress. While he noted that culture conflict supports such as help lines and support from is not typically listed as a precipitating cause family, friends and other health professionals of suicide per se, the level of stress it creates may be required. This requires may be a factor in suicide of members of the communication, collaboration and less dominant culture. He noted the cultural coordination in order to be effective influence on methods used for suicide and (Leenaars, 2011). It is within this context that the reasons for doing so. Lester also noted responses to suicide can be explored in ways that cultural heterogeneity within cultural that take into account the meaning of suicide groups means that “it cannot be assumed that for the client and underlying factors that play suicides from the different cultural groups a role in the client’s life at any given point in are similar in rate, method, motive and time. Building in social connections as part precipitating factors” (2008, p.64). of a management plan draws upon protective The role of cultural factors in factors to complement the strategies understanding suicidal behaviours is critical developed to manage the risk factors. but has not been integrated into suicidology In line with the views of Leenaars and in fact may not be highly regarded by (2011), Maltsberger (2001) and Wasserman some researchers, according to De Leo et al. (2012) also stressed the importance of a (2009). As the sociocultural context is the therapeutic relationship in managing suicidal “fundament of people’s lives”, it inevitably behaviours. Maltsberger (2001) stated that a means that is also plays a crucial role in successful alliance is built upon the suicide, according to Hjelmeland (2010, therapist’s devotion to the patient’s growth p.34). Hjelmeland states that while it should and development of attributes necessary for be self-evident that suicidology research successful autonomous adult functioning. should consider cultural factors, this is not This includes emotional containment and the case, and cites a number of conceptual, support, assistance in modulating painful theoretical, methodological, ethical and affect, validation, education, help with reality political challenges which prevent it being tests and limit setting. Wasserman et al. incorporated into research models. Perhaps (2012) stated that a secure relationship with most important however, according to the clinician is crucial: “such a relationship Hjelmeland (2011), could be the should minimally be safe with regard to “biologification” of suicidology. Further, shame, which means that in the therapeutic defining culture itself is complex with more interaction, suicidal patients should feel free than 150 definitions in existence, some of to be themselves and experience being which define practices, meanings and accepted as they are” (p. 138). meaning-making. Some definitions refer to Considerations Relating to the Impact of people belonging to a culture while others Culture on Suicide refer to culture belonging to an individual
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person. To further complicate the ignored, stating that this focus is relatively understanding of the term, some definitions new, despite the classic sociological work of also refer to culture belonging to the Durkheim. The authors explore two aspects interrelation between the individual and the of culture, survivalism and self- environment. Therefore, culture can be expressionism, and suicide acceptability. defined as a process of interaction between a Building on the work of Durkheim, they person and his or her surroundings, or as the theorise that societies high in self- dynamics that arise in the interaction expressionism or tolerance would be between the person and their environment. It expected to be relatively accepting of suicide can therefore be seen as a causal or (Stack & Kposowa, 2016). Their research explanatory variable in understanding found that, controlling for factors such as differences in behaviours between countries religious, marital and family integration, self- or regions, although it cannot be a expressionism remained a major predictor of measurable variable and operationalised in suicide acceptability. They also suggested research projects (Hjelmeland, 2010). that shifts in culture from survivalist values Similarly, Kral (2015) argued that a to self-expressionist values has implications theory of suicide which studies cultural for suicide prevention, in that this shift may contexts and systems of meaning in suicide is define suicide as more acceptable. The currently missing. Kral attributes this gap to authors cite the United States as a relatively the way that “[s]uicidology has long been high survivalist cultural system compared to medicalized with suicide viewed as a Europe. They argued that the US has a symptom of mental illness or perhaps a relatively low suicide rate compared with mental disorder in itself” (p. NP14). This Europe, despite very high gun ownership, view is also shared by Joe, Canetto and which provide a lethal means for suicide Romer (2008), who argue that research is (Stack & Kposowa, 2016). needed to understand the phenomenology of When considering interventions and suicidal behaviours among ethnic minority treatment, Joe et al., (2008) state that culture populations. This includes research on “the powerfully shapes and constrains people as it presentation of ethnic minority suicidal “is a product of people living together and behaviour, meanings of suicidal behaviour in creating traditions, norms, and values that different cultural groups, risk factors for manifest as a pattern in a specific group of suicidal behaviours and their correlates, and people” (p. 359). This means that prevention mechanisms that may serve to deter efforts need to take into account the suicidality” (p. 357). Whilst the authors relevance of cultural values, customs, and acknowledge that the known suicide risk strengths within specific domains such as factors may also apply to particular ethnic work, schools, relationships and therapy. groups, these need to be checked through This is particularly the case as historically, research and whether the presentation of factors such as social support and spirituality suicidal behaviour may be similar or as culturally relevant factors in people’s different. Through such research, more coping abilities have been largely ignored refined understandings of risk and protective (Joe et al., 2008). factors that can target preventative actions It is now well recognized that can then be developed. They also warn Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander against the risk of over-attributions to culture concepts of health are best understood within in the case of ethnic minorities and a context of social, emotional and cultural conversely, an invisibility of the dominant wellbeing of the whole community and that culture which can underestimate the effect of responses to support the health of Indigenous culture (Joe, Canetto & Romer, 2008). people need to address the social and Stack and Kposowa (2016) also economic disadvantages that contribute to supported the view that research on the links their poor health status (Vos, Barker, Begg, between culture and suicide has been Stanley & Lopez, 2008). This is highlighted
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in the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Milroy, 2006). Hunter and Milroy regard the Islander Suicide Prevention Strategy (2013) social and historical context in which which states that: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander suicide [l]and is central to wellbeing and occurs as critical in understanding the when the harmony of these increasing rates. They also note that interrelations is disrupted, Australian Indigenous suicide has not only Aboriginal and Torres Strait varied across time, but is also unevenly Islander ill health persists. distributed geographically. They note too Additionally, there is no single that Aboriginal and Torres Strait [the] development of political Islander culture or group, but understandings of hanging fore- numerous groupings, languages, grounded the effects of kinships and tribes, as well as colonisation and oppression, thus ways of living (p. 13). contributing to the contemporary Hunter and Milroy (2006) outline a ‘meaningfulness’ of hanging by number of social forces impacting on young young Indigenous people whose Indigenous males in particular, including manifest disadvantage by traditional sacred and economic roles comparison to the wider society is diminishing, differentially blocked access to often experienced as oppression mainstream ideals for Aboriginal men and discrimination (p. 144). compared to women, and economic With increased rates of suicide comes a disempowerment, all leading to changing parallel increase in exposure to suicide, and structures and roles within Indigenous this is recognized by Hunter and Milroy families with consequences for the (2006) as further risk factors, citing child construction of young male identity. They deaths by hanging occurring within a context argue that factors form part of a of direct or indirect experience of suicide or complex interplay of historical, suicidal behaviour, and noting that these political, social, circumstantial, children “belong to the first generation psychological, and biological whose early development has included factors that have already disrupted exposure to the threat or act of self- sacred and cultural continuity; annihilation” (p. 145). disconnecting the individual from The National Aboriginal and Torres the earth, the universe and the Strait Islander Suicide Prevention Strategy spiritual realm – disconnecting the states that: individual from the life-affirming [h]igh rates of suicide among stories that are central to cultural Aboriginal and Torres Strait resilience and continuity (p. 150). Islander peoples are commonly Hunter and Milroy (2006) further attributed to a complex set of explain how this interplay can impact on the factors which not only includes development of children and family disadvantage and risk factors functioning, which in turn can lead to the risk shared by the non-Indigenous of suicide as “not the ultimate expression of population, but also a broader set control over one’s body, but the embodiment of social, economic and historic of social and painful disconnection from determinations that impact on others… [which] can only be described as Aboriginal social and emotional intragenerational trauma” (p. 149). wellbeing and mental health It is significant to note that Aboriginal (Department of Health and and Torres Strait Islander suicide rates were Ageing, 2013, p.13). very low until the 1980s, from which time Further, the Strategy outlines the rates have increased to being higher than community development approaches, with non-Indigenous population rates (Hunter & the understanding of community as related to
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culture for Aboriginal and Torres Strait and emotional wellbeing concepts was used Islanders, with many shared elements of to support each community to target culture as well as cultural and linguistic community-identified protective factors and diversity between and within communities strategies to strengthen individual, family identifying as Aboriginal and Torres Strait and community social and emotional Islander. This diversity may have a range of wellbeing. The authors stated that implications for Aboriginal and Torres Strait strengthening the role of culture was critical Islanders in terms of support and engagement to this approach and differentiated it from by services and recognition by elders. In non-Indigenous mental health promotion and addition, “[t]he place of sports, the arts, prevention activities, including suicide including music, painting and dance in prevention. They argued that the Project resilience promotion and in encouragement offers a framework which could be used by of healthy cultural affirmation of identity are policymakers to develop and strengthen relevant here” (Department of Health and culture and connectedness and also foster Ageing, 2013, p. 19). self-determination (Cox et al., 2014). In terms of specific responses to Lived Experience suicide, the Strategy outlines how action Recent efforts to understand and needs to be taken at a number of levels, develop more successful approaches to commencing with mobilisation of suicide prevention have included lived community understandings about suicide, experiences of people who attempted suicide establishing community infrastructure to and did not die or people who were close to a support suicide prevention, planning and person who died by suicide. These people development of community-based suicide have an insight that is now considered prevention plans, and the implementation of valuable in enhancing and deepening our good-practice strategies. This approach is understandings and increasingly is built into particularly important in those communities planning of programs. In 2006 David Webb where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders completed the world’s first Ph.D. on suicide have a high rate of suicide and self-harm, by someone who had attempted it. In an sometimes in clusters (Department of Health interview following the release of his book, and Ageing, 2013). Webb spoke of the tokenistic nature of There are increasing calls for hearing from people with lived experience approaches and methodologically rigorous and advocated that “any efforts to prevent research study designs which ensure that the suicide must begin with an understanding of perspective of Indigenous peoples are what suicidal feelings mean to those who live included so that interventions and data are them. And for this, we need to hear directly accurate and reflect Indigenous cultural from suicidal people themselves” (cited in definitions of health and wellbeing (Clifford Sheean, 2010, p. 28). Webb further argued et al., 2013). One example of a project which that the: utilised participatory action research to critical change needed to make any prevent suicide in Aboriginal and Torres progress with suicide prevention is Strait Islander communities is the National a change in community attitudes Empowerment Project (Cox et al., 2014). towards suicide. This requires a This Project aimed to (a) promote positive broad and ongoing community social and emotional wellbeing to increase conversation. This conversation is resilience and reduce the high reported rates required to break the toxic silence of psychological distress and suicide among around suicide, and to move away Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from shaming suicidal feelings to and (b) empower communities to take action respecting them. It is also to address the social determinants that important to expose the many contribute to psychological distress, suicide myths, especially the medical and self-harm. A framework built on social myths, which sustain the fear,
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ignorance and prejudices around inequalities, racism and discrimination which suicide. A ‘whole of community’ may be at play in relation to factors that conversation is required because it increase risk of suicide. is clear that this conversation Community psychology views cannot be left solely to the individuals’ experiences as shaped by how professional experts (in Sheean, and where they are situated within their 2010, p. 31). social world (e.g., sociodemographic group Suicide Prevention Australia (2016) member, cultural and economic has built lived experience into its model of circumstances, historical forces, as well as suicide prevention activities in recent years, daily roles and settings) (Bond et al., 2017). developing a Lived Experience Speakers’ These values and ways of seeing are Bureau to raise awareness, provide increasingly becoming more evident in information and encourage help-seeking. mainstream approaches, such as including How Can a Community Psychology Lens the voices of people with lived experience, Help to Understand and Respond to meaningful consultation and engagement of Suicide? community members in planning suicide It is clear that many of the historical prevention programs and interventions. It can and contemporary approaches to suicide be an ongoing challenge when attempting to prevention draw upon models and understand suicide to focus on strengths understandings which are consistent with the rather than deficits, particularly when the principles of community psychology. The outcome is about death. However, efforts to value of prevention for example has been identify when suicide has been successfully highlighted by community psychologists as a prevented and highlighting the capacities of necessary way to reduce the likelihood of community and regional areas where suicide mental health problems through recognising rates are low may be ways that can be human needs prior to problems arising. incorporated into future research in this area. Similarly, recognising social determinants of Concepts of prevention and promotion health, the role of social connections and the are “inextricably woven into the history of value of strengthening communities is core the field of community psychology … and to community psychology practice. continue to be prominent areas of Bond, et al., (2017) identified the core emphasis” (DuBois, 2017). DuBois (2017) values in the recently published Handbook of notes that most of the prevention and Community Psychology as follows: promotion strategies research has been at the social justice and change, individual level, focusing on efforts to taking an ecological multi-level directly change the skills, attitudes or perspective, behaviours of members of the target appreciating diversity and population, although “a growing number of empowering the oppressed. interventions have begun to incorporate It will be clear that these values are strategies aimed at modifying potentially consistent with the considerations outlined influential characteristics of the relatively above in understanding suicide, particularly immediate or proximal life contexts of in relation to the need for multi-level participants in program (e.g. their families, perspectives and responses, and the need to schools or neighbourhoods)” (2017, p. 239). develop approaches that promote The author argues that there is a notable lack empowerment and participation. For of research focused on “broader, systems- example, the over-representation of level and structural approaches to change Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander that is, factors that operate primarily at the children, young people and adults in deaths level of what Bronfenbrenner (1977) referred by suicide has led to questions in relation to to as the macrosystem in his influential social equity and the need for social justice in ecological model” (p. 239). This focus on policies, practices and programs to reduce “upstream” influences on health and
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wellbeing has been a longstanding feature of factors in Indigenous suicidality. community psychology. Models of suicide Community psychology aims to bring prevention, such as those adopted by the voice to the experiences of those groups and WHO, are increasingly taking these factors individuals whose voices are not typically into account. heard – or heard loudly enough. These are Other approaches which are consistent the groups that are over-represented in with a community psychology approach suicide deaths (or not recorded in statistics). include: Recognising the expertise of those who have Community-driven approaches to lived experience is also a strongly held value intervention development and testing; and increasingly the voices of people with Strategies for facilitating efficient and suicide-related experience are now typically effective scale-up of interventions; and heard and incorporated into community Increased attention to systems and psychology approaches. community-level change efforts. Suicide policy directions at any one (DuBois, 2017). time reflect the available theories about why Such approaches are considered important in suicide occurs. This paper highlights some future planning and design of suicide ways in which community psychology prevention programs, particularly with new principles can be applied to suicidology, and approaches currently being developed calls for action by community psychologists through regional and place-based and policy and program developers to further partnerships in Australia. enhance understandings based on the Conclusion culturally situated lived experience of those Primary prevention models of suicide most affected and on principles of social prevention are proving to be important in the justice and empowerment. global battle to reduce death by suicide. Comprehensive and multilevel approaches References which take into account local and cultural Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017). factors show signs of promise. One such Causes of Death, Australia, 2016. primary universal approach involves Australian Government National Suicide ensuring the responsible use of media, Prevention Strategy. Downloaded from including online forms. Increasingly, it is health.gov.au. 1 Jan 2018 . recognised that there are various ways that Bond, M.A., Serrano-Garcia, I., & Keys, the media can support prevention efforts, C.B. (2017). Community psychology for including raising awareness of suicide, the 21st century. In M.A. Bond, I. Serrano promoting help seeking for vulnerable people -Garcia & C.B. Keys (Eds.), APA as well as reducing the possibility of Handbook of community psychology: vol. contagion after suicide occurs. Evaluations 1: Theoretical foundations, core which take into account the various groups in concepts, and emerging challenges. the community and new and emerging modes American Psychological Association. of communication will assist in ascertaining Caine, E.D. (2013). Forging an agenda for whether current efforts to promote suicide prevention in the United States. responsible reporting are in fact effective. American Journal of Public Health, 103 It is evident from research particularly (5). during the last decade that the role of culture Cantor, C. H. (1994). Suicide prevention and cannot be ignored when exploring risk and schools. Connections, 37, 9-11. protective factors related to suicide in Cero, I., Zuromski, K.L., Witte, T.K., Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ribeiro, J.D. & Joiner, T.E. (2015). populations. While cultural meanings may Perceived burdensomeness, thwarted vary between communities, it would appear belongingness, and suicide ideation: Re- clear that experiences of systemic racism and examination of the Interpersonal- disconnection from culture are significant Psychological Theory in two samples.
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Psychiatry Research, 228(3), 544-550. Clifford, A.C., Doran, C.M., & Tsey, K. Hadlaczky, G., Wasserman, D., Hoven, (2013). A systematic review of suicide C.W., Mandell, D.J., & Wasserman, C. prevention interventions targeting (2011). Suicide prevention strategies: Indigenous peoples in Australia, United Case studies from across the globe. In R. States, Canada and New Zealand. BMC O’Connor, S. Platt, & J. Gordon, Public Health, 13. International Handbook of Suicide Commonwealth of Australia. (1995). Here Prevention: Research, Policy and for life: A national plan for youth in Practice. (1st Ed.). London: John Wiley & distress. Mental Health Branch, Sons Ltd. Commonwealth Department of Human Hawton, K. & Van Heeringen, K. (2009). Services and Health, Canberra. Suicide. The Lancet, 373. Commonwealth Department of Human Hjelmeland, H. (2010). Cultural research in Services and Health, (1997). Youth suicidology: Challenges and suicide in Australia: A background opportunities. Suicidology Online, 1, 34- monograph. 2nd ed., Commonwealth of 52. Australia, Canberra. Hjelmeland, H. (2011). Cultural context is Cox, A., Dudgeon, P., Holland, C., Kelly, K., crucial in suicide research and Scrine, C. & Walker, R. (2014). Using prevention. Crisis, 32(2), 61-64. participatory action research to prevent Hunter, E. & Milroy, H. (2006). Aboriginal suicide in Aboriginal and Torres Strait and Torres Strait Islander suicide in Islander communities. Australian Journal context, Archives of Suicide Research, 10 of Primary Health, 20(4), 345-349. (2), 141-157. De Leo, D. (2009). Cross-cultural research Hunter Institute of Mental Health. (2014). widens suicide prevention horizons. Suicide and mental illness in the media. A Crisis, 30(2), 59-62. MindFrame resource for the mental De Leo, D., Burgis, S., Bertolote, J.M., health and suicide prevention sectors. Kerhof, A.J.F.M., & Bille-Brahe, U. Joe, S., Canetto, S.S., & Romer, D. (2008). (2006). Definitions of Suicidal Advancing prevention research on the Behaviour. Lessons learned from the role of culture in suicide prevention. WHO/EURO Multicentre Study. Crisis, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 27(1) 4-15. 38(3). Department of Health and Ageing (2008). Kosky, R.J & Goldney, R.D., (1994) Youth Living is for everyone (LIFE) framework. suicide: a public health problem. Canberra. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Department of Health and Ageing (2013). Psychiatry, 28, 186-7. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Kral, M.J. (2015). Book review: Culture, Islander suicide prevention strategy. suicide, and the human condition. Canberra: Australian Government Transcultural Psychiatry, 52(6), NP14- Printing Service. NP15. DuBois, D.L. (2017). Prevention and Lester, D. (2008). Suicide and culture. World promotion: Toward an improved Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, framework for research and action. In April, 51-68. M.A. Bond, I. Serrano-Garcia & C.B. Leenaars, A.A. (2011). Psychotherapy with Keys. (Eds.) APA Handbook of suicidal people: Some common Community Psychology: Vol. 1: implications for response. In M. Konrod Theoretical Foundations, Core Concepts, & D. Jobes (Eds.), Building a therapeutic and Emerging Challenges. American alliance with the suicidal patient. Psychological Association. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
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Maltsberger, J.T. (2001). Treating the Ribeiro, J.D., Witte, T.K., Van Orden, K.A., suicidal patient: Basic principles. The Selby, E.A., Gordon, K.H., Bender, T.W., clinical science of suicide prevention. & Joiner, T.E., Jr. (2014). Fearlessness New York: New York Academy of about death: The psychometric properties Sciences. and construct validity of the revision to Maris, R.W., Berman, A.L., Silverman, the Acquired Capability for Suicide Scale. M.M. & Bongar, B.M. (2000). Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 115- Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. 126. New York: Guildford Press. Sheean, L. (2010). Thinking about suicide. Mayo, D.J. (1992). What is being predicted? Contemplating and comprehending the The definition of “suicide” In R.W. urge to die. Psychotherapy in Australia, Maris, Assessment and Prediction of 16(4). Suicide. New York: Guildford Press. Shneidman, E.S. (1993). Suicide as Morrell, S., Taylor, R., Quine, S., Kerr, C. & psychache, Commentary. The Journal of Western J. (1994). A cohort study of Nervous and Mental Disease, 181(3). unemployment as a cause of Skehan, J., Maple, M., Fisher, J. & Sharrock, psychological disturbance in Australian G. (2013). Suicide bereavement and the Youth. Social Science and Medicine, 38 media: A qualitative study. Advances in (11), 1553-64. Mental Health, 11(3), 223-237. Mrazek, P.J., & Haggerty, R.J. (Eds.). Stack, S. (2003). Media coverage as a risk (1994). Committee on Prevention of factor in suicide. Journal of Mental Disorders, Institute of Medicine, Epidemiological Community Health, 57, Reducing risks of mental disorders: 238-204. Frontiers of intervention research. Stack, S. & Kpsowa, A.J. (2016). Culture Washington, DC: National Academy and suicide acceptability: A cross- Press. national, multilevel analysis. The O’Connor, R.C. (2011a). The integrated Sociological Quarter, 57, 282-303. motivational-volitional model of suicidal Suicide Prevention Australia (2016). Your behaviour. Crisis, 32(6): 295-298. guide to Suicide Prevention Australia O’Connor, R.C. (2011b). Towards an Lived Experience Speakers Bureau. integrated motivational-volitional model Thompson, K. (2003). Emile Durkheim. of suicidal behaviour. In R.C. O’Connor, London: Routledge. S. Platt, & J. Gordon (Eds.), International Van Hoof, A.J.L. (2000). A historical Handbook of Suicide Prevention: perspective on suicide. In R.W. Maris, Research, Policy and Practice, 1st Ed., A.L. Berman, M.M. Silverman, & B.M. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Bongar, Comprehensive textbook of Pickering, W.S.F. & Walford, G. (2000). suicidology. New York: Guilford Press. (Eds.) Durkheim’s Suicide: A century of Van Orden, K.A., Witte, T.K., Cukrowicz, research and debate. London: Routledge. K.C., Braithwaite, S., Selby, E.A. & Reachout (2017). Suicide Ideation Joiner, T.E. (2010). The interpersonal Questionnaire (SIQ) analysis across theory of suicide. Psychological Review, sexuality. Accessed 13th October, 2017 117(2), 575-600. from http://about.au.reachout.com/wp- Van Heeringen, K. (2012). Stress-diathesis content/uploads/2017/09/Extract-Data- model of suicidal behaviour. In Y. ReachOut-SIQ.pdf. Dwivedi (Ed.) The Neurobiological Basis of Suicide. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press.
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Vos, T., Barker, B., Begg, S., Stanley, L. & Lopez, A.D. (2008). Burden of disease and injury in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: the Indigenous health gap. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 470-477. Wasserman, D., Rihmer, Z., Rujescu, D., Sarchiapone, M., Sokolowski, M., Titelman, D., Zalsman, Zemishlany, Z., & Carli, V. (2012). The European Psychiatric Association (EPA) guidance on suicide treatment and prevention. European Psychiatry, 27, 129-141. World Health Organization. (2000). Preventing Suicide. A resource for media professionals. Geneva: WHO Press. World Health Organization. (2008). Preventing Suicide. A resource for media professionals. Geneva: WHO Press. World Health Organization. (2014). Preventing suicide. A global imperative. Geneva: WHO Press.
Address for correspondence Dr Lyn O’Grady: [email protected]
Author biography Dr. Lyn O’Grady is a Community Psychologist with a range of professional experience in the community, education and health sectors. She is a registered supervisor of psychology interns. Her most recent work has related particularly to the mental health and wellbeing of children, young people and families. This interest has extended in recent times to understanding suicidality and she has completed a Masters of Suicidology at Griffith University. Lyn has worked with parents in parenting programs, individually at the community level and in schools for over 20 years and managed a number of community-based projects. Lyn also worked as a school psychologist in the Western Metropolitan Region of Melbourne. At a more systemic level, she currently works as the National Project Manager at the Australian Psychological Society.
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Complexities of a Bhutanese school counselling community: A critical narrative insight
Kuenga Dem Independent Researcher Robbie Busch The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle
While school counselling was introduced to the Bhutan school system in recent years due to increased concerns about student wellbeing, there is a significant dearth of research on the influences and experiences of the profession. This is the first documented study on school counselling in Bhutan by an insider, a Bhutanese school guidance counsellor. Using social constructionism and critical theory to inform a narrative inquiry methodology, we story the complexities and struggles of a first generation school counsellor in Bhutan. This study enables voice on explaining counsellors’ multifaceted roles and responsibilities, and on disclosing tensions in the school system. School counsellors are challenged by limited training and professional development, and yet are expected to provide expert-led responsive services. Regarding these challenges, we examine the influence of metanarratives (governing community expectations) on counsellor legitimacy – and uncover counsellor counter-narratives as enactments of voice and resistance. We adapted a semi-structured narrative interview and thematic narrative analysis to facilitate participant reconstructions of events with their experiences. Findings suggest a need for relevant stakeholders within the education system to acknowledge and collectively address the current challenges faced by school counsellors.
Bhutan is a tiny Himalayan Buddhist Ministry of Education (MoE) to develop and kingdom that has faced challenges in societal institutionalise youth guidance and changes to youth wellbeing. Twenty-five counselling services. percent of its 708,000 inhabitants are school School counselling services have been children (National Statistics Bureau, 2011). growing rapidly around the world as a part of Bhutan transitioned from a feudal and Western globalisation and they have been monastic education structure to a modern adapted by Asian countries (Rivera, Nash, capitalist economy and mass education Wah & Ibrahim, 2008). In Asia, education system where English became the medium of officials are now investing in the instruction for primary, secondary and psychosocial wellbeing of both children and tertiary education (Ministry of Education, young adults at all levels within the school 2013). Since Western modernisation, there system (Low, Kok, & Lee, 2013) and Bhutan have been concerns of its greater influence of is no exception. social and economic development on Bhutanese counselling initiatives Bhutanese culture, traditional values and commenced in the late 1990s as a response to belief systems. Youth now have a lifestyle a Royal Decree. School counselling began based on consumerism and Western modern with the Youth Guidance and Counselling values (Mathou, 2000). A rise in self-harm, Section (YGCS) in 1996 under the Ministry suicide, drug abuse, theft and crime rates has of Education (MoE), which expressed the been linked to a shift of values, attitudes and "need for proper youth guidance and expectations that potentially isolate and counselling to impart wholesome education create social disharmony (Wangyal, 2001). to our younger generation" (Ministry of Foreseeing the needs of young people to Education, 2010, p. 10). Since then, the acquire greater skills than before, the Bhutan YGCS has grown into the Department of Government responded by directing their Youth and Sports. Its Career Education and
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Counselling Division (CECD) worked career development. Thus, school towards institutionalising comprehensive and counsellors are caught in a web of these systematic guidance and counselling complex situations. programs, which involved recruitment, As a first generation school counsellor training and placement of a new generation in Bhutan, I (Kuenga) was confronted with of full-time school counsellors in various many challenges in implementing the secondary schools across Bhutan (Ministry guidance and counselling programme in my of Education, 2010). The first twelve full school. Initially, the guidance and time school guidance counsellors were counselling programme was not given much placed in the schools in 2010. They provide importance like other academic and non- counselling services, plan and facilitate academic programs in the school system. guidance curriculum, prevention programs, There was a general lack of understanding and the school parenting educational about the nature of counselling among awareness programs. Systematic guidance principals and teachers, which led to role and counselling services were promoted for confusion. There was no fixed time allocated general wellbeing and academic achievement for the counselling programme during school of all students and to provide equitable hours. I had to manage my time to provide services to all students in their school services to students. This eventually led to communities. Training for school counsellors overwork, working out of school hours to then became more sophisticated with the provide individual and group counselling introduction of the first Postgraduate services, along with teaching guidance and Diploma in Guidance and Counselling in career education and other non-counselling 2011. related activities during school hours. I The National Board of Certified experienced a sense of helplessness, and, in Counsellors (NBCC) U.S., along with the retrospect, burnout. We did not have clinical non-governmental organisation (NGO) called supervision as it is practised in Western Respect, Educate, Nurture and Empower countries, and consequently my limited Women (RENEW), founded in 2004 by her knowledge and skills further added to the Majesty Ashi Sangay Choden Wangchuck, challenges in working with diverse issues offered assistance to develop counselling that were confronting students. These between Bhutan and USA to better experiences motivated me to explore and understand and shape the global emergence understand the complexities of the Bhutanese of the counselling profession (Lorelle & school counselling profession and find ways Guth, 2013). The implementation of these to communicate with various stakeholders, initiatives in Bhutan parallels the influence including the educators, students and and development of Western consumerism families, to understand the realities of the and modern values in the country. 'experts' that have been placed in schools. Study Rationale Hence, the purpose of this study was to Although school counselling has explore these complexities in the school developed globally, understanding the counselling profession and find ways to concept and benefits of counselling has been overcome these intricacies to enhance the a major hurdle for the profession. practices of the profession in Bhutan. The Counselling is constructed as an imported specific aim was to explore and understand, concept from the West by principals, within a critical narrative framework, the teachers and parents. There was resistance to complexities and challenges of the first counselling because they assumed it would generation of school counsellors in Bhutan. influence traditional ways of working with This was to enable an in-depth understanding students. Conversely, there is a strong need of the challenges they face in implementing for an intervention to cater to the needs of the their programmes in schools to inform and rising youth issues, and facilitate better potentially transform the systems that academic performance, adjustment and structure their practice. School counsellors’
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experiences are largely undocumented. If we wellbeing and require school counsellors to consider them as key players in educational play a vital role. reform, it is valuable to hear their voice. This Support from school leaders is likely to is the first study on school counselling in serve as a motivating factor for teachers and Bhutan by an insider and this may open a school counsellors to implement reforms. For dialogue to understand the profession and instance, US teacher counsellors who shed light on future directions. received higher support from school Given the dearth of research on school administration reported a higher quality of counselling in Bhutan, this study documents implementation in contrast to those who had the work of the pioneers in the field. I no support (Ransford, Greenberg, (Kuenga) wanted to live alongside their Domitrovich, Small & Jacobson, 2009). stories and understand their lived Ultimately, effective implementation of experiences, as these people created the school counselling programmes requires the system of guidance and counselling in acceptance of stakeholders who are equipped schools. The school counselling profession with the required knowledge and skills to that exists today in Bhutan will have a huge change (Fullan, 2005). School counsellors in impact on its future quality. Therefore, it is Bhutan often work in isolation, which is not essential that we understand its present an effective practice for programme situation and give school counsellors a voice implementation. The need for collaborative to enhance their knowledge and practices. I relationships between school administrators (Kuenga) will also look at a case narrative of and teachers is important when applying a school counsellor and his accounts of how school counselling programs (Fagan & Wise, principals and teachers position him. 2007). Yet, there is reluctance from Literature Review administrators and teachers to promote As no research exists specifically on school counselling as a whole school the Bhutanese school counselling profession, approach as it is either considered not their the literature review focused on two aspects. responsibility or outside of their scope of Literatures were examined where school practice (Lam & Hui, 2010). counselling is at a developing stage, similar Stigmatisation to that in Bhutan. However, these resources Stigmatisation is one main determinant did not highlight the complexities of school in why counselling services among students counselling. Consequently, I (Kuenga) remain unpopular, creating a roadblock for looked at different elements of school programme implementation, particularly in counselling from various literatures, non-Western contexts. It is a serious problem including research from Asian countries, to faced by counsellors in Malaysia. In Low et appreciate the potential complexities of al.’s (2013) study, about 70% of 88 school counsellors in Bhutan. Malaysian school counsellors felt School counselling programmes in stigmatisation was one of the main many countries have gone through changes, difficulties that restricted students and from focusing on dissemination of career parents for seeking services. Counselling was information to the planning and considered as a service for students 'who implementation of guidance and counselling have a problem' and some Malaysian and programs influenced by wider educational Chinese parents in Macao/Macau fear contexts (Gysbers, 2001). School counselling stigmatisation (Low et al., 2013; van is an integral support structure in education Schalkwyk, 2011). Similarly, Okocha and because it attends to the personal, social and Alika (2012) found that one of the challenges emotional needs of students and the various faced in Nigeria was the uncooperative and influences that might interfere with their negative constructions of students and learning (Kok, 2013). Hence, efficient and parents about counselling. Their findings are successful guidance and counselling supported by Alutu’s (2005) study, finding programs are imperative for student that most secondary school students refused
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counselling because they did not recognise School counsellors are often involved in non- its usefulness. counselling related administrative and Ambiguous Roles and Responsibilities disciplinary tasks, requiring inordinate of School Counsellors periods that could have been spent on The ongoing debate over role appropriate counselling sessions (Burnham definition is the most significant challenge & Jackson, 2000). For instance, Malaysian discussed in school counselling literatures school counsellors had to check students' (Paisley & McMahon, 2001). It is evident uniforms and nametags, and deal with that, for many years, the school counselling fighting problems and other disciplinary profession experienced functional cases in addition to their services (Low et al., uncertainty (Borders, 2002), role ambiguity, 2013). Likewise, Jamtsho (2015) argued that conflict (Lambie, 2007) and role confusion in Bhutan, school counselling is positioned (Burnham & Jackson, 2000). Over the last as a disciplinary and punitive measure in the decade, research has increased our school. Having to meet huge expectations understanding that unclear roles of school from various stakeholders to perform non- counsellors can lead to their work often school counselling related tasks can often being derived from priorities determined by lead to burnout (Gysbers & Henderson, the principal and other stakeholders rather 2014). than from a set of professional goals and Burnout Concerns definitions directed toward the needs of Role strain leading to burnout is also a students (House & Hayes, 2002; Shimoni & major concern. Burnout is the condition Greenberger, 2014). This situation is also caused by overwork stress, which leads to reflected in Lambie and Williamson's (2004) emotional depletion and feelings of historical study, which found that counsellors incompetency followed by an increase in performed functions outside the definition of work inefficiency and dissatisfaction (Moyer, the profession. 2011; Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009). Studies show a problematic gap Lambie (2007) found that almost 39% of all between the actual involvement of mental health counsellors experience counsellors at school and the desired burnout. This can be due to lack of skills and involvement of counsellors in their time constraints (Lam & Hui, 2010), professional domains. While some studies in workload (Wilkerson, 2009), exceptional the USA found that school counsellors were levels of job stress (Wilkerson & Bellini, involved in domains in line with American 2006), lack of clinical supervision (Brewer & School Counselling Association (ASCA) Clippard, 2002), large caseloads and role policy (e.g., House & Hayes, 2002), other ambiguity (Moyer, 2011). studies have found that school counsellors Pressures to perform additional tasks are extensively involved in non-counselling outside of counselling and high counsellor-to activities (Chata & Loesch, 2007; Foster, -student ratios are also concerns relating to Young, & Hermann, 2005). Incongruence school counsellor burnout. Moyer (2011) between what is advocated and the actual found that over 50% of school counsellor duties of counsellors has cultivated role participants spend 10 or more hours per week ambiguity and conflict, increasing on unrelated duties. Spending an occupational stress in school counsellors overwhelming amount of time on activities (Lambie, 2007). Furthermore, school outside of counselling, along with large administrators, teachers, parents, and other caseloads, continue to plague the profession, groups have divergent perspectives on school and often do not allow school counsellors counsellors’ roles (Burnham & Jackson, from providing quality services to students in 2000). need (Brown, Dahlbeck, & Sparkman- Role ambiguity is an on-going concern Barnes, 2006). and school counsellors themselves can Supervision Challenges struggle with priorities and competing It can be extremely challenging for demands due to a myriad of responsibilities. school counsellors to have the range of
