Graduate Journal of Food Studies

volume II no.2 | September 2015 Graduate Journal of Food Studies

a peer-reviewed journal on food studies by graduate students Graduate Journal of Food Studies

editor-in-chief SEPTEMBER 2015 | VOLUME II NUMBER 2 Carla Cevasco, Harvard University from the editor 2 founding editor Brad Jones, Washington University-St. Louis contributors 3 managing editor Sarah Rush, Boston University essays associate editor Clara Hanson, University of California- Los Angeles The Spectacular Origins media director of the EU Horse Meat Scandal Emily Contois, Brown University Siobhan Watters 6 art director Brett Culbert, Harvard University Margarine for Butter: Budget Cooking in America design: Claudia Catalano, Boston University Ashley Higgs 18 layout: Zachary Nowak, Harvard University copyediting: Kira Bennett Hamilton, University of Alternative Food Systems: Gastronomic Sciences Expectations and Reality Richard Richards 32 faculty advisory board Ken Albala, University of the Pacific Patricia Allen, Marylhurst University Rachel Ankeny, University of Adelaide book reviews 44 Anne Bellows, Syracuse University Warren Belasco, U. Maryland, Baltimore County Amy Bentley, New York University Rachel Black, Collegium de Lyon Melissa Caldwell, Uni. of California Santa Cruz Joyce Chaplin, Harvard University Simone Cinotto, Uni. of Gastronomic Sciences Carole Counihan, Millersville University Cover: Eliza Murphy, Cabbage, 2015 Lisa Heldke, Gustavus Adolphus College Alice Julier, Chatham University Jane Kauer, University of Pennsylvania Fabio Parasecoli, The New School Heather Paxson, Mass. Institute of Technology Amy Trubek, University of Vermont David Szanto, Concordia University Harry West, SOAS, University of London

American Studies

All content Copyright 2015 by the Graduate Association for Food Studies. The © GAFS thanks Harvard’s American Studies Program for providing an institutional home for both the Association and the Journal. The GSAS name and shield are trademarks of the President and Fellows of Harvard College and are used by permission of Harvard University. Graduate Association for Food Studies from the editor | carla cevasco I hate food puns. Food studies scholarship is full of them: Scholarly debates become “food fights,” underprivileged people struggle for “a place at the table,” and historical eccentrics’ ideas are always “half-baked.” You can’t read an article or attend a conference without considering a “cornucopia” of evidence or getting down to the “marrow” of an argument. And don’t get me started on “food for thought,” a phrase that sounds charming but is actually quite vague—are we thinking of a local steak, or a bag of cheesy puffs? My annoyance is not merely an editor’s pet peeve; I love wordplay as much as the next recovering English major. But I worry that these puns come to us easily—too easily—when we’re talking about food. They slip right off the tongue (or keyboard), making our discipline seem clever, approachable, and more “fun” than other academic pursuits. Food studies should not be easy. Let me make a plea for a little more seriousness in a world where too many people dismiss our discipline and, for that matter, many others as a luxury. We are researching no less than the stuff of life. We have to find new words to do it. Let’s study taste, pleasure, and heritage but also scarcity, cruelty, and oppression. Let’s take food seriously and encourage the world to do the same. And for goodness’ sake, let’s do it without puns. This issue of the Journal takes up the difficult and often dark side of food studies. Three articles explore contemporary food challenges, in which food systems obscure the origins of food, economic pressures necessitate cheap meals, and choices between “industrial” and “local” are not as simple as they seem. Siobhan Watters’s “The Spectacular Origins of the EU Horse Meat Scandal” takes the 2013 discovery of contaminated meat products as a case study for theorizing policy, advertising, and consumerism in industrial food systems. In “Margarine for Butter: Budget Cooking in America,” Ashley Higgs examines the ways in which budget cookbooks of the past six decades have offered tips for cooking affordable meals but also striven to preserve the dignity of those who must economize on food. The final article, Richard Richards’s “Alternative Food Systems: Expectations and Reality,” argues that it is impossible to draw a firm boundary between industrial and alternative food systems. This issue’s artworks also investigate a more serious side of food studies, as Eliza Murphy’s meat landscape paintings capture the blood and beauty of making animals into meat. Taken together, these works suggest that food studies as a discipline is turning towards urgent questions of ethics, accessibility, and sustainability. The dark side of food studies is one of many themes that the Graduate Association for Food Studies will reflect on at its first conference this fall at Harvard University. This graduate conference, entitled “The Future of Food Studies,” will appraise the choices facing an increasingly institutionalized discipline and survey the new subjects, methods, and theories that will reshape the study of food in the coming years. The editorial board of the Journal looks forward to publishing selected proceedings of this conference in a future issue. Finally, in the spirit of seriousness, I want to offer supreme gratitude to everyone who put time and energy into this issue: our contributors, editors, and reviewers. A special note of thanks to our editorial board members, all of whom achieved one or more of the following milestones during the making of this issue: completed masters degrees, passed qualifying exams, or were accepted to PhD programs. It’s a privilege to work with such a brilliant and dedicated team. And remember, no puns. Massachusetts InstituteofTechnology. Master ofScienceinMechanicalEngineeringfromthe policy, foodaccess,andsustainability. Kimialsoholdsa Public Market. Shefocusesonculinaryarts,food as theKitchenProgram CoordinatorfortheBoston May 2015.Sheiscurrentlyemployed by theTrustees Liberal ArtsinGastronomy fromBostonUniversity in system development asan economicdevelopment and inequality. Hisdissertation willexamine localfood food systempolitics,urbanagriculture, andurban John’s researchinterests includepost-industrialcities, University andtheNewJersey InstituteofTechnology. in thejointUrbanSystemsProgram hostedby Rutgers also worked asacheesemongerfornearlydecade. research isontheevolution Shehas ofCooking. ofTheJoy mid-20th centuryAmericancookbooks,andhercurrent American foodways. Shehasaparticularinterestin distinction. Herresearchinterestscenteraround from Temple University, whereshegraduated with at BostonUniversity. SheholdsaBAinanthropology tweets John C.Jones Ashley Higgs Emily Contois Kimi Ceridon Liz Bada at therootcauseofhunger. focus onthesocial,political,andeconomicatmospheres right tofoodbothnationallyandinternationally, witha research interestslieinfoodinsecurityandthehuman Biology fromtheUniversity ofOklahoma(2013).Her in gastronomy atBostonUniversity andholdsaBSin Boston University. Sheblogsat of California,Berkeley, andanMLAinGastronomy from focused inPublicHealthNutritionfromtheUniversity Letters fromtheUniversity ofOklahoma,anMPH experience andpopularculture.EmilyholdsaBAin eating, health,andthebodyineveryday American yogurt tomenwhodiet,her research explores food, trophy kitchenstoVegemite, womenwhoeatActivia student inAmericanStudiesatBrownUniversity. From @ emilycontois is amastersstudentingastronomy . isamasterscandidate isadoctoral candidate received aMasterof emilycontois iscurrentlyaPhD . com and Journal of FoodJournal of . Studies currently serves onthereview