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knowledge and skills to provide adequate Bhutanese communities have used media and effective counselling services for the such as art and stories to transmit these diverse counselling issues and student groups beliefs and values in their community represented in their schools (Paisley & practices. Narrative inquiry was therefore the McMahon, 2001). Their constantly changing chosen methodology in this research. As the roles need ongoing professional supervision, researcher, I (Kuenga) used narrative inquiry which is essential to improve skills, develop to pave new ways to understand and enhance new competencies, and provide needed the knowledge and practices of school support (Borders, 2002; Evans, Zambrano, counsellors in Bhutan. This chosen Cook, Moyer, & Duffey, 2011; Gysbers & methodology made sense to me because I Henderson, 2014; Herlihy, Gray, & come from a culture where we always tell McCollum, 2002). stories, we believe and make sense through Although school counsellors recognise stories, and stories are an integral part of who supervision needs, they receive it only we are. Narratives not only enable us to occasionally (Evans et al., 2011). Few school make sense of who we are; they are counsellors have supervision opportunities constitutive of our realities (J. Bruner, 1986). from a trained school counsellor (Page, Therefore, we used social constructionism Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001). For instance, Page and critical theory to understand the et al., (2001) in their national US survey, constitutive power of participant story found that barely 13% of school counsellors telling. received individual clinical supervision and Social constructionism is a almost 10% received group clinical philosophical position that regards supervision. Such results impact on the experience and meaning as constructed by counsellor’s professional development and culture and the action orientation of language student support. It is quite likely that these (Burr, 2015). People understand their world percentages are even lower or do not exist through discursive and social processes from for school counsellors in most Asian various contexts (Donaldson, Christie, & countries where school counselling has been Mark, 2009). Rather than a neutral dominated by paraprofessionals (Page et al., expression, language has a constitutive 2001). action as it incites people to react and take up The need for school counselling, positions on matters (Gergen, 2001). challenges in programme implementation, Narrative approaches are infused by a the ambiguity of roles and responsibilities, social constructionist stance to understand challenges in supervision and professional how people (re)produce language, history, development, and the potential for burnout and culture as told through storying tell a broad story of complexities and (Riessman, 2008). Narrative inquiry challenges in school counselling. With the assumes that we come to understand, enact dearth of research on how these experiences and give meaning to our lives through story specifically relate to Bhutan, I (Kuenga) (Andrews, Squire & Tamboukou, 2013). formed two specific research aims: 1) to Stories are valuable in studying lived understand the storied roles and experiences and can give rich and subtle responsibilities of school counsellors in understandings of life situations (Riessman, Bhutan, and 2) to identify the challenges and 1993). Thus, this approach is deemed most opportunities of implementing school appropriate and valuable to hear the guidance and counselling programmes. complexities of Bhutanese school Research Design counselling roles. Consequently, this Theoretical Orientation and Methodology research enables a school counsellor’s Bhutan is a predominantly Buddhist standpoint through storying the experiences country where Buddhism mostly influences of power relations (Andrews et al., 2013) the unique Bhutanese cultural and traditional within the Bhutanese school community. values and beliefs. For generations, Stories can represent social realities as
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texts, and as social constructions located (Reference Number: 016121F). An email within various power structures and social with information asking to interview school milieux they have potential for guidance counsellors was sent to the Chief of empowerment and transformation (White & the CECD. Once approval was granted, an Epston, 1990). Narratives, as units of power, email was sent to six chosen school guidance can recreate people’s identities, enabling a counsellors for interview (four participated). platform of change from where they are to The sample of counsellors were selected for where they can be (E. Bruner, 1986). In line their extensive counselling experience. with these possibilities, we employ critical Counsellors were provided with a participant theory from poststructuralist influences information sheet that outlined the study. (Lyotard, 1984; Foucault, 1977) as a suitable Recruitment involved three men and one theoretical orientation for this narrative woman who were 25-45 years old and had research. similar backgrounds. (Pseudonyms were Critical theory emphasises the need to used: Wangchuk, a teacher counsellor who develop a critical consciousness of power had trained to be a fully fledged school relations (Crotty, 1998) for transformative counsellor; Sonam and Pem, both teachers practices. We have developed a critical who also trained to be a school counsellor; narrative inquiry to enable marginalised and Tashi, a school counsellor who wanted voices to be heard (Pitre, Kushner, Raine, & to do more than just teaching and trained in Hegadoren, 2013) and to bring to light the school counselling following a psychology complexities of the power relations in the degree.) They were based at different high school counsellor narratives. This invites a schools in Bhutan and all were from the dialogue on how to improve the systems and same generation of school counsellor relations school counsellors face. Employing training. a critical narrative inquiry, we focus on two A semi-structured narrative interview important types of narratives that contribute was employed through Skype conversations, to these complexities: metanarratives and except for one face-to-face interview, and all counternarratives. Metanarratives are were audio recorded. Jovechelovitch and encompassing and prescriptive (and often Bauer's (2000) narrative interviewing oversimplified) ideas that are self- technique was adapted and we included a legitimising tellings due to their dominance/ focus on a retelling that involved a authority (Lyotard, 1984). Due to their remembering/history of events, occasions universalising effects, Lyotard (1984) argued and experiences to fit with a narrative that all metanarratives must be questioned approach (see Appendix). The adaption of and challenged. This can be done through Jovechelovitch and Bauer's techique finding counternarratives. Tellings that are involved four phases: initiation (asking the counter or resistant to other narratives, key interview questions focused on events, including metanarratives, are occasions and experiences), main narration counternarratives (Bamberg, 2004). Locating (minimal responses and encouraging counternarratives can enable not only elaboration), a later questioning phase marginalised voices but generate a potential (shifting the narrative to focus on solutions) consciousness raising of a more complex and a concluding talk phase that involved picture of power between the repressive and switching off the audio recorder, using small productive effects of metanarratives and talk to shift the conversation to a more counternarratives. relaxed dynamic and then concluding the Methods of Sampling, Data Collection and conversations. Analyses To provide a rich description and in- Using purposive sampling, four school depth illustration of the complexities and counsellors were recruited as participants challenges, we focus on a case narrative of with approval from the University of Notre one participant. As narrative analysis is case- Dame Human Research Ethics Committee centred and theorised primarily from within a
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case to keep a story intact (Reismann, 1993), English used as a secondary language to the a case narrative from a larger study was Bhutanese language of Dzongkha. Rather analysed to illustrate the complexities than 'correcting' the narratives, we have kept counsellors faced. Rather than a broad-brush them intact to honour representation and overview of narrated themes, we tell voice. Wangchuk's story as a detailed thematic Wangchuk started working as a teacher narrative analysis of his experiences as a counsellor after taking a basic course in school counsellor. Data triangulation, counselling and went on to join one of the comparing Wangchuk's account with first cohorts of full time guidance counsellors descriptions from the other school counsellor in Bhutan through pursuing a postgraduate participants, was also used to gain a fuller diploma in counselling. He was passionate understanding of Wangchuk's case narrative. about becoming a full-fledged counsellor A critical thematic narrative analysis after working with children with various (TNA) was used to honour and deconstruct problems. Wangchuk experienced a participant voice. TNA “takes as its object of paradigm shift from being an “advice giver” investigation the story itself” (Riessman, to a “full time counsellor,” which involved 1993, p.1) through analysing how the story is valuing a broader and more complex told, focusing on the content of narrative, and understanding of counselling. the events and experiences told (Riessman, The Metanarrative: Counselling as Simply 2008). Analysis involved familiarisation of Advice Giving content to find key issues and themes and 'Advice giving' was storied among the then connecting to a wider cultural context school community (teachers in particular) as through the interpretations of events, a metanarrative that simplified experiences and assumptions (Riessman, understandings of counselling. Wangchuk 2008). The analysis involved reading the narrated that teachers resisted the school transcripts multiple times and generating guidance and counselling programme themes through inductive latent coding because they were highly sceptical that it (Braun & Clarke, 2016). Associated with would work. They described counselling as each theme, we also identified core narrative 'advice giving', viewed as a deeply rooted arguments as statements of conduct and aspect of Bhutanese culture where advice is authority (Lyotard, 1984) and located their given to the younger generation and an social tensions (Foucault, 1977). This critical increase of this, through counselling, was an addition to TNA focussed on the indulgent activity that would spoil the child. identification of metanarratives as dominant This played into an assumption that cultural ideas and practices that are assumed counselling was a redundant profession that normative experiences, and identification of often did not work to solve rising youth counter-narratives as resistances to, and issues. always in tension with, those dominant Many of my colleagues had that culturally available told ideas and practices deeply rooted notion, which I had (Andrews, 2004). Thematic arguments from few years ago, that counselling was Wangchuk’s case narrative were presented advice giving, which was, in fact, with reference to meta- and counter- culturally inherent in our society. narratives and triangulated with descriptions Since time immemorial, our from the other participants. forefathers were into giving advice. Findings and Interpretation So, this was one of the most What follows is an analytical telling of common mediums which was used Wangchuk's story in relation to the by our teachers and parents to help complexity and challenges of school younger people or anyone counsellors. We note that the narrative overcome their problem. Often exemplars provided are of a different especially teachers have that notion ‘grammar’ to Australian English due to that advice giving is something that
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doesn’t work with modern children narrative constitutes and positions (Coombes, and when I came up with a 2000; Coombes & Morgan, 2004). Through counselling knowledge and a new the metanarrative, advice giving is identity as counsellor in the same constituted as the reality of school school system, where I worked as counselling and yet the application of it is teacher before, was challenging. constructed as unjust because the child Counselling was viewed with would be "spoiled by counselling" or "it skepticism; such as “it is advice doesn't work". These paradoxical giving”, and “they have been doing prescriptions that "school counsellors should that”, “it doesn’t work”, “kids stick to advice-giving and are therefore would be pampered or spoiled by redundant" produces a complex moral counselling”. It was very difficult ordering of counsellors that creates for me to get in and convince my challenges for convincing teachers of their principal and colleagues - and, in value. fact, convince a system as whole. Similar themes on the redundancy of The dominant influence of the the school counselling profession through the metanarrative of counselling as simply metanarrative of advice giving were advice giving can be seen in/through the expressed by other participants. Another language of Wangchuk's story. The counsellor, Pem, retold that one principal metanarrative contains denotative language assumed, "all teachers are counsellors and such as "it is advice giving", "was in fact counsellors are no different to teachers". culturally inherent", and "it doesn't work". Sonam, another counsellor, stated that The use of such factually constructed terms counselling was also viewed as advice giving denotes that counselling had a literal, factual by teachers, including the principal who and authoritative meaning to Wangchuk. argued, "we give counselling to students Denotative language is used in every day, there is no use doing that, it's metanarratives to (re)produce its legitimacy better they are dealt with school disciplinary but it also forms (meta)prescriptive rules on policy than softer measure". In Pem's what is legitimate behaviour (Lyotard, 1984). retelling, the use of "are" creates a denotative As the teachers were telling Wangchuk that argument where it is stated as if it is a fact counselling is advice giving, this was also that counsellors and teachers are no prescribing how he should conduct his job as different. Sonam's account is a reference to a a counsellor. Those who tell the prescriptive argument that positions teachers metanarrative are teaching staff (including as more effective with students than administration and management), or what counsellors, who are positioned as soft on Lyotard (1984, p. 9) argues as the sender, students, with the potential to pamper and "invested with the authority to make such a spoil them. These paradoxical arguments of statement" to the addressee, the school counsellors as no different to teachers but counsellor. If counselling is advice giving, redundant due to their perceived softer the school counsellor is expected to adhere to measures in contrast to teachers shows the it. Paradoxically, as it is believed that complex metanarrative, which Wangchuk additional advice giving "doesn't work", a storied, retold as the realities of other school school counsellor's professional status is seen counsellors. Such statements are indicative with scepticism and this constructs an of a moral ordering that delegitimises the implied expectation that excessive advice professional status of school counsellors. giving should be avoided. Otherwise, it Counselling as an Ancillary and Marginal would have negative consequences (spoiling Programme the child or having no impact). Narratives enable the authority of a Narratives can prescribe what is real speaker's position to be (re- or de-) and just through reference to a moral order legitimated as they are connected with a that enables and constrains the subjects the specific moral ordering of social power
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relations (Busch & Coombes, 2008; metanarrative, which created a barrier for Coombes, 2000; Coombes & Morgan, 2004). student trust and disclosure. Likewise, Pem Through the metanarrative of advice giving revealed that "students think it [counselling] that positions counselling staff as the same or is a disciplinary measure even after many redundant to teachers, teaching staff are able orientation programmes", reinforcing the to (re)inforce an asymmetrical power counsellor as a disciplinarian metanarrative. relationship between counselling and Wangchuk found it challenging to convince teaching staff where counsellor legitimacy is the students that school counsellors could be challenged. When Wangchuk retold how trusted and not feared. counselling programmes were scheduled, he Students still didn’t find any argued that school counselling was difference between a teacher and marginalised by administrators during times counsellor in the school. They when he thought counselling programmes were sceptical about entrusting would be useful. their problem stories to a Whenever I have program, well counsellor who seemed a planned and put it in schedule like disciplinarian figure to them, they in school calendar, the moment feared that all teachers in the other programs come up, then they school would know their stories, if would shift guidance and they shared with me, as I am also counselling programs and replace it one of the staff members. So I had with other programs and they to spend lot of time again in would say like ‘this can be done advocating the counselling even at the end of the year, when program and only towards the end we don’t have other programs’... of my first year, as a result of my So, I feel it is being viewed as a vigorous advocacy programs, the secondary or ancillary program to number of my client intake academic or other programs. increased. However, it was still a Another participant, Sonam, reported a challenge in my school, because similar experience of being marginalised. students have to wait for the right When he conducted his first presentation to time to avail services, as I am not convince teaching staff of the importance of allowed to take them away during school counselling, "they were not keen to the academic instructional hours, know", he was rushed by staff and had "only this was a big issue. Teachers one hour" to present. Teaching staff kept despise that. referring to school counselling as "your [his] The above example shows resistance program", and "it was not really welcomed", from Wangchuk through advocating the which made him feel isolated. Both Sonam's counselling programme vigorously but also and Wangchuk's accounts constructed a the barriers he faced despite the advocacy. moral positioning of counselling as marginal The prescriptive utterance of "not allowed" rather than integral to the school experience. to encroach on academic instructional hours Challenges of Convincing Staff and Students again produces a moral and temporal Wangchuk realised there were ordering of school counselling as marginal discursive barriers making it difficult to rather than integral to the school community. convince the school community that This treatment is indicative of a counselling needed to be an integral normalising judgement, a form of component. Schoolchildren reproduced the disciplinary power that enables people to metanarrative of counsellors in that they check if others (or themselves) are meeting a were positioned as advice givers and required standard in how they should be therefore were seen and valued the same as behaving according to their position within teachers. This meant that they were also an institution (Foucault, 1977). Normalising positioned as disciplinarians through the judgements enable dividing practices, a
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strategy of marginalising or excluding people because of which I was not able within a community who are seen as a threat to deliver that expectations… (Foucault 1982). Such judgements may be they feel that counselling doesn’t indicative of a language game (Lyotard, have the capacity to address such 1984), a game of social power relations with disciplinary issues. So, in that a set of rules that authorise and govern the sense, gradually, I saw that there style and purpose of talk (Coombes & was a division in the system, one Morgan, 2004), which turns into a truth group that strongly supports and game, determining how valid something is, the other group that doesn’t yet limited by its epistemic bounds support counselling program. (Foucault, 1997). The metanarrative of As well as being divided from others, counsellor as simply advice giver and Foucault (1982) argued that an internal therefore 'no different to teacher' and dividing practice of/within the self can also disciplinarian is a game that involves a set of occur. Perhaps due to the social pressure to assumed 'truths' and rules that reproduce conform to teaching staff expectations, as denotative statements to determine what is a well as being the only counsellor in the school counsellor and therefore how a school school, Wangchuk's self-positioning counsellor should conduct themselves. In fluctuated between a division/binary of other words, Wangchuk reported that he was competence and incompetence. He described judged and expected to behave like a feeling this fluctuation less over time but still disciplinarian in his school community and internalised guilt from how others positioned conform to the idea that counselling was not him. a core component of the school. However, I was put in an expert shoes his (counter-)narrative resists this especially due to the fact that I was metanarrative through a different set of the only counsellor placed in my values, ideas and meanings about school school, well, I guess I was an counselling. Through not playing 'the game' expert in my own rights except the of the metanarrative, his decision to have pressure of my expertise was too appointments with students during heavy to bear. In the beginning my instructional hours was despised and disliked being viewed, as an expert did not by teaching staff. Consequently, Wangchuk really go well with the kind of found it harder to convince staff the services that I provided but over relevance of his programs. the period of time after my High Expectations advance training and experiences, I Although the counselling programme began to feel more competent and was considered secondary to other programs, my level of confidence began to teaching staff had high expectations of increase. Hence, in my own small Wangchuk. There was pressure to bring rights, I think I fitted well with me immediate changes in students seeking being viewed as an expert by those counselling support within a short time span. around me though I still had They have huge expectations that internal guilt of proclaiming change should happen within myself as an expert and saviour short span of time, they do not when I was not. have time, they cannot afford to High Workloads and Burnout have students with disciplinary Despite being considered as an expert problem running in conflict with or the saviour in the school, Wangchuk often school rules for longer period of experienced intense burnout due to limited time, that can have ripple effects knowledge and competence to work with on others students, because of complex issues. This was due to a lack of which the expectations is very available support structures and no high, time is very limited and supervision, resulting in helplessness.
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I get burn out sometimes, since I with the processes and effects of was a lone counsellor placed in a marginalisation in that the metanarrative of school with over one thousand school counselling as advice giving three hundred students, where I reproduces a discourse that school was viewed as an expert counsellor counselling should be marginal. despite my limited skills and "I had nowhere to turn to": A Need for competence, the burnout was Supervision and Professional Development something I predicted ... it was Wangchuk also recognised the need for more intense whenever I came strategies to deal with burnout, as the across a situation where problem of availability of supervision was limited due to the client seem beyond my capacity a scarcity of professionals to provide such or comprehension. In such time I services. He reflected on how he was blamed remained helpless, as I did not have for not being able to meet the expectations of any other expert counsellors for the school system and how he was exposed consultation nor supervision and to risky situations and vulnerabilities without undermined the quality of my support mechanisms in place. service to the clients ... they don’t Counsellors are actually placed in care whether you are overloaded or different schools in different parts not and if there are 10 cases you of the countries and once they are have to take care of 10 cases in a placed in the school they are on day ... one after another and you their own … if things go wrong have to deal with it … You can’t then you would be blamed and you afford to have any delays. So in would be blamed because people such situations you totally become failed to understand counselling tired, burned out, it’s difficult, it program, there is total dearth of demotivates you and you start support mechanism in place ... so questioning yourself... we are exposed to high risk, huge Wangchuk's telling challenges the vulnerabilities, these events assumptions that counsellors are not needed actually makes my position very for the running of the school programme and challenging ... I didn’t realize when counters a metanarrative that assumes school these things went wrong because counsellors have much time on their hands to even if I knew something was do their duties. Wangchuk found it wrong I had nowhere to turn to. challenging to see students during teaching Wangchuk felt inadequate with the time. Another participant, Pem, found it challenging issues confronting him in his challenging as well, attending to clients position. Other participants told of similar "during break times, after school, during experiences. Pem stated, "when the case is games sessions as there is no extra time complicated, I don't know what to do, I get allocated for counselling", often working lost", Tashi expressed, "I urgently feel the within her personal time as a consequence. need for supervision" and Sonam argued, Marginality, time poverty and a lack of "we need more training in working with support resulted in stress. various rising youth issues and mental health Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) argue concerns". Wangchuk felt that if had there that marginalisation may deprive people of been constant supervision and professional resources, limit opportunities for them to development, he would not be blamed for contribute and, consequently, increase being unable to save some students’ lives. isolation as well as lower self-confidence and If I share some experiences, which self-esteem. Wangchuk narrated that he was I wish I could bury them forever burnt out while he had a lack of support/care, along with my past, there were few high workload, and inadequate training. cases of suicide, which I felt I These experiences seem to be contingent could have done more, I still live
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with that wish and regret for not such a metanarrative. Wangchuk described able to save those two beautiful not being able to manage his own stress and lives, which happened in the school guilt. Yet, without adequate supervision, where I began my first year of my professional and social support, the ability to novice-counselling career. I regret self-care and be an effective counsellor may every day of my life reflecting on suffer. what went wrong and what could Successful Transformations - Past and have saved their lives. When I Future think of such incident I feel very Despite all challenges and roadblocks, incompetent and quite stupid to call Wangchuk managed to make a difference to myself a counsellor who is viewed his school, supporting students, parents and as an expert to solve people’s teachers. His counter-narrative challenges the problems while I was not able to advice-giving metanarrative that positions manage my own stress and guilt of school counsellors as redundant, noting his not able to do much. There were achievements and successes. This included times when I thought many times transforming the way teachers related with about quitting my job simply their students, with teachers adopting a less because I was not able to do much punitive disciplinary approach. to help those who needed my help. Despite lack of clarity of direction Wangchuk's narrative reveals a lived of the program in the school, experience of the consequences of within my first year of placement, inadequate supervision and professional I have managed to bring down the development where he internalised number of school dropouts, reduce responsibility and accountability, feeling "he self-harm and suicide, increased could have done more", and pathologised the number of students referred to himself as "incompetent", "stupid" and "not other agencies for further help, able". These self-positionings are increased the number of parents internalised dividing practices (Foucault, seeking family counselling; 1982) serving to self-marginalise as curtailed student truants, improved Wangchuk "thought many times about relationship with some students quitting" due to believing he was and teachers; brought changes in incompetent. the way teachers views on school Importantly, these self-positionings are discipline; in fact I managed to contingent with a wider social context of change their paradigm of devaluing and marginalising school disciplining their students, use of counsellors through the advice giver corporal punishment has gone metanarrative. The denotative discourse of down drastically and most of all school counselling ("it is advice giving"; "it teachers were more aware of the doesn't work"), constructed through the consequences of the harsh advice giver metanarrative, produces a treatment on their students without prescriptive normalising judgement (i.e., if it knowing their in-depth is assumed that "it is advice giving", it background. should be practised as advice giving and if it Wangchuk also reflected on what was is believed that "it doesn't work", it must not needed for successful outcomes in the future. be effective and therefore valued). If school He recommended a need to define clearly counsellors are expected to only be advice roles and responsibilities in the school givers and disciplinarians, and are seen as system to ensure that the school counsellors not integral to the effective development of are not overburdened, and argued that school the student or functioning of the school, principals and teachers have a clear supervision and further professional training understanding of counselling so that they can may be assumed as unnecessary through educate other colleagues and support the
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counselling programme. He also saw the Initial resistances to school counselling need to have at least two additional could be explained as a misunderstanding counsellors to reduce caseloads and the due to different epistemic views. Scepticism likelihood of burnout. from school principals, teachers, and students Further Discussion posed challenges for Wangchuk and the Wangchuk's narrative highlights the other participants to develop counselling importance of a critical narrative inquiry for programmes. Wangchuk narrated that they understanding the storied positionings of conflated counselling with disciplinary school counsellors to expose the domains. In many respects, there are complexities and challenges of the systems similarities between school counselling in they work within. This paper aimed to Malaysia and Bhutan. Low et al. (2013) honour the voice of Wangchuk by presenting revealed that there was a “lack of his narrative to gain an in-depth understanding about the nature of the school understanding of the largely unspoken counselling services” (p. 193) in Malaysian experiences and power struggles of a school schools. Counselling services were counsellor. constructed as a part of the disciplinary While focusing on a single case system. Students who attended counselling narrative might be viewed as restrictive, it services were stigmatised as counselling enabled a specific and rich insight and a services were constructed as only for fuller contextual picture of the power students with problems (Low et al., 2013). relationships in Bhutanese school Jamtsho’s (2015) study also found that counselling was enabled through school counselling was constructed as a comparisons with other participant data. disciplinary and punitive measure. This Wangchuk’s thematic concerns of the advice misunderstanding creates barriers to define -giving and disciplinary metanarrative, the roles and responsibilities of school marginalisation, challenges of convincing counsellors clearly. non-counsellors, workloads and burnout, and Furthermore, Wangchuk and other a lack of supervision and professional participants felt that counselling was development were validated by other considered as an “ancillary program” rather participants. than a “necessary component”, which not Wangchuk’s story represents a only complicated their positions and discursive mapping of the territorial programmes but also displaced them through complexities of school counsellors in a reproduction of non-support. Parallel to this Bhutan. Though he faced resistance in the finding, school counsellors in Malaysia battle beginning, the school community gradually for time to run counselling programmes accepted him as an expert and as a saviour of during school hours, as teachers refuse to youth. This was at a cost. School give time for the counselling programmes counselling programmes were trivialised and and thus counsellors are not given a fixed subordinated. School counsellors were meta- timetable (Low et al., 2013). narrated as advice givers who were no Moreover, Wangchuk told how it was different to teachers, and as redundant, to challenging to meet the high expectations of negate the domain of the counsellor in fear of the principal and teachers in bringing intrusion among the disciplinary purview of immediate change in the students within a teachers. Consequently, Wangchuk felt the short timeframe. The lack of support from brunt of the high expectations imposed on the assistant principal and national language him, he struggled with a lack of expertise in (Dzongkha) teachers stifled programme working with complex issues, and he was implementation. This power struggle blamed when he could not meet expectations. occurred because “Dzongkha teachers are He felt overloaded and burnt out on many educated in traditional systems where occasions without support mechanisms for physical punishment used to be a supervision and professional development. norm” (Jamtsho, 2015, p. 160). This is a
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complex situation in Bhutan as there is a rather than a subjugated and divided practice. need for interventions to cater to the rising This critical narrative inquiry enables a youth issues and yet there is resistance to starting point into examining the broader such counselling programmes for fear of contextual influences from the discursive, intrusion into beliefs and traditions. relational and structural constraints this study The misunderstood concept of exposed. Wangchuk’s concerns, shared by counselling through the metanarrative of the other counsellors, mirrored many of advice giving resulted in an excessive Kuenga’s experiences that motivated her to workload and burnout for Wangchuk and the understand their storied experience. other participants. These experiences are Marginalisation, teacher resistance, supported through research that confirms that challenging workloads, burnout, a lack of role ambiguity and role conflict in supervisory and professional development combination with job overload may lead to support were common experiences that may school counsellor burnout (Wilkerson & warrant further research into education Bellini, 2006). Moyer (2011) found large policy alignment with school practices. school counsellor caseloads as one of the Further research could explore to what extent main causes of burnout. ‘Western’ approaches would be congruent An important finding from Wangchuk's with Bhutanese values and culture to support narrative was the need for clinical school counsellors. A promising example is a supervision. Lack of sufficient supervisory wellness approach where self-determination support increases stress and intensifies and health is promoted, maintained and immense workloads, which often makes restored at various levels of influence from a counsellors less effective to provide respect for diversity, participation and meaningful support to their students and thus collaboration to a broader collective valuing contributes to burnout and role of social justice and support for community dissatisfaction (Borders, 2002; Page et al., structures (Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2001). Wangchuk and other participants 2003). However, care is needed in argued that the impact of not having clinical incorporating Western frameworks and we supervision and the majority of the are also conscious that even though our experiences described by the participants narrative approach may fit with Bhutanese inhibited their professional development values of storytelling, it is also limited profoundly. through its Western European theoretical and As Wangchuk revealed, he worked epistemic influences. based on instinct and though he made Conclusion mistakes, there was no one to follow up with This research revealed the influence of him. School counsellors are often placed a metanarrative that contributed to a mis- alone to socialise themselves into the understanding of school counselling, which profession without appropriate guidance or created structural constraints and barriers to supervision to safeguard ethical practice counselling in Wangchuk's school. These (McMahon, 2005). Hence, the need for constraints exposed him to vulnerabilities, supervision is obvious to ensure the welfare leading to limited knowledge and skills, and of students with increasingly complex needs minimal supervision. Wangchuk was is protected together with counsellor struggling with high workload that led to encouragement and support (Borders, 2002; burnout, which impeded his practice. These Herlihy et al., 2002). With this important concerns were validated by other school means of support and development, school counsellors. counsellors are more likely to reflect The challenges found in this critical adequately on their knowledge and skills to narrative research can provide avenues to strengthen their professional development develop guidance and counselling programs (Paisley & McMahon, 2001) and develop a in schools, if school guidance counsellors’ school-integrated approach to counselling voices are heard and considered by relevant
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Wangyal, T. (2001). Ensuring social i. In recalling these events, I would like sustainability: Can Bhutan’s education you to explore what it means and system ensure intergenerational feels to be a school guidance transmission of values? Journal of Bhutan counsellor in Bhutan. (move to Main Studies, 3(1), 106-131. Narration) White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative ii. How did you feel about the way means to therapeutic ends. New York, guidance and counselling NY: W. W. Norton & Co. programmes were going in your Wilkerson, K. (2009). An examination of school? What occasion(s) do you burnout among school counselors guided remember contributing to these by stress-strain-coping theory. Journal of experiences? (move to Main Counseling & Development, 87(4), 428- Narration) 437. doi:10.1002/j.1556- iii. How did your position fit in school 6678.2009.tb00127.x during your time here? Tell me what Wilkerson, K., & Bellini, J. (2006). led you to think/feel this way. (move Intrapersonal and organizational factors to Main Narration) associated with burnout among school iv. What events made your position counselors. Journal of Counseling & challenging and why? (move to Main Development, 84(4), 440-450. Narration) doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00428.x Phase 2: Main Narration Use of minimal responses (e.g., “Hmm”, Addresses for correspondence “Yes”, “I see”) Kuenga Dem i. “What happened next?” [email protected] ii. At signs of concluding the story: “Is Robbie Busch there anything else you would like to [email protected] say or recall on this question?” (move to the next question in Phase 1. Author biographies Otherwise, move to Phase 3) Kuenga Dem is from Bhutan and is a Phase 3: Questioning Phase practising counsellor and a Master of i. “What happened before/after/then?” Counselling graduate from the University of (Questions refer only to events in the Notre Dame Australia. story) ii. What support system would you Robbie Busch is a Lecturer in the envisage putting in place for yourself Behavioural Science and Master of within the school and outside of Counselling Programmes at the School of the school? Arts and Sciences, University of Notre Dame Phase 4: Concluding Talk Australia. From Whakatū, Te Waipounamu, (Stop recording, continue the conversation Aotearoa / New Zealand, his research with small talk and conclude) interests are in critical psychology and narratives.
Appendix: Semi-structured Narrative Interview Technique (adapted from Jovchelovitch & Bauer, 2000) Phase 1: Initiation I am curious to hear your story of your experience as school guidance counsellor. I would like you to recall the events that have shaped your experience up until now, starting from the beginning of your position.
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The intercultural collaborative processes underpinning the development of the KidsMatter resources to support the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal children
Samantha Smith Lyn O’Grady Fletcher Curnow Lone Pearce KidsMatter, Australian Psychological Society
KidsMatter is an Australian mental health and wellbeing initiative for primary schools and early childhood education and care services. The initiative utilises an inter-sectorial partnership between mental health, primary school education and early childhood education and care settings. The need for the development of specific resources in relation to Aboriginal children’s social and emotional wellbeing was identified by KidsMatter, to strengthen the model but particularly to support families, communities and educators in communicating and deepening understandings to better support Aboriginal children within a holistic approach. This article outlines the intercultural collaborative processes utilised in the development of these resources, noting the importance of processes to recognise and reduce power imbalances, enable participation through a range of consultation and engagement processes, and manage the expectations of all parties.
KidsMatter is an Australian mental health effective planning and ongoing review (plan, and wellbeing initiative for primary schools do, review). The Guiding Principles include: and early childhood education and care diversity is respected and valued; respectful services. The initiative utilises an inter- relationships are foundational; parents and sectorial partnership between mental health, carers are recognised as the most important primary school education and early childhood people in children’s lives; students need to be education and care settings. These sectors work active participants; and education, health and together to implement the framework which community agencies and families need to work builds upon a prevention, promotion and early in partnership. intervention model adapted from the World The KidsMatter framework utilises three Health Organisation (1994). KidsMatter brings well-known theoretical models: the socio- together the adults in the lives of children and ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), risk encourages education staff, parents and carers, and protective factors framework and health and community professionals to (Commonwealth Department of Health and work together to create settings that support Aged Care, 2000; Spence, 1996) and a whole children’s social and emotional wellbeing. The setting approach based upon the World Health initiative includes a framework which Organization’s model for promotion, encompasses four components: 1) Creating a prevention and early intervention in education positive community, 2) Social and emotional settings (1994). The socio-ecological model learning for all children, 3) Working with views children as active participants in their parents and carers, 4) Early intervention for own development, both shaping and being children experiencing mental health shaped by their environment. This recognises difficulties. Within these components the that children’s development is influenced by KidsMatter initiative uses Guiding Principles to the wider social, economic, cultural, workplace assist education settings progress through the and political forces in which their relationships KidsMatter journey, utilising a process of data with their families, communities and education collection, professional learning for staff, settings exist. Risk and protective factors exist
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in each of these contexts and efforts can be communities with relatively higher proportions made to prevent or mitigate those risks. Whole- of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander peoples. setting approaches encourage all community The findings of this report indicated that members to work together and to implement broadly, the KMEC model, professional the initiatives across the setting. learning and framework suited the Aboriginal In relation to Aboriginal and Torres and Torres Strait Islander context, although Strait Islander children and families, Milroy culturally specific elements were lacking in the (2014) noted that: KMEC resources. It was recommended [a]lthough there is a paucity of data therefore that Aboriginal and Torres Strait on specific child mental health Islander culturally- specific elements be conditions for Aboriginal and Torres embedded within KMEC to better adapt the Strait Islander children and youth, initiative in Indigenous Australian contexts. The there is evidence of greater risk of research concluded with a strong call for emotional and behavioural significantly greater efforts to be made to difficulties; greater exposure to risk engage and involve local Aboriginal and Torres factors and stressful life events; Strait Islander communities in the higher rates of suicide; higher rates implementation of KMEC, and that KMEC of hospital admissions for mental needed to provide information on the social health problems; higher rates of determinants of mental health that were relevant incarceration; and higher numbers of to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander removal of children under child communities (Slee, Skrzypiec, Dix, Murray- protection compared with the general Harvey & Askell-Williams, 2012). population. Added to this is the It is within this context that the need for increased risk for: developmental the development of specific resources in disability; low birth weight; physical relation to Aboriginal children’s social and health problems; and poorer emotional wellbeing was identified by educational outcomes, suggesting the KidsMatter, to strengthen the model but need to consider a comprehensive particularly to support families, communities approach when considering mental and educators in communicating and deepening health disorders in Aboriginal and understandings to better support Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander children and children within a holistic approach. young people (p. 374). Cultural Domains of Aboriginal and Torres In a 2011 literature review relating to the Strait Islander Social and Emotional social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal Wellbeing children, Dobia and O’Rourke identified According to Gee, Dudgeon, Schultz, education settings as critical for the Hart and Kelly (2014), “… the social and socialisation of children and young people, emotional wellbeing of individuals, families and noting that “[t]he reactions of school staff to communities are shaped by connections to the psychological, social and cultural needs of body, mind and emotions, family and kinship, students can support or hinder a sense of community, culture, land and spirituality” (p. belonging and nurturance for students and 58). The authors further describe these families alike. Family, community and school connections in terms of the diverse experiences were nominated as the most important and expressions of the domains of social and influences in contributing to a positive self- emotional wellbeing throughout an individual’s identity, crucial for academic performance” (p. lifetime, which change over time as their needs 21). shift during childhood, youth, adulthood and old In 2012, an evaluation report by Flinders age. This may include healthy connections and University was conducted to examine the resilience in some domains, while also KidsMatter Early Childhood (KMEC) model encompassing some difficulties or need for which explored the extent to which the KMEC healing in other domains (Gee, et al., 2014). Model relates to early childhood services in The authors further note the importance of
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family and kinship systems to the functioning effective decolonising process. This process can of traditional and contemporary Aboriginal and enable awareness of difference, consideration of Torres Strait Islander societies. They note the power relationships, reflective practice and complexity and diversity of systems with most importantly, Indigenous self-determination interconnectedness through cultural ties and regarding the meaning of safety (Laverty, reciprocal relationships. Further, Milroy (2014) McDermott, & Calma, 2017). noted that “[u]nderstanding child and youth Participatory Action Research (PAR) mental health can be challenging especially Participatory Action Research (PAR) is when considering the cultural context, considered an appropriate approach to working historical legacy, and social determinants as with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander they apply to child development” (p. 373). In communities as it advances the sharing of particular she noted the importance of knowledge and understandings in the context of understanding developmental milestones and respectful relationships. PAR centres on the the impact of development on language, collective ownership of the research processes behaviour, and relationships. Further, these and outcomes. This approach can also be aspects of development also contribute to the empowering as the research is driven by those emerging sense of self, ways of seeing the most affected by the topic, and researchers world and learning life skills which will adapt become facilitators rather than experts. across the life span (Milroy, 2014). Participatory action processes aim to recognise Project Development Principles and and address social inequalities and power Processes imbalances. A number of principles were drawn upon According to Kidd and Kral (2005), PAR during the development and implementation of involves the following key elements: the project to guide the partnership “understanding, mutual involvement, change, development with the consultants. Cultural and a process that promotes personal safety was the primary guiding principle. The growth” (p. 187). They further stated that it is intersection of the principles of Participatory “ideally, a process in which people (researchers Action, Critical Theory and Reflexivity, and and participants) develop goals and methods, Narrative Therapy offered further promise for participate in the gathering and analysis of data, the task of creating culturally safe practice. and implement the result in a way that will raise Cultural Safety critical consciousness and promote change in Cultural safety refers to the culturally the lives of those involved” (p. 187). The appropriate provision of healthcare which is research relationship is one of respect and trust empowering and respectful of cultural identity. building, where researchers take the role of It aims to create environments and facilitators rather than experts. The research or relationships which are “safe for people, where project becomes a process for change driven by there is no assault, challenge or denial of their those who are most affected by the topic identity, of who they are and what they need. It (Kendall, et al., 2011). This approach is based is about shared respect, shared meaning, shared on critical theory, which asks social justice knowledge and experiences of learning questions related to power and exploitation, and together with dignity and truly is particularly important when non-Indigenous listening” (Eckerman et al., 1999, cited in researchers or project workers are engaged in Williams, 1999, p. 213). research or projects with Indigenous people Culturally safe practice refers to (Wright, 2011). Mason (2015) noted the “effective clinical practice for a person from complexities of participatory action research as another culture, [whereas] unsafe cultural the researcher has “multiple ethical practice diminishes, demeans or disempowers relationships to maintain, with research the cultural identity and wellbeing of an partners, the academy, the institutions of the Individual” (Walker & Sonn, 2010, p.162). state, notably ‘the law’, and with her or himself. Cultural safety is determined by the individual The researcher must consider how to do the receiving the service and can also be an right, fair, just or legal thing by a variety of
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people and institutions, between which there contribution to the encounter, and considering are often tensions or even conflict” (p. 500). He what is going on for them during the process further outlined the role of emotional (Laverty et al. 2017). The practitioner’s engagement in projects utilising participatory understanding of what they bring to the action processes, noting that: relationship and how this might impact is [c]ommitting to participatory action considered critical to culturally safe practice research means having to ask yourself because “otherwise there is an assumption that questions about who you are and the all people have similar experiences and can life choices you make: it is not a therefore speak on behalf of each straightforward impersonal, abstract other” (Wilson, 2014, p. 6). or un-affecting decision; not an easy Such critical reflexivity also supports the emotional, political or career principles of participatory action. Parker (2005) choice… It is a strength of stated that reflexive work is part of action, and participatory action research that it in projects utilising action research methods can create opportunities for research much of that reflexive work is undertaken partners to reflect on the power alongside and in collaboration with clients. A relations and knowledge they foster central focus of this reflection process is to and then experiment with other ways analyse and address power imbalances to do things (p. 502). throughout the project process that highlights Participatory action processes take an the privileged position of the project researcher approach that focuses on collective ownership or worker. One common reflexive question in of the research and project process and research or project work is who is able to have a outcomes, where a shared understanding is choice about staying or leaving the group. This generated to mobilise collaborative action for highlights the privileged position of the project change (Kendall et al., 2011). Consultation researcher or worker, who is the one who has throughout the process is key and data is taken that choice. An ongoing relationship may be back to the community for validation, ensuring formed but the worker might not continue to ways of knowing and meaning have been work with the group in the same way over time. captured (Sherwood & Kendall, 2013). An ‘exit strategy’ will enable the worker to Participatory action processes that promote manage the changes in emotional engagement participation can include creating an with the group over time and develop a process environment of mutual respect and openness, to pass on the roles and responsibilities that establishing flexibility for adapting a project to were taken on. Mason (2015) warns that the pace of participating communities, workers should be prepared for the emotional involving the community from the beginning, impact of this leaving on themselves. One also and incorporating the community’s physical needs to consider the different levels of and intellectual resources (Van der Velde, investment community partners have compared Williamson & Ogilvie, 2009). Kendall et al. to research project staff and how this investment (2011) explain that these participatory continues beyond the completion of projects. strategies can be challenging for many research Critical reflection requires the and project workers due to time, funding and examination of one’s own social and cultural logistical restraints. These challenges need to identities and the power and privilege which are be negotiated with Indigenous research partners afforded because of these identities (Walker & to ensure that power relationships do not Sonn, 2010). This involves the process of change or diminish through each phase of the reflecting critically on the self (as researcher) as project. the human instrument and defining this as a Critical Theory conscious experiencing of oneself as both the Critical theory requires the practitioner inquirer and respondent, as well as the teacher to consider how their own social positioning and learner. Through this process, the can impact on relationships by reflecting on researcher becomes the one coming to know the their cultural base, evaluating their own self within the process of the research itself
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(Guba & Lincoln, 2005). Reflective practice of relationships. She referred to the time since this kind is integral to working towards colonisation in which injustice and harm creating culturally safe practices as it can occurred. Wingard continued that Aboriginal address power imbalances in collaborative stories have survived over generations and that partnerships by allowing the sharing of power Aboriginal people have always told stories and control between Aboriginal people and non about their lives, knowing how important it is -Indigenous practitioners. Reflexivity provides for people to be connected to their stories that the opportunity for learning and contributes to directly related to land (Country), languages and improving social justice outcomes for culture (cited by Drahm-Butler, 2015). Indigenous people. It can also promote a These approaches formed the basis of the culturally secure process and environment that way of working with the Aboriginal consultants increases the likelihood of improved health and to guide the development of the KidsMatter wellbeing outcomes for Indigenous people Aboriginal Children’s Social and Emotional (Walker et al., 2014). Wellbeing Project. They enabled the APS Narrative Approaches KidsMatter staff to reflect and engage in rich Narrative approaches or ‘conversational discussions as a project team and with the methods’ to working with Indigenous peoples consultants as well as to advocate for these provide a means of gathering knowledge based approaches to be incorporated into the process on oral story telling tradition which is for the use of the resources by education congruent with an Indigenous paradigm communities. (Kovach, 2010). Narrative practice has been The KidsMatter Aboriginal Children’s Social considered an appropriate approach to working and Emotional Wellbeing Project with Aboriginal peoples and in the Aboriginal The project aimed to strengthen the context has been described as telling stories in KidsMatter project through the addition of ways that strengthen. Narrative approaches can culturally appropriate resources to promote also be empowering, situating individuals as understandings of Aboriginal and Torres Strait experts in their own lives, encouraging Islander children’s social and emotional dominant narratives to be challenged and wellbeing. Working with Aboriginal consultants privileging the alternative narrative. was recognised as critical in order to develop The project also embodied narrative resources that would be culturally-appropriate practices through its principles and processes. and meaningful for Aboriginal families. The Narrative practices take a collaborative and non focus of the project therefore included the -judgemental approach to counselling and development of quality content through community work that embodies respect and processes which were empowering and views people as experts in their own lives culturally appropriate. The phases of the project (Morgan, 2000). This approach takes a social are outlined in detail by Smith, O’Grady, justice perspective that considers the broader Cubillo & Cavanagh (2017) and are context of people's lives particularly in the summarised below. various dimensions of diversity including class, Phase 1: The Consultation Process race, gender, sexual orientation and ability. Phase 1 of the project focused on Narrative practices understand that people consultation, engagement and learning about possess skills, competencies, beliefs, values social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal and abilities that will assist them to reduce the children and families. A total of nine Aboriginal influence of their problems and views problems consultants (four from Melbourne, five from as separate from people (White, 2007). While Alice Springs) were invited to work with the Aboriginal people and communities are diverse Australian Psychological Society (APS) and are not one homogenous group, Wingard KidsMatter team. The consultants included (cited by Drahm-Butler, 2015) explained that Aboriginal educators, health workers and Elders there are shared stories throughout time and from both the Central Australia and Melbourne across place which connected experiences of regions. Two Indigenous psychologists were Aboriginality through the currency of also engaged to review and provide comment on
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the content of project materials. An Aboriginal Once the core themes were developed, the media production company was engaged to focus shifted to the production of a series of 12 produce the animations including an Aboriginal animated videos to communicate these with key script writer, director, actors for voice overs, messages about the day-to-day caring of film crew, artists and musical composer. Aboriginal children that supported their social Funding and geographical limitations impacted and emotional wellbeing. Regular meetings the ability of KidsMatter to work with Torres were held with the consultants during this Strait Islander consultants. Therefore, the period to enable them to provide input into the content in the videos cannot be assumed to development of the messages and images. represent the social and emotional wellbeing of Several consultation stages were built into the Torres Strait Islander families, nor can they be project plan to enable the project team to: considered representative of all Aboriginal Confirm the appropriate translation of people. content to the scripting, styling and design The use of participatory action research of the animations; and narrative approaches was incorporated into Ensure a shared approach/responsibility to the development and facilitation of workshops the project implementation; held in Alice Springs and Melbourne in late Actively continue to include the 2013 to explore what wellbeing meant when Aboriginal consultants; talking about Aboriginal children. Smith et al. Privilege Aboriginal voices when working (2017) outlined the initial themes identified in to address the needs of Aboriginal the workshops which were then further refined peoples; and and the Indigenous Psychologists were engaged Continue to maintain trusting to provide feedback on the consistency of these relationships. themes with literature relating to Aboriginal This process is outlined in Figure 1 overleaf. children’s social and emotional wellbeing. The Phase 2: Supporting the Culturally Safe APS KidsMatter team also reviewed the Use of the Animations themes in light of KidsMatter core messages. The critical reflection process, through The three core concepts which would the focus groups and consultations undertaken become the themes for the animated videos with workers in the field, which took place after were further refined as follows: the animations became publicly available, 1. Cultural (self) identity: mind, body, suggested that the animations could trigger spirit; strong values and beliefs with strong emotional responses for some respect for elders and relations; individuals; they seemed to be used more knowledge systems embedded with broadly than anticipated and there was also values and beliefs; acknowledging the some confusion about the intended audience for family’s structure and teaching children the animations with some people believing they about relationships and a sense of were developed for children. It was recognised belonging; being assertive and strong and that there had been insufficient time in the having responsibility for each other. project development phase to audience test to 2. Parents and families caring for identify these issues earlier. Therefore, Phase 2 themselves: engaging in positive of the project involved the development of activities, pride, having a role, including resources to support the culturally safe use of employment; role of stress and shame; the animations. This included actively division between males and females; highlighting the various possible uses of the seeking support and being assertive to animations and some of the potential risks deal with pressures. associated with their use. This phase was 3. Resilience/strength: trust in relationships; enabled due to additional funding made being comfortable to be alone sometimes; available after the launch of the animations, safety; boundaries, values and beliefs; however, project staff had mostly moved on to gathering knowledge over time from new roles. However, the trusting relationship stories, cultural role modelling. that had formed with the consultants enabled
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Figure 1. PAR processes undertaken as part of the animation development process
their ongoing interest and participation in the consultants were drawn upon heavily for this project. phase of the project to develop guidance Significant efforts were required to resources. Smith et al. (2017) provide a maintain project sustainability during summary of the consultants’ reflections on transition. It was evident that project viability processes which underpinned the making of the depended on relationships being developed animations, with comments including: between the new APS KidsMatter team and the You know when you’re talking about cultural consultants. Effectively, the yourself you need to feel safe and relationships formed in Phase 1 needed to be comfortable and then that comes from the ‘handed over’ to the new project team. Smith et people who you’re sitting in the room with al. (2017) noted that this was a sensitive point you know and this was, that was nearly in the project requiring an ‘exit strategy’ to be every time we met that’s what we talked developed to help the project transition. about at the start. How’s everyone going? Transition strategies included engagement of Everyone feeling safe? Ready to get new staff with handover processes while going? maintaining consistency where possible in Because we don’t often have a voice and relation to the Indigenous psychologist and to me this is our voice and it’s, a lot of the film production company and crew. stories we can connect to and [it’s sort of] The experiences of the Aboriginal we’re sharing our stories and it’s [um]
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very heartfelt. So you know we shared our group members noted that the stories were emotional and spiritual well-being with powerful and emotive, so that safety needs must everybody. be prioritised. They also noted that the They’d listen and they’d change it and messages contained in the animations [they, so they], we was connected to that, highlighted how cultural strengths, traditional the whole process, during the whole practices and kinship can support Aboriginal process of the making of those films, children’s social and emotional wellbeing. They which was [um] the way if should’ve also confirmed that they believed the been, should be. animations could be helpful for educators and We certainly were part of that process other professionals to begin conversations with from nought to finish, which made it a Aboriginal families, as well as help them to really good and successful group of increase their knowledge of Aboriginal animations (p. 303). children’s social and emotional wellbeing Further, the consultants provided (Smith, et al., 2017). suggestions about ways they saw the animations To assist in the culturally safe use of the being used by non-Indigenous professionals, animations, a series of documentary style ‘How including helping with the healing process, to’ films was developed which featured footage using the animations for discussions where non- from the consultation workshops, as well as Indigenous professionals can seek guidance and individual interviews with the cultural leadership from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait consultants and key project stakeholders. Islander people, and as a point of connection Drawing on the key themes from the (Smith et al., 2017). consultation workshops, the conceptual The culturally safe environment in which framework and content for each film was the animations had been developed was developed and the films scripted to enhance highlighted by one of the consultants: those themes: Well it’s kind of like the process of Connecting to Heal - explores how the doing the claymation, doing the concepts of identity, resilience and animations, getting the point across, ‘adults taking care of themselves’ are you know it’s coming from that important to Aboriginal children’s shared learning, you know and you social and emotional wellbeing; got to be able to feel safe to do it Starting Conversations - explores the and setting a scene of safety for layers of meaning in the animations and people to be able to discuss and talk ways in which they can be used to start about things is number one, you conversations around children’s social know and like I said, if you’re and emotional wellbeing; coming in the room as the expert Through Your Lens - explores the and you know everything then importance of creating culturally safe before you even set your second foot environments (Smith et al., 2017). in that door you already put up a Accompanying written resources were barrier (Smith et al., 2017, p. 303). also developed to complement the guidance Three focus groups were also developed films, enabling the user to explore the concepts from across Australia. Participants comprised highlighted in the films in more depth. They an Indigenous psychologist, non-Indigenous aimed to enable the user to begin with their own psychologists, KidsMatter staff, early childhood personal and/or professional experiences to educators, a policy officer, a child and family explore the concepts of both the animations and worker and a counsellor; Central Australian- the guidance films. It was intended that this based school teachers, a community process would assist the user to make the best engagement officer and a family mental health use of the animations for their own worker; and seven members of a Central circumstances. Australian Aboriginal family, including Elders. The range of tools included safety Following a screening of the animations the statements, scenarios, suggestions for use, key
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themes and messages with accompanying Presenters acknowledging that the discussion points, reflection tools to encourage animations can trigger strong emotions users to reflect on their own current practices, in viewers and action charts to encourage ways to That some viewers may find themselves strengthen practices. In keeping with the identifying with the characters or themes consultation process previously established, the of the stories Melbourne-based cultural consultants and other Strategies to manage any strong focus group members reviewed the films and emotions which might arise, including written resources to ensure the materials were debriefing with colleagues consistent with the key messages of the An explanation of the processes involved animations and reflected their experiences, and in the development of the animations, to ensure the cultural appropriateness of the including the involvement of the materials. (Smith et al., 2017). Aboriginal cultural consultants guiding Phase 3: Showcasing the Resources the culturally safe project processes and Once the guidance resources were content development finalised the next phase of the project focused on Any arrangements for support and showcasing the resources to early childhood debriefing of staff if necessary. services, schools and health and community It was important that the cultural professionals in various locations around consultants’ voices were included in the session. Australia. The KidsMatter APS project team The guidance videos featuring the consultants’ sought guidance from the cultural consultants on reflections on the development and use of the the development and delivery of the workshop animations were screened at various stages presentations, which required tailoring to take throughout the session. This was done to into account the audiences and community in reinforce how the animations and resources had which the workshops took place. This was been developed as a process of co-design and co especially important as the initial workshops -production with Aboriginal people, including included co-facilitation by the KidsMatter APS Elders. project team member and one or more The presenters acknowledged that, consultants. The local KidsMatter project staff although the session would take a strengths- were also involved in the planning of the based approach and focus on higher level workshops and where possible were in promotion, prevention and early intervention attendance on the day. In particular, the strategies, the trauma experienced by following factors were explored: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families Content of workshop, taking into and communities was acknowledged. The account location, timing, attendees session would encourage partnerships between Anticipated cultural constraints that may schools, families and health and community impact on the workshop services and explore how these partnerships can Role clarity, including areas of best bring about positive mental health presentation the consultants would like outcomes for Aboriginal children. These to lead considerations were critical to the cultural Composition of audience (i.e. safety of the workshop for the following professional backgrounds of registered reasons: participants, Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal The presentation was being delivered off participants and community Country (not within the consultants’ representatives). own traditional communities) It was identified that particular emphasis It was anticipated that the audiences would need to be placed on safe viewing would comprise both Aboriginal and considerations for participants and the potential non-Aboriginal participants (therefore a for the animations to trigger strong emotions in broad range of experiences and levels of viewers. At the beginning of the workshops understanding around presentation some time was spent on a safety statement which content could be assumed) involved:
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To counter consultants potentially How could the animations be used to being ‘put on the spot’ or questioned start conversations with families and about project areas outside of their school staff/colleagues about helping involvement children with mental health difficulties? To support the consultants to speak Given that the resources were developed about their experiences of being within the context of strengthening the involved in the project and share their KidsMatter resources more broadly, own reflections on the processes and increasingly the workshops focused on those development of the animations early childhood services and schools who were The APS KidsMatter project staff were in already, or interested in, participating in frequent contact with the consultants in the KidsMatter. Having the local KidsMatter days leading up to the workshop and were project staff on hand to follow up was also available to the consultants at the venue, helpful, particularly within the context of spending time preparing with them on the day further KidsMatter involvement. of the session. The role of the APS KidsMatter Follow up beyond the workshop was staff was to lead the workshop and provide critical to ensure ongoing reflection and opportunities for the consultant/s to share what learning and processing of any concerns. they were most comfortable with in the context Accordingly, the APS KidsMatter team of the workshop environment. This varied contacted the consultants in the days following between workshops, depending upon the the workshop to debrief and discuss any attendees and discussions which took place on recommendations they had for consideration the day. when planning future workshops. The animations were screened in parts to It was recognised that the success of the explore the three modules (Cultural Identity, resources was dependent upon the ways in Adults Taking Care of Themselves and which they were used. To this end the Resilience) and how these modules connect to workshops focused on promoting the culturally the KidsMatter components. Group reflective safe use of the resources, within various exercises were then conducted and questions contexts in which people would engage with were put to the group to prompt reflections as them. Over the course of the period in which the follows: workshops were held, it became evident that a. Positive School Community: Cultural workshops functioned best when the resources Identity were seen as part of the KidsMatter model In what ways did connecting to culture rather than as standalone animations. It was also support a sense of identity for the noted that the opportunities provided for characters participants to explore ways they might work b. Social and emotional learning: Adults together to support Aboriginal children and Taking care of Themselves and families within their local networks was highly Resilience valued and useful. All of this required time and What role did the adults and extended commitment in order for participants to family play in supporting the characters consider the use of the resources within their social and emotional wellbeing? particular circumstances. This meant that the How can schools and families use these focus of the workshops shifted to becoming animations to determine what’s embedded into KidsMatter events so that the important to Aboriginal children’s resources could be utilised as part of the social and emotional wellbeing? implementation of the KidsMatter project at an What were some of the strengths/ early childhood service or school. protective factors that supported the The general aims of the workshop then characters to overcome these became to showcase the KidsMatter Aboriginal challenges? social and emotional wellbeing resources as c. Helping children with mental health specific tools for professionals to: difficulties: Starting Conversations
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gain confidence to engage in Torres Strait Islander project, critical reflection conversations with families based on an on cultural safety enabled those involved to take increased understanding of the important into account people’s cultural and historical social factors to Aboriginal children’s context. This required ongoing reflections on social and emotional wellbeing; and one’s own social and cultural identities, the support the creation of culturally safe power and privilege which arose from those environments for Aboriginal children identities and how these could influence the families and staff. project and its other partners. This ongoing Feedback from these workshops indicated process of reflection and awareness can help that participants found the resources useful as promote a culturally secure and safe process and part of their KidsMatter tool kit to engage and environment that will improve health and progress Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander wellbeing outcomes for Indigenous people perspectives within their respective (Walker et al., 2014). communities. Opportunities for links to the The collaborative processes of the project KidsMatter Training to be held later in the day also assisted in building a culturally safe were made where appropriate so that the environment. The continuing engagement of the resources were not seen in isolation of the cultural consultants throughout the project and broader KidsMatter framework (e.g., mapping the application of narratives contributed by the of community agencies and linking with consultants enabled the formation of trusting Aboriginal Elders). While the content was at relationships between the Aboriginal times confronting for both Aboriginal and non- consultants and the project staff. Through Aboriginal participants, the themes’ messages balancing power and providing a safe and the nature of the animations led the group to environment for consultants, it enabled the further discussions about the historical, political project content to be rich and meaningful as and social disadvantage of Aboriginal peoples well as realistic as it was drawn from real life within a contemporary context, and how this experiences (Wright, 2001). Aboriginal impacts on the social and emotional wellbeing consultants provided ongoing feedback through of Aboriginal children. The workshops enabled active participation throughout the project on participants to discuss how the resources could the conceptual development of the animations, be shared within their particular education including the scripts, imagery and key contexts, including boarding schools (i.e. if messages. Finally, there was important feedback resources are appropriate to share and discuss and contributions from the consultants to with school students). Participants also provide ways of continuing cultural safety emphasised the need for a better understanding processes and practices in the use of the on how to use the animations and guidance animations. resources within the context of KidsMatter prior The current project had made a to sharing more broadly amongst colleagues or commitment to the use of Participatory Action using the animations with families. processes that involved Aboriginal project Discussion partners from the beginning and throughout the Cultural safety was seen as paramount in project. Ongoing consultation and negotiation the project’s development and implementation through all phases of the project was essential principles and processes. Reflection is a key for shared ownership of the project and to aspect of applying cultural safety, where one ensure as far as possible that the resources needs to critically examine their own power, accurately reflected what was considered most privilege and position. Guba and Lincoln (2005) important to the development of Aboriginal also point out the importance of seeing and social and emotional wellbeing. Whilst there experiencing oneself as both a teacher or were ongoing challenges in this process, such as respondent and a learner or inquirer, to be open limited time and funding, Aboriginal project and know the self within the process of the consultants were able to utilise their knowledge research. and expertise through the development to the In terms of the KidsMatter Aboriginal and implementation of the resources. These
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KidsMatter resources and Aboriginal children 83 understandings and contributions enabled the were taken on. As Mason (2015) warned, resources to be used in more culturally safe workers and consultants should be prepared for ways where Indigenous and non-Indigenous the emotional impact on the self that this professionals can engage in conversations with leaving can have. This was particularly the communities they worked with based on an important in the transition phases of the project, increased understanding of the important social which incorporated strategies to ease this factors to Aboriginal children’s social and process such as KidsMatter National Project emotional wellbeing. Manager and Senior Project Officer (Phase 1) Using Participatory Action processes the attending consultation workshops held with project aimed to recognise and work towards cultural consultants and the new project team to addressing social inequalities and power facilitate handover; re-engagement of the imbalances within the project through ongoing Aboriginal psychologist involved in Phase 1; reflection and action regarding power balances. and project staff from Phase 1 being engaged in As Bourke (2008) noted, non-Indigenous the planning and development of Phase 2. Phase research project workers need to know their 3 enabled the consultants to continue to limits of sharing power and decisions from the participate in the dissemination of the resources, outset of the project. The process of reflexivity although over time this reduced as the resources is then needed to be continued throughout the became more strongly embedded in the project, where project workers must continually KidsMatter resources more broadly. reflect on the balance of power through ongoing Furthermore, balancing the expectations consultation and negotiation (Massey et al., of the project workers and the consultants was 2015). This required the non-Indigenous also an important and sensitive area. A pertinent research project workers to recognise and example of this was the KidsMatter APS project constantly be aware of their more privileged staff being clear in relation to time and financial position, build trust through reciprocity and restraints when it came to the development and consensus, and work to develop the best review of animations. For example, cultural practices possible within the constraints of the consultants were advised that during feedback project to reduce power imbalances. This sessions about the draft animations, not all required reflexivity about project workers’ desired changes might be able to be understanding that Aboriginal consultants are accommodated, due to time and funding experts in their own lives, cultures and constraints, so prioritising would be required to communities. ensure the project’s timelines and budget were Using a collaborative approach, the met. This highlighted the need for project staff project staff needed to make decisions regarding to remain transparent when discussing project managing privilege, such as: how will the expectations, and conducting regular workers and consultants continue to participate discussions and collaborative problem-solving and represent the group? What happens when on these matters was vital. the project workers are offered a job somewhere The current project could be considered else? What happens when funding is exhausted as a way of ensuring stories are told in ways or if the overarching project changes direction? that help to make sense of factors which impact These decisions needed to be made through upon Aboriginal children’s social and emotional transparency, consultation and negotiation with wellbeing. The narrative process of the current the project’s Aboriginal consultants (Smith et project, particularly in Phase 1, involved an al., 2017). extensive listening process. This occurred when One aspect of privilege for the project Aboriginal consultants shared narratives workers related to who was able to have a regarding Aboriginal social and emotional choice about staying or leaving the group. wellbeing where project staff engaged in Therefore, an exit strategy was developed to listening practices, developed themes, engaged manage the changes in emotional engagement writers to translate the themes and ideas into with the group over time and develop a process stories for animation, and then came back to the to pass on the roles and responsibilities that Aboriginal consultants for feedback, with this
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KidsMatter resources for Aboriginal children 84 process cycle continuing throughout each stage funders it can place pressure on the way the of the project. This process cycle was employed project embodies a culturally-appropriate and not only for developing themes and cultural safe perspective, that seeks to engage in content for the animations and their distribution dialogue, reflect on power systems and work but even how the animations looked, the collaboratively (Kuipers, Harvey, Lindeman & sounds, the visuals and each detail for how their Stothers, 2014). These processes take time and stories were being represented. Whilst this tensions can develop when culturally ongoing process took time and resources, it was appropriate ways of working require time which vital for the consultants’ stories, connections to is not necessarily enabled by project deadlines. their stories and their contributions to be This can impact on the success of the project if reflected accurately in the resources. consultants do not have the opportunity to Challenges and Limitations contribute as much as they would have liked or One of the major challenges, which has if they feel their voices have been excluded. already been briefly discussed, was the role of This can create a power imbalance and place the power in the relationship between project intercultural participatory process approach at workers and Aboriginal partners. As the project risk. developed, further discussions were held about In this project, the APS KidsMatter the nature of power in the relationship, with an project team’s responsibility ultimately was to example being the language of ‘consultant’ deliver the project outcomes to the funding versus ‘partner’. As the project progressed, the body as part of the broader KidsMatter Project Aboriginal consultants saw the project as a (Smith et al., 2017). Doing so in a culturally partnership and suggested that it was important appropriate manner was important and for consideration of the language shifting to considerable efforts were made to ensure this represent this as well as the ways in which they was embedded into the project planning as worked with the APS KidsMatter project staff much as possible, although at times to adjust accordingly. This feedback was taken compromises were necessary. For example, this seriously with project staff exploring ways of sometimes meant a re-prioritising of aspects of working together and planning events together the project or changes in roles or employment as opposed to project staff just inviting them to as the project entered different stages. However, events (Smith et al., 2017). It was noted, at the completion of the project the Aboriginal however, that given the structure of the project, partners had invested cultural knowledge to with external funding sources and a limited help their communities. This investment did not timeframe, it would be difficult to make the stop when the project ended and the project shift to a true partnership. Efforts were made to staff moved on (Smith et al., 2017). enable the consultants to have more input where Challenges also arose in relation to possible, for example, on occasions the maximising the use of the resources within the consultants invited the APS KidsMatter project broader KidsMatter resources to reach the staff to attend events that they were part of. education, health and community professionals Discussions often took place with the they were intended to support in their work with consultants about the risks of consultations Aboriginal children and families. Often these taking place without appropriate follow up and professionals have many competing demands efforts were made throughout the project to be and a range of resources from which to choose. transparent and find effective ways to Some challenges arose while showcasing the communicate with the consultants, particularly resources via workshops. It became evident that as funding periods ended. among professionals there exists a range of Other ongoing challenges, and ones that knowledge and understandings about are likely to be experienced by almost every Aboriginal peoples, histories and cultures and community-based project, are finding effective experiences in working with Aboriginal ways to achieve meaningful outcomes with children and families. Some professionals had integrity within the limited funding sources, very limited knowledge or no experience of particularly money and time. When restrictions working with Aboriginal children and families, on time and ways of working are placed by while others, in particular Aboriginal
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KidsMatter resources for Aboriginal children 85 professionals, have extensive knowledge and and Torres Strait Islander staff in employment experiences. This means that targeting the within the project, rather than as consultants workshop content to the needs of a broad range outside of the project, overcoming some of the of learning needs could be challenging. power imbalances identified above. It is critical that the learning environment Conclusion be safe for all participants to maximise Developing projects in collaboration with individual contributions and learning outcomes. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples However the varying knowledge and requires approaches and practices that enable experiences among the groups could at times trusting relationships to develop. Utilising create the potential to place the cultural safety principles from intercultural participatory and of the learning environment at risk, for both critical theory can enable project staff to ensure Indigenous and non-Indigenous participants. processes are in place that work to recognise For example, Aboriginal participants might and reduce power imbalances, enable identify with the content of the animations participation through a range of consultation which could trigger strong emotions. Comments and engagement processes, and manage the or discussions among those with limited expectations of all parties. This can enhance the experiences or understandings of the content partnership while also enabling the project to could lead to Aboriginal participants feeling work within the constraints of time and funding disrespected and some comments to be limitations. The KidsMatter project case study interpreted negatively. Those with limited provides an example of ways in which these knowledge may have concerns that their approaches can be utilised to achieve the aims contributions to group discussions, or their of strengthening the project for Aboriginal questions regarding the content, might cause children and families. offence. To mitigate these risks, it was crucial for the APS KidsMatter team to work in References partnership with the KidsMatter partners to Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an effectively scope the learning needs and experimental ecology of human development. environment as best as possible at the workshop American Psychologist, 32, 513-531. planning stage. KidsMatter state-based staff can Commonwealth Department of Health and effectively guide the planning process for the Aged Care. (2000). Promotion, prevention resources to be showcased by identifying the and early intervention for mental health - A existing local education, health and community monograph. Canberra: Author Retrieved networks for the workshops to be delivered to, from http://www.health.gov.au/internet/ gauging interest among those networks and wcms/Publishing.nsf/Content/mental-pubs- identifying network linkages with Indigenous pprommon. workers and organisations for the KidsMatter Drahm-Butler, T. (2015). Decolonising identity resources to leverage. stories: Narrative practice through The KidsMatter Aboriginal and Torres Aboriginal eyes. In B. Wingard, C. Johnson Strait Islander resources were effectively added & T. Drahm-Butler. Aboriginal narrative on to strengthen the existing initiative, and in practice: Honouring storylines of pride, practice could easily be missed amongst the strength and creativity. Dulwich Centre. range of KidsMatter information and resources Gee, G., Dudgeon, P., Schultz, C., Hart, A. & available online. Ideally Aboriginal and Torres Kelly, K. (2014). Chapter 4. Aboriginal and Strait Islander resources will, in future projects, Torres Strait Islander Social and Emotional be able to be developed in conjunction with all Wellbeing. In P. Dudgeon, H. Milroy, & of the project’s resources and incorporated more Walker, R. Working Together: Aboriginal effectively. This would enable all professionals and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and families accessing the resources to more and Wellbeing Principles and Practice (2nd easily access the information and in so doing ed.). Commonwealth of Australia. enable greater understandings. This process would require the engagement of Aboriginal
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Guba, E.G. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). Spence, S. H. (1996). A case for prevention. In Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, P. Cotton & H. Jackson (Eds.), Early and emerging confluences. In N.K. Denzin, intervention and prevention in mental health & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.). The Sage Handbook (pp. 1-21). Melbourne: Australian of Qualitative Research. (3rd ed.) Thousand Psychological Society. Oaks: Sage Publications. Walker, R., & Sonn, C. (2010). Working as a Kidd, S.A., & Kral, M.J. (2005). Practicing culturally competent mental health Participatory Action Research. Journal of practitioner. In N. Purdie, P. Dudgeon & R. Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 182 – 195. Walker (Eds.), Working together: Aboriginal Kovach, M, (2010). Conversational method in and Torres Strait Islander mental health and Indigenous research. First Peoples Child and wellbeing principles and practice. Family Review, 5(1), 40–48. Commonwealth of Australia. Kuipers, P., Harvey, D., Lindeman, M. & Walker, R., Schultz, C., & Sonn, C. (2014). Stothers, K. (2014). Aboriginal and Torres Chapter 12. Cultural Competence – Strait Islander health practitioners in rural Transforming policy, services, programs and areas: credentialing, context and capacity practice. In P. Dudgeon, H. Milroy & R. building. Rural and Remote Health (Internet) Walker (Eds.), Working Together: 14: 2897. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Laverty, M., McDermott, D., & Calma, T, Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and (2017). Embedding cultural safety in Practice (2nd ed.). Commonwealth of Australia’s main health care standards. Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, 207(1): 15-16. White, M. (2007). Maps of narrative practice. Mason, K. (2015). Participatory Action New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Research: Coproduction, governance and Williams, R. (1999). Cultural Safety – what care. Geography Compass 9/9, 497-507. does it mean for our workplace? Australian DOI:10.1111/gec3.12227 and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Milroy, H. (2014). Chapter 21. Understanding 23(2), p. 213-214. the Lives of Aboriginal Children and Wilson, A. (2014). Addressing uncomfortable Families. In P. Dudgeon, H. Milroy, & issues: Reflexivity as a tool for culturally Walker, R. Working Together: Aboriginal safe practice in Aboriginal and Torres Strait and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health Islander health. The Australian Journal of and Wellbeing Principles and Practice (2nd Indigenous Education. 43, 218-230. Edition). Commonwealth of Australia. 10.1017/jie.2014.24. Morgan, A. (2000). What is narrative therapy? Wright, M. (2011). Research as intervention: An easy-to-read introduction. Michigan: Engaging silenced voices. Action Learning Dulwich Centre Publications. Action Research Association. Slee, P., Skrzypiec, G., Dix, K., Murray- World Health Organization [WHO]. (1994). Harvey, R., & Askell-Williams, H. (2012). Mental health programmes in schools. Evaluation in services with high proportions Geneva: Author. of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. Adelaide: Shannon Research Press. Address for correspondence Smith, S., O’Grady, L., Cubillo, C., & [email protected] Cavanagh, S. (2017). Using culturally appropriate approaches to the development Author biography of KidsMatter resources to support the social Samantha Smith is a Darug woman, descended and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal from the Boorooberongal people of the Darug children. Australian Psychologist, 52, 299- nation. She holds a Bachelor of Health Science 305. (Aboriginal health and community development) and Graduate Diploma – Indigenous Health Promotion from the University of Sydney. Samantha has worked in health and justice settings in the areas of
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Aboriginal health promotion and health working with Indigenous, migrant and refugee education, drug and alcohol, Aboriginal youth communities. health, Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing, psychology and reconciliation, and Lone Pearce was the Senior Project Officer on has particular experience working in Aboriginal the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander family violence at service delivery and policy KidsMatter project, and is also the Aboriginal and program levels. Samantha has a keen and Torres Strait Islander Engagement Officer interest in reconciliation as it relates to with Mercy Community Services (Qld). Lone's improved social and emotional wellbeing cultural connections are Gunggari people (South outcomes for Aboriginal people. Her work in West Queensland region) through his father, this space has included supporting organisations and he is equally proud of his non-Indigenous to strengthen relationships with Aboriginal heritage. Lone comes from 15+ years of public communities and to support the creation of service at a State and National level undertaking culturally safe system and service environments policy, financial management, project and engagement protocols. management and community engagement particularly in the education field, including The Dr. Lyn O’Grady is a Community Psychologist University of Queensland, and at the with a range of professional experience in the Queensland University of Technology. community, education and health sectors. She is a registered supervisor of psychology interns. Her most recent work has related particularly to the mental health and wellbeing of children, young people and families. This interest has extended in recent times to understanding suicidality and she has completed a Masters of Suicidology at Griffith University. Lyn has worked with parents in parenting programs, individually at the community level and in schools for over 20 years and managed a number of community-based projects. Lyn also worked as a school psychologist in the Western Metropolitan Region of Melbourne. At a more systemic level, she currently works as the Manager, Strategic Projects at the Australian Psychological Society.