boardfortheGraduate administration, politicalscience,andfoodpolicy. He University ofDayton. Johnhastaughtcoursesonpublic He holdsaBAinPolitical ScienceandanMPA fromthe a publichealthpromotiontoolinpost-industrialcities. in thecontext ofaboom/bustcycle andincreasing changing quinoa productionandconsumption practices quinoa producersinthePeruvian highlands negotiate working onadissertationproject examining theways Department andFood StudiesProgram. Sheiscurrently student inIndianaUniversity’s Anthropology Gurpinder Lalli Ariel Knoebel Emma McDonell Jessica Loyer products. ShecanbefoundonTwitter @jessloyer. as bothahealthfoodtrendandglobalagricultural a projectresearchingthesignificanceofsuperfoods Food StudiesattheUniversity ofAdelaide,workingon health, andvalues.SheiscurrentlyaPhDcandidatein migration andaninterestintheintersection offood, history andanthropologywithafocusonfoodways and modern household. and domesticworktheeffectsofcapitalismon provisioning methods.Sheisalsointerestedingender research focusesoncraft foodandtraditional food degree inGastronomy atBostonUniversity. Hercurrent food onlearningattheUniversity ofLeicester. carried outanethnographic casestudyontheimpact of at StaffordshireUniversity. For hisPhDresearch,he an MAfocusedonSocialandCultural Theorygained degree atCoventry inSociologyandSocialPolicy, with the HigherEducationAcademy. Heearnedhisfirst and EnglishforAcademicPurposes.Heisafellowof Universities, teachingEducation Studies,Sociology, lecturer atCoventry, DeMontfort,andWorcester Previous roleshave includedworkingasavisiting he taughtinfurthereducationcollegesforeightyears. Studies withintheInstituteofEducation.Priortothis, the University ofWolverhampton, teachingEducation hasabackgroundin iscompletinghermasters holdsalectureshipat isadoctoral

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 3 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 4 Before applyingtograduate school,Richardworked candidate inFood SystemsattheUniversity ofVermont. Summit forPeace throughTourism. forums like theOxfordFood SymposiumandtheWorld bar Lily+BLOOM. Hisresearchhasbeenpresentedin (Bangkok); andHongKong brasserie andcraft cocktail hotels like TheFullerton Bay (Singapore) andHotelMuse for chefslike Jean-GeorgesVongerichten andNeilPerry; In theworldofhospitality, he’s helpeddevelop concepts including anominationasWorld’s BestFood Journalist. Travellerand Gourmet , Wallpaper*for Gourmet , Travel+Leisure, , DestinAsian He served aseditor-at-largeandAsiacorrespondent aspects ofthedesign,media,andfood/travel industries. Richard Richards Eliza Murphy Robert McKeown indiana networks, andsensorymemory. Email her at in traditional foodrevitalization projects,globalfood the politicsofindigenousrecognitionandauthenticity climate uncertainty. Morebroadly, sheisinterestedin of prunes,Elizalives innorthern California. BA inStudioArtfromWellesley College.Alifelonglover painter andfarmerraised inMassachusetts,Elizahasa . edu , andfindheron Twitter . Hehaswonnumerousawards, is astudentoftheland.A @E m hasworked inall M is amasters c D onell ekmcdone . @ social, andenvironmental sustainability. and theirpotentialtoimprove communities’economic, Virginia. Heisinterestedinalternative foodsystems on organicvegetable farmsinhisnative Italyandrural Anett K.Toth Siobhan Watters imperatives ofacceleration andefficiency. as-food hasbeenshapedandpenetrated by thecapitalist serves asamediumforcapitalist valueandhowmatter- itself, Siobhanexplores howthematterwecallfood While foodisrarely seenasacommunicative object from adecidedlynonrepresentationalpointofview. phenomenology, andmediaarchaeologytoreframe food approach tofood,SiobhanusesMarx’svaluetheory, in Vancouver, Canada. Taking aninterdisciplinary student inCommunicationatSimonFraser University multilateral nutritionalinterventions inNepal. Currently sheisworkingonherthesisexamining Kurdish identityinvariousculinaryspacesofBudapest. conducted ethnographic researchonthearticulation of relationships betweenknowledgeandpower. She sociology andpoliticsoffoodnutrition,the studies, development studies,theanthropology, research interestsincludescienceandtechnology at theCentral EuropeanUniversity, Budapest.Her in theSociologyandSocialAnthropologyprogram isanmastersstudent is adoctoral by ElizaMurphy |2015 Pig Head that stemfrom workingwithsuchalandscape, whatspecificfoodsi bears. Istudythis throughplantmaterial.Byunderstanding howthis foodis produced,Icanalsospeaktothe foodtraditions to consideritin thisway. I looktoinvoke thememory thatlandholds,sometimes inthelookofit,butalso fruitthatit some oftheworks,Iconsiderfood asobject,andcreateacontext foritthatsuggeststhecomplex systemthatallowsmeto a ranch onthenortherncoastofCalifornia,Ihave beenable toexamine theprocessoftendinganimalsand raising meat.In visceral experience ofthefoodwithlandscape andmemorythatisimplicitinlandscape. I lookatthebalanceofcare,attentionandurgencythatwork fosters. Withtreatmentof materialinmy artIcontrast the that provide forfood, therichnessofsoil,geologyandbackbonesthattopsoilrestson.Withinactgrowingfood, of landscapefromtilling,grazing, growing crops,aswellthefooditself;meatandplant.Iaimtoilluminateprocesses work infarmingleadsmetoexpand onaspectsofcaringforsoilandthemarkfarmingmakes. Ilooktothephysical alteration study this,focusingonhowwegrowfoodandthelandreacts totheseplans weimpose onit.Myownhistoryandcurrent way whichlendsitselftopaint.IntheseworksIconsiderhowwerelate tolandwhenweeat.Ichooseanagricultural lensto College. A lifelonglover ofprunes,Elizalives innorthernCalifornia. In thepaintings,Ilookatmy understandingofraising meataswellthestudyofacabbage.While working andlivingon I amfascinatedby thedynamic natureoffarmingandhave foundthatworkingwithplantssustainsmeinanexpansive Eliza Murphy isastudentoftheland.Apainterandfarmerraised Artfrom Studio hasaBAin Eliza inMassachusetts, Wellesley t allows.

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 5 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 6 abstract of theEUHorseMeatScandal The SpectacularOrigins [value] beyond thoseforms thatMarxoutlined:accidental, must appear. Thespectacle isa“theoreticalextension of which istheformin abstract substancevalue theory asitspointofdeparture, particularlythevalue-form, produced anddistributedfoods. commodities andobscuresthepotentialdangersofmass- arguing thatthisopacityaddstothespectacularnatureof of itsscaleandthesourcehorsemeatcontamination, spectacle; and(2)theopacityofsupplychaininterms about informingtheconsumerandmoreproducing commodity anditspackaging,arguingthattheseareless theory ofthespectacle,thisarticlefocuseson(1)food the other. UsingMarx’svaluetheoryandGuy Debord’s unnoticed. OnlyDNAtestingcouldsortonebeingfrom of animals—allowedthehorsemeattominglewithbeef ground up,distributed,andreassembledfromthousands to later)inwhichmeatisproduced—disassembledand (a phenomenologicaltermIwillgive greaterattention contamination extremely challenging.Theproportions number ofsuppliers—madeinvestigating thesourceof of thesupplychain—itsextension inspaceandthedizzying in theEUwerefoundtocontainhorsemeat,butscale Europe madethisvery clear. Nearly200beefproductssold outputs acrosstheglobe.The2013horsemeatscandalin cannot fullycaptureallthemovements ofinputsand quality control,foodinspection,sensortechnologies) proportions. Even ourmediatedformsofoversight (e.g., of industrialfoodproductionthathasreachedinhuman keywords |spectacle,horsemeatscandal,Debord,supplychain,commodity meat scandalposedtoEuropean beef-eaters. the horse far morefatalthananyconcern to risks prone chain leavesus andthesupply price, ofpackaging, the spectacle that I conclude on thespectacle. form thebasisofDebord’stheses as thecommodityandexchange-value such