Fletcher Curnow is currently the Manager of Learning and Development at The Reach Foundation. He was previously the KidsMatter Health and Community Project Officer at the Australian Psychological Society. Within this role Fletcher managed project deliverables for the national children’s mental health initiative, and provided professional development for project staff. Fletcher has completed his Masters in Community Psychology and has a strong research and practice interest in young people’s mental health and wellbeing. In his previous roles working with young people in primary and secondary schools he has designed, developed and coordinated several community projects
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88 Critical conversations around mothering: Mothering as marginal and mothering from the margins
Emma Sampson Motherhood Unmasked, Melbourne Sharon Dane University of Queensland Shannon Elizabeth McSolvin Motherhood Unmasked, Melbourne Sally Northfield Victoria University Harriet Radermacher Monash University Liz Short Victoria University
This article considers the experiences of oppression and the possibilities for empowerment when people mother, particularly from the margins. Drawing on key emerging theoretical examinations of motherhood, this article details four projects which foreground mothers’ experiences, voices and agency as central to achieving optimal health and wellbeing. The projects focus on: (1) valuing mothering and mothers through a community arts project; (2) the experience of mothering for those who are artists with an experience of mental ill-health; (3) a community program which engages mothers as volunteers to support new mothers; and (4) the impacts of the ‘NO to marriage equality’ campaign in Ireland on families, children and parents, and its relevance to Australia. Based on feminist principles, these initiatives highlight the role of broader structural factors that impact on mothers’ experiences and health, along with the ways local communities and the social and political systems are set up to support mothers (or not). These projects highlight some of the tensions and opportunities that emerge for community psychologists who work with and alongside mothers, and identify principles for ensuring that mothering is all-inclusive, recognises diverse and multiple identities and family structures, and is an empowering rather than an oppressive experience.
The experience of becoming and being a private and privatised realm) (Crittenden, mother is central to the lives of women who 2010; Dahlen, Barclay, & Homer, 2010; are mothers, yet many remain disempowered Davies & Harman, 2017; Zubrick et al., despite forty years of feminism (O’Reilly, 2008). 2016). O’Reilly contends that motherhood is Women mother within broad familial, the unfinished business of feminism, as it social, cultural and institutional frameworks, remains marginalised and oppressive to many ideologies, discourses, laws and policies, who mother. This is evidenced in such things which in Western (and many other) societies as: workforce participation rates (Zubrick, include the patriarchal structures in which Nicholson, Sanson & Jackiewicz, 2008); the they live (O’Reilly, 2016). Adrienne Rich continued unequal division of unpaid care (1986) highlighted that mothering is assumed work (Pocock, Charleworth & Chapman, to be natural to women - all women naturally 2013); the devaluing of mothering and care want to and know how to mother - and that work by the broader community (Currie, the work of mothering is driven by instinct 2009); the denigration of families of single rather than intelligence and developed by and lesbian women; the impossible standards habit rather than skill. There is an emphasis mothers are held to; and the socially isolating on blood ties, where the birthmother is conditions within which women are positioned as the ‘real’ and authentic mother, increasingly expected to mother (within the and a nuclear family the ideal family
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structure, with mother as nurturer, and father Porter, 2015, p.xii) - mothers who, through a as necessary and as provider (O’Reilly, perception that they do not fit the accepted 2016). Second, mothers are assigned sole and expected norms of motherhood, have responsibility for ‘motherwork’ but are given been relegated to the margins. That is, within little power to determine the conditions under motherhood, there is further relative which they mother; “a mother raises her marginalisation, with a conceptual, children in accordance with the values and discursive and practical ‘hierarchy’, related expectations of the dominant to distance from the ‘ideal’, with the ‘ideal’ culture” (O’Reilly, 2016, p.19). mother at the top of the hierarchy being one The current western discourse of who is married, heterosexual, cisgender, ‘intensive mothering’ furthers the white, middle class, and able-bodied expectations of mothers to include “first, a (DiLappi, 1989; Short, 2007). The large and mother is the central caregiver; second, increasing number of women who are other mothering is regarded as more important than than (and othered by) the construct of the paid employment; and third, mothering ‘ideal’ mother includes those who are single, requires lavishing copious amounts of time, lesbian, other-than-white, socio- energy, and material resources on the economically disadvantaged, and women child” (Hays, 1996, p. 8). experiencing physical or mental health Linked to the intensification of difficulties (DiLapi, 1989; Short, 2007). mothering is its increased privatisation These mothers are on the lower rungs of the (O’Reilly, 2016). Public discourse has ladder. relegated the subject of parenting to the Laws, policies, practices and realms of personal choice and private assumptions that attribute different levels of responsibility, where parenting is seen to be respect, privilege and recognition to various the responsibility of one (or two) people. mothers and their families are perpetuated by Coupled with a culture of ‘mother blame’ and perpetuate the hierarchy. Major fuelled by narrow, negative stereotypes of assumptions structuring and expressed in the ‘bad’ mothers and at the other extreme hierarchy include heteronormativity (i.e., that impossibly high standards of being a perfect it is ‘normal’ to be heterosexual, and that it is or ‘good mother’, mothers report feeling ‘right’ or best to be in a family with alone and isolated in their experience of heterosexual parents), ‘biologism’ (i.e., that mothering and shoulder an unfair burden of the most primary, important and ‘real’ family guilt and blame when they ‘don’t get it relationships are based on biology, and, right’ (e.g. Caplan, 2013; Thurer, 1994). hence, that children’s ‘biological parents are Although in this way mothering is their parents), and hierarchies relating to marginalised, it is also simultaneously and class and culture (DiLapi, 1989; Short, paradoxically valorised, idealised, and held to 2007). be the epitome of ‘femininity’ and a woman’s This hierarchy shapes mothers’ life purpose. This means motherhood is both options, opportunities, status, health and a path to lower status, as well as to interpersonal relationships and becomes potentially higher status for women, which visible in who is encouraged to have adds complexity, contradiction, constraints children, who is able to keep their children in and enticements for mothers and women their care, and how much recognition and more generally. support various mothers and potential The Motherhood Hierarchy: Mothers at mothers are given (DiLappi, 1989; Short, the Margins 2007). The obstacles and difficulties caused Within the broader institution of by being positioned lower down on the motherhood, there are mothers who “feel ‘hierarchy’ of mothers, and its related legal, alienated or stigmatised; mothers who have economic, public policy, practice, and social been rendered invisible; mothers who feel implications, can be experienced on a they have been silenced” (Raith, Jones & constant (if not consciously thought about)
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basis, including when interacting with Detailed descriptions of the methods and government agencies, schools, health and findings are not provided, given that the other service providers, family, neighbours focus of the article is to draw out the and the general community. principles that link the projects rather than Community Psychology Responses to comprehensively reporting the findings. Each Mothers and Mothering project adhered to ethical standards and Community psychologists are well processes for data collection, analysis and placed to work with women, by valuing their reporting as appropriate to their respective current experiences and at the same time contexts as university-based research or imagining and working towards achieving community-based initiatives. gender equality (Gridley, Turner, D’Arcy, The first project presented is a Sampson & Madyaningrum, 2016). Gender is community arts-based initiative aimed at a key consideration in community valuing mothers and mothering. Motherhood psychology (Gridley & Turner, 2010) and Unmasked was initiated in response to this consideration could be expected to experiences of mothering not being valued, compel community psychologists to work particularly at a local community level. It towards improving the lives of women and was developed to create a space for local girls, especially those who are disadvantaged mothers to engage and reflect on their or marginalised. Our discipline and mothering experiences through various profession is well placed to do so, given that creative media, and to profile the value of community psychology aims to empower the mothers and their roles in society. powerless, reduce inequality, advance social The second is a research project, justice, and understand and change societal Canvassing the emotions: women, creativity forces that maintain inequality, injustice and and mental health, which focuses on the role powerlessness (Gridley et al, 2016). Yet there of artmaking in the lives of women who are has not been an extensive focus on mothers also mothers. Women within this research and mothering within community identify their multiple positions of psychology. marginality as women – women as mothers, However, several recent articles women as artists, and women experiencing highlight an important role, and imperative, mental ill-health. The implications of for the discipline to work with and for experiencing marginality in these ways for mothers in communities (e.g., D’Arcy, their identity, art practice, mothering and Turner, Crockett & Gridley, 2012). D’Arcy et wellbeing are discussed. al. (2012) point to the interconnectedness and The third project is an evaluation of a tensions across their personal roles as community volunteer program aimed at mothers and as community psychologists, supporting new mothers. Caring Mums and illustrate how feminist-informed engages community volunteers who are approaches to improving mothers’ and themselves experienced, non-judgemental children’s well-being within a community mothers, to provide support to new mothers. environment are important, particularly in Many of the mothers supported are relation to supporting, partnering with, and vulnerable or marginalised, including as empowering mothers in all their diversity. having limited family support, as migrants, This article draws on four community and/or facing mental health challenges in research projects with strong social justice their transition to mothering. foci and identifies implications for the Lastly, research is presented on the experiences of mothers, mothering and psychological and social impacts of the ‘NO marginalisation, particularly in Western marriage equality’ campaign in Ireland, contexts. These projects shed light on how particularly as it affected families, children mothers and mothering remain marginalised, and parents, as well as the impacts of a and on how certain types of mothers (and similar campaign in Australia. Mothers and their families) are marginalised differently. mothering are at the forefront of ‘NO’
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Selected Artworks featured in the Motherhood Unmasked Exhibition, 2012. Photograph: Emma Sampson
campaigns, and used to reflect and attempt to (Emma and Shannon) as two mothers living reinforce mainstream heteronormative values. in the same local community with a shared The ‘NO marriage equality’ campaign interest in community arts and commitment portrayed families without a father as to empowering local mothers. inadequate in terms of being able to meet We saw arts-based community children’s needs. Arguably towards the development as providing an opportunity to bottom of the mothering hierarchy are lesbian build community identity and wellbeing and mothers, as they are stigmatised as deviant, as a bridge for communicating the lived with non-traditional family structures and experiences of people that defies social and fewer reproductive and legal rights. Their economic differences (McSolvin, 2017). In experiences of a campaign designed to de- this way, we were creating a medium for value their families, their wellbeing and challenging and highlighting power ultimately their role as mothers are discussed. imbalances in communities – a step towards Motherhood Unmasked: Critical, Creative bringing social change (Clover, 2011). By and Community Conversations Around displaying artwork that depicts and values Mothering their experiences and perspectives, art acts The transition to new motherhood is as a vehicle for sharing and amplifying one of the biggest a woman is likely to make attitudes which value mums and their roles in her lifetime, and yet many report being in the community (Dunphy & Ware, 2013). unprepared for the enormity of what they Founded in 2009 as a community arts experience. First-time mothers are especially project, MUM aimed to bring together new vulnerable to feelings of self-doubt and mothers within local communities and uncertainty, as well as self-regulation and engage them in arts-based activities to silencing which provide fertile ground for express and share their experiences of being critique and disparagement of their own, and mothers. The project was a partnership others’, mothering performances (Raith et al., between mothers and community 2015). stakeholders, such as service clubs, local While support services are available to businesses, the local community arts centre, new mothers, the focus on child health and maternal child and health services and the development has led to a restricted ability to local Member of Parliament. The project ran respond to mothers’ needs and experiences for five years in three different localities, (Hooker, Taft, & Small, 2016). It is within and provided an online platform for sharing this context that Motherhood Unmasked women’s stories of mothering and creatively (MUM) was developed, initiated by ourselves engaging with experiences of mothering.
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'This is me. These are my colours. I chose them.' Shannon McSolvin, 2017 Masters thesis Elena Jenkin, Beauty in pregnancy, 2013 “Bearing Witness”. Recycled wrapping paper (from child’s birth, The impact of art-creation and exhibition for hence the soft colours). ‘This piece is in participants of community development response to my sadness at hearing so many project, Motherhood Unmasked. pregnant women refer to themselves as fat and express concern about the additional weight that they put on during pregnancy. While each year the project was run Pregnancy is a natural part of the human slightly differently, it typically involved a condition; yet the hypersexualisation of series of structured workshops (between four women via the media and consumerism is so and six) followed by an exhibition where profound that it leads to women doubting participants displayed their work. Held to themselves and questioning their body image coincide with (and reclaim) Mothers’ Day, the during this life stage. This piece celebrates exhibition provided an opportunity to value the beauty of the pregnant woman.’ mothers individually and collectively, and aimed to change attitudes around the role and value of mothers and mothering. The structured two mothers and engaged over two hundred workshops each ran for two hours with a theme community members via the community and particular art-based activity (such as self- exhibitions. Where possible participation by portraits to explore the theme of identity). mothers has been supported in the form of Parameters of the workshops were carefully set childcare, transport, free participation and up to foreground mothers’ experiences in a non local venues at times suitable for mothers. -judgemental and confidential way, and each Participant Outcomes workshop offered opportunities for reflection An evaluation was conducted in 2015 and feedback. which involved a pre-and post-survey, a To date, MUM has worked with thirty- focus group with participating mothers and interviews with key stakeholder
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organisations. Nine mothers participated in the program and completed a survey and/or focus group; three key stakeholders were interviewed; and twelve people who attended the exhibition completed a survey. Thematic analysis was conducted and the following themes were identified. Space for themselves. Participants identified that ‘doing something for themselves’ was something they had gained by being involved, both the opportunity to have time and space for themselves and subsequently the realisation that this was important for their own and their family’s wellbeing. It was nice to spend time for ourselves and not feel guilty. …. to be able to come and do something for me, you actually get to breathe, like yourself gets to come out or something and that doesn’t happen often… The role of art. The program attracted women who were interested in, and in some cases in the past had engaged in art. This program gave them an opportunity to re- engage in art making, and represented a chance to do something for themselves, to express themselves and to learn, develop and experiment with different media, techniques Anna Waterworth, You are not alone, 2012, and effects. acrylic on canvas, dimensions Doing it in an art setting is a very ‘This piece is inspired by a letter I wrote to positive thing - you have the “midnight mothers” – mothers awake during opportunity just to draw or do the the still of night, feeding, settling and caring for painting and even if you doubt their babies. As a new mum, I dreaded the night your own ability with your art time. It was dark and quiet and lonely. At night skills it doesn’t matter what you I often had feelings of hopelessness, all alone created… with only my thoughts and my new baby for You have a preconceived idea of company. an art medium and you haven’t The letter I wrote is one of encouragement and used it for years and it’s like wow, reassurance. The phrase “you are not alone” yeah…. came from a conversation I had recently with a Emotional/psychological experiences of new mum. She told me that while she sits alone mothering. Participating in the program during the night feeding her baby she pictures enabled most of the women to explore all of the mothers in the streets around her, do- thoughts, feelings and experiences relating to ing the same thing. This beautiful image gave mothering and to other aspects of their lives. me great comfort and inspired me to write my This was particularly important to them as letter and create this piece.’ mothers, as their roles do not often enable them the space to reflect in this way.
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I liked being able to externalise some of the internal stuff, create something out of what I was feeling but hadn’t really talked about, the process was good and sometimes for me it wasn’t always a happy experience so it was a good chance to release it… Being able to reconnect with your own thoughts …you are so busy dealing with day to day stuff to reflect there’s just not enough time in the day really. Social connection and mutual support. One of the main reasons for participation in MUM was to meet and/or get to know other mums in their community. The workshops provided a non-judgemental and inclusive environment so mothers felt they could share Emma Sampson ‘What do you do?’, 2010, their experiences openly and support and Thread on Chux. connect with each other. This piece references the invisibility I felt as a On one of my works it had lots of first-time mother. In my experience, what I do hats that I’d cut out and someone as a mother, is an interesting contradiction. On else said ‘that’s exactly what it’s one hand there is the ‘drudgery of the domestic like’ and then there was one with sphere’, as much of your time is taken up by food, food, food…..it was just that housework (hence the work on Chux). On the recognition from others, that the other hand, you are raising a human being, thoughts you have going through each interaction you have with your baby is your head, others have them too. part of the process of development. The process has been good just to be validated and to hear others’ Valuing mothers and mothering. experiences, and I’ve learned a lot Mothers felt more valued by participating in from some of the other women the project and also were more likely to value here and it’s been a good chance mothering and motherhood generally. The to get to meet some new people… program had enabled them to see more Unmasking motherhood and sharing clearly how valuable their role is, not only openly. Participants had the opportunity to within their own family but more broadly in become aware of, analyse and critique the community. (deconstruct) how mothering is represented We’re just expected to do what within our broader society and relate this to we do and that’s how it is their own experiences. whereas when someone works The week we did about the media then they create something and and the media influence was very there’s value put to that whereas powerful, you know the influence what we do is keeping a but to actually get a magazine and household, keeping children look at perfect households, happy, happy, fed, on time, all those clean, smiling, perfect tennis million and one things we have to whites, perfect children…. it’s a do….I think this process made it lot of pressure. more visible, I hope so.
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Community Outcomes context, examined the role and meaning of Community psychology has an artmaking in the lives of women who had imperative beyond individual empowerment to experienced mental ill-health and/or community strengthening, and the evaluation psychological trauma. The project of MUM indicates that the project was incorporated a series of interviews with 32 effective in valuing the experiences of women who made art and who had mothering within local communities as well as experienced mental ill-health, and a touring building local connections and access for exhibition of art produced by 13 women with mothers more broadly. While further research an experience of mental ill-health, which is required, it is hoped that the project has travelled to five metropolitan and regional begun to change attitudes about the role, value locations in Victoria. and experiences of mothers by challenging The artist-mothers in this research were stereotypes of mothering and providing involved in either independent studio art perspectives of the lived experience of practices, community-based art initiatives, or mothers. It is through these critical, creative supported art-skills-based classes. Hovering and community conversations that we hope at the nexus of a number of contested mothering will become less marginal and the domains, the project bypassed the perennial role, resilience and experiences of mothers question of what is art to explore the more highly valued and supported. neglected and perhaps more interesting query Women Making Art, Making Lunch, – what does art do for the artmaker, and Making Sense what is the function of artmaking in relation The second project involved research to wellbeing? These women offered striking conducted by Sally Northfield about women perspectives on a society which has making art, the challenges and rewards, what frequently marginalised women as mothers, this might mean if you happen to have had an women as artists, and women experiencing experience of mental ill-health and you are also mental ill-health. responsible for caring for children, and what it In contemporary Australia, there are might mean if you are thwarted in your desire reports from various arts disciplines and ability to make art. Conducted between underlining the significant disadvantage 2007 and 2015, Canvassing the emotions: women continue to experience as art Women, creativity and mental health in practitioners (Browning, 2016; Lally & Miller, 2012; Richardson, 2013; Throsby & Zednick, 2010). What women are experiencing day-to-day in the band-room or at the easel is rarely documented; nor are their experiences of mothering and making art. As Power (2008) noted, “Art and motherhood have long sat in troubled relationship to one another”, though this has rarely been explored outside of the artist’s journal, and “little wonder that I had no model for the way a woman, let alone a mother, might live as an artist” (p.1). Sustaining an art practice for a woman has cultural, social and political parameters that influence a career, motherhood, and a life of making. Whether writer, visual artist, actor, Frida Kahlo & Malala Yousafzai paste ups, comedian or musician, having an experience artist unknown, 2016: located on the Women’s of mental-ill health and also becoming and Mural: Barbed Wire to Bomboniere, Smith being a mother further complicate the ability Street, Fitzroy by Megan Evans & Eve Glenn, to make art, and impact women’s wellbeing. 1986. Photo: Sally Northfield.
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Braidotti (2011) defines “mothers” as children was seen to compromise artmaking, referring “to the maternal function of as were the “the duties of married women... not only the biocultural entities thus life” (Goldie, 2003, p. 5). represented as women, the empirical subjects It has been argued that throughout of socio-political realities, but also the history only the most doggedly determined discursive field of feminist theory, which has women could sustain an artistic practice, and made it a political priority to reappraise the it is particularly difficult for women without status of embodied female subjects” (p. 215). status or resources and who experience Incorporating the visceral experience of mental ill-health (Power, 2008). Simonton artmaking is central to describing the way a (1997) found that the peak productive age for woman makes sense of her situation, her creativity was 40 years of age, and for actions (including mothering practices) and women, this is a time when child rearing is her art, capturing the embodied and situated potentially at its most demanding. For some, experience of artmaking. Grosz (2008) the characteristics of mother and artist are believes that this is why art is found across all too divergent, each too all-consuming to co- cultures and times as “it is the most vital and exist, so either they choose to wait until direct form of impact on and through the caring duties are less burdensome, stop body… a link with forces it cannot otherwise altogether, or try to forge a life to perceive and act upon” (p. 23). As one accommodate both. Power describes this as research participant (Ola) commented: “I’ve the ‘either/or issue’ – “motherhood as a always just really loved art and it’s always sacred calling versus a life of art as indulgent just been part of me - it affects everything I transgression; the fear that to succeed at one do in life. It’s just me… It’s what I do. It’s means to fail at the other” (p. 23). who I am.” The divided self/artist/mother was Many, but not all, of the women in this strongly articulated by women in this project were mothers who, with an research, who discussed how they made art experience of mental ill-health, made art from in the gaps left over after family needs had the margins. The hegemonic mythology of been addressed, their feelings of guilt as motherhood attempts to dictate a set of artmaking took time away from the family, standards that must be upheld to be a good or and the need to keep their artmaking secret perfect mother (Dux, 2015), with the adverse and instead “slave over the four hot health consequences of idealised motherhood kids” (Frances). Some participants also being well documented (Henderson, Harmon discussed how they had worked to foster a & Newman, 2016; Ross, 2016). Artist- love of artmaking in their children in stark mothers in the research spoke of the layers of contrast to their own childhood experiences, complexity of being a ‘good’ mother with the while another found the tussle of balancing overlay of mental ill-health and trying to her carer’s responsibilities with that of the make art concurrently. The implications of artist extremely difficult until the artist in her not being able to make art were significant, as “started to rebel” (Judy). These experiences evident in the following participant quotes: illustrate the difficulty of shaking the If I don’t I get sick (Janis). housewife/mother/sick identity to maintain I just have to do it – I think it is an artistic practice and identity. Australian absolutely essential (Ruby). artist Constance Stokes also struggled with It’s a survival strategy – it saved this dilemma, declaring “creative work is a my life (Joy). difficult life for a woman if she is a wife and In considering the barriers faced by mother” and she felt she was “half-mother, women wanting to create and sustain an art half painter” (Summers, 2009, p. 51). “I practice, it is interesting to note that many would begin painting only to find a small Australian women artists in the 20th century hand tugging at my skirt. Then I would have remained unmarried and did not have to come down from the clouds to attend to children (Peers, 1993; Topliss, 1996). Having them” (p. 53). Modjeska’s book, Stravinsky’s Lunch (2001), provokes the
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question, who will make the lunch for the woman artist busy at her easel? Another challenge artist-mothers face is resisting the devaluing of their work, where artmaking is viewed as a hobby or a pastime, or work from an amateur. Melbourne artist Erica McGilchrist commented that some women had only just begun to have the confidence to proclaim “I am an artist” in contrast to saying “well I paint a bit but I am just a housewife and mother” (Blackman, 1985, session 6: 0:20:02). Artmaking can also often mean rarely leaving the house. The Artist unknown, Yes Campaign paste-up workplace is often the kitchen table where intervention 2017: located on the Women’s materials have to be cleared up for dinner, Mural: Barbed Wire to Bomboniere, Smith and a regular income from artmaking is not Street, Fitzroy by Megan Evans & Eve Glenn, assured. Making art is not sanctioned as 1986. Photo: Danielle Hakim ‘legitimate work’ like an external formally paid job, and child care is not viewed as an option. Such work can be isolating and opportunities to network, collaborate, exhibit numerous invitations presented to cease their and pursue residencies are reduced (Clayton, work, many women in Australia have 2016). Melbourne painter Robyn Dawson sustained an art practice and mothered their said, “I’ve heard about a lot of women who children and continue to require support to have become mothers who have stopped do so. For many women in this research, painting. It’s really hard… just having to artmaking was a way of living that was make the time. …and then feeling guilty… integral to wellbeing and inseparable from But I still feel strongly that I’m a better existence: the doing, the act of artmaking, is mother because I’m doing that, I have more nourishing and sustaining and often vital to to offer them” (Johnston & Purcell, 1985, p. who I am. Artmaking makes meaning and 53). enriches and thickens the quality of the life The contradictory pressures of being an of the artist and the lives of the audience. artist-mother remain steadfastly The findings of Sally’s research also give an contemporary, as Power (2008) articulated, intense indication of what is at risk if a life of Frequently I stormed about the making is devalued, interrupted or halted. house, pent up with frustration But I know the power of art…- it’s that exploded at any small kind of like someone going to a irritation. Ideas rubbed against psychiatrist regularly… So without the interior surfaces of my brain art I just couldn’t have made it like grains of sand, chafing till I through life I’m sure… It’s kept was raw. (p. 19) me alive (Joy). I knew that if I buried that …sometimes I’ve felt like it’s creative urge in myself, it would saved me… I think sometimes only re-emerge in some ugly and artmaking can help people keep distorted form; that it would not their sanity (Ruby). in fact make me a better mother Community psychologists working but one full of bitterness and with artist-mothers can explore the often frustration – a recipe for ignored role of the creative dimension and martyrdom. (p. 22) artistic endeavour. What does this mean to Despite formidable challenges women? Are they involved in artmaking encountered, collective and personal, or whilst mothering and if so, are the conditions in which they live conducive to a life of
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making? How is an art practice influenced by being a mother, and in what ways does this impact on mental health? It is not only individual support that is lacking, but also institutional support. Artistic women require funding and resources to come together across art platforms and cultures to discuss what (individual and institutional) supports they require to pursue creative lives and expand understandings of being a woman, a mother and an artist in Australia. Such initiatives are akin to what Code (1995) called ‘choral support’ – and for artist- mothers, with and without an experience of Image: Key stakeholders at Caring Mums mental ill-health, space is opened up for Evaluation Launch, 2017 resonances and iterations of other stories in marginalised spaces. By adding more voices, 2012). The broader de-valuing of caring and the murmuring becomes audible. This project specifically mothering can lead to further suggests that creating conditions to support a feelings of isolation as articulated by Rich life of making and growing children (1986), who attributed mothers’ exhaustion simultaneously enhances wellbeing - and and guilt to “the isolation of patriarchal offers a life that has possibilities, or as motherhood and its impossible standards of Braidotti (2011) says, horizons of hope. perfection” (cited in O’Reilly, 2016, p.133). Program Context: Needs and Experiences of Mothers and babies in disadvantaged or New Mothers difficult circumstances (including those Pregnancy and the postnatal period is living in poverty, single and/or young likely to be a time of mixed emotions for mothers, recently arrived migrants and most mothers, with feelings ranging from joy refugees, mothers living with a disability, or and pleasure, to anger, sadness, loneliness, with a child who has a disability, or mothers anxiety and depression (Paris & Dubis, who don’t have a mother alive or living close 2005). There are potential challenges to face by) have been found to have poorer physical in the intensity of the care required for and mental health outcomes than other looking after a newborn, as well as mothers and babies. They are also less likely experiences of exhaustion, both physically to have direct family support or to access and mentally, and recovery from birth. It is maternity and child health services (McLeish also a period of significant transition and & Redshaw, 2015). change, in taking on a new identity as a Relational and cultural theory, as well mother which can influence existing as other psychological theories that focus on relationships and family dynamics. relationships, place relational growth and Many women find that pregnancy and/ connection as central to women’s sense of or having a baby is more challenging than self and wellbeing (Jordan, Kaplan, Miller, they anticipated and can experience a sense Stiver & Surrey, 1991). Such theoretical of isolation or disconnection. For others, frameworks hold that an individual's symptoms of depression or anxiety may be psychological development occurs in the triggered either during pregnancy or context of growth, fostering connections postpartum. It is estimated that up to one in through the experience of being heard, seen ten women experiences antenatal depression, and understood (Paris, Gemborys, Kaufman and more than one in seven new mums & Whitehill, 2007). Based on these concepts, experience postnatal depression each year in programs have been developed which Australia, with postnatal anxiety thought to promote supportive, non-judgmental be as common (Deloitte Access Economics, relationships, foster trust, and build self-
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confidence in new mothers. With the experience of being cared for, supported, and Program Highly Valued by Mothers, nurtured through these changes, women are but… more able to care for their infants and The findings revealed a program develop a stronger sense of self identity. which was highly valued not only by the Background to the Caring Mums Program recipients (mothers), but by the volunteers, and Evaluation the staff, and other key stakeholders. Caring Mums is a Melbourne-based Coupled with being highly valued (88% of community program established in 2011. It is survey respondents – mums who had been a confidential, home-based, free-of-charge engaged in the program since 2011 – were and non-denominational service that provides very satisfied with the program overall; 92% emotional support to mums of newborn were very satisfied with their volunteer babies and women from a wide range of mum; and 84% would recommend the socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds program to a friend or family member), the during pregnancy. Caring Mums developed evaluation also found that participation in response to the inadequate social and resulted in better self-reported mental health community supports in place for new and sense of empowerment for mums (92% mothers, as an innovative program that of survey respondents strongly agreed the engages community volunteers to provide program had been a positive experience; much needed support to new mothers in their 65% strongly agreed it reduced their feelings own homes and communities. of isolation). Survey findings were supported This is a unique program, by existing program data collected since the complementary to existing (more clinical) program’s inception. Most notable was the services, which acknowledges and addresses statistically significant reduction in mothers’ the needs of new mothers for non-judgmental concerns for their own health and wellbeing emotional support. New mothers entering the as compared to when they first started in the program are carefully ‘matched’ with a program: a one tail paired-samples t-test volunteer (Caring Mum) who then meet compared pre (M=4.56, SD=11.23) and post every week for about a year. Key components (M=2.95, SD=6.39) levels of concerns at of the program comprise broad inclusion 95% confidence interval; p = 0.0005. criteria for entry into the program as directed She really empowered me at by mothers’ needs and experience, and a points to trust myself and trust in personal, responsive and timely intake my mothering. (Mum) process, as well as comprehensive and Having someone to talk through ongoing training, support and supervision for my worries and concerns helps volunteers. rather than internalizing it. Gives An independent evaluation of Caring me confidence to make decisions Mums was undertaken (by Harriet and about what is best for me and my Emma), with the primary aim to identify the baby. (Mum) short-term and intermediate outcomes of the Underpinning the success of the program, particularly in relation to mothers’ program was that mothers and mothering health and wellbeing (mental health and were highly valued: sense of empowerment, as well as awareness Caring Mums is the essence of and use of local support and services). An being a mother and valuing that, online survey with 51 mums, 14 interviews and that that requires support not with mums and agency workers, and a focus just giving lip service. While group with 7 volunteers complemented there may be other challenges for statistical analysis of existing program data. the Mum, such as mental health Survey data were analysed using descriptive or physical issues, ultimately you statistics, and interview data and focus groups still need to parent and it values were analysed thematically. that by saying ‘I can help you and
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walk alongside you’...it’s not in relocated or being estranged from family) place of other things that may be rendered first time mothers quite vulnerable helpful (such as services), but in as they negotiated the demands of a new addition. (Agency worker) baby, changes in identity, and a limited Furthermore, the non-clinical approach knowledge about appropriate services and enabled mothers to be seen as more than a support. The pervasive ideals of what diagnosis or symptoms, as having an identity mothering looks like, combined with the as a mother, and also a person with her own societal expectation that family will be there needs and experiences. The considered to help and that mothering skills are innate matching process resulted in strong mother- (Rich, 1986), all served to make many of the volunteer relationships based on trust and non mothers in the program feel marginalised and -judgment. The program also provided inadequate. validation to new mothers – and bore witness The Construction of Lesbian and Single to mothers’ experiences: Mothers and their Families in the ‘NO’ For one mother, this was the first Campaign in Ireland’s Marriage Equality time someone else had held her Referendum baby, who was 7 months old - This section presents information about someone else to love her baby… how mothers and their families who live it brings joy to the mother that outside the dominant heteronormative family someone else is interested in her structure were constructed by the ‘No’ and baby. (Agency worker) campaign in the lead-up to the 2015 marriage The positive value and impacts of the equality referendum in Ireland. The data is program for mothers, volunteers, staff and drawn from the research report Swimming service providers were clear. The struggle to with sharks: The negative social and gain recognition of the program’s value psychological impacts of Ireland’s marriage (particularly to gain ongoing, secure funding) equality referendum ‘NO’ campaign (Dane, was perhaps tied up with the broader societal Short & Healy, 2016), with these findings marginalisation of mothers. As evaluators also considered in relation to the similar and community psychologists, we were also ‘NO’ campaign conducted in Australia in distinctly aware of the inherent tension within 2017. The research was the first conducted a program that supported individual mothers on the perceived impacts of a public and was attentive to their needs versus what campaign against marriage equality at a we saw as the need to change the structures national level. The study used a mixed and attitudes that led to them feeling methods analysis (including parametric and marginalised and inadequate in the first place. non-parametric quantitative analysis and On this basis, the evaluators thematic analysis) of the experiences and recommended that the host organisation take views of 1,657 participants, who identified as a key advocacy role to inform government lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or and society more broadly about the intersex (LGBTI) or as a close family experiences of mothers, to challenge member. The research on the campaigns, the prevailing community stereotypes and referendum and the subsequent changes in expectations. Furthermore, a greater Ireland was undertaken by researchers in identification and understanding of the needs Australia and Ireland, in collaboration with of mothers, along with gender equality more and support from four community broadly, has the potential to increase the organisations (see Dane et al 2016 for further perceived value of Caring Mums in the eyes details). How the ‘No’ campaign’s of future funding bodies. constructions and their negative effects on The mothers in this program were not mothers in particular can be resisted are also necessarily ‘marginalised’ in the way this discussed below. paper describes this construct. However a This research, and the similar situation lack of family support (on account of having in Australia, exemplifies how within
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motherhood, there is further relative flyers, and on social media, and “it was marginalisation on the basis of sexuality and impossible to shield yourself from the non-conformity with heteronormativity. campaign”. Within the discursive and practical Similar to the Australian campaign, a ‘hierarchy’ of mothers and families, reflected key focus of the ‘No’ campaign was in and perpetuated by discriminatory laws, portraying families headed by one married mothers who do not mother within the mother and father, with their biological dominant patriarchal heteronormative children as “real” and “ideal” and all others structure are actively and with strategic intent as less so (i.e., including single parent portrayed as lesser and deficient (Short, 2007; families, step-families, blended families, Short & Riggs, 2007). Marriage laws (such as same-sex parented families, and families in those in Australia until 2017 and Ireland until which a parent has died). Specifically, 2015) which only enable a woman to marry parents who are heterosexual and married her partner if the partner is legally defined as were reported to be portrayed as the most male, publically attribute different options, acceptable, worthy, respectable and respect, privilege and recognition to various adequate, and others as less so, and children mothers and their families according to raised by other than heterosexual married conformity with heteronormativity. Marriage parents as damaged, disadvantaged, and at laws are thus key reinforcers and potential risk (p. 40). Of note in the Irish ‘No’ changers of the motherhood and family campaign and, as some have suggested, hierarchy, and of the extent to which women contributing to its failure, was the strident can live family lives that are less shaped and construction of all families that do not have oppressed by within-family gender-based one mother and one father, and preferably constraints. married, co-habiting, biological parents, as The strongly fought public campaigns deficient and as lesser. Typical comments to retain and to remove gender-based from participants in Dane et al’s (2016) discrimination in marriage in Ireland, as well research were: as in Australia and elsewhere, indicate that it This campaign told them their is widely recognised by both opponents and families were abnormal and that proponents of change that such they had to prove themselves in discrimination not only reflects but shapes the eyes of the public. (p.22) society. Opening the option to marry to all Her teacher stood up and spoke couples, regardless of gender or sexuality, for 40 minutes about how challenges, resists and contributes to children that would be brought up deconstructing heterosexism, cisgenderism, by gay parents would be and patriarchy. As a result, society moves damaged, without realising my towards being less structured and stratified by daughter had same sex parents. gender and sexuality-based hierarchies, and (p. 22) towards women having greater self- Similar comments (from the data set) from determination and liberation. the participants included: ‘No to Marriage Equality’ Campaigns’ The ‘No’ campaigners were Constructions of Mothers and Families who saying that pretty much their do not Conform to the Heteronormative family was not a family because Model they did not have a dad AND a As outlined in Dane et al., (2016, p. 7) mam. the Irish ‘No’ campaign and its messages They were considered as less were reported to be “everywhere”, including equal. That a 'straight' family was in workplaces, churches, schools, considered to be more 'normal' universities, houses, neighbourhoods, streets, than any other family, whether shops, bars, sports grounds, places of leisure, that is blended, separated, public transport, television, radio, posters, regardless of what sex / gender
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their parents are. Although children were not surveyed They [the NO campaigners] only for this research, 72% of participants felt believe in the heteronormative children of LGBTI parents experienced high nuclear family and anything ‘less’ levels of negative feeling during the ‘No’ was exhibited as fallacy and campaign, and that these children were disgrace upon society. among the most negatively impacted groups Negative Impacts on Mothers who do not (Dane et al, 2016, p. 6). As one parent have a Male Partner (Lesbian and Single explained “It affected my daughter hugely, Mothers) and on their Children and Families she would come home from school crying”; A key perception of the participants another explained “It was nothing short of was that under the guise of “respectful cruel, and every child of an LGBTI family debate” and “balance”, a “megaphone” for that I know echoed that” (p. 6). heteronormativity, homophobia and prejudice As also widely reported in Australia in was provided (Dane et al, 2016, p. 7). Not relation to ‘No equality’ campaigning (Just surprisingly, participants reported that in the Equal/PFLAG, 2016; 2017), the majority of months leading up to the referendum, they Irish participants reported that relationships often or always felt angry (75%), often or and bonds had been strained, damaged, or always felt negative (71%), often or always broken, including within families, felt sad (63%), and rarely or never felt happy friendships, workplaces, churches, schools, (57%) (Dane et al, 2016, p. 13). Also similar and leisure and community groups. This to the widely reported experience in Australia resulted in some people leaving jobs, (e.g. Just.Equal/PFLAG, 2016; 2017), a very churches, community groups and activities, large number and range of negative emotions schools, and Ireland itself (Dane et al, 2016, were reported as caused by the ‘No’ p. 7). Typical comments included: campaign, including feeling attacked, It caused a rift between my belittled, demeaned, degraded, devastated, family, some aren’t even on exhausted, humiliated, insulted, invalidated, speaking terms anymore. (p. 7) marginalised, traumatised, and violated, with A work colleague [said] that ripple effects observed across society (p. 46). under the eyes of God it was Some typical comments by participants wrong for two women to raise a were: child. It felt like a stab in the People from all walks of life back. As we had got on very making judgemental comments well. It completely changed the about gay parents and their work dynamic. In the end I left. abilities, it was very upsetting. It (p. 44) felt like your family was being Community Psychology’s Role in dissected on all the media Challenging and Resisting this platforms when you just wanted to Marginalisation scream out loud, we're doing Community psychology-related exactly the same things that all scholarship and activism clearly have a role other parents are doing in raising to play in countering the misinformation and their families! (p. 41) oppression that heteronormative, Being told that your family is homophobic and anti-equality campaigns ‘wrong’, ‘unnatural’, or that it involve and perpetuate. In Ireland, Australia, simply doesn’t measure up is very and elsewhere, the psychological and family damaging. (p. 23) studies research has provided a useful I felt so sorry for the kids and resource for social justice campaigners, in really moved by their bravery, demonstrating that the messages promoted honesty and love … They should and ‘turbo-charged’ in anti-equality never have had their families campaigns are ideological rather than insulted in that way. (p. 23) accurate. The large and robust body of
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research findings indicating that parents’ and country, emphasised that although marriage families’ ability to provide well for children’s equality appeared to be critically important needs is not a function of gender and/or for the LGBTI community, achieving this sexuality, but is a function of the health and through a public vote was considered both quality of relationships, interactions, and inappropriate and highly anxiety-provoking support, provides a foundation upon which to due to ongoing exposure to the media advocate for the removal of gender- and campaigns of those opposed to marriage sexuality-based discrimination from family- equality. Many anticipated that, and as related laws (Short et al, 2008; Knight et al, proved to be the case, such a public vote 2017). would provide a platform for fear-mongering Further, and similarly used to counter and prejudice towards LGBTI people and heteronormative anti-equality campaigns (e.g. their children. Australian Psychological Society, 2017; Promoting knowledge of this type of Rainbow Families Victoria, 2016; 2017) is research, and the related foci on ‘Love makes the research conducted over thirty years a family’ in pro-equality campaigns (e.g. demonstrating that although differences in Rainbow Families Victoria) contributes to such things as social competence, emotional social change towards equality, fairness, and health and educational outcomes are usually social inclusion. Subsequent changes in laws not found when comparing children raised by and social discourses provide a more heterosexual couples and by same-gender empowering context for all mothers to couples (with most research being with mother, including single parent families, step female couples), when differences are found, -families, blended families and same-sex children of same-gender parents have usually parented families. been found to experience some advantages Implications for Community Psychology, and better outcomes (Biblarz & Stacy, 2010; Mothering and Marginality Short 2007; Short et al., 2008). Also used in This article argues that mothering countering campaigns which advocate remains marginal in Western, developed continued gender-based discrimination and (neoliberal) contexts, and has explored different treatment in the marriage law and in particular tensions associated with mothering promoting equality is the body of research from the margins. Among themes identified indicating that discrimination and social across the projects are the need to: marginalisation and exclusion present risks to document and foreground the lived physical and mental health as well as to experiences of mothers, particularly social cohesion (Short et al, 2008; Knight et those who are mothering at the al, 2017). margins; Agile and timely community better value mothering while avoiding psychology action research has played a very idealising it or solely defining women significant role in shaping the debate, as mothers or by their mothering; processes and outcomes of the campaign for balance interventions aimed at equality in marriage law in Australia. With individual mothers versus community the guidance of psychology researchers in and socio-political responses to this domain, Just.Equal, together with critiques of mothering discourses; PFLAG, conducted a series of large-scale give more power to mothers but not surveys to examine LGBTI people’s unique more individual responsibility; experiences of the marriage equality debate ensure our efforts towards empowered and identify the ways in which members of mothering are inclusive of diverse this community would like to see marriage identities and family structures and equality achieved (e.g., Just.Equal/PFLAG, challenge marginality in all its forms; 2016; 2017). The findings from these national and studies, one of which was the largest survey challenge and deconstruct the of LGBTI people ever conducted in this institution of motherhood and its dominant ideologies of "good"
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mothers. Code, L. (1995). Rhetorical spaces: Essays Valuing mothering within society on (gendered) locations. New York, NY: without locating it as the sole responsibility Routledge. and duty of mothers/women is a fundamental Crittenden, A. (2010). The price of shift that needs to occur. Also important is a motherhood: Why the most important job commitment to the community psychology in the world is still the least valued. New goals of social change and social justice, York: Picador. with regards to seeing mothering as a Dane, S., Short, L., & Healy, G. (2016). socially engaged enterprise, “a site of power, Swimming with sharks: The negative wherein mothers can and do create social social and psychological impacts of change through childrearing and Ireland’s marriage equality referendum activism” (O’Reilly, 2016, p. 7). It is also ‘NO’ campaign. School of Psychology vital to draw on emerging diverse Publications. The University of motherhood practices, such as the practices Queensland, Australia http:// of “other-mothering” found in African espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:408120 American culture and the co-mothering of D'Arcy, C., Turner, C., Crockett, B. & queer households (e.g., Park, 2013). Gridley, H. (2012). Where's the Feminism Community psychology is well placed to in Mothering? Journal of Community incorporate these imperatives. Psychology, 40(1), 27-43. Deloitte Access Economics (2012). Cost of References perinatal depression in Australia. Post Biblarz, T., and Stacey, J. (2010). How does and Antenatal Depression Association. the gender of parents matter? Journal of Accessed at: http://www.panda.org.au/ Marriage and Family 72, 3–22. images/stories/PDFs/ Blackman, B. (Interviewer). (1985, May 15). PANDA_Exec_Summ_Deloitte_Web.pdf Erica McGilchrist interviewed by Barbara DiLappi. E. M. (1989). Lesbian mothers and Blackman [Real Media file]. Retrieved the motherhood hierarchy. Journal of from http://nla.gov.au/nla.oh-vn2248895 Homosexuality, 18(1-2):101-21. Braidotti, R. (2011). Nomadic theory: A Dahlen, H. G., Barclay, L. M., & Homer, C. portable Rosi Braidotti. New York, NY: S. E. (2010). Processing the first birth: Columbia University Press. journeying into 'motherland'. Journal of Browning, J. (2016). Equal Arts: A Clinical Nursing(13-14), 1977. discussion paper. Melbourne: Victorian Dunphy, K., & Ware, V.-A. (2017). Women’s Trust. Evaluation practices in participatory arts Burke, J. (2001). Joy Hester. Sydney, in international development: Findings of Australia: Vintage Books. a systematic literature review. In P. Caplan, P. (2013). Don’t blame the mother: Stupples, & K. Teaiwa (Eds.), then and now. In M. Hobbs & C. Rice Contemporary Perspectives in Art and (Eds.) Gender and Women's Studies in International Development pp. 221-237. Canada: Critical Terrain (pp.99-106) London: Routledge. Toronto: ON. Canadian Studies Press. Dux, M. (Ed.) (2015). Mothermorphosis: Clayton, L. (2016). An artist residency in Australian storytellers write about motherhood. http:// becoming a mother. Carlton, Victoria: www.artistresidencyinmotherhood.com/ Melbourne University Press. how-it-started Goldie, D. (2003). Portrait of a modernist. Clover, D. (2011). Successes and challenges Portrait 7. Canberra, Australia: National of feminist arts-based participatory Portrait Gallery. Retrieved from http:// methodologies with homeless/street- www.portrait.gov.au/UserFiles/file/ involved women in Victoria. Action Portrait07.PDF Research, 9(1), 12-26. doi:10.1177/1476750310396950
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Gridley, H., Turner, C., D’Arcy, C., Knight, K., Stephenson, S., West, S., Sampson, E. & Madyaningrum, M. Delatycki, M., Jones, C., Little, M., (2016). Community-based interventions to Patton, G., Sawyer, S., Skinner, R., Telfer, improve the lives of women and girls: M., Wake, M., North, K. and Oberklaid, Problems and possibilities. Ch. 32 In F. (2017). The kids are OK: It is M.A. Bond, C.B. Keys, & I. Serrano- discrimination not same-sex parents that García, I. (Eds.), APA Handbook of harms children, Medical Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 2, Australia, 207(9): 374 – 375. Washington DC: American Psychological Lally, E., & Miller, S. (2012). Report on Association, pp.539-554. ISBN: 978-1- women in theatre: A research report and 4338-2257-5 action plan. Surrey Hills, Australia: Grosz, E. (2008). Chaos, territory, art: Australia Council for the Arts. Deleuze and the framing of the earth. McLeish, J. & Redshaw, M. (2015). Peer New York, NY: Columbia University support during pregnancy and early Press. parenthood: A qualitative study of models Hays, S. (1996). The cultural contradictions and perceptions. BMC Pregnancy and of motherhood. Yale University Press. Childbirth 15:257. Henderson, A., Harmon, S. & Newman, H. McSolvin, S. (2017). The Impact of Art Co- (2016). The price mothers pay, even when Creation and Exhibition for Participants they are not buying it: Mental health of Community Development Project, consequences of idealized motherhood. Motherhood Unmasked. Unpublished. Sex Roles, 74(11), 512-526. https:// Maushart, S. (1999). The mask of doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0534-5 motherhood: How becoming a mother Hooker, L., Taft, A. & Small, R. (2016). changes everything and why we pretend it Reflections on maternal health care within doesn’t. New York, NY: The New Press. the Victorian Maternal and Child Health Modjeska, D. (2001). Stravinsky’s Lunch. Service. Australian Journal of Primary Sydney, Australia: Picador. Health, 22(2), 77-80 O’Reilly, A. (2016) Matricentric Feminism. Johnson, N., & Purcell, L. (Eds.). (1985). Demeter Press: Canada. Yarns: Stories of creative women in Park, S. M. (2013). Mothering queerly, Melbourne's west. Williamstown, queering motherhood: Resisting Australia: Melbourne's Living Museum of monomaternalism in adoptive, lesbian, the West. blended, and polygamous families. Jordan, J. V., Kaplan, A. G., Miller, J. B., Albany, NY: State University of New Stiver I. P., & Surrey, J. S. (1991). York Press. Women’s growth in connection: Writings Paris, R. &Dubus, N. (2005). Staying from the Stone Center. New York: connected while nurturing an infant: A Guilford Press. challenge of new motherhood. Family Just.Equal/PFLAG (2016). What do Relations, 54 (January 2005): 72–83. Australian LGBTIQ people think about a Paris, R., Gemborys, M. K., Kaufman, P. H., marriage equality plebiscite? A report on &Whitehill, D. (2007). Reaching isolated the survey findings. new mothers: Insights from a home Just.Equal/PFLAG (2017). What do visiting program using paraprofessionals. Australian LGBTIQ people think about a Families in Society, Volume 88 (4). 616- postal vote on the right to marry? A 626. report of the survey findings. Peers, J. (1993). More than gumtrees: A personal, social and artistic history of the Melbourne society of women painters and sculptors. Melbourne, Australia: MSWPS & Dawn Revival Press.
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Pocock, B., Charleworth, S., & Chapman, J. Throsby, D., & Zednik, A. (2010). Do you (2013). Work-family and work-life really expect to get paid? An economic pressures in Australia: Advancing gender study of professional artists in Australia. equality in “good times”? International Sydney: Australia Council. Journal of Sociology and Social Policy Thurer, S. (1994). The myths of motherhood: (9/10), 594. doi:10.1108/IJSSP-11-2012- How culture reinvents the good mother. 0100 Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Power, R. (2008). The divided heart: Art and Topliss, H. (1996). Modernism and motherhood. Fitzroy, Australia: Red Dog. feminism: Australian women artists 1900– Raith, L., Jones, J. & Porter, M. (2015). 1940. Sydney, Australia: Craftsman Mothers at the margins: Stories of House. challenge, resistance and love. Cambridge Zubrick, S. R., Smith, G. J., Nicholson, I. M., Scholars Publishing: UK. Sanson, A. V., & Jackiewicz, T. A. Rich, A. (1986). Of woman born: (2008). Social Policy Research Paper No. Motherhood as experience and institution. 34: Parenting and families in Australia. 2nd ed., W.W. Norton. FaHCSIA Richardson, E. (2013). Not enough women of “merit”? The Countess Report. http:// Address for correspondence: countesses.blogspot.com.au/2013/09/get- [email protected] twice-as-much-for-half-price.html Ross, L., R. (2016). Interrogating Author biographies motherhood. Edmonton, Canada: Athabasca University Press Emma Sampson is a mother whose emerging Short, E. (2007). Lesbian mothers living well interest in supporting mothers led to her role in the context of heterosexism and as co-founder of Motherhood Unmasked, a discrimination: Resources, strategies and community arts initiative. She is a committee legislative change. Feminism and member of the Australian Mothering Psychology, 17(1), pp. 54 – 74. Initiative for Research and Community Short, E & Riggs, D. (Eds). (2007). Involvement (AMIRCI). Emma has also Parenting, family issues and worked as an evaluation consultant, heteronormativity. Special edition of Gay conducting independent community and Lesbian Issues and Psychology evaluations as well as government Review, 3(1). evaluations within larger evaluation Short, E., Riggs, D., Perlesz, A., Brown, R., teams.She currently works as a Research and & Kane, G. (2008). Lesbian, gay, bisexual Policy Officer (Public Interest) at the and transsexual (LGBT) parented Australian Psychological Society. families: A Literature review. The Australian Psychological Society, Dr Sharon Dane is a postdoctoral researcher Psychology in the Public Interest at The University of Queensland. Her Division: Melbourne. http:// research interests are on the relationships, www.psychology.org.au/publications/ social inclusion and psychological wellbeing statements/lgbt_families/ of sexual minority individuals. From 2009 to Simonton, D. K. (1997). Genius and 2016, she presented her research findings at creativity. Greenwich, CT: Ablex several federal government senate inquiry Publishing Corp. hearings into the legislation of marriage Summers, A. (2009). The lost mother: A equality in Australia. story of art and love. Carlton, Australia: Melbourne University Press. Shannon Elizabeth McSolvin is the co- founder of Motherhood Unmasked and a recent graduate of the Masters of International and Community Development
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at Deakin University. Shannon completed inclusion. A particular focus of her work has her Masters dissertation on the impact of art- been contributing towards needed legal and creation and exhibition for participants of social changes in relation to violence against Motherhood Unmasked. Shannon is currently women, and to the removal of gender and employed at Oxfam Australia and has been sexuality based discrimination from laws accepted to undertake her PhD at Deakin which recognise couple and family University from September, 2018. relationships.
Dr Sally Northfield is an interdisciplinary project manager, events producer and community engagement consultant, who works with a range of organisations, communities and individuals on the array of issues that influence the lives of Australian women. Sally’s PhD Research (Victoria University) Canvassing the emotions: Women, creativity and mental health in context received the APS Women and Psychology Elaine Dignan Award in 2016. Sally is currently working with the United Nations Association of Australia (Victoria) as the Education Program Coordinator covering issues of global concern such as human trafficking, refugees and asylum seekers, food security, climate change, achieving gender equality and pathways to peace.
Dr Harriet Radermacher is a Research and Policy Officer (Public Interest) at the Australian Psychological Society. She holds an Adjunct Lecturer position at Monash University, where she was previously a Research Fellow with the Primary Care Research Unit. Harriet completed a Doctorate in Community Psychology at Victoria University, and her research focus has been on a range of social justice concerns including disability and participation, women and ageing, cultural diversity, and gambling harm. Harriet is also an independent research and evaluation consultant.
Dr Liz Short is a community and clinical psychologist, who has worked since 1986 as a practitioner, researcher, trainer and lecturer, advisor and advocate, particularly at the legal and mental health interface. Her foci are the social determinants of health and wellbeing, and promoting health via promoting equality, social justice, and social
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The status of diverse sexualities and genders in community psychology research and practice: Reflections from the Trans-Tasman context
Bróna Nic Giolla Easpaig Macquarie University Rachael Fox Charles Sturt University Sarah Bowman Charles Sturt University
This paper offers analysis and reflection upon the status of working with LGBT communities in community psychology research and practice in the Trans-Tasman region. While the unique potential for community psychological principles and practices to promote wellbeing for this community have been discussed in US and UK community psychology contexts, we are only beginning this dialogue in the Trans-Tasman. This is different of course to proposing that impressive work is not already being undertaken, and here we draw upon three project examples to showcase just such work, including: research considering the provision of online mental health services for LGBT young people in regional, rural and remote communities; research that examined trans and gender diverse issues in primary education in South Australia; and a project committed to helping to build Rainbow communities free of sexual and partner violence in Aotearoa New Zealand. While not all of these projects may identify themselves as community psychology, each of these projects offers learnings for researchers and practitioners alike and facilitates insight into the connections between community psychology frameworks and LGBT knowledge and practice. The implications of this analysis are reflected upon with a view to promoting progressive and generative collaborative practice.
In June 2003 Gary Harper and p.245). Margaret Schneider edited a collection of This was not a novel argument, as papers that showcased community Harper and Schneider (2003) acknowledged, psychological research undertaken with and this shortcoming was also not limited to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender the field of community psychology. As a communities (LGBT) for the American discipline and practice psychology remains Journal of Community Psychology, an ongoing ‘work in progress’ in attempting constituting the first collection of its kind to to work in socially just and health-enabling be included within any of the major ways for the benefit of LGBT communities community psychology journals of the time. (Ansara, 2010; Ansara & Hegarty, 2012; The special issue editors drew upon an Hegarty & Massey, 2006; Kitzinger, 1987, analysis of the content of leading journals in 1996; Semp, 2011). However, as has been the field from preceding years to illustrate persuasively argued elsewhere, community the dearth of published work concerning psychology in its principles and application LGBT communities, and they furthermore is uniquely positioned to work towards these argued that existing literature tended to be ends (D’Augelli, 2006). male-centric and largely failed to engage Now, almost fifteen years later, with the strengths of LGBT populations. following the 13th Trans-Tasman Community They concluded that “the relative inattention Psychology Conference which brought to LGBT issues within Community together community activists, researchers Psychology is a loss to the and practitioners from across the Tasman discipline” (Harper & Schneider, 2003, (i.e. Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand)
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and for that matter, the globe, there emerges conflation of identities and experiences that an opportunity to reflect upon the status of are qualitatively different, as well as the diverse sexualities and genders in our shared erasure of identities that fall outside of the field. This is in part prompted by acronym. With these limitations in mind we participation in the conference, where will try to refer to specific communities discussion of concerns for LGBT where appropriate. communities was not confined to We begin by providing an overview of presentations that looked explicitly at work the contemporary conditions for working with these communities, but where there was with LGBT communities in Australia and a more embedded awareness of the plurality Aotearoa New Zealand, to foreground the of gender and sexuality identities and presentation of three pieces of community practices threaded throughout discussions of research and practice that shared the aims of a range of issues. This came to our attention promoting the wellbeing of LGBT in Professor Nicola Gavey’s keynote address communities and groups within the Trans- concerning contemporary constructions of Tasman region. Each of these projects speaks pornography, where the point was made that to a differing element of the deep young people who do not identify as connections between community psychology heterosexual may engage with pornography frameworks and LGBT community in differing ways. This opens up space for knowledge and practice, and through careful thinking about the implications of the ways analysis we are able to move beyond through which versions of heterosexuality identifying points of mutual commonality are constructed and normatively constituted and towards engaging with the generative as well as a lack of information and potential of this work. We conclude with a discussion about non-heteronormative sexual reflection upon the status of LGBT work in practices for young people. Further community psychology in the Australian and engagement with these issues became Aotearoa New Zealand contexts. apparent in topics which do not tend to be Conditions for working with LGBT associated with sexuality and gender. For communities in the Trans-Tasman example, in Marlee Bower’s presentation In the global North there have been concerning homelessness and loneliness, campaigns and mounting political pressure consideration was made of the dimension of concerning issues such as marriage equality gender diversity in working with people who with some success, reflected in the have experienced some form of Australian and Aotearoa New Zealand homelessness, prompting the listener to contexts by some incremental (but limited) consider the intersections of identity in social wider societal acceptance of diverse sexual issues. identities. This has coincided with, to an When discussing LGBT communities, extent, a broadening of understanding of it is important that we acknowledge how the gender identity, and in some cases legislative language relating to the term “LGBT” has changes including protections and the de- changed and the relevance that this has for pathologisation of certain sexual identities community psychology. LGBT, along with (although the pathologisation of some gender its associated variations, is no longer just an identities continues; see Irwin, 2007; acronym used to describe discrete groups of McNair, Hegarty & Taft, 2015). Such shifts individuals; instead, in the current context we are also reflected in the ethos and public use it to refer to the domains which engage positions taken in professional health bodies with diverse bodies, genders, sexualities and including the Australian Psychological sex. While this shorthand offers a Society (APS) and the New Zealand representation of groups who may experience Psychological Society (NZPsS). See for the ill-effects of living in heteronormative example, the statements of support made by and cisgendered societies, it is important to the NZPsS and APS for the legislative acknowledge that its usage risks the changes to enable marriage equality for same
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-sex couples in the respective countries undertaken across the Trans-Tasman are (APS, 2017a; NZPsS, 2012). Additionally presented. The projects differ in terms of there has been the establishment of a originating in academic institutional settings dedicated “Psychology of Diverse Bodies, and/or community organisations, and largely Genders, and Sexualities Interest Group” do not refer to themselves as informed by within the APS (originally formed in 1996 as community psychology. Nevertheless, each the Gay and Lesbian Issues in Psychology project works with LGBT communities and Interest Group) (APS, 2017b). offers rich learnings through the principles Progress made within psychology more and practices applied. The intention is to broadly has required a critique and highlight the ways in which work with addressing of psychological practices which communities is being undertaken, and to note contribute to the marginalisation and the community psychology concepts and derogation of LGBT communities, which tools active in the programs that will likely include diagnosis, practices (e.g. APS already be familiar to us. Finally, we aim to Position Statement on the use of attend to considerations emerging from the psychological practices that attempt to specific needs of these communities that change sexual orientation; APS, 2015), as have implications for community psychology well as a fundamental rethinking of the ways more broadly. in which we theorise and conceptualise, Project 1. Virtual healthcare: LGBT young through our methods and the implications of adult perceptions of internet based mental this for LGBT communities (Nic Giolla health services in regional, rural and remote Easpaig & Fox, 2017; Treharne & Beres, Australia (Bowman, 2016) 2016). This has borne a generation of new In the first research project to be ideas and theories (e.g. Riggs, Ansara & discussed, Sarah Bowman (2016) attempted Treharne, 2015), active partnerships with to better understand the role of online mental communities and establishing presence in the health services in supporting LGBT young discipline through visibility and voice (e.g., people who reside in regional, rural and production of “Out in psychology: Lesbian, remote (RRR) areas of Australia. LGBT gay, bisexual, trans and queer perspectives” young adults are estimated to be three to five textbook for psychology undergraduates times more exposed to mental health risks edited by Clarke & Peel, 2007). This work is than other young adults, which is ongoing. compounded in regional areas by a lack of From the outset with its commitment specialist mental health resources, long to social justice, focus upon community waiting times, problems with transport and a building and effort to tackle issues which culture of self-reliance (Australian Bureau of marginalise and disadvantage groups, Statistics, 2015; Farmer, Blosnich, Jabson, & community psychology is uniquely Matthews 2015; Griffiths & Christensen, positioned to contribute to these efforts. 2007; Leonard et al., 2012). In addition RRR While there has been explicit discussion of areas are likely to contain a strong presence how community psychology can work with of prevailing heteronormative assumptions LGBT communities in the US and UK (Quinn, 2003) as well as beliefs that (D'Augelli, 2006; Harper & Schneider, 2003; “homosexuality is immoral”, relative to Johnson, 2007; Johnson & Martínez metropolitan areas (Flood & Hamilton, 2008, Guzmán, 2013), there has been relatively p.26). The substantive increase in recent little literature discussion in the Trans- years in the number of online mental health Tasman region, which is different, of course, services, and the type of service they offer, to saying there is relatively little work being has potential benefits for this community, undertaken. including the ability to reach those who Research and Action with/in LGBT cannot receive services, and to provide Communities increased privacy, anonymity and easy In this section three recent projects access to a wide variety of information
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(Amichai-Hamburger, Klomek, Friedman, potentially critical role for parents/guardians Zuckerman, & Shani-Sherman, 2014; to play in facilitating access to services for Mallen, Vogel, & Rochlen, 2005; Richards & this community. These insights, as well as Timulak, 2013; Suler, 2004). the process through which they were However, caution is advised as there reached, offer two important points for are a number of critical issues to negotiate, consideration from our perspective. such as: a lack of underlying coordination First, the investigation of online and coherence in the roll-out of online mental health services required a services; differences in the quality, contextualised understanding that could consistency and purpose of services; and engage with the ways in which different concerns about underlying cost saving groups and communities are impacted in rationales (Burns, Liacos, & Green, 2014; diverse ways, which might be especially Hayes, Maughan, & Grant-Peterkin, 2016; beneficial where groups are marginalised. Meurk, Leung, Hall, Head, & Whiteford, Conceptualisation of the research began with 2016). In addition, access to online services a recognition that the experiences of those is not straightforward, and young people who develop and deliver services and those living in RRR Australia experience a lack of who rely upon these services are shaped information, different preferences or needs in differently, and thus a constructivist relation to internet based services, and perspective that allowed for contextualised, financial barriers (Griffiths & Christensen, subjective exploration, was used to frame 2007; Handley et al., 2014). Amidst the this inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). shifting landscape of service provision, there Indeed, many of the service providers noted has been little attention to date to that there was often a limited understanding understanding the needs of LGBT young of the needs of this community. As one people in these areas, and few opportunities mainstream service provider put it: for them to meaningfully contribute to We don’t have a lot of information improving services. about the use of our services by In attempting to better understand the LGBTI people and I guess we role of online mental health services in have a sense that perhaps our supporting LGBT young people in RRR services are useful and perhaps at areas of Australia, this study used a other times … are too mainstream, constructivist design to interview nine LGBT too generalist, to be considered to young adults (average age of 20 years) in be safe and helpful. RRR areas and six providers of relevant Subsequently, young people raised online mental health services (including additional important issues that were of “mainstream” as well as LGBT community- particular concern for them. For example, specific organisations). With the young despite the familiarity that young people adults, interviews were exploratory but have with the internet, a number of focussed on their experiences of online participants showed a preference for face to mental health services, their reflections on face services for more complex mental health the needs of RRR LGBT young adults, and needs. Many were worried that access to future directions for online services. already scarce face-to-face resources will be Interviews with the service providers further reduced by the introduction of more (including senior management and research sophisticated online interventions; such advisers) focussed on their experiences of concerns were underlined by one young providing services to RRR LGBT young person in saying “personal interaction which adults. Analysis of the accounts of all those is something you need [for] mental health interviewed suggested difficulties are [support]”. Eliciting and engaging with such experienced in finding the right care, with a insights are crucial to any understanding of variation in views about how online services the implications of services for these should be delivered, in addition to a communities.