concepts mediate various levelsofcommodity The article circulation and also consumption. draws on Marx’svaluetheory, for how appearances for discussing framework conceptual a useful as itprovides Guy Debord’stheoryofthespectacle, the other.Tofrom being one could sort DNA testing unnoticed—only beef identity, Iuse analyzethiscaseofmistaken in whichmeat is producedallowed the horsemeat the proportions to minglewith extremely challenging.Moreover, chain made meat, investigating thesourcefound tocontainhorsebutthescaleofsupply oftheadulteration sold intheEUwere and retailers. Nearly200beefproducts chain, includinggovernments actors inthefoodsupply SIOBHAN WATTERS Debord’s theoryofthespectacle usesMarx’svalue INTRODUCTION We arecurrentlyfacedwithascale | This article discusses the implicationsof2013EUhorsemeatbutall scandal, This articlediscusses not onlyforconsumers, and explain why itissuchan apttoolforunderstanding Following this,Iintroducetheconcept ofthespectacle surrounding thediscovery ofthehorsemeatadulteration. first provide atimelineanddescriptionofthe events chain andintoourbodiesunnoticed. imagine whatotherinvisibles couldpassthroughthesupply unobserved anduntested acrosstheEU, thenonecanonly can miximperceptiblywithbeeffleshandbedistributed story: Ifsomethingsoseeminglysubstantialashorseflesh had beenoffended.Butthereisyet a darker liningtothis of foodcrimeandthatonlythesensibilitiespublic well. Inthisinstance,itwasjudgedthatanexample it wasanissueoffraud aloneora risk tohumanhealthas adulteration reachedgovernment officialswaswhether bodies. Oneofthefirstconsiderations whennewsofthe they aredistributedthroughthesupplychainandtoour on onesideoftheglobeandincreaseinmagnitudeas its effectsextend tothebody, effects thatmay begin of commodityproductionbutalsotoacknowledgehow is striking:itallowsustoseeariftinthespectacularveil goes muchfurther. Thatiswhy thehorsemeatscandal advertising, andpackaging. of theinvisible worldofvalue,typicallyassociatedwithfilm, the pointwhereitbecomesimage.” spectacle, accordingtoDebord,“iscapitalaccumulated imperceptible and,withoutaform,nonexistent. The concrete formofvalue’s appearance. Value isotherwise expanded, general, andmoney,” The argumentofthisarticleproceeds asfollows:I Though spectaclebelongstotherealmofsight,itsreach 1 money beingthemost 2 Itisavisibleaffirmation 80-100 percenthorsemeat. Comigel. Tests oftheComigelproductshowedittocontain time frozenbeeflasagnasuppliedby theFrench company UK hadalsobeensellingadulterated beefproducts,this that theBritishcompany andfrozenfoodbrand Findus February, areportwasmadetotheEuropeanCommission DNA. which producedanother110positive testsforhorsemeat 7,951 testswerecarriedoutin asecondroundoftesting, and more. Poland, Italy, Germany, Greece,theNetherlands,Austria, the weeksfollowinginitialdiscovery, includingSweden, of countriesalsoreportedfindingsadulterated beefin Romania werenamedofteninthescandal,butalonglist the thresholdofwhatisharmful tohumans. rate oflessthan1percent,which isconsideredtobebelow Sixteen productsshowedpositive traces ofbute,butata more thantrace amountsofhorse DNA(thatis,above 1%). of beefproductsontheEUmarket werefoundtocontain tested positive for horse meatDNA.Putanotherway, 4.66% of phenylbutazone, alsoknownas‘bute.’ 193products presence ofhorsemeat,and3,115testedforthe is. Ofthenumberoftestsdescribed,4,144testedfor phenylbutazone, withwhichhorsesaresometimestreated, not consideredharmfultohumanhealth,theantibiotic 1,000 tonsoffood.” than 4.5million processedproductsrepresenting atleast beef-eaters. any concernthehorsemeatadulteration posedtoEuropean the supplychainleaves uspronetorisksfarmorefatalthan subsequently argue,thespectacleofpackaging,price,and creating ablindspotwithdangerousconsequences.AsI in today’s foodsupplychaingoeslargelyunrecognized, Debord’s theory, Iarguethattherolespectacleplays spectacular