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Second, the inclusion of groups who Project 2. Exploring trans and gender are often excluded and face barriers to diverse issues in primary education in South participation is a central concern for Australia (Bartholomaeus, Riggs, & Andrew, community psychologists. Core to 2016). community psychology is a deep level of The second project to be discussed commitment to the inclusion of community examined trans and gender diverse issues, expertise and experience in guiding our such as bullying, lack of understanding and work, and while there are any number of support from school staff and exclusion, in constraints and barriers we face, we continue primary education in South Australia. The to strive to work with communities in ways work concerned children who identify and which enable authentic and meaningful express their gender in a number of ways that participation. Such collaboration brings may not adhere to strict male/female binary knowledge and experience which cannot be categories (often termed “gender diverse”), offered by external practitioners and or who identify their gender in a way that researchers, and as a result enhances the varies from social expectations relevance and potential benefits for corresponding with the gender typically communities (Bergold & Thomas, 2012; ascribed to a sex assigned at birth Radermacher & Sonn, 2007). The inclusion (Bartholomaeus, Riggs, & Andrew, 2017). of LGBT young people who reside in RRR The increasing numbers of children who areas in this process was very challenging identify in diverse ways has been observed in and indeed many of the factors that a range of settings (e.g. see Telfer, Tollit, & contribute to potential experiences of Feldman, 2015). Primary schools were the disadvantage (such as concealment and an focus of the project as they constitute crucial absence of visible LGBT communities and social institutions which shape the lives of safe places) may have also produced barriers children and their communities. The authors to participation. Indeed the principal noted that schools face barriers including a investigator (third author) drove extensively lack of support and educational training for over RRR Australia to connect with the professionals, and that fear and participating young people. In this sense, misunderstanding are often part of the through the research process, the work here contemporary socio-political context in gives ‘voice’ to some of the important which these issues play out. concerns and insights where services are The project comprised four main being provided and developed. As elements: a state-wide survey of school summarised by Rosenstreich (2010) when teachers and pre-service teachers that highlighting the importance of the inclusion investigated attitudes towards trans and of the LGBT community in the development gender diverse students (i.e. inclusion, of health policy and service planning: ‘The comfort, and confidence); an audit of maxim “not about us without us” is not only available children’s picture books that appropriate as a principle of social featured trans or gender diverse characters; participation and inclusion, but also sensible an exploration of the usefulness of using in order to ensure that work’ (p.14). As one such materials in picture book reading service provider commented; “further sessions with primary school children; and collaboration with young people is needed in the creation of online resources designed to the development and implementation of these support trans and gender diverse young services”. Here, community psychology, in people (for the full report see Bartholomaeus, its principles and practice, has a range of Riggs, & Andrew, 2016). tools useful to developing partnerships with There are a number of dimensions of groups who all too often are not for a range community psychological research and of reasons brought into the process. practice that resonate here, and the work speaks in particular to critical scholarship in the field. Core to community psychology is a
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deep understanding of the ways in which Harper, Jamil, & Wilson, 2007). social, symbolic and material conditions of The research involved both tools for inequality are intricately implicated in the gaining more in-depth understanding of the health and wellbeing of communities issues and also the development of (Campbell & Jovchelovitch, 2000). For those understanding to create a tangible online who are part of the LGBT community, resource to support trans and gender diverse prevailing forms of heteronormativity and young people (which is not often a cisgenderism are ubiquitous and form part of requirement of academic research). In the definitions of ‘normal’ and ‘standard’ for addition, the research team developed the site those who are privileged while rendering Rainbow Owl (see www.the-rainbow- those outside of these dominant groups owl.com), containing sections for parents and marginalised. The detrimental impacts of families, for professionals including cisnormativity have in recent years begun to educators and mental health workers, for be conceptualised (Riggs et al., 2015) and the researchers and schools, with evidence that implications for wellbeing documented these target groups are accessing this (Pitts, Couch, Mulcare, Croy, & Mitchell, information. This offers a rich resource to 2009). better equip people to address the challenges Such relations are enacted in the through dissemination and education of those ‘standard practices’ and ‘normal’ in a position to support young people. expectations of everyday life. For example, Project 3. The “Hohou Te Rongo Kahukura many of the recommendations the authors – Outing Violence” project report (Dickson, make include items thought to be ‘mundane’, 2016) such as gender-affirming policies around The “Hohou Te Rongo Kahukura – uniforms and toilet facilities. Such practices, Outing Violence” project was undertaken in while often most noticeable in interpersonal Aotearoa New Zealand with a commitment interactions, operate at structural and to helping to build Rainbow communities institutional levels. Engaging with social free of sexual and partner violence. The work institutions such as schools might increase was supported by the “It’s Not OK the awareness of teachers and others in the Campaign” and hosted by Ara Taiohi (youth school community in a manner that is development sector peak body; Ministry of beneficial for supporting young children and Social Development, 2017). The term their families. “Rainbow community” is understood to The focus in the research at the level of include “all people Aotearoa New Zealand the primary school as a social institution is of under the sex, sexuality, and gender diverse particular note: umbrellas, recognising that there is not a Rather than focusing on individual perfect umbrella term” (Dickson, 2016, p. 4). trans and gender diverse students, A number of elements were highlighted in the research examines broader the project report that are important to school cultures in relation to consider in order to contextualise these educator attitudes and knowledge issues in Aotearoa New Zealand and are and the usefulness of classroom implicated in shaping ways forward. These resources in the form of picture included an acknowledgment that while there books for creating inclusive was a growing recognition of the risks of schools (Bartholomaeus et al., violence faced by members of Rainbow 2016, p.6). communities, there was a lack of knowledge From a community psychology about their experiences. The report suggested perspective, such settings form important that potentially there may be limitations sites for engagement and indeed some of the within mainstream violence services to key community psychology work with support Rainbow communities, and noted LGBT communities derives from social that there was often a low recognition of institutional settings (e.g. D’Augelli, 2006; partner and sexual violence within the
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communities themselves (Dickson, 2016). psychologists recognise that the standpoints Additionally, consideration was needed of from which we speak are socially located and the specific challenge of racism that may be thus our perspectives are partial (Code, 2006; faced within and outside of Rainbow Gavey, 1989; Parker, 1992). The input of communities by non-Pākehā community community expertise into research members, including those with Māori, components forms a valuable practice for Pacifica, asian backgrounds and/or identities. community psychologists and characterises The project aimed to raise awareness of many community-based and participatory violence in Rainbow communities, as well as research approaches in the field (Bergold & to gather an understanding of community Thomas, 2012). members’ experiences of these issues, so as It is important to note that this to inform the development of services and approach promotes a different type of resources. research which can help to shift away from The project entailed the establishment hierarchical research relationships (i.e. of an advisory group comprised of members researcher and researched) by inviting a from Rainbow community groups, specialist variety of perspectives into a realm often services and organisations. A large number reserved only for academic or institutional of community hui (gatherings) were expertise, and by facilitating shared undertaken with Rainbow community groups knowledge-making processes (Buettgen et with a view to creating shared al., 2012; Cahill, 2007). Here we argue that understandings of partner and sexual such involvement may be of particular violence, and to seek community advice importance when working in relation to important for developing ways to address sexuality and gender identities and practices, these issues. A national survey was as the discipline of psychology has a long- undertaken to learn about experiences of documented history of undertaking research violence within Rainbow communities and which has excluded, delegitimised and awareness raising occurred via media and the mischaracterised such communities (e.g. see development of important resources such as Ansara & Hegarty, 2014). Engaging in factsheets and a website (see http:// collaborative co-design in research, including www.kahukura.co.nz/ ). While there are any the development of the scope and tools of the number of important elements relevant to project, can potentially be a means of community psychology, here we draw promoting reflexive and progressive practice attention to the way in which this project (see Nic Giolla Easpaig & Fox, 2017 for an engaged with and harnessed community example as applied in survey research with expertise and experiences in meaningful young people). ways: a principle that resonates strongly with What is offered to community a community psychology ethos. psychologists is the application of the In this project the inclusion of this understanding of social identities as expertise was not only sought through embedded in the contexts in which we work, community consultation efforts, but was shaping how we understand and engage with harnessed to shape the direction of the issues as well as how we may undertake their project and guide the research process. As investigation. In engaging with the project described in the report the Advisory Group documentation process, a resistance to helped in the development of the national promoting homogenising views of Rainbow survey, not only through promoting it but communities is observed. For example, in also in developing survey items. Moreover, defining who might be included within the role of the Advisory Group in the co- Rainbow communities, the project provided creation of the factsheets was crucial as they a sample of the diverse ways in which people were uniquely positioned to bring insight and may identify: expertise that specialist violence intervention Rainbow seeks to include people groups could not offer. Critical community who identify as aka’vaine, asexual,
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bisexual, fa’afafine, fakafifine, Racism was raised as a key factor fakaleiti, FtM, gay, gender fluid, in partner and sexual violence in gender-neutral, gender most hui. The overall context of nonconforming, genderqueer, colonisation in Aotearoa New gender variant, hinehi, hinehua, Zealand disrupting Indigenous intersex, lesbian, mahu, MtF, non- understandings of gender and binary, palopa, pansexual, sexuality, and hostility towards polysexual, queer, questioning, rae non-Pākehā ethnicities was rae, tangata ira tane, takatāpui, 同 discussed as creating climates in which discrimination towards 志 (tongzhi), trans man, trans Rainbow people of colour was woman, transfeminine, transgender, normalised. This included in transmasculine, transsexual, vaka accessing services, where Māori sa lewa lewa, whakawahine and and Pacifica participants reported more (Dickson, 2016, p.4) culturally inappropriate responses In community psychology there has when trying to get help which often been a traditional distinction made assumed violence was “normal” between “communities of for them (Dickson, 2016, p.13). place” (geographical and spatially bound) Discussion and “communities of identity” (united by Extrapolating from community health common delineation of identity; Campbell & psychology, we would regard the projects Murray, 2004). Such a distinction is less presented to be conducive to the principle useful here. While there are defining features that “research should be not only to of what might traditionally be thought of as understand the world, but also to develop “community”, in terms of shared understandings that point towards the representations and access to conditions of possibility of changing it” (Campbell & power (symbolic, material and structural; Murray, 2004, pp.4-5). Each of the projects Campbell & Jovchelovitch, 2000), the presented here sought involvement or recognition of a plurality of identities and engagement from stakeholder groups who practices is merited and this is attended to were in a position to contribute to some carefully in the project. For example in the aspect of transformation. The first project context of the Community hui the report engaged with the views of those who design details “We did not attempt more and deliver services to young people; the demographic information than asking people second project was inclusive of teachers, to identify the pronouns they wished us to families and health professionals and use, and parts of their identity they were involvement from a range of organisations, willing to share” (Dickson, 2016, p.11). services and community expertise was From a community psychology facilitated and harnessed as part of the third perspective, effective collaboration involves project. Moreover, each piece of work gave the participation of traditionally marginalised voice, raised awareness and enhanced groups in the process and valuing of their visibility of issues impacting LGBT contributions (Bergold & Thomas, 2012). communities. This is significant in socio- Upon reflection, discussion of the project political contexts where groups may be prompted consideration of the way in which constructed and positioned outside of intersecting dimensions of social identities dominant sexual and gender identities and and representations are also implicated practices. within relations of power and privilege It is not hard to make the case for the within communities. An example from the connections between community psychology project report was the recognition that and LGBT research and practice. Indeed understanding and responding to the issues LGBT activists have been ‘doing’ many of of partner and sexual violence necessitates the principles we would recognise as part of engagement with racism:
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community psychology frameworks for a towards engaging with the ‘mundane’: that long time, if not in name, in action. after all is where all the power lies. Literature which seeks to increase collaboration between community References psychologists and LGBT groups and Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Klomek, A. B., organisations consistently notes that this Friedman, D., Zuckerman, O., & Shani- necessitates an engagement with politics in Sherman, T. (2014). The future of online contexts where legal, social and political therapy. Computers in Human Behavior, frameworks disadvantage and marginalise 41, 288-294. doi:10.1016/ LGBT communities. Where Harper and j.chb.2014.09.016 Schneider (2003) make this argument, in Ansara, Y. G. (2010). Beyond cisgenderism: their now almost 15 year old seminal paper, Counselling people with non-assigned they call for the joining of these groups gender identities. In L. Moon (Ed.), towards political change, an argument they Counselling ideologies: Queer challenges note they are reiterating from well over a to heteronormativity (pp. 167–200). decade prior to that (D’Augelli, 1989). Given Aldershot: Ashgate. some of the encouraging shifts in social and Ansara, Y. G., & Hegarty, P. (2012). legislative contexts in the Trans-Tasman Cisgenderism in psychology: region in the last few decades, it is a pity that Pathologising and misgendering children here too we are reiterating this same call and from 1999 to 2008. Psychology & it must remain a recommendation of this Sexuality, 3, 137-160. paper. doi:10.1080/19419899.2011.576696 The attention in the projects Ansara, Y. G., & Hegarty, P. (2014). considered, especially the “Hohou Te Rongo Methodologies of misgendering: Kahukura – Outing Violence”, to the Recommendations for reducing diversity and complexity of social identities cisgenderism in psychological research. and practices implicated in the work Feminism & Psychology, 24(2), 259-270. undertaken, offered important learnings. For doi: 10.1177/0959353514526217 us, engagement with intersectionality has Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2015). implications beyond research projects with a General social survey: Summary results, primary focus on LGBT communities and Australia, 2014. Canberra, Australia. into our work more broadly wherever, for Australian Psychological Society (2015). example we are prompted to consider APS Position Statement on the use of conceptualisations of “community”. psychological practices that attempt to Consequently, we welcome the enhanced change sexual orientation. Retrieved from awareness and deeper engagement with non- http://www.psychology.org.au/ heterosexual and non-cisnormative identities, getmedia/95cfcca4-009c-4a75-a0e7- practices and communities threaded 597d68e5a55c/ throughout our work on a range of issues Position_statement_on_psychological_pra (possibly in similar ways to those examples ctices_that_attempt_to_change_sexual_ori from the conference highlighted in the entation_members.pdf introduction). As concepts and practices Australian Psychological Society (2017a). deeply embedded within our social fabric, Marriage equality. Retrieved from: http:// constructions of sexualities, genders and www.psychology.org.au/for-the-public/ normativity have far-reaching implications Psychology-topics/LGBTI/Marriage- for communities and possibilities for equality-and-related-issues practices. Thus a turn towards examining the Australian Psychological Society (2017b). ways in which LGBT communities come to Psychology of Diverse Bodies, Genders, be marginalised and disempowered through and Sexualities Interest Group. Retrieved what are often ‘standard’, ‘everyday from http://groups.psychology.org.au/glip/ practices’ is important, or in other words,
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Flood, M. & Hamilton, C. (2008). Mapping Johnson, K. (2007). Researching suicidal homophobia in Australia. In: S. Robinson distress with LGBT communities in the S (Ed.) Homophobia, an Australian UK: methodological and ethical history. Sydney: The Federation Press. reflections on a community-university Gavey, N. (1989). Feminist poststructuralism knowledge exchange project. Australian and discourse analysis: Contributions to Community Psychologist, 19, 112-123. feminist psychology. Psychology of Johnson, K., & Martínez Guzmán, A. (2013). Women Quarterly, 13, 458–475. Rethinking concepts in participatory Griffiths, K. M. & Christensen, H. (2007). action research and their potential for Internet-based mental health programs: A social transformation: Post-structuralist powerful tool in the rural medical kit. informed methodological reflections from Australian Journal of Rural Health, 15, LGBT and Trans-Collective projects. 81-87. doi:10.1111/j.1440- Journal of Community & Applied Social 1584.2007.00859.x Psychology, 23, 405-419. doi: 10.1002/ Handley, T. E., Kay-Lambkin, F. J., Inder, K. casp.2134 J., Attia, J. R., Lewin, T. J., & Kelly, B. J. Kitzinger, C. (1996). The token lesbian (2014). Feasibility of internet-delivered chapter. In S. Wilkinson (Ed.), Feminist mental health treatments for rural social psychologies: International populations. Social Psychiatry and perspectives. (pp. 119-144). Buckingham: Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49, 275-282. Open University Press. doi: 10.1007/s00127-013-0708-9 Kitzinger, C. (1987). The social construction Harper, G. W., Jamil, O. B., & Wilson, B. D. of lesbianism. London; Newbury Park, (2007). Collaborative community-based Calif: Sage Publications. research as activism: Giving voice and Leonard W., Pitts, M., Mitchell, A., Lyons, hope to lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. A., Smith, A., Patel, S.,… Barrett, A. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, (2012). Private lives 2: The second 11(3-4), 99-119. doi:10.1300/ national survey of the health and J236v11n03_06 wellbeing of gay, lesbian, bisexual and Harper, G. W., & Schneider, M. (2003). transgender (GLBT) Australians. Oppression and discrimination among Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered and Society, in Sex, Health and Society people and communities: A challenge for LaTrobe University. Melbourne. community psychology. American McNair, R., Hegarty, K., & Taft, A. (2015). Journal of Community Psychology, 31(3- Disclosure for same-sex-attracted women 4), 243-252. enhancing the quality of the patient-doctor Hegarty, P. & Massey, S. (2006). Anti- relationship in general practice. Australian homosexual prejudice … as opposed to Family Physician, 44, 573-578. what? Journal of Homosexuality 52(1–2), Mallen, M. J., Vogel, D. L., & Rochlen, A. 47–71. doi:10.1300/J082v52n01_03 B. (2005). The practical aspects of online Hayes J. F., Maughan, D. L. & Grant- counseling: Ethics, training, technology, Peterkin, H. (2016). Interconnected or and competency. The Counseling disconnected? Promotion of mental health Psychologist, 33, 776-818. and prevention of mental disorder in the Meurk, C., Leung, J., Hall, W., Head, B. W., digital age. British Journal of Psychiatry & Whiteford, H. (2016). Establishing and 208, 205-207. doi: 10.1192/ governing e-mental health care in bjp.bp.114.161067 Australia: A systematic review of Irwin, L. (2007). Homophobia and challenges and a call for policy-focussed heterosexism: Implications for nursing research. Journal of Medical Internet and nursing practice. The Australian Research, 18, 1-24. doi:10.2196/ Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 70. jmir.4827
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Ministry of Social Development (2017). “It’s Riggs, D. W., Ansara, G. Y., & Treharne, G. Not OK Campaign”. Retrieved from: J. (2015). An Evidence-based model for http://www.areyouok.org.nz understanding the mental health Nic Giolla Easpaig, B. & Fox, R. (2017). experiences of Transgender Australians. Young people's experiences of Australian Psychologist, 50, 32-39. negotiating healthcare services in relation doi:10.1111/ap.12088 to sexual and gender identities: A Semp, D. (2011). Questioning community-based approach to service heteronormativity: Using queer theory to improvement [Special Issue]. Psychology inform research and practice within of Sexualities Review, 8, 39-52 public mental health services. Psychology New Zealand Psychological Society (2012). & Sexuality 2, 69–86. Submission on the (Definition of doi:10.1080/19419899.2011.536317 Marriage) Amendment Bill. Retrieved Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition from http://www.psychology.org.nz/ effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, about-nzpss/nzpss-submissions/ 321-326. submission-on-the-definition-of-marriage Telfer, M., Tollit, M., & Feldman, D. (2015). -amendment-bill-18-october-2012/ Transformation of health-care and legal Parker, I. (1992). Discourse dynamics: systems for the transgender population: Critical analysis for social and individual The need for change in Australia. Journal psychology. London: Routledge. of Paediatrics and Child Health, 51, 1051 Pitts, M. K., Couch, M., Mulcare, H., Croy, -1053. doi: 10.1111/jpc.12994 S., & Mitchell, A. (2009). Transgender The Rainbow Owl (2017). The Rainbow people in Australia and New Zealand: Owl. Retrieved from: http://www.the- Health, well-being and access to health rainbow-owl.com/ services. Feminism & Psychology, 19, Treharne, G. J., & Beres, M. A. (2016). 475-495. doi: Writing survey questions to 10.1177/0959353509342771 operationalise sex, gender identity, and Quinn, K. (2003). Rural suicide and same- sexual orientation in New Zealand: sex attracted youth: Issues, intervention Perspectives from psychological and and implications for rural counsellors. sociological research with the LGBTQ The International Electronic Journal of community. New Zealand Sociology, 31, Rural and Remote Health Research, 173-180. Education: Practice and Policy, 3, 1-6. Radermacher, H. L., & Sonn, C. C. (2007). Acknowledgements Towards getting it right: Participatory We wish to express our gratitude to the action research (PAR) with an advocacy researchers and writers involved in each of organisation. Australian Community the three case examples who kindly gave Psychologist, 19, 62–73. their permission and in some cases reviewed Rosenstreich, G. (2010). Excluded from the draft content and provided advice. Similarly, table: LGBT health and wellbeing. we are appreciative to the presenters from the Health Voices, 6, 12–14. Retrieved from conference referenced in the introduction http://search.informit. com.au/ who gave permission to include their work as documentSummary;dn=03185767627540 examples and offered support in developing 8;res=IELHEA;subject=Education the paper. Each of these colleagues offered Richards, D., & Timulak, L. (2013). encouragement in the development of the Satisfaction with therapist vs. self- paper, for which we are very grateful. administered online cognitive behavioural treatments for depression symptoms in Address for correspondence college students. British Journal of [email protected] Guidance & Counselling, 41, 193-207.
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Author biographies Bróna Nic Giolla Easpaig PhD, is a Research Fellow with the NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Implementation Science in Oncology at Macquarie University. Bróna is passionate about promoting the wellbeing of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer communities. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6787- 056X
Rachael Fox PhD, is a senior lecturer at Charles Sturt University (New South Wales, Australia) with an expertise in qualitative methods and critical community psychology. Rachael’s research interests include the social exclusion experiences of young people and collaborative, ethnographic methodologies.
Sarah Bowman, PhD Candidate, is a researcher and a Master of Clinical Psychology student at University of Technology Sydney (New South Wales, Australia). Sarah’s research and clinical practice focus on improving the mental health of people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer.
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Opioid substitution treatment (OST) is means, social power and agency experience a successful pharmacological and more unjust and needless health disparities psychosocial harm reduction intervention (Marmot, 2005; Raphael, 2006; World where opioids, methadone and Health Organisation, 2017a). The World buprenorphine (suboxone), are prescribed to Health Organisation (2017b) recognised that people with problematic opioid use to reduce healthcare systems themselves act as consumption of illicit drug use, risky powerful health determinants. In this sense, behaviours and health harms, such as the design and function of a healthcare Hepatitis C. In this paper, OST is recognised system can enable or constrain health equity as a social determinant of heath as it for disadvantaged or marginalised groups contributes to positive health outcomes for (Gilson, Doherty, Loewenson, & Francis, people receiving OST, and by association 2007). While the social determinants of their families and communities. health influence psychological, social and Social determinants of health, such as physical health outcomes generally, they the context that people are born into and live, unavoidably contribute to how people fare in impact on the prospects people have and the a disaster setting. risk factors people are exposed to and Being socially and politically endure. Determinants include healthcare, disadvantaged produces increased income, education, employment, housing and vulnerability during natural hazards and access to critical services and infrastructure. disasters. These events heighten and expose Social determinants of health also encompass already existing social inequalities; the more social practices of gender, culture, ethnicity vulnerable, the harsher the impacts of a and discrimination. Various social-political disaster. Without adequate resources people conditions dictate how resources, wealth and are constrained in their ability to prepare, power are allocated (Davidson, 2015; World respond and recover from disasters (Naser- Health Organisation, 2017a), therefore Hall, 2013; Rodrıguez, Quarantelli, & Dynes, people with fewer resources, financial 2007). For instance, people who are
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disadvantaged can reside in high-risk hazard from a hazard, through appropriate disaster areas or have substandard and insecure preparedness, response and recovery housing that may not withstand a disaster practices (United Nations, 2015; United event. People also struggle to reconstruct Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction their lives after a disaster with limited social (UNISDR), 2009). The Aotearoa New capital, finances, and no insurance (Wisner, Zealand Ministry of Civil Defence and Blaikie, Cannon, & Davis, 2004). A range of Emergency Management (2016a) further research exits that attest to the poorer engages an all hazards approach to disaster outcomes for disadvantaged and risk management that attends to four key marginalised people (Baker & Cormier, areas: reduction, readiness, response and 2015; Suzuki & Kaneko, 2013; Tierney, recovery. Reduction focuses on identifying 2014). To illustrate, Brunkard, Namulanda, and reducing long-term risks and their and Ratard (2008) found that of the 986 impacts, readiness ensures systems, people Hurricane Katrina related mortalities 49% and communities are disaster ready, and were aged 75 years and older, while 51% response actions aim to protect people, save were male African Americans. In one area of lives and support recovery. During the Louisiana mortality rates for 18 years and recovery phase, coordinated actions aim to older were between 1.7 to 4 times greater for restore communities and infrastructure. African Americans than white Americans. (Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency To address inequality, according to Management, 2018; Ministry of Health, Lindsay (2003), the field of emergency 2015; Reilly & Markenson, 2011). While management should recognise the way in comprehensive, at times this approach which the social determinants of health are overlooks the specificity of marginalised intricately intersected with disaster groups (Blake, Marlowe, & Johnston, 2017), vulnerability. In this work, vulnerability is including people receiving OST. not viewed as a fixed state, rather social To address this gap and to better conditions that can be added or removed. understand the way in which OST healthcare, People who are vulnerable do respond and as a social determinant of health is managed cope after a disaster (Luna, 2009; Wisner et in a disaster setting, this research specifically al., 2004). Valuing the relationship between explores the preparedness practices and emergency management and social perspectives of OST and emergency determinants of health will enable a two- management professionals and people pronged, yet collaborative approach to receiving OST through applying a social emergency management that has multiple determinate of health lens. benefits for people and communities. The OST in Aotearoa New Zealand health sector can attend to the layers of OST is governed by specialist services vulnerability that determine community as specified by the Aotearoa New Zealand health and disaster mitigation, while Ministry of Health under the Misuse of emergency management can work towards Drugs Act 1975. While OST medications are ensuring that health equality in a disaster is highly controlled and regulated (Ministry of attainable for all (Luna, 2009; Marmot, Health, 2014), people receiving OST have 2005). minimal control or autonomy over treatment The Sendai Framework for Disaster protocols or takeaway dosing (a dose Risk Reduction (United Nations, 2015) calls consumed without professional supervision). for disaster risk reduction strategies that Opioid medication must be consumed daily identify risk while attending to the economic, to avoid physical and psychological cultural and environmental conditions that withdrawals (Matua Raki National sustain wellbeing. Adopted by Aotearoa New Addictions Workforce Development, 2014), Zealand, this framework promotes with some people subjected to daily community and health resilience, or the dispensing regimes that require them to ability to absorb, acclimatise and recover consume at a pharmacy each day. Common
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withdrawal symptoms include continuous people receiving OST. Without fit for yawning, restless body movements, purpose disaster preparedness planning, key rhinorrhoea, pounding heart, nausea, stomach problems for service continuity included cramps, aches and pains, insomnia and loss communication, transport and infrastructure of appetite. People experience anxiety, breakdown, inability to access client agitation and intense drug cravings. information and OST stock, and service Withdrawal symptoms are extremely inaccessibility. uncomfortable and people can turn to street All of the participants in the Blake and opioids, alcohol or benzodiazepines to avoid Lyon’s (2016) study were concerned about them (Wesson & Ling, 2003). In their technological failures causing Practice Guidelines for OST in Aotearoa communication problems, especially when New Zealand, the Ministry of Health (2014) notifying clients of alternative dispensing caution against involuntary cessation from plans. Some people receiving OST can be OST because it precipitates risk of overdose, transient meaning that OST services rely on physical harm, financial debt and criminal dispensing pharmacies to relay messages. offending. With dispensing pharmacies closed, contact In a disaster context, access to opioid with clients could be constrained. Other medications can be difficult if critical health potential issues included transport and services are closed, especially for people infrastructure problems, with road closures who are denied takeaway doses and must or limited public transport hindering access consume daily at a pharmacy. While to OST clinics or pharmacies. There were investigating impairment and disability concerns that replenishing opioid supplies during Hurricane Katrina, Bloodworth, could be problematic if drug warehouses or Kevorkian, Rumbaut, and Chiou-Tan (2007) pharmacies were inaccessible. Participants found that people on methadone presented were also worried that they could not access immediately to the Houston Astrodome, a online treatment records or up-to-date welfare centre, seeking treatment. However, physical records. All participants reported much like Aotearoa New Zealand, federal that without OST in the immediate aftermath regulations demanded Drug Enforcement of a disaster, clients’ ability to respond and Administration registration to dispense care for families and wider communities narcotic drugs, therefore OST could not be would be compromised. provided without official sanctions. Understandably, participants described Astrodome officials also decided that opioids disaster planning as tenuous because of the should not be stocked at the on-site uncertainty surrounding disaster scenarios pharmacy because of security concerns. (Blake & Lyons, 2016). Service continuity in Further, medical records for evacuees were a disaster context is dependent on the type, lost in the floods, phone services were time and location of the disaster. Interviews intermittent and hospitals and health services with the Christchurch Opioid Recovery unreachable making attempts to determine Service clinical staff, who were working methadone doses difficult. Psychiatric teams during the Aotearoa New Zealand were eventually used to refer and transport Canterbury earthquake event of 2011, people to methadone programmes. reported little disruption to service delivery With a scarcity of research exploring because the earthquake occurred at midday OST and emergency management and many clients had already consumed their specifically in Aotearoa New Zealand, Blake daily dose. They also reported that no one and Lyons (2016) undertook research to went without an OST dose in the time understand the perspectives of OST and following the event. The 2011 Canterbury emergency management professionals, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake killed 185 people, subset of participants in this study. The harmed many more and caused severe findings represented social determinants of infrastructure and building damage (New health at a systemic and social level, which Zealand Police Nga Pirihimana o Aotearoa, mattered to the health and wellbeing of 2012). Many of the health professionals in
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this study acknowledged the Christchurch emergency managers from District Health Opioid Recovery Service’s collaborative and Boards, one community emergency manager, collegial approach to sharing experiences three community pharmacists and one from the Canterbury earthquakes and pharmacist from an OST service. There were emergency management strategies. eight OST health professionals, one OST At the time of conducting the first administrator/health and safety staff officer study, of the OST services interviewed, and one OST client advisor, one Alcohol and emergency management plans were at Drugs (AoD) professional, one needle various stages of completion even though it exchange staff member, two Ministry of was approximately six years post the Health professionals working within the OST Canterbury earthquakes. Compounding this sector and one Ministry of Health emergency was the challenge of aligning emergency manager. Participants were based in management plans across the health services Christchurch, Nelson, Wellington and involved in OST. For instance, OST services Auckland. Of the 21 OST clients all were needed to align emergency management currently receiving OST. They had been on plans with District Health Board plans and OST from between one to 30 years; there pharmacy plans. Participants argued that was a mixture of methadone and suboxone Aotearoa New Zealand needed a nationally clients. These participants were on OST driven emergency management plan that is programmes in Auckland, Wellington, fit for purpose, contextual and covered the Palmerston North and Christchurch. diverse emergency scenarios (Blake & Procedure Lyons, 2016). Participants in stage one and two of the The Current Project wider study included any health professional As part of the larger in-depth qualitative that had or currently worked in OST and project investigating OST disaster emergency managers that did or did not have management, this work explores the knowledge of OST in Aotearoa New specificity of social determinants of health as Zealand. Participants were recruited by cold- represented by participants. The first stage of call emails or through snowballing the overall project gathered the views and techniques, whereby existing participants perceptions of emergency managers and OST suggested future interviewees. Interviews health professionals. The second stage were conducted individually except for two interviewed a small subset of OST health groups of two colleagues interviewed professionals from the Christchurch Opioid together. Interviews were semi-structured Recovery Service, a pharmacist and a needle and conversational in nature as it allowed the exchange worker living and working in participants to direct their interviews, while Christchurch at the time of the 2011 also keeping the interviews focused on the Canterbury earthquake. The third stage research aims. Interview topics covered involved talking to people receiving OST in emergency management planning for OST, Aotearoa New Zealand. Funding was issues that emergency responders might need provided by the Massey University Research to know, client preparedness, opioid Fund. withdrawal processes, and why OST is Participants important in a disaster context. Interviews To emphasise the way in which OST were approximately one hour in length and healthcare, as a social determinant of health, were conducted at OST services, is implicated in disaster settings, this paper participants’ workplaces, or Massey drew on the data from the entire project by University. This stage went through Massey exploring the views, opinions and University’s Human Ethics process and was experiences of 22 Aotearoa New Zealand peer-reviewed. emergency management and health Participants for stage three were professionals and 21 OST clients. The necessarily purposeful and included anyone professionals group was comprised of two who was currently on OST in Aotearoa New
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Zealand. They were recruited via information was initially grouped into detailed codes, sheets distributed at Needle Exchange using NVivo 11 software. The codes were Services or through OST Consumer Liaison then conceptually grouped into larger staff. Snowballing techniques were used. categories and considered relative to one Interviews were conversational and covered other and the research aims, in a recursive topics ranging from the importance of OST process. Further analysis identified key to health and wellbeing, what OST clients themes and one central theme contributing to would do if they could not access a dose, social determinants of health. emergency management planning for Findings dispensing, information provided by OST In the following sections the key services on emergency management themes of experiencing psychological planning, the relevance of stigma in distress without OST, fear of withdrawals, emergency responses, and information that lack of agency over takeaway doses, doing emergency responders need to know about whatever it took to access drugs, and not people receiving OST. Interviews ranged in being prepared for a disaster represent the length from 25 to 60 minutes. All ways in which health can be constrained in participants, barring two groups of two the lives of people receiving OST following couples were interviewed individually at a disaster. These themes were conceptualised Needle Exchange rooms, an OST service or under one central theme demonstrating the Massey University. importance of access to healthcare, a vital All interviews were audio-recorded and social determinant of health. Each theme is transcribed verbatim. Content was organised necessarily interconnected but described for readability, redundant words such as discretely below. “ums”, “arrhs” and “you know” were Access to Healthcare removed. Participants were given the option Experiencing psychological distress to review their transcripts before analysis. without OST. Participants expressed strong All names and identifying information were psychological reactions when contemplating removed. Participants on OST were given a a lack of access to OST after a disaster voucher for their time. Ethical approval was because it is vital to the health and wellbeing granted by the Massey University Human of people, and by association their families Ethics Committee (SOA 16/56). and communities. Yet in a disaster context, Analysis critical infrastructure and lifeline utilities can The overall project can be positioned become inoperable making access to OST within an interpretive framework in that difficult. The psychological reactions research is understood as a moral practice included panic and anxiety, as the following that positions people in relation to one quotes represent: another and impacts on how we make sense I'm always panicking about what of ourselves and each other. It also values would happen if there was a research as a practical activity that produces disaster … and how I’d get my knowledge about social lives and the type of medication … and once something communities people reside in (Smith, 1992, bad happens it boils down to, 2008). Thematic analysis was engaged to there’s a good chance they’ll close classify patterns across the participant’s down the main street, which means conversations. While OST and emergency you can’t get into the chemist. And management is an under-researched subject it’s always been a paranoia… . in Aotearoa New Zealand, identifying central (OST client) themes was vital to the exploratory aims of It’s the not knowing that creates determining how OST is addressed and anxiety for people … people freak endorsed within emergency management. at the thought of going without This involved a rigorous inductive data their medication for 24 hours, let coding and theme development process. Data alone what could be who knows,
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three days... . (OST client) them (Blake & Lyons, 2016). This includes I'm sure there would be massive planned and involuntary withdrawals from anxiety about where I’m going to OST because it is necessary to taper people get my next dose and how am I off OST to minimise the negative effects of going to avoid withdrawal … withdrawals and drug cravings (Berry et al., added to everything else. (OST 2010). Involuntary withdrawals are when a staff) client is withdrawn from OST because they For the participants receiving OST merely have been judged to have breached safety thinking about a disaster constraining access requirements, or have not reduced harmful to daily OST was distressing. Having an behaviour (Berry et al., 2010; Matua Raki intense psychological reaction to accessing National Addictions Workforce OST was understood by OST health Development, 2014). In a disaster context, professionals as exaggerating the trauma of managing withdrawals might not be possible, “everything else” in a disaster. It is common however the pharmacology of opioids means knowledge that the aftermath of a disaster is sudden withdrawals are not life-threatening chaotic with injury, death and destruction of (Berry et al., 2010). This point was important the built environment (Coppola, 2015). Some to some of the OST staff when they participants described the post disaster considered withdrawals in a disaster environment as dire, and the inability to scenario: access OST as a precursor to behaving in The worst thing that would happen unsafe ways: [in a disaster] is they would go into … in a crisis, or in an emergency, withdrawal and nobody is going to you're screwed because of what's die of that. (OST staff) happened, and I don't think you A person will not die if they don’t need something extra that could get their medication for three or make you do something four days but they’ll feel particularly silly or risky because uncomfortable. (Pharmacist) of that (not accessing OST). (OST These statements demonstrate how client) some staff were not overly concerned about This participant implied that risky the experience of withdrawals for people behaviour would be triggered by the receiving OST after a disaster, which could additional stress of not getting OST, not have implications for how disaster risk necessarily the effects of the disaster. As management is applied in service delivery. argued by Hser, Evans, Grella, Ling, and However, all participants, except the two Anglin (2015) opioid dependents can suffer emergency managers, recognised that from psychopathologies, such as traumatic withdrawal symptoms are “uncomfortable” disorders which affect drug use and OST and have a negative impact on physical and trajectories. Many of the OST staff, psychological wellbeing. For all of the pharmacists and people receiving OST in this participants on OST the effects of the study discussed coexisting mental health withdrawals were significant: disorders as an important determinant of I couldn’t concentrate enough to health in a disaster setting. Any be able to read, like, a paragraph. psychopathology will impact on how people And then the physical would be receiving OST cope with the disaster and like, aches and pains all over … drug seeking. All participants discussed the probably vomiting, probably just impact of not being able to access OST on lose control of bodily functions. behaviour and the fear of withdrawal, which And you can’t eat properly and is elaborated in the next section. have no appetite. Fear of withdrawals. Opioid … withdrawals, pretty unpleasant. medications are clinically managed to ensure I mean admittedly, they might not the safety and wellbeing of the people taking happen the very next day, but
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psychologically they’re probably drugs and that’s going to be worse sooner than the physical problematic for their wellbeing and effects, which might take more like that of those around them that they a couple of days to start may be responsible for. If they’ve happening. (OST client) got kids, or family or neighbours … there’s a horrible feeling in my that usually they’d be in a position stomach that doesn’t go away, to help, but if they’re like throwing anxiety, and pain. Physical and up in a toilet or curled up in bed or mental pain, yeah, mental as well. whatever [they can’t help]… . (OST client) (OST client) It was also recognised that opioid As this client expressed, being unable withdrawals could hinder coping and to function could impact on the ability to survival for people receiving OST and help others in the community during a ultimately their families and the people disaster. According to Hawkins and around them: Katherine (2010) resiliency and the ability to ... if there’s a massive earthquake cope following a disaster requires social and a landslide which cuts off capital, the resources that are enabled arterial routes into the city and through social networks and support systems. there is no food in the supermarkets Social support enables people to endure the and I have to walk to a food and post disaster environment and assist one water place and take my family and another to survive. maybe its 10 kilometres and I Fear of withdrawals also extended to haven’t been able to get methadone medications other than OST. Some and can no longer function, sure I participants talked about other medications, might not die of methadone like benzodiazepines or alcohol, having life withdrawal but I might die from threatening withdrawal symptoms. For basically drinking water that is example: unsafe because I can’t get to a … you might die if you don’t get clean water source, my children are your benzos, you might die if you going to be affected, the children don’t get your insulin … you might may have to drink unclean water or become really very unwell if you go without food… . (AoD worker) don’t get your anti-psychotic Imagining himself in this situation, this medication. (Pharmacist) participant recognised that although There are other medicines that withdrawals are not life-threatening they people take that people can die severely reduce a person’s ability to respond, from. Like alcohol withdrawal or cope and recover after a disaster. Going benzodiazepine withdrawal can kill without OST can precipitate family members people. They have seizures, and it’s going without essential survival items, like just not nice. (OST client) food and water. Participants on OST were A report exploring illegal drug trends also concerned about protecting people they in Aotearoa New Zealand found that 46% of are responsible for: people who frequently inject drugs also used I have two young children and a benzodiazepines, suggesting that people wife, and in a disaster, I’d feel like receiving OST might have unrecognised I’d need to operate a bit better than benzodiazepine problems (Wilkins, Prasad, having to try and deal with Wong, & Rychert, 2014). Unplanned withdrawal symptoms, and that’s withdrawals from benzodiazepines or alcohol only on a very low dose. (OST do have serious health consequences, client) including seizures and psychosis, therefore They would not be functioning withdrawals need to be managed carefully very well if they didn’t have their (Pétursson, 1994). Some of these participants