natureofthecommodityformiscentral to adulteration anditsfar-reachingconsequences.Whilethe in creatingtheconditionsforthissingleinstanceoffood (arguably, aformofpackaging),andthesupplychainplayed analyzing inparticulartherolethatfoodpackaging,price of commodityproductionthatcontributedtothescandal, the scandal.Ithenbreakdownspectacularelements seven memberstatesoftheEU. products, tenwerefoundtocontainhorsemeat. supermarkets. Atthattime,oftwenty-seven tested meat infrozenbeefburgersbeingsoldIrishandBritish 2013, whenfoodinspectorsinIrelanddiscovered horse Initially, 7,259testswerecarriedoutacrossthetwenty- THE SCANDAL ThescandaldatesbacktoJanuary 9 Overall, “thehorse-for-beef switchaffectedmore 6 3 10 5 TheUK,Ireland,France, and 7 Whilehorsemeatis 8 Afurther 4 Inearly of horsemeatasbeefover aperiodofsixmonths. that Spangheroknowinglysoldapproximately 750tons it, andshippeditoutasbeef. French authoritiesallege consensus isthatSpangheroreceived horsemeat,relabeled suppliers ofitsbeefmeathadcommittedfraud, butthe these arrests,SpangheromaintainedthattheRomanian previous anxietyinEurope. encephalopathy, alsoknownasmadcowdisease,asourceof heighten theriskoftransmission ofbovine spongiform had agreaterchanceofcontainingbonefragments, which mechanically separated muttononitspremises,becauseit another instance,Spangheroisalsosaidtohave banned were purposively adulterated. that they aremislabeled,containunintendedingredients,or products failauthenticitytestingtosomedegree,meaning 2014 articleinTheGuardian statedthatone-thirdoffood in foodadulteration intheEUandaroundworld.A horse meatscandalonlyrevealed whatisalready atrend insists furtherthatafoodcrimeunitbeestablished,asthe positive forporkDNA. Muslim prisonershadbeenserved halalmealsthattested horse meatscandal,reportsemergedfromaUKprisonthat with cultural ordietaryrestrictions.Intheearlydays ofthe for riskoffood-borneillnessorcontaminationbutthose same facilities, and thus,therewasanimplication thatsuch contamination. Beefandpigmeatmay beprocessed inthe (FSAI) lacked thehorror associatedwiththehorsemeat chief executive ofthe Food SafetyAuthorityofIreland came tothepigmeatcontamination, thereactionof tested positive forpigDNA:twenty-threetotal.When it broke ofhorsemeatcontamination,farmoreproducts error. Oftheinitialtwenty-seven testswhennewsfirst the halalmeatscareswereconsideredanissueofhuman these discoveries. Unlike the horsemeatscandal,however, investigation andcircuitoffinger-pointing followedon of aLondon schoollunchprogram. Asimilarlabyrinthine about pork-contaminatedhalalsausagesserved aspart its pronenesstoincidencesof‘foodcrime.’ the opaqueanddistributednatureofsupplychain Elliott arguedthatgreaterattentionneedstobepaid government inresponsetothescandal, theauthorChris consumer confidence.Inareportcommissioned by theUK arrest ofeightmanagersinSeptember2013. fraud andmislabelingoffoodproducts,culminatinginthe has sincebeeninvestigated onchargesofaggravated meat camefromtheFrench supplierSpanghero,which adulteration, theFrench company Comigelsaidthehorse Overall, thescandalwasconsideredacrisisof Originally targetedasthemainculpritof 16 Following that,reportsweremade 13 15 Thisisaconcernnotonly 14 Indeed,Elliott 11 Priorto 12 In

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 7 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 8 little otherchoice. view, consumers constrained by thewagerelationaregiven only interestedinprice,” and fromthisauthor’spointof as oneBritishbutcherstatedso succinctly, consumers“are been thecasefollowingBSEoutbreakinBritain. their previous purchasing habitsonlymonthsafter, ashad Drescher etal.’s findings,consumersstartedtoreturn in theimmediateaftermathofscandal,consistentwith Indeed, whileBritishbutcherssaw freshmeatsalesincrease techniques complicitinlow-costproduction. relations, geographic scale,andquestionableprocessing from