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downplayed the importance of sudden be difficult especially when living a chaotic withdrawals in a disaster, while others were life. Access to medication during a disaster very concerned. As was expected, the was particularly significant for people on community emergency managers did not daily supervised consumption because health understand the significance of OST and wellbeing is contingent on getting to a withdrawals, and the following excerpt pharmacy, or OST service, which might be demonstrates the belief that managing health inoperable or inaccessible. The except below during a disaster will be the responsibility of highlights how this mattered to one health professionals: participant: … we know about the earth moving … if you’re on daily pickups and what the impacts of that will you’ve got less leeway … if [a look like but the experts on people disaster] happens on a Saturday, at who inject or people who live least I can get through a couple of rough on the street, or people with days [have a Sunday takeaway a mental health disability, or because pharmacy is closed], until whatever it might be, are the people we have to do something, until I that look after those [groups of have to go back to the chemist or people]. (Community emergency something like that… . (OST manager) client) Conversely health emergency The following OST participant also managers recognised the importance of described experiences of powerlessness over maintaining clinical services to patients more treatment in the mental health system, which generally, and ensuring services carry on as is where OST is situated: normal to minimise the effects of Some of the mental health [staff] withdrawals: that I've met, I don’t know what it Well in our sphere of interest, what is, they just come … into my life we're trying to do is make sure that and they made decisions about my right across the health sector we've life, about my health and the got plans in place to carry on medication that I was on … made providing services as much as we major decisions about my health, possibly can. (Health emergency and I told them what I needed, and manager) they didn’t believe me or they Having disaster management plans is didn’t care. (OST client) critical to response, recovery and access to This quote suggests discriminatory healthcare to avoid unnecessary withdrawal practices, also a negative social determinant process for people receiving OST. The of health. A plethora of research exists intensity of worry and fear about access to evidencing that OST and people who inject OST and withdrawals for people was drugs experience stigma (for example see dependent on take-away privileges and dose Barry, McGinty, Pescosolido, & Goldman, amounts. These factors, as determinants of 2014; Conner & Rosen, 2008; Luty, Kumar, health, are explored in the next section. & Stagias, 2010). Such negative judgments Lack of agency over takeaway doses. become internalised and can impact on Client dispensing regimes and dose ongoing drug use and treatment outcomes. amounts are dictated by the health system To experience stigma and lack agency over and based on strict policies and guidelines. treatment decisions was frustrating for OST People receiving OST are expected to have participants. This lack of agency was supervised urine screening for illicit drug use concerning for people receiving OST when and regular treatment reviews to continue thinking about a disaster situation. Drawing treatment. If deemed unstable, a person is not on examples of everyday life, the participants eligible for take-away doses (Ministry of on OST describe how the lack of agency Health, 2014). However, strict protocols can over dosing regimes affects their ability to
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travel and work: clients reported that they would access drugs They call [methadone] liquid in whatever way necessary as discussed in handcuffs. Sometimes things just the next section. come up where you go out of Doing whatever it took to access drugs. town, and unless you’ve got a OST is a valid intervention that glowing report at the clinic … you increases safety by reducing the negative can’t just ring up the day before effects of illicit opioid use and the associated and say look, can I have a harms, such as blood borne diseases and takeaway for tomorrow? (OST criminal activity (Ministry of Health, 2014). client) It is argued that safety and security are strong I struggle so much just to keep my predictors of health (Australian job as it is, because I have to go in Psychological Society, 2017). However, everyday to pick [opioids] up. So I without access to OST in a disaster, clients in can’t say ok I'm going to work on this study reported that they would do Saturday, because, I’d have to try “whatever” it took to find drugs to prevent and get into city to pick up. (OST withdrawals, including breaking the law: client) And if the person’s resourceful or In a disaster scenario, being “handcuffed” ruthless, they’re going to go and do and experiencing a lack of agency is whatever… . (OST client) amplified: [To get drugs] I’d probably break The dispensing of your methadone, the law and break into the building so, you have little control and then … sounds bad but that’s probably in disaster you have even less what I’d do. (OST client) control. (OST client) If someone’s feeling crap, and they When discussing the impact of having have a great desire, then they might no control over access to opioids in everyday go out and burgle, or hit life, and the implications of that in a disaster, pharmacies during that time. (OST the people receiving OST also talked about client) feeling a lack of control over their bodily Even though I don’t want to [smash experiences of withdrawal. This lack was felt into a pharmacy], but that’s pretty as “terror”: much what it’d drive me to do. If we don’t have [opioids] we’re (OST client) sitting there shivering, and a If you’re on daily pickups, then it’s blithering mess. I hate the thought a real crisis [laughs] situation [post- of not being able to be in control of disaster] pretty much straight away. my own body. Terrifies me. (OST If your pharmacy isn’t open or that client) sort of thing … if that means [In withdrawal] you’ve got waving a baseball bat around at a diarrhoea, and your body’s going pharmacy that happens to be open, out of control, you’re going to do then, so be it. (OST client) anything to make that better. (OST These quotes demonstrate just how client) “resourceful” people receiving OST may be To not have control over legitimately in a disaster. Unable to access opioid prescribed opioid medications that prevent medication would drive them to do things uncomfortable withdrawals and support that they would not want to do under functional wellbeing can precipitate seeking business as normal conditions. The quotes alternative medications to control symptoms also alluded to risk for the general public. of withdrawal. Although people will not die For instance, the safety and security of from withdrawals, OST certainly constrains pharmacists and pharmacy patrons would be health and inhibits the ability to respond compromised by a person aggressively adequately in a disaster. In this sense, OST seeking opioids. However, some OST
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participants mentioned trying other avenues fuck, they’re going to be really to avoid withdrawal symptoms, such as busy if there’s a disaster. I mean buying street drugs, or taking alternative no one at the hospital’s going to medications: care that I haven’t got my I would go to the black market for Suboxone. You know, they’ve other methadone or other opiates, probably got people morphine, codeine, any, oxy- any everywhere… . (OST client) opiate will do in a pinch. Or even This account was supported by a people would resort to taking anti- government based emergency manger, who psychotics like Seroquel or other also reported that people receiving OST things that just knock you out. would not be welcome at hospitals: (OST client) Health won’t want people going to [Post-disaster] if it got to the hospitals. They’ll try and push lunchtime and I hadn’t heard of it out through primary care or anything [about pharmacy somewhere. They'll be looking to opening], and I knew where to get deal with the critically injured and something else, most definitely I all that sort of stuff, so you would, without a doubt [turn to wouldn’t want to be swamped with street drugs]. (OST client) a whole bunch of other people In the initial phase of a disaster, if legal setting up for a few minutes to get OST is not available then illegal supplies of their dose. (Ministry of Health OST will also be disrupted, according to worker) Ministry of Health staff. Not necessarily Although busy with acute cases, that wanting to commit crime or access street no one would care about opioid withdrawals drugs, most of the participants receiving OST in a disaster context signified discriminatory stated they would try to access opioids from practices. This assumption was supported by a hospital emergency department (ED), an stories from the 2011 Canterbury earthquake. option that OST clients discuss amongst A Christchurch OST staff member reported themselves. Though they recognised that this that primary response groups did not could be problematic in a disaster context consider that missing an opioid dose as an because the hospitals would be busy with emergency and therefore it was not a injured patients and distressed people: treatment priority. However, the participant The other suggestion I’ve heard, also claimed that this could be founded on which is passed around by a few knowledge about the pharmacology of people on the methadone methadone and its long half-life (time to programme to a few other people, reach half the original concentration): but it’s sort of billed as something … the message that had also come they don’t want everyone to know, through around controlled drugs is to just go to the ED, and that was that they weren't considered whoever the doctor in charge there emergency situations. So, an OST should know something about it, or client presenting for their next will be able to dispense, or dose, the next amount, is not an organise dispensing in a genuine emergency. So, they were emergency, disaster situation. generally being triaged down the Whether they’d be too thrilled list when they turned up at the about seeing a bunch of methadone after-hours doctors. (Pharmacist) patients turning up and demanding Some advocates of OST draw on a medication I don’t really know… . diabetes metaphor as a way to explain the (OST client) significance of OST on health and wellbeing. … maybe I’ll go to the hospital, With moral and ethical judgements [laughs] … there’s a disaster but, producing stigma about drug addiction and
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drug replacement treatments (Earnshaw, had never considered disaster preparedness Smith, & Copenhaver, 2013) this metaphor planning for their medication and simply provides a way to engage people in the accepted that storing opioids would be physiological justification of opioid impossible because of the strict regulations interventions: and lack of access. The following OST … the good old analogy of clients describe this situation: diabetes, if somebody didn’t have I've never really thought about, if a their insulin that added anxiety … disaster happened. Like it’s hard except of course if you're a diabetic enough planning with the hospital you're likely to go into a coma and just to get one or two days’ die (mmm) whereas with addiction takeaway when they’re fully it’ll get very, very uncomfortable. staffed, let alone if there was a (OST staff) disaster and hospital staff were While the metaphor of diabetes already stretched. (OST client) enabled a telling of the significance of OST … you can’t stockpile anything. So for people, it can overemphasise the physical it’s purely daily. (OST client) health consequences and diminish the … no I haven’t, really [got any psychological aspects. To be ignored by plans]. I mean I never, I can’t health professionals in an disaster setting really see how I would hide my could trigger people to “do whatever it took” dose, I mean unless I hid some of to score drugs and stop the uncomfortable my takeaway dose. (OST client) withdrawals, even if that meant burglary, When asked about why they were not ready robbery or using street drugs. The for a disaster reasons other reasons included participants did not consider any other denial that a disaster would occur to a lack of strategies for reducing withdrawals, such as finances or geographical challenges: taking medication like Ibuprofen to lessen ... never with my medication. No. the symptoms, and only a small number had It’s almost like that whole natural any disaster preparedness items in place. The disaster thing, it’s almost like it’s next section discusses disaster preparedness never going to happen to me. (OST practices for people receiving OST and OST client) healthcare services. … probably money… I'm between Not being prepared for a disaster. A homes … and just, never thought range of research argues that preparedness is about it. You see the ads on T.V. vital to efficient and effective recovery for and that, you don’t even really see people and communities after a disaster (for that to be honest. But it’s almost example see Finnis, 2004; Frumkins, 2011; like money you’re going to go out Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency and spend that might not be used in Management, 2016c). However, being a way [for an emergency]. And I prepared is difficult for people who are could see myself being low on disadvantaged because of a paucity of money and supplies and all that, resources, capacity and social capital (Fraser, you probably dig into it. (OST 1999; Wisner et al., 2004). As this research client) has demonstrated, for OST clients, I don’t have that kind of money. So preparedness planning is obstructed by no, if I was working and had regulations that limit access to opioid money in the bank, I’d probably medications. Despite such restrictions, the think about it, but even then, I've Aotearoa New Zealand Ministry of Civil never really had money to think - Defence and Emergency Management I've got too much money, what can (2016b) implore the public to be disaster I buy? (OST client) ready by storing essential medicines. Some I guess because I live, like just of the OST participants reported that they across the road from the hospital, it
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doesn’t, I'm not really that recovery issues, like housing. When asked if concerned. (OST client) they had been given information on OST The following pharmacist described the emergency plans, all participants reported social conditions that some clients endure that they had not received any information on and the importance of providing extra help to preparedness planning. This was troubling as them: some of the OST services were well prepared … a lot of our clients are living out and had produced information sheets for how of cars, or garages or they’re very people should prepare. One of the OST transient and of course transport is participants expressed frustration about this an issue … some of the clients are lack of information: stable, they’ve got jobs and they’re I don’t know if they’ve got easy peasy, but you get the same anything in place. I don’t know if pot of our clientele who are still in they’re interested in getting a mess. The ones in a mess are the anything in place. I got the feeling ones that need more help, the ones that like, oh we go to work, we sit that are in a mess they stress out in our office, we go home, and more “my god what am I going to we’re fine. You guys… you’ll be do, where am I going” “what about ‘right, go to the hospital. And I my medication”. (Pharmacist) know from my experience when OST staff also mentioned the impact of there is no dose, that when you go social inequality in a disaster scenario. Social to the hospital, the hospital says inequalities are recognised as a strong piss off. (OST client) predictor of health (Davidson, 2015). It was claimed that most people on Following the Canterbury earthquake, it was OST in Wellington, a city with active noted that people receiving OST were worse geological faults making it earthquake prone off because of their position as “have nots”: (GNS Science Te Pū Ao, 2016), would not A lot of [clients] ended up in really have considered household preparedness horrible conditions because of the planning, as the following except earthquake. A lot of them had demonstrated: substandard housing to start with, I think on the whole … you’ve got and it was made worse by the 400-odd methadone patients in earthquake… what we found was Wellington, I would expect that the we got homelessness not after the majority of them are not prepared earthquakes so much as when at all for, even just in terms of, at landlords got their houses done up home, things like water, food, and then they upped the rent, and radio, batteries, whatever, that sort the [OST clients] had to move out. of stuff. Even a plan to get out of So we had social issues maybe the house, or who to contact, I twelve to twenty-four months after don’t think, I’ve certainly talked to the earthquake. Most of our issues a few people about it, and none of here have been the consequence of them have any sort of plans at all. … the ‘haves and have nots’. (OST (OST client) staff) OST staff also assumed that clients That social disadvantage is problematic would not have thought about preparedness for people following an earthquake is planning, however that assumption was concerning. As well as advocating for social moderated by the length of time someone changes that support disadvantaged had been receiving OST, stability, illicit drug communities, assisting people to prepare use, and “sci-fi” knowledge of disasters: could reduce some of the negative harms … if they’re early on in their immediately following a disaster, such as [treatment], getting on the first access to water or medication and long term couple of years is probably still
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living a life of kind of, gentle kind OST service preparedness plan would be of chaos, they might even still be enough to satisfy them, however verbal using. So I would think it just messages should be supported by written wouldn’t even occur to them. messages. OST services should provide Because everything, it’s all about preparedness planning information packs that how you’re going to get high are disseminated to people receiving OST on again, and over and above that – a regular basis. and then you’re high, so you’re not Discussion thinking about what might happen Social determinants of health govern in the far off sci-fi version. But the way in which disasters are experienced. yeah it [preparedness] just Already existing inequalities, such as wouldn’t occur to you. (OST staff) substandard housing, poor healthcare and Household disaster preparedness, such socioeconomic conditions are exaggerated as storing water, food, and batteries had been and contribute to negative outcomes after completed by two of the participants, with disasters (Frumkins, 2011; Hser et al., 2015; one explaining that she was prepared because Wisner et al., 2004). By applying a social her family encouraged her to be. Even if determinant of health lens, this work has people receiving OST could stockpile their delineated the way in which health systems medication it would be problematic because impact on the health and wellbeing of people people could be tempted to consume it. The receiving OST, their families and allure of the drug high is represented below: communities, especially with disaster If they say, look well what we’ll preparation planning and during a disaster do is we’ll give you a week’s response phase. A central theme of access to worth and that can be for in case healthcare encompassed subthemes of there’s an emergency, that experiencing psychological distress without wouldn’t work because it’s a mind OST, fear of withdrawals, lack of agency -altering substance … (OST client) over takeaway doses, doing whatever it took … an addict that would basically to access drugs, and not being prepared for a open up, it would just get used I disaster. suppose. (OST client) The OST participants in this study One OST staff member reported that were psychologically distressed merely no client had ever asked about emergency thinking about being without their planning; while another stated that she was medication following a disaster. OST staff asked about what to do to access OST after noted that many clients had pre-existing the Canterbury earthquake in 2011, but not trauma which would contribute to how they since then: cope. The impact of opioid withdrawals was They did after Christchurch. downplayed by some OST staff because, Recently they haven’t asked and unlike benzodiazepines, they are not life- the answer then is probably still the threatening. However, other OST staff and answer now - if the pharmacy was clients recognised that withdrawals are open they would continue to collect extremely uncomfortable and could from them. If the pharmacy was compromise client and community safety in forced to close, then we would be a disaster. For people who rely on able to direct them to where they medication to function, having limited would be able to go, and they were agency to be prepared or access to OST quite happy with that. (OST staff) produces additional disadvantages during a As indicated here, the same message disaster. The OST participants in the study following the Canterbury earthquake 2011 is felt like they would have no choice but to relevant to people OST clients today. commit crime or use street drugs to alleviate According to one OST participant, being withdrawals. In an already chaotic disaster provided with verbal information about the setting, criminal activity and the health risks
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associated with using street drug would had not seen it. As well as lessening exaggerate harm to people receiving OST, withdrawal effects, this might assist clients to and as a consequence the wider community, access their regular medications in which of course is not ideal. Personal and appropriate ways and potentially prevent any psychological safety should be a primary criminal activity, such as robbing a pharmacy focus in disaster recovery (Coppola, 2015). or using street drugs. Studying the impact of The inability of OST clients to have heat waves on people on medication with control over their healthcare and have mental health and substance disorders, household disaster preparation items in order Cusack, de Crespigny, and Athanasos (2011) to care for families or communities in the also argued that health professionals should days following a disaster, was also alarming. support clients to manage health conditions Some of the participants expressed concerns during a disaster. Extra monitoring and that they may be too sick to access clean support should be provided for those that do drinking water or food. They would not be not have the ability to do it themselves. able to walk long distances or get to safety The participants in this study identified and that they could not help a neighbour or a other social determinants impacting on the distressed citizen while they were physically health and wellbeing of OST clients in a compromised. Household disaster disaster. For instance, the potential for preparedness was constrained without discrimination by ED staff. That the medical financial means to purchase additional food, profession positions opioid withdrawals as a and as a transient group with sometimes non-medical emergency in a disaster setting chaotic lifestyles, managing emergency negates the wider social and health risks. stores can be a difficult task. Bloodworth et Information for ED staff on how to engage al. (2007) argued that disaster preparedness with people receiving OST in this situation is key to managing disaster outcomes might be a useful strategy to prevent risky therefore discussing emergency plans with behaviour. Rather than turn people receiving clients is vital, and as recognised by the OST OST away they could be advised of the local clients in this study, would help to alleviate dispensing plan or where to find information their stress. about OST service plans. People with A key determinant of health is social specific health needs should be able to equality for vulnerable groups (Davidson, communicate these needs to emergency 2015; Naser-Hall, 2013). OST services need management staff or other health to ensure that appropriate fit for purpose professionals if they present at their services emergency management plans are prepared without fear of discrimination or rejection. and communicated to auxiliary health The Aotearoa New Zealand Health and providers such as pharmacies and general Disability Commission encourages people to practitioners. Emergency plans should also carry a health booklet outlining vital health be communicated regularly to clients. If information in case of an emergency or to people receiving OST know how long it will provide it to new health professionals. This be before they can expect a dose in an strategy might be a sensible option for OST emergency, or they are informed of service clients. It may help overcome any immediate continuity plans it might help alleviate communication issues and de-stress the emotional distress and encourage people to client. have strategies to manage withdrawal Conclusion symptoms until they can get an opioid dose. The United Nations Platform on the For instance, OST clients should be provided Social Determinants of Health (World Health with information on medications to reduce Organisation, 2017a) aims to address the withdrawal symptoms, like Paracetamol and socioeconomic and structural conditions that anti-nausea medications. Although one of the improve health outcomes for all. The Sendai services had this information available, the Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction OST participants in this study reported they (United Nations, 2015) also calls for disaster
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risk reduction practices that strengthen the Blake, D., Marlowe, J., & Johnston, D. social, economic, cultural and environmental (2017). Get prepared: Discourse for the conditions to promote disaster safety for all. privileged? International Journal of Emergency management should consider and Disaster Risk Reduction, 283-288. understand how the social determinants of doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/ health are intricately linked to disaster risk j.ijdrr.2017.09.012 management practices. People working in Bloodworth, D. M., Kevorkian, C. G., health, including community psychologists, Rumbaut, E., & Chiou-Tan, F. Y. (2007). should recognise the importance of Impairment and disability in the emergency management and disaster risk astrodome after Hurricane Katrina: reduction. Acknowledging this relationship Lessons learned about the needs of the would enable a more comprehensive and disabled after large population collaborative approach to addressing social movements. American Journal of Physical inequality within a disaster setting and Medicine & Rehabilitation, 86(9), 770- beyond, providing multiple benefits for all 775. doi:10.1097/ people, including people receiving OST, PHM.0b013e31813e0439 their families and communities. Brunkard, J., Namulanda, G., & Ratard, R. (2008). Hurricane Katrina Deaths, References Louisiana, 2005. Disaster Medicine and Australian Psychological Society. (2017). Public Health Preparedness, 2(4), 215- How to address the social determinants of 223. doi:10.1097/ health in your work: A practice resource DMP.0b013e31818aaf55 for psychologists. Retrieved from http:// Conner, K. O., & Rosen, D. (2008). “You're www.psychology.org.au/public_interest/ nothing but a junkie”: Multiple social-determinants/: experiences of stigma in an aging Baker, L. R., & Cormier, L. A. (2015). methadone maintenance population. Disasters and vulnerable population: Journal of Social Work Practice in the Evidence-based practice for helping Addictions, 8(2), 244-264. professions. New York, NY: Springer doi:10.1080/15332560802157065 Publishing Company. Coppola, D. P. (2015). Introduction to Barry, C. L., McGinty, E. E., Pescosolido, B. international disaster management (3rd A., & Goldman, H. H. (2014). Stigma, ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworth- discrimination, treatment effectiveness, Heinemann. and policy: Public views about drug Cusack, L., de Crespigny, C., & Athanasos, addiction and mental Psychiatric P. (2011). Heatwaves and their impact on Services, 65(10), 1269-1272. people with alcohol, drug and mental Berry, R., Townshend, P., Pooley, S., health conditions: a discussion paper on Deering, D., Nixon, L., & Vince, K. clinical practice considerations. Journal of (2010). National opioid substitution Advanced Nursing, 64(4), 915-922. treatment providers training programme. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05551.x Wellington: Ministry of Health. Davidson, A. (2015). Social determinants of Blake, D., & Lyons, A. (2016). Opioid health: A comparative approach. Ontario, substitution treatment planning in a Canada: Oxford University Press. disaster context: Perspectives from Earnshaw, V., Smith, L., & Copenhaver, M. emergency management and health (2013). Drug addiction stigma in the professionals in Aotearoa/New Zealand. context of methadone maintenance International Journal of Environmental therapy: An investigation into Research and Public Health, 13(1122), 2- understudied sources of stigma. 14. doi:10.3390/ijerph13111122 International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 11(10), 110–122. doi:10.1007/s11469-012-9402-5
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Finnis, K. (2004). Creating a resilient New Luty, J., Kumar, P., & Stagias, K. (2010). Zealand: Can public education and Stigmatised attitudes in independent community development campaigns create pharmacies associated with discrimination prepared communities? An examination of towards individuals with opioid preparedness motivation strategies. dependence. The Psychiatrist, 34, 511- Retrieved from Wellington, New Zealand: 514. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.109.028951 https://www.civildefence.govt.nz/assets/ Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of Uploads/publications/finnis-creating-a- health inequalities. Lancet 365, 1099– resilient-new-zealand.pdf 1104. Fraser, N. (1999). Social justice in the age of Matua Raki National Addictions Workforce identity politics: Redistribution, Development. (2014). OST and you: A recognition, and participation. In L. Ray guide to opioid substitution treatment. In & A. Sayer (Eds.), Culture and economy Matua Raki (Ed.), National Addictions after the cultural turn (pp. 25-52). Workforce Development. London, England: Sage Publication. Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Frumkins, H. (2011). Bumps on the road to Management. (2016a). The 4Rs: preparedness. American Journal of Reduction, readiness, response and Preventive Medicine, 40(2), 272-273. recovery. Retrieved from http:// doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.11.001 www.civildefence.govt.nz/cdem-sector/ Gilson, L., Doherty, J., Loewenson, R., & cdem-framework/the-4rs/ Francis, V. (2007). Challening inequity Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency through health systems. Retrieved from Management. (2016b). How to get ready. http://www.who.int/social_determinants/ Retrieved from http:// resources/csdh_media/ www.getthru.govt.nz/how-to-get-ready hskn_final_2007_en.pdf?ua=1 Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency GNS Science Te Pū Ao. (2016). Plate Management. (2016c). If a disaster tectonics. Retrieved from http:// happened now, would you be ready? www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Our-Science/Earth- Retrieved from http://getthru.govt.nz/ Science/Plate-Tectonics Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Hawkins, R. L., & Katherine, M. (2010). Management. (2018). Civil Defence Bonding, bridging and linking: How Emergency Management Act 2002. social capital operated in New Retrieved from https:// Orleansfollowing Hurricane Katrina. www.civildefence.govt.nz/cdem-sector/ British Journal of Social Work, 1777– cdem-framework/civil-defence- 1793. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcp087 emergency-management-act-2002/ Hser, Y.-I., Evans, E., Grella, C., Ling, W., Ministry of Health. (2014). New Zealand & Anglin, D. (2015). Long-Term Course practice guidelines for opioid substitution of Opioid Addiction. Harvard Review Of treatment. Retrieved from https:// Psychiatry, 23(2), 76-89. doi:10.1097/ www.health.govt.nz/system/files/ HRP.0000000000000052 documents/publications/nz-practice- Lindsay, J. R. (2003). The determinants of guidelines-opioid-substitution-treatment- disaster vulnerability: Achieving apr14-v2.pdf sustainable mitigation through population Ministry of Health. (2015). National health health. Natural Hazards, 28, 291–304. emergency plan: A framework for the Luna, F. (2009). Elucidating the concept of health and disability sector. Retrieved vulnerability: Layers not labels. from https://www.health.govt.nz/ International Journal of Feminist publication/national-health-emergency- Approaches to Bioethics, 1(2), 121-139. plan-framework-health-and-disability- sector
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Naser-Hall, E. (2013). The disposable class: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Ensuring poverty consciousness in natural Reduction (UNISDR). (2009). UNISDR disaster preparedness. DePaul Journal for Terminology on disaster risk reduction. Social Justice, 7(1), 55-86. Retrieved from http://www.unisdr.org/we/ New Zealand Police Nga Pirihimana o inform/terminology Aotearoa. (2012, 21 August 2016). Wesson, D. R., & Ling, W. (2003). The Christchurch earthquake: List of clinical opiate withdrawal scale (COWS). deceased. Retrieved from http:// Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35(2), 253 www.police.govt.nz/major-events/ -259. previous/christchurch-earthquake doi:10.1080/02791072.2003.10400007 Pétursson, H. (1994). The benzodiazepine Wilkins, C., Prasad, J., Wong, K., & Rychert, withdrawal syndrome. Addiction, 89(11), M. (2014). Recent trends in illegal drug 1455-1459. use in New Zealand, 2006-2013. Raphael, D. (2006). Social determinants of Retrieved from Auckland: ttps:// health: Present status, unanswered www.massey.ac.nz/massey/fms/Colleges/ questions, and future directions. College%20of%20Humanities%20and% International Journal of Health Services, 20Social%20Sciences/Shore/reports/ 36(4), 651–677. IDMS%202013%20report.pdf? Reilly, M. J., & Markenson, D. S. (2011). 6908B6F2215DE8669735157C0938DC0 Health care emergency management: 8 Principles and practice. Burlington, MA: Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., & Davis, Jones & Bartlett Learning. I. (2004). At risk: Natural hazards, Rodrıguez, H., Quarantelli, E. L., & Dynes, people's vulnerability and disasters. New R. R. (2007). Editors' introduction. In H. York, NY: Routledge. n. Rodrıguez, E. L. Quarantelli, & R. R. World Health Organisation. (2017a). Health Dynes (Eds.), Handbook of Disaster in the post-2015 development agenda: Research. New York, NY: Springer. need for a social determinants of health Smith, J. K. (1992). Interpretive inquiry: A approach. Joint statement of the UN practical and moral activity. Theory Into platform on social determinants of health. Practice, XXXI(2), 100-106. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ doi:0.1080/00405849209543530 social_determinants/advocacy/ Smith, J. K. (2008). Interpretive Inquiry. In UN_Platform_FINAL.pdf?ua=1 L. M. Given (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia World Health Organisation. (2017b). Social of qualitative research methods (pp. 460- determinants of health: Health systems. 461). CA, Thousand Oaks: Sage Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ Publications. social_determinants/themes/ Suzuki, I., & Kaneko, Y. (2013). Japan’s healthsystems/en/ disaster governance: How was the 3.11 crisis managed? New York, NY: Address for correspondence Springer. [email protected] Tierney, K. (2014). The social roots of risk: Producing disasters, promoting resilence. Author biography Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Dr Blake currently works as a Lecturer for United Nations. (2015). Sendai Framework the Joint Centre for Disaster Research and for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. the School of Psychology at Massey Sendai, Japan: United Nation's University in Aotearoa New Zealand. Her International Strategy for Disaster work in this space encompasses matters of Reduction. welfare and social justice to inform her commitment to the wellbeing of people who can be vulnerable and marginalised communities, both within a disaster context
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and more generally. This includes adoption, identity, welfare, gender, health promotion and disaster response. Dr Blake values a collaborative research approach to complex social issues. She argues for the continuing need to address the knowledge-practice gap between researchers, providers and end users.
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Nature strip gardens as sites for transformative change
Margaret Schubert Julie van den Eynde Victoria University
Transformative change is required for society to reduce and adapt to the effects of cli- mate change. In this study, theories, methods and practices of transformative change in the social science literature were interpreted and summarised into three processes perceived by the researchers to contribute to transformative change: ethical aware- ness, social justice practices and a sense of vision for the future. The interpreted and summarised processes were used to investigate nature strip gardens (edible or native gardens on the footpath) which have been identified as having potential to contribute towards transformative change for environmental issues. Households with a nature strip garden received a letter requesting participation in social justice research about their nature strip garden. A questionnaire based on the summary of transformative change developed by the researchers was utilised with prompts from a social justice scale to carry out eight qualitative interviews. The data was analysed deductively using codes directly from the interpreted summary of social science literature on transforma- tive change, including ecological consciousness, framing issues in terms of power, and changing policy. The findings lent weight to the conceptualisation of nature strip gar- dens as sites where transformative change processes can occur.
Transformative change is required for risk factors, which may include climate society to reduce the effects of climate change (Reimer, 2010) and the use of energy change. Features of transformative change sources which damage the environment have been conceptualised by many social (Angelique & Culley, 2014). science fields, including community Transformative Change Processes psychology (Angelique & Culley, 2014; Informed by the literature on transformative Evans, Hanlin, & Prilleltensky, 2007; Nelson change, particularly in relation to & Prilleltensky, 2010; Nelson, 2013), environmental concerns, as researchers we community development (Barnes, 2014), have conceptualised transformative change environmental justice (Sherman, 2011), as being brought about by processes of environmental politics (Nettle, 2014), social ethical awareness, social justice practices and research (Hopkins, 2008), social a sense of vision for the future (see Table 1). epidemiology (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009) Ethical awareness in this context is defined and sociology (Habermas, 1987). as the identification of social justice issues Brown, O'Neill and Fabricius (2013) (Habermas, 1987; Nelson, 2013; Sherman, reviewed nineteen understandings of 2011). Social justice practices are defined as transformation in an attempt to reconcile the actions that increase people’s ability, differing viewpoints found in the social especially those who are disadvantaged, to sciences. They identified that many social contribute to and receive from society (Evans science fields show a general agreement that et al., 2007; Habermas, 1987; Prilleltensky, transformation is a process of change that 2010); and a sense of vision for the future is involves the alteration of fundamental described by words, or expressed as actions, attributes of a system. It may also involve which manifest a perception of a future of changes to practices, lifestyles, power increased social justice and wellbeing relations, norms and values including social (Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010; Nettle, 2014; justice values (Nelson & Prilleltensky 2010). Newbrough, 1995; Reimer, 2010; Sherman, It is concerned with the reduction of systemic 2011).
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Table 1 presents processes of these processes may occur in connection transformative change summarised and with nature strip gardening (edible or native recorded from social science literature gardens on the footpath). searches carried out by the authors. The table Nature Strip Gardening was constructed to provide a simple Nature strip gardening, as a form of framework to assist in the identification of community gardening in the everyday transformative change processes in the field common space between public and private of climate change and environmental land, has great potential to foster citizen sustainability. The authors inducted that participation and to bring about
Table 1 Conceptualisations of Transformative Change: a Three Part Process
Ethical Awareness Social Justice Practices A Sense of Vision for the Future Generating political Power regulation, empower- Enhanced wellbeing conceptual- awareness. Framing and ment, self- determination and ised in terms of power and at multi- interpretation of issues in participation, inclusion, advoca- ple levels. Increased control, self- terms of power (Nelson & cy, development of strengths esteem, competence, independence, Prilleltensky, 2010). and relationships, resistance, political awareness, political rights supportive relationships, social and positive identity. Development of critical and political action, collective knowledge (Habermas, Enhanced socially supportive rela- identity, prevention, participa- 1987) tionships, participation in social, tory democracy (Nelson & Pril- community and political life. Free- Identifying practices that leltensky, 2010). dom from exploitation enabled by reduce wellbeing or are equity and power sharing (Nelson unsustainable (Reimer, Ideas development. Knowledge sharing, Acquisition of compe- & Prilleltensky, 2010) 2010). tencies, including economic Personal and collective transfor- Illumination of problem in (Nettle, 2014). the public sphere mation (Habermas, 1987). Changing policy (Evans et al., (Sherman, 2011). Commitment and connection to 2007). place. Food security, food justice, Consciousness-raising Leverage of government, re- sustainable food production, sus- (Evans, et al, 2007). spectful negotiation. Dispute tainability (Hopkins, 2003; Nettle, Commitment to land care resolution, win/win solutions, 2014; Parfit et al., 2012) beyond suburbia (Hogan, uniting towards a common goal A society re-orientated towards 2003). (Sherman, 2011). community action (Okvat, 2011) Linking wellbeing to equi- Community empowerment
ty, and environmental care (Evans et al., 2007) (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010). Civic mindedness, social soli- darity, social support, formal Ecological Consciousness groups, leadership (Angelique (Schmeleva, 2009) & Culley, 2014) Advocacy (Evans et al, 2007)
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transformative change on environmental framework of transformative change to issues (Hogan, 2003; Meenachi-Sunderam & investigate whether nature strip gardeners Thompson, 2005; Okvat, 2011; Pyles, 2013). displayed transformative change processes as Hogan (2003), a sociologist at La Trobe defined by ethical awareness, social justice University, argued that suburban life is practices and a sense of vision for the future. currently based on the needs of mobilisation Methods and transport and is not designed to fulfil This research project utilised a people’s political, economic, social or pragmatic research paradigm and employed spiritual needs. He identified nature strip mixed methods in undertaking the study. gardens (gardens which grow native or Pragmatism as a research paradigm supports edible plants on the footpath) as helpful to the use of a mix of different research address these needs and mediate against methods as well as modes of analysis to individualistic values that erode political bring about socially useful knowledge participation and reduce people's ability to (Feilor, 2009). Inductive reasoning was respond to environmental challenges. He utilised as the logic for exploring noted that nature strip gardeners in suburbia transformative processes on the have already confronted questions of understanding that this approach to the sustainability and have potential to produce investigation would enable a focus on social ecological consciousness to resolve assets and community capacity to bring environmental issues. about change. Ethics approval to recruit Hogan (2003) also pointed out that a participants was obtained from the Victoria large proportion of the population now living University Human Research Ethics in Australia post colonisation might not be Committee (Approval Number HRE15-045). aware of the necessity for responsiveness to Participants ecological issues that food production and The participants were eight people with waste management can assist in providing. nature strip gardens in the inner suburbs of He focused on the potential that the nature North and North-East Melbourne. The age strip garden has to provide an environment range of the participants was 42 to 64 and for this responsiveness to develop in the they consisted of six women and two men. population on a large scale. He referred back The sources of participants were (a) to the work of George Seddon (2001), an respondents to flyers delivered to the letter initiator of ecological history and suburban boxes of people with nature strip gardens in a politics, who reflected that a nation of North-Eastern Melbourne suburb, and (b) collective gardeners is more likely to members of an Urban Food Network in the produce a public culture of commitment to Northern suburbs of Melbourne who caring for the environment. Nature strip responded to an emailed flyer. The sample gardeners, along with those creating green size was considered adequate as the data urban corridors for fauna and flora, can collected was largely qualitative and did not provide exemplars for others in suburban require large numbers. settings to follow. Data Collection: Open-Ended Interviews Hogan (2003) and Meenachi-Sunderam To explore transformative change and Thompson (2005), along with the current processes in nature strip gardening three authors, suggest that nature strip gardeners open ended questions were asked of are likely to demonstrate transformative participants. As transformative change can change processes, and have the potential to be seen as driven in part by values of social contribute to transformative change for justice (Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010), a society in the future. This project aimed to social justice scale (Torres-Harding, Siers, & investigate transformative change processes Olson, 2012) was also utilised to formulate in nature strip gardening in the inner suburbs prompts for these questions. The social of North and North-East Melbourne, justice scale has good reliability and was Victoria. The research utilised an interpreted specifically developed as a tool to be used by
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community psychologists to measure consider this question from a social justice favourable attitudes towards engaging in viewpoint, statements were selected and social action. modified from the social justice scale The first question asked was: “Can you (Torres-Harding et al., 2012) such as "to tell me about any changes in awareness that seeing a future where all individuals have a may have preceded, or may have come about chance to speak and be heard". because of, your participation in a nature Data Analysis strip garden?” Two prompts to invite people Data narratives were coded according to consider social justice issues in relation to to the transformative change processes (see this question were used: "…about changes in Table 1) derived from the literature by the awareness of larger social conditions that researchers, and the number of respondents cause suffering and impede wellbeing." and who spoke about different transformative "…about changes in awareness of fair and processes was noted. Transcripts of equitable allocation of bargaining powers, interviews were entered as documents into obligations and resources” (Torres-Harding the N-Vivo11 computerised data et al., 2012). A third prompt based on management program. The literature was discussions of awareness from political utilised to create codes which were entered environmental literature was also given "… as nodes into N-Vivo and the text was about changes in awareness to sustainability reviewed for each code. The text was coded values” (Nettle, 2014). by matching the codes with segments of data The second question asked of selected as representative of the code (Braun participants was: "preceding or since & Clarke 2006). For example, the text was involvement in a nature strip garden, can reviewed for any units of text that you tell me about any changes in your meaningfully matched the code of ability to ensure that opportunities and consciousness raising (Evans et al., 2007) resources are fairly distributed?” This and so on. The segments of text from all question was formulated on transformative matched codes were then sorted, and change literature from sociological (Hogan, analysed (Braun & Clarke, 2006) according 2003), community psychology (Nelson & to the literature identified for the proposed Prilleltensky, 2010), environmental politics three-part processes of ethical awareness, (Nettle, 2014) and environmental justice social justice practices and a sense of vision fields (Sherman, 2007). To invite people to for the future. consider this question from a social justice Results and Discussion viewpoint, five statements were selected The results of the data analysis show and modified from the social justice scale nature strip gardens as places where such as "having a positive impact on transformative change processes can occur. others”, and "talking to others about social Table 2 summarizes the number of identified injustices and the impact of social nature strip gardeners whose text responses conditions on health and wellbeing” and matched the codes for aspects of ethical used as prompts (Torres-Harding et al., awareness, social justice practices and a 2012). sense of vision for a just future as The third question asked participants: conceptualized from the literature and used "can you tell me about any changes to a as prompts in the interviews. Responses to sense of vision for the future that may have each question are then discussed in relation preceded or come about as a result of a to the literature, with examples provided in nature strip garden?" This question was participants’ own words. Names have been formulated from community psychology changed to protect the privacy of (Newborough, 1995), environmental justice participants. (Sherman, 2007), environmental politics Investigating Transformative Change (Nettle, 2014) and sociological literature Processes: Ethical Awareness (Habermas, 1987). To prompt people to Participants were asked: "Can you tell
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Table 2 Deductively Developed Transformative Change Processes
Process Category Number of Partici- pants
Q1: Can you tell me about any changes in awareness that may have preceded, or may have come about because of participation in a nature strip garden?