Nowhere” tendstoobscuretheexploitative labour Somewhere” regime. in theemergenceofsubsequentlytermed“Food from crises relatingtoobesityandmalnutritionhave culminated recently, foodscares,adistrustofscience,andso-called accidents areboundtoandclearlydohappen. factors suchasincome,workschedule,andeducation. decisions, whicharedeterminedmoreby socioeconomic be loworhigh,donotultimatelyaffectoverall purchasing levels ofconsumertrustinprocessedmeat,whetherthey of 9,000Canadianhouseholds,Drescheretal.showthat one another. to exist: Thesecontradictory regimesshapeandstabilize In away, Food fromSomewhereneedsFood fromNowhere in animport-heavy economy isnearimpossibletoachieve. and, particularlyintheUK,foodssourcedBritain,which efforts ofsupermarkets tostockFoods fromSomewhere itself tobeoperating atfullstrengthdespitethelatest scandal. Indeed,thehigh-input,lowcostparadigm revealed Nowhere reareditsugly, equineheadinthehorsemeat regulation isconsideredtobestrongest,Food from like Food, Inc such asMichaelPollen, EricSchlosser, anddocumentaries standards andrepresentedinthemainstreamby authors debated labeling regulationsintheEUsuggest that of agricultural trade.” that processedfoods“are thefastestgrowingcategory identified asimportanttoconsumers”andconsequently “convenience infoodproductionhasbeenclearly processed meat,LarissaDrescheretal.showthat agriculture andanemphasisoncheapproduce. which ismarked by high-input,outsourced,industrial for ittomake itsway accidentallyintothesupplychain. food intheUKandIreland,sothereisnoplausibleway was ananomalyonlybecauseitisnottypicallyproducedfor Reports produced inthewake ofthescandalthat Despite increasingconsumerskepticism around The scandalepitomizesthepost-warfoodregime, . Nevertheless, even intheEU, wherefood 21 25 20 22 Thisistypified by EUlabeling Moreover, using anationalsurvey 19 17 More 18 Horsemeat This“Food 24 For, 23

society andasameansofunification.” spectacle appearsatonceassociety itself, asapartof supply chain.Debordstatesfurther inThesis3that“the virtual collapseofdistancesthat markourglobalfood subject throughappearance aswellparticipates inthe becomes thatwhichunifiesthealienatedanddivided logical development ofthecommodityfetish,spectacle further exacerbated by theglobaldivisionoflabor. alienation ofhumansfromtheproductstheirlaborand reality oftheirproduction,andwhichisaneffectthe among allcommoditieswhichobscurestheconcrete The commodityfetishisasupersensuousrelationship as themeansby whichwe may attaineverything welack. fetish, valorizingtheprocessofexchange andpresentingit it totheimagesthatdraw usfurtherintothecommodity takes Marx’sdescriptionofthecommodity and extends if notbigger, indeterminingconsumerbehavior. more), showingthatpriceplayed asbigaroleprovenance, consumers werepaying moreperpound(anaverage of7% beef purchasedin2013may have dropped,butBritish bearing thecostofheightenedregulation.Thevolume of to sourcemeatfromlocalfarms,consumerswereclearly as retailersendeavored tomake goodontheirpromises directly lived hasbecomemererepresentation.” an immenseaccumulationofspectacles.Allthatoncewas modern conditionsofproductionprevail presentsitselfas 1. Itreads:“Thewholelifeofthosesocietiesinwhich is adetournementoftheopeningtoMarx’sCapital, global commodity production,i.e.thespatially dispersed horse meatscandal doisreveal the divisionsthatunderlie costs oflabeling. labeling, consumerswereprojectedtobear91%ofthe in years previous tothescandal,a3%decline. wallets, purchasinglessredmeatinvolume thanthey had scandal, itwouldappearthatconsumersvoted withtheir transmitted totheconsumer.” producers, whileabout88%oftheextra costs[wouldbe] the extra costsforlabeling[wouldbe] transmitted tothe it wasreportedthat“on average intheEU27about12%of published areportonimproving porkcommoditylabeling, producers orconsumers. transparency andtracking inthesupplychaineitherfallon desire indollarterms?