Ethical awareness 1. framing issues in terms of power 3 2. identifying issues - equity, wellbeing & environmental 2 care 3. consciousness raising 4 4. ecological consciousness 6
Q2: Preceding or since involvement in a nature strip garden, can you tell me about any changes in ability to ensure that opportunities and resources are fairly distributed within society?
Social justice 1. ideas development and knowledge sharing 7 practice 2. resistance 2 3. civic mindedness 1 4. changing policy 3
Q3: Can you tell me about any changes to a sense of vision for the future that may have pre- ceded or come about as a result of a nature strip garden?
A sense of vision 1. personal and collective transformation 2 for the future 2. greener urban environments 2 3. enhanced socially supportive relationships 3 4. food security and local food production 4
me about any changes in ethical awareness Sharni spoke about being aware of "the that may have preceded or may have come politics of nature strip gardening” and gave about because of participation in a nature an example of The Citrus Tree Incident. She strip garden?" The four categories created and Bella had helped a neighbour plant a within the first transformative change citrus tree on the nature strip. The neighbour process of ethical awareness as summarised received a letter from the council ordering in Table 2 above were utilized to analyse the tree to be removed. Bella also spoke responses to this question. about the Citrus Tree Incident. She was Framing issues in terms of power. advised to get a petition going which allowed
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all of the people in the street to have a say She successfully rebalanced the power about whether they wanted the citrus tree in dynamics in this incident by invoking the the street or not. Bella commented, power and voice of the street community. I have become aware that the The solidarity of the neighbourhood petition nature strip belongs to everyone… enabled the citrus tree to be saved. Bella whoever was in charge of this stuff showed political awareness (Nelson & put a note in my neighbour’s Prilleltensky, 2010) by utilizing the letterbox saying 'please remove collective power of community to produce a your citrus tree' and I went and liberating outcome both for a neighbour and started a petition and it was a great for the street. way to meet the neighbours and Identifying issues of equity, wellbeing save the citrus tree. I met people I and environmental care. Anita, Michael and hadn't met before in just this Ruth discussed their nature strip garden in section and I have lived here for 20 terms of equity and wellbeing. Ruth said years…I think the fact that the "since I have been nature strip gardening I citrus tree is still there gives people have become aware that there are a lot more a sense that they can have a say people living in flats who don't have any about things. close access to a green space than there used Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) point to be and that is only going to increase." She out that the manner in which issues and linked income to wellbeing, and people’s problems are framed will determine how need for green protection from the effects of those problems are addressed. Ameliorative climate change. Ruth commented that "the interventions tend to adopt rational problem- less wealthy will need more healthy green solving methods and ignore power dynamics. space protection as the effects of climate Transformative interventions frame issues in change increase." She saw Indigenous nature terms of inequities in power (Nelson & strip planting on nature strips as mutually Prilleltensky, 2010). For example, in the contributing to people’s wellbeing and the incident of the citrus tree Bella might have wellbeing of Indigenous flora and fauna, apologized to her neighbour for encouraging commenting that "as the climate heats up her to plant a citrus on her nature strip and people and wildlife will need more green assisted her to remove it, thinking of it as a protection to cope with the heat." safety issue that she had overlooked which Michael has become aware since might have caused people to fall. She may having a nature strip garden that they could have become concerned with the prevalence be used for food production for people of falls over fruit on nature strips and how lacking garden space; he reflected that, these might be prevented. people living in flats who don't Instead Bella addressed the problem by have any access to garden space taking action to address a power imbalance. should be able to use their nature Bella's actions indicated that she framed the strip to grow food. Access to incident of the Citrus tree as an issue of quality, healthy, sustainably grown power and not an issue of health and safety. food shouldn’t be dependent upon Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) observed your ability to buy expensive food that transformative change involves a focus in an organic supermarket, or on actions that change the social structures whether you’ve got a big enough that give rise to the problem. In this incident backyard to grow it yourself. the focus is on reducing the authority of the Bella spoke about the possibility of engineering department so that urban food gaining income from local food production, production can be increased (this is further as a way for people to address food supported later in the interviews by Bella's insecurity: involvement in advocating for the I have been researching setting up development of a council urban food policy). a market of local food, like
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backyard food that people can nature strip garden through his interest in make a small income from …on community gardening. "When I started to dig one level there is not enough food around in community gardens I began to see and we do have areas of food what the impact of urban agriculture could be insecurity and more surprisingly it on the food security issue." He had found wouldn't be that hard to turn it that it was easier to get people involved around, and so this is one thinking about urban agriculture because of possibility, one sort of not very the level of interest around the world in hard way of creating more food. regaining control of the food system. Roberts and Parks (2007) identified Michael commented, that environmental issues are social justice Well, I think the other thing that's issues because the negative outcomes of happened in recent years is there climate change are more likely to be have been some larger groups like experienced by those on a low income. Ruth the Food Sovereignty Alliance identified that climate change is a social emerged which are trying to justice issue because she understood that the operate at a national scale, and effects of climate change will be felt more by there’s been massive sort of surge people who are less wealthy because they of interest in urban agriculture will be less protected. Michael and Bella around the world for various identified that resources and opportunities for reasons, a seeking of diversity in fresh organic food should be available for terms of food sources or control of everyone, not just those who can afford the food system to try and get – them. These social justice values accord with regain control of food system from those of the Australian Food Sovereignty ‘big farm’. So, all those things Alliance that all Australians, especially those together have kind of forced it to who are disadvantaged should have access to rise in people’s minds and high quality fresh, nutritious food (Parfit et triggered lots of activities. So, al., 2012). Separation of people from the when people are more aware of it, opportunity and knowledge to produce it’s a bit easier to get their healthy fresh organic food for themselves attention and get them to help and may reduce people’s wellbeing directly if it get them involved. reduces their vegetable intake or increases Robert decided to change his their pesticide intake (Petrini, 2013). Ruth, Information and Technology (IT) career for a Michael and Bella's recognition of this is an career concerned with the environment. He example of ethical awareness in that it said “after putting in the nature strip garden identifies practices which reduce wellbeing and all the interest it created I decided I in society (Evans et al., 2007). wanted to make my career in learning about Consciousness raising. Bella and the environment and working with others Sharni both spoke about how they wanted to outside". raise others’ awareness about food Sharni and Bella felt so strongly that production, Sharni said, "it shocked me that people should become aware of where their people didn't know how to grow food or food comes from and how to produce food where it came from so I decided to just go that they both started nature strip gardens "to ahead and start a nature strip garden to show show people how to do it" and "as a others how to do it." Bella also confirmed statement." They are practising Sharni’s views when she said, "I decided it consciousness-raising because they are was a good statement because I was getting the broader public interested in local dismayed at how little people knew about food production and promoting local organic growing food". agriculture (Hopkins, 2008; Nettle, 2014; For Michael an awareness of food Parfit et al., 2012). security issues developed before he began his Hogan (2003) has suggested that
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ignorance about the production of food and sustainability as transformative actions waste management is a social and because they may reduce systemic risk environmental issue. He states this is because factors related to climate change. Ruth, it may separate people from the ecological Anita, Sharni and Robert, like other awareness that these actions can create in community gardeners in the literature people, and may reduce their ability to (Nettle, 2014; Okvat, 2011), have response politically to environmental threats. demonstrated their understanding of Nettle (2014) argues that when people take ecological principles; for example Ruth control of their own food production it frees said "the kids’ school asked me to them from the status quo of dominant contribute to a unit in sustainability - I corporate and retail food suppliers and it can thought I will put something in it about allow them to be active in a community of nature strip gardens", while Anita and gardeners. Sharni and Bella's actions have Robert both reported that they had led the potential to reduce ignorance about food and participated in local council production and waste management by workshops on sustainability. These teaching people how to produce their own results support Hogan's observation that food and recycle waste through compost Australian nature strip gardeners are making (Sharni has a compost bin on her confronting questions of ecological nature strip). Michael had noticed that sustainability and may be a source of people’s dissatisfaction with the status quo of creative solutions for environmental the food system was making it easier to raise issues (Hogan, 2003). their awareness about the control and Investigating Transformative Change production of their own food. Processes: Social Justice Practices Ecological consciousness. Marie was Participants were asked: "Preceding or passionate about the clearing of green since involvement in a nature strip garden, environments and used her nature strip can you tell me about any changes in ability gardens to replant Indigenous flora and to ensure that opportunities and resources are provide a diverse environment for native fairly distributed?” The responses given were birds and insects: analysed in terms of how they related to the As our weather is becoming more four categories identified from the literature violent, more of us need to replant. as social justice practices (see Table 2). Native areas are continually being Ideas development and knowledge cleared. We need to give nature sharing. Marie spoke about giving people every chance we can. confidence to create something for Ecological consciousness is considered themselves: "I am out there doing this a holistic, dynamic, reflexive element of different thing. It inspires people to make human consciousness, incorporating the their own opportunities and do something in interaction of the human being with the a different way." Nelson and Prilleltensky worldwide environment towards a (2010) refer to social interventions as sustainable future (Schmeleva, 2009). Ruth transformative when they foster people’s expressed this awareness in terms of the strengths and ability to develop ideas. ecological challenges facing communities Marie's actions have the potential to help seeking to contribute to environmental create new ideas and new ways of doing sustainability: things, and encourage others to provide more It's about how do we actually make green environments for people and wildlife. this environment more robust and Like Hogan (2003) who identified the nature more resilient after we have taken strip as a place of innovative adaption, Marie the resilience and robustness out of has recognised the potential for ideas it? development in what she is doing on the Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) nature strip. consider actions which have an effect on Bella and Anita considered that by
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example, they are sharing the possibility of prefigure alternatives to globalisation and people having space to grow food and high energy consumption methods of food promoting food security. Bella responded production. "yes I am showing people a resource, the Robert had been amazed at the amount nature strip, which is a kind of untapped of interest that his nature strip planter box wealth of food growing space that could be had created: available to everyone," while Anita saw I know of some people who’ve herself as installed veggie gardens of their … contributing to people own as a result. So there’s one having enough space to grow [wicking bed planter box] on the food so that they can’t be nature strip and some other people hungry, so that they have have asked us for the copies of the access. It’s to do with food plans and apparently have gone security and access to fresh and built them, so it’s sort of food. If they perhaps have a inspired other people to get – to concrete garden or don’t have be able to grow things. enough space within their Resistance. Bella described how her property to grow food. nature strip garden was frequently a place of Ruth, who coordinated others in her encouragement, where people who walked street to make and maintain Indigenous by could see possibilities for themselves and nature strips, likewise saw herself as giving have conversations about how to bring those people the idea of and access to a green possibilities about. She said that "once space who might not otherwise have one: people see this, then they think, ‘it’s not that Yes since I have been coordinating hard.’ They get an idea of what they could the nature strip planting in our do. I have had a lot of conversations with street, I see the flats in our street people about that." Sharni gave an example and how those people need an of a person who lived in an area where nature opportunity to have easy access to strip gardens are not permitted. a green space. They certainly don't One lady who came past said, ‘My have a green space within the council doesn’t allow it. But you recommended 500 metres. The know what? I’m just gonna do it.’ I nature strip for those people might mean nothing changes in society be the only bit of green space that unless people push the boundaries they can work with. I am a bit. encouraging people in the flats to Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) take use of that space. We provide identify that transformative change requires tools and plants and help people resistance to power situations that reduce get into it. people’s potential to develop sustainable Anita, Bella, Sharni, Michael and values and behaviours. They argue that Robert all spoke about the nature strip garden challenges to the status quo that contribute to as allowing them to share their skills and climate change are required to change knowledge about food production with people's mindset and bring about processes others. Anita commented that "people often of transformative change. stop and take photos of the nature strip Civic mindedness. Anita described garden - people get the idea to do it changes in her ability to ensure that themselves and they sometimes stop to ask opportunities and resources are fairly me how to go about it, or what will go there." distributed in society - "yes, I think I Nettle (2014) and Nelson and Prilleltensky contribute to social justice - in encouraging (2010) observed that community gardens are people to help themselves to what's out there places where local skills and knowledge and share with others in the way of herbs, about food production foreshadow or vegetables and cuttings on our nature strips."
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This contribution that Anita’s nature strip potential, on one level there's not garden makes could also be seen as enough food and we do have areas demonstrating civic mindedness: an act of of food insecurity; with good caring for the community in which she lives. council policy (about urban food She has voluntarily created a public resource production on the nature strip) it that people can use to freely take vegetables, wouldn't be that hard to turn it herbs and cuttings. around. Angelique and Culley (2014) identified Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) civic mindedness as a characteristic of identified policy change to create a more people who had long term involvement in equitable and sustainable society as a major environmental issues. They suggest it is method of transformative social change. The associated with political activism, innate local council urban agriculture policy altruism, personality type and faith advocated for by Sharni, Michael and Bella commitments. Anita speaks elsewhere in her has potential to allow more equality for local interview of a deepening awareness, after a and home food producers because it can major life-threatening illness, of the spiritual change institutional and social structures. It and community aspects of life: allows the use of public land for food …. gardening is a spiritual production to enable residents to produce acknowledgment that there is a life their own food even if they do not have land cycle, everything goes through a to do so. Values of food production and food life cycle. Everything has its time justice are being utilized to promote potential to go. It’s helped me be more in for collective transformation. touch with living and dying. Advocacy to transform government She also describes herself as an and organisational policy at all levels introvert who utilized the nature strip garden benefits from a critical knowledge of the as "a gentle way, no pressure way of current paradigm to reveal the interests, interacting with people as if the nature strip powers and values of the system in order to was part of my living room". Although Anita create social change (Habermas,1987; doesn't refer to any political involvement in Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010). Michael her interview, other nature strip gardeners commented in his interview (see section on who share food on their nature strip are consciousness raising) that the identification involved in advocacy to change council of interests and powers of large food policies on urban food production . corporations by the Australian Food Changing policy. Bella, Sharni and Sovereignty Alliance has made it easier to Michael, who also share food from their interest people in a council policy for urban nature strip with their communities, are food production. members of a voluntary urban food network Michael, Sharni and Bella challenged which has been involved in advocacy for the council’s draft policy and successfully council policy change to create an urban food advocated for a further development of the policy. Bella commented that policy. Michael said "the council agreed it …. one of the primary goals of the needed to be addressed at a much deeper policy advocacy work that we’ve level." In lobbying the council as part of a been doing is that everyone, Food Growing Organisation, Bella, Sharni including those people who are and Michael utilized participatory and living in flats or struggling to make interactive processes (Evans et al., 2007) to ends meet, have some space and advocate for change. Michael explained that encouragement to grow their own "[together] we lobbied the council to work food. on their policy, and they included nature strip Later, she explained further that gardening." … it gives you a sense of Formal groups can provide legitimacy possibilities – that there is a lot of and leverage when working with the media
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or with government bodies and have been transformation. When Bella envisioned identified by long standing members of changes to her sense of vision for the future environmental groups that have successfully with her nature strip gardens in mind, she brought about transformative change as foresaw a place of greater freedom and being instrumental to that change (Angelique individuality: & Culley, 2014). Michael reported that the People have a sense that you can local food network has continued to advocate be an individual – you run your for policy change and has succeeded in life, you don't have to be totally recruiting the participation of some regulated which I think – it's my councillors in their negotiations. He also impression that a lot of people feel described how the network had initiated overly regulated and the council is community consultation as part of the partly responsible for that, and so a council’s policy development on urban food future where we are a bit more in production: touch in our everyday lives, with Council put forward a draft what is wild, with what is alive. community food growing policy Living in a street where I can plant which was a pretty lame attempt; veggies and see what happens. So we stopped it before it went to the that does give me a sense of, you council for approval, and called for know, a future where from little community consultation, things, big things grow. Michael, Sharni and Anita used Riemer (2010) discussed the need for negotiation and collaborative methods, which both an individual environmental have been identified by Nelson and imagination to envision alternatives to Prilleltensky (2010) and Riemer (2010) as current unsustainable lifestyles and a effective to bring about transformative collective view of the future, which is change. Michael said, "If you are prepared to exemplified in Robert's vision of an work with council you can certainly ecologically educated public developed influence policy." His description of their through public institutions and local negotiations with council accord with government: Sherman (2007) who also identified co- All Victorian councils – they are operative methods and negotiation as really promoting the whole urban methods to bring about transformative agriculture thing and they have a change, and argued that people who use whole sustainable festival in every antagonistic and adversarial tactics are less suburb. So, schools and councils likely in the long run to bring about promote educational aspects of successful social change. food production. They give people Investigating Transformative Change tools and run free council funded Processes: A Sense of Vision for the Future workshops on growing vegetables, Participants were asked, "can you tell composting, a whole range of me about any changes to a sense of vision for sustainable garden activities. the future which may have preceded or come Marie and Ruth also imagined a public about since having a nature strip?" Their who are educated about Indigenous flora, and responses were analysed in terms of how thoughtful urban environments that support they related to the four categories identified native wildlife. As Ruth put it: from the literature as typifying such a sense Most people are educated about of vision (see Table 2): personal how different plants behave. We transformation and collective transformation; know about which Indigenous greener urban environments; enhanced plants cope in difficult socially supportive relationships; local food environments and we have nature production and food security. strip gardens that are planted up Personal and collective with appropriate Indigenous
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species for native wildlife. such that "everyone gets to experience the Enhanced socially supportive wonder of being in a garden, picking fruit relationships. Marie saw a change to her from the street, or spending time with their sense of vision for the future to where neighbours and capturing that enjoyment, children in the street demonstrated skills and that fascination, and just that never-ending an ability to contribute in a nurturing way by learning opportunity that gardening is." sharing food they had produced with others. Sharni imagined that problems of Marie envisioned a place where "… children garden maintenance had been overcome share things they have grown and do things, because the skills and knowledge necessary such as building cubby huts in the street." for garden maintenance were widely known Sharni imagined older people contributing and practised: usefully to food production through utilizing We have streets like the villages in their land and doing vital but light labour: Pakistan. I met a nice lady from Growing spaces aren't wasted... Pakistan, who told me in her say that this old lady who lives village, they – the village streets alone… her whole front garden is are lined with peaches and every – taken over by food plants... people I said, ‘Well, who does the are brought along who garden it. maintenance?’ 'Cause that was a And then they get a lot of veggies little council issue here – who will for nothing, and nice arrangements maintain it? She said, ‘Everyone are made. She does the water and does. We're all gardeners’. someone else could supplies the Food security. Michael, Bella and veggies to her. And there are lot of Anita imagined a future without food those partnerships working really insecurity and a free, healthy supply of fresh nicely. So you have more people food for all. Bella envisoned that that facilitate those things. So, the - possibilities are realised – just a couple of citrus trees thing potentials are achieved, we have on the nature strip is a start at least turned around areas of food … me and my neighbours' secret shortage, and nature strip gardens plan. have created a lot more healthy Bella and Sharni anticipated a shift in and fresh food for everyone. There their sense of vision for the future to where is always free food there for people local people were competent to produce their who need it. own food and make compost, and local food In Sharni's imagination streets were was available to buy. Most nature strip designed with the watering of nature strip gardeners interviewed imagined people gardens in mind. She imagined that "we have valuing growing food or Indigenous plants as massive water storage systems underneath a way of connecting to the earth. Bella said, each nature strip. So that you have the The food we eat in our suburb is available rain going into underground grown in locally and there is real reservoirs and then it just waters from the investment in the local food base." Bella talked about much more urban market. A stall at the local farmers space being utilized to grow food, market sells local food… everyone abundantly, she imagined "there are many makes their own compost or public fruit trees and many public food compost is made communally…. gardens, people don't feel the need to take people realise that growing food is everything from one spot because they can an important part of connecting get something down the next street." Reimer with the earth. (2010) discussed the need for a utopian Michael envisioned a common, joyful vision based on a good society to allow experience of harvesting street fruit, learning climate change to be minimized and about gardening and being with neighbours, sustainable futures created. The nature strip
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gardeners interviewed demonstrated active scale, direct marketing and distribution for environmental imaginations towards a just commercially produced local food (Nettle, and sustainable future. 2014). Lobbying the council for an urban Conclusion food policy by nature strip gardeners is in Nature strip gardeners demonstrated line with the actions of community gardeners components of ethical awareness, social who also advocate for more equitable food justice practices and a sense of vision for the policy at the national level (Nettle, 2014). future, which the literature suggests Similar to other community gardeners contribute to successful transformative (Nettle, 2014), nature strip gardeners in the change towards a just, sustainable more North and North East suburbs of Melbourne ecologically aware environment (Nelson & viewed the equitable distribution of resources Prilleltensky, 2010). They participated in and provision of spaces which enable people community events, were members of a food to grow and share food as processes that they network or ecological group, and contributed were participating in. Nature strip gardeners to sustainability events. They acted together like other community gardeners developed to work on nature strips in their streets, and ideas, negotiated with governments, and actively recruited other nature strip gardeners made political claims (Fountain, 2000) in their neighbourhood. They acted towards a more sustainable and just future. collectively in the street and offered their Many other rich and unexplored aspects of knowledge and abilities to others. people’s connections to their nature strip Hogan (2003) identified historical gardens and communities were observed by features of colonisation which have the researcher interviewer outside of the contributed to the separation of suburban life predefined questions concerned with in Australia from an understanding of food transformative change but could not be production and waste management. He included due to the limitations of this study. proposed that a large proportion of the Nature strip gardens are uniquely population now living in Australia post placed to reach people who would otherwise colonisation might not be aware of the not have contact with gardeners and food necessity for responsiveness to ecological production and are thus a form of community issues that such understandings can assist in gardening available to people who cannot providing. Nature strip gardeners interested travel far from their homes. The predefined in urban food production using organic nature of the questions in this research did methods and those creating green urban not allow all the potentials that nature strip corridors for fauna and flora have developed gardens have for building community to and given others in suburbia understandings emerge. For example, they may be about Indigenous flora, food production and particularly helpful to older people and waste management. Nature strip gardeners people with physical or mental health issues have carried out a process of consciousness who cannot easily leave their homes. Unlike raising in their streets. other forms of community gardens which Community gardens and community require people to travel or go on a waiting nature strip gardens compared. A vision of list, or which have conditions that exclude local food production in the future found in some people, nature strip gardens are nature strip gardeners in the suburbs of available to many people. People are gaining Melbourne accords with the vision of more control over their nature strip, which transitional town members to localize makes widespread access to nature strip economies, moderate the power of the gardening possible. supermarkets and the food system, and re- Future Directions. localize food supply (Hopkins, 2008). It is This study did not consider reasons congruent with the view of many community why nature strip gardening is a relatively rare gardeners who often worked in partnership phenomenon, and future studies could with the agrifood movement to support small interview representative stakeholders for the
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future development of such gardens, such as Oaks, CA: Sage. council urban planners, engineers and health Habermas, J. (1987). Knowledge and human workers, to identify why nature strips are interests: Cambridge: Polity Press. generally under-utilised. Studies could Hogan, T. (2003). Nature strip: Australian identify barriers to the usage of nature strip suburbia and the enculturation of nature. gardens and levels of awareness about them Thesis Eleven, 74 (August), 54-75. as a community development tool and Hopkins, R. (2008). The transition climate change adaptation strategy. handbook: From oil dependency to local resilience. Totnes [England]: Green. References Meenachi-Sunderam, D., & Thompson, S. Angelique, H. L., & Culley, M. R. (2014). (2005). The nature strip: An To Fukushima with love: Lessons on long environmental and social resource for term antinuclear citizen participation from local communities. Unpublished Bachelor Three Mile Island. Journal of Community of Planning Thesis. (University of New Psychology, 42(2), 209-227. doi: 10.1002/ South Wales: Sydney). http:// jcop.21605. soac.fbe.unsw.edu.au/2007/SOAC/ Barnes, P. (2014). The political economy of thenaturestrip.pdf localization in the transition movement. Montero, M. (2009). Methods for liberation: Community Development Journal, 50(2), Critical consciousness in action. In M. 312 -316. doi: 10.1093/cdj/bsu042 Montero & C. C. Sonn (Eds.), Psychology Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006) Using of liberation: Theory and applications thematic analysis in psychology. (pp. 73-91). New York: Springer. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), Nelson, G. (2013). Community psychology 77-101. and transformative policy change in the Brown, K., O’Neill, S., & Fabricius. C. neo- liberal era. American Journal of (2013). Social science understandings of Community Psychology, 52(3-4), 211-223. transformation. World Social Science doi: 10.1007/s10464-013-9591-5 Report 2013, pp 100-107 in Changing Nelson, G., & Prilleltensky, I. (2010). Global Environments, OECD Publishing Community psychology: In pursuit of and UNESCO Publishing, Paris. http:// liberation and well-being: Basingstoke, unesdoc.unesco.org/ New York: Palgrave Macmillan images/0022/002246/224677e.pdf Nettle, C. (2014). Community gardening as Evans, S., Hanlin, C., & Prilleltensky, I., social action (Vol. 2): Farnam, UK, (2007) Blending ameliorative and Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. transformative approaches in human Okvat, H. (2011a). Community gardening: A service organisations: A case study. parsimonious path to individual, Journal of Community Psychology, 35(3), community, and environmental resilience. 329-346. American Journal of Community Feilor, M. (2009) Doing Mixed Methods Psychology, 47(3-4), 374-387. Research Pragmatically: Implications for Okvat, H. (2011b) A pilot study of the the Rediscovery of Pragmatism as a benefits of traditional and mindful Research Paradigm, Journal of Mixed community gardening for urban older Methods Research Online, First published adults' subjective wellbeing (Doctoral on October 22, 2009 as dissertation, Arizona State University). doi:10.1177/1558689809349691 Retrieved from https:// Fouad, N. A., Gerstein, L. H., & Toporek, R. www.researchgate.net/profile/ L. (2006). Social justice and counseling Heather_Okvat/publications psychology in context. In R. L. Toporek (Ed.), Handbook for social justice in counseling psychology: Leadership, vision, and action (pp. 1-16). Thousand
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Okvat, H. (2014). Sowing seeds of resilience: Author biographies Community gardening in a post-disaster Margaret Schubert context. In K. G. Tidball & M. E. Krasny Having completed her Masters in Applied (Eds.), Greening in the Red Zone (pp 73- Psychology (Community) at Victoria 90) Netherlands: Springer. University, Melbourne, Margaret Schubert Parfit, C., Rose, N., Croft, M., & Alden, J. now works in Katherine, Northern Territory ( 2012). A peoples food plan for Australia. as a psychologist at Wurli-Wurlinjang Health Retrieved 10th Feb, 2015, from http:// Service, an Aboriginal Community www.australianfoodsovereigntyalliance.or controlled organisation. Her current research g/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/20120914- interests include transformative change PeoplesFoodPlan-DiscussionPaper- processes, suicide prevention strategies in Overview.pdf Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Pyles, L. (2013). Progressive community populations and communities – and the organizing: Reflective practice in a nature of mature passionate love. globalizing world. New York: Routledge. Reimer, M. (2010). Community psychology, Dr Julie van den Eynde is a senior lecturer the natural environment and global at Victoria University. Her major teaching climate change. In G. Nelson, & I. responsibilities are focused in the Master of Prilleltensky (Ed.), Community Applied Psychology (Community psychology: In pursuit of liberation and Psychology) program, where she is the Chair wellbeing. Basingstoke; New York : of the program. Her research interests reflect Palgrave Macmillan. a community psychology focus, i.e., Roberts, J., & Parks, C. (2007). Climate of considering environmental factors, injustice global inequality, North-South empowerment and social justice. Her current politics, and climate policy. Cambridge, research concerns the mental health and Mass: MIT Press. wellbeing of those in the creative and Schmeleva, I. A. (2009). The methodology entertainment industry in Australia. of psychological research of ecological consciousness. Psychology in Russia, 2, 619-632. Seddon, G. (2001). Perceiving the Pilbara: Finding the Key to the Country, Thesis Eleven 65 (May), 69-92. Sherman, S. (2011). Changing the world: The science of transformative action. In R. Bisas- Diener (Ed.), Positive psychology as social change (pp. 329- 345) New York: Springer. Torres-Harding, S. R., Siers, B., & Olson, B. D. (2012). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Social Justice Scale (SJS). American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1-2), 77-88. Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level: Why equality is better for everyone: London : Penguin Books.
Address for correspondence [email protected]
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Corrigendum
Volume 28(2), June 2017. Copelj, A., Gill, P., Love, A.W., & Crebbin, S. Psychological growth in young adult refugees: Integration of personal and cultural resources to promote wellbeing. 85-104
Description of the correction. The following article was cited (on pp. 88 & 92), but was not referenced in the Reference section: Abkhezr, P., McMahon, M., & Rossouw, P. (2015). Youth with refugee backgrounds in Australia: Contextual and practical considerations for career counsellors. Australian Journal of Career Development, 24(2), 71-80. doi: 10.1177/1038416215584406
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Preparation, Submission and Publication of psychology. Inquiries about the review of a Manuscripts work should be emailed to the Editor: The Australian Community Psychologist [email protected]. publishes work that is of relevance to community psychologists, psychologists, Submission social scientists and others interested in the All manuscripts are submitted electronically to field. The journal features empirical research the Editor: [email protected] reports, reviews and essays on matters of theoretical and general relevance and reviews With the exception of book reviews, all of professional and applied areas. The journal contributions are blind peer-reviewed. Articles also features manuscripts addressing matters of submitted for review must be original works general, professional and public relevance, and may not be under consideration elsewhere. techniques and approaches in psychological It is a condition of publication that authors practice, professional and public policy issues, assign the copyright of their articles to the and reviews of books. Submissions by Australian Psychological Society. emerging researchers and practitioners are encouraged. Contributions towards the four All manuscripts for consideration for sections of the journal are sought: publication in The Australian Community Psychologist must be formatted according to the Articles following instructions for authors. Contributions are state of the art works of theoretical, professional or applied areas of Instructions for Authors general relevance to community psychologists The following constitutes advice to contributors and others interested in the field. They may be that is relevant to all journal sections. up to 10,000 words, including all tables, figures and references; however, authors Every submission must include: should be as concise as possible. 1. A cover letter stating the section of the journal to which the author(s) wish to Research Reports submit the article. This section is for the publication of 2. The complete manuscript including title methodologically sound, empirical research page, abstract, text, tables, figures, reports relevant to community psychology acknowledgements, and references. theory, method, and practice. They may be up 3. A deidentified version of the manuscript. to 10,000 words, including all tables, figures 4. Written permission from the publisher and references; however, authors should be as (copyright holder) to reproduce any concise as possible. previously published tables, illustrations or photographs. Practice Issues This section publishes individual manuscripts Deidentified manuscripts should have all and collections of manuscripts which address features removed which could identify the matters of general, professional and public authors. This will include: author details on relevance, techniques and approaches in title page; author citations and references psychological practice, professional (replacing with ‘citation/reference removed for development issues, and professional and review’); acknowledgements, disclosures, public policy issues. They would not normally address and biographies. The document author exceed 6000 words. properties should be removed (File; Check for Issues; Inspect Document; Inspect; Remove All Book Reviews Document Properties and Author Information). The journal publishes book reviews of up to 1,000 words. Books reviewed relate directly to Manuscripts should be arranged as follows: key areas of theory or practice in community Title page
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Abstract and Keywords Text Place up to six keywords below, on a new References line, with ‘Keywords:’ indented and in italics Acknowledgements (keywords themselves are not in italics). Disclosures (if required) Address for correspondence (Usually one only, Normal text. Times New Roman, 12pt, usually an email address) double line-spaced, left aligned (not justified) Author biographies (a short paragraph on each Do not leave line spaces between paragraphs author e.g., job title, research interests, but indent the first line of each paragraph. department or research centre). Tables and figures should be placed in the Long quotes. Quotes of 40 words or more correct position within the body of the text. should be indented to the same position as a Number pages consecutively, beginning with new paragraph. the Title page as page 1. 1st Level heading. Centred, bold, main Specific Formatting Requirements words capitalised (title case), not italics. Format follows the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). 2nd Level heading. Left aligned, bold, main words capitalised. Language. All manuscripts must be in English. Australian English is preferred. 3rd Level heading. Indented, bold, sentence case, ending with a period. Text Paper size, margins, alignment. A4 should continue on the same line. page, all margins 2.54cm, all text left aligned. 4th Level heading. Indented, bold, Spacing. All text must be double-spaced italicised, sentence case, ending with a period. and left aligned. Text should continue on the same line.
Paper Title. 12pt, centred, main words Tables, Figures, and Diagrams. capitalised. Title should appear on upper half Captions should be typed above tables and of Title Page and at the top of the main text on below figures. These should be black and white page 3 of a manuscript. and inserted in the correct place within the body of the text. Do not allow a figure or table to be The Title Page should contain: split over two pages or to be separated from its Title: Should be short and informative. label or caption. Recommended length is between 10 and 12 words. Diagrams, illustrations, graphs, and so on, must Short title: A maximum of 50 characters. This be 'screen readable'. This means fully legible should also be the Running Head on all pages. and readable on screen when displayed at Author(s): This should include each author’s widths that ideally do not exceed about 750 name in the preferred form of first/given name, pixels and should not exceed 1000 pixels. middle initial(s), family name. Institution and Affiliations: This identifies the Page Numbers. Insert page numbers at location (e.g., university) where the author(s) the top of the page, right aligned, beginning undertook the investigation, or city and state of with the title page. residence if no institutional affiliation. Footnotes. Avoid using footnotes. If Abstract and Keywords. A new page is used, please number them sequentially. required. The heading Abstract should be centred. The text should be left aligned. The References abstract must be no more than 200 words. Use the reference style of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
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Association (6th ed.). References should be a 1st level heading.
Example journal article: Fryer, D., & Laing, A. (2008). Community psychologies: What are they? What could they be? Why does it matter? A critical community psychology approach. Australian Community Psychologist, 20 (2), 7-15.
Example book: Montero, M., & Sonn, C. C. (2010). Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications. New York: Springer.
Example book chapter: Fielder, J., Roberts, J., & Abdullah, J. (2000). Research with Indigenous communities. In P. Dudgeon, D. Garvey & H. Pickett (Eds.), Working with Indigenous Australians: A handbook for psychologists (pp. 349-356). Perth, Australia: Gunada Press.
Example electronic source: Cummins, R. A., Hughes, J., Tomyn, A., Gibson, A., Woerner, J., & Lai, L. (2007). The wellbeing of Australians – carer health and wellbeing. Melbourne, Australia: Australian Centre on Quality of Life, Deakin University. Accessed 27th September 2011 from http:// www.deakin.edu.au/research/acqol/ auwbi/survey-reports/survey-017-1- report.pdf
The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 29 No 1 June 2018 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
The Australian Community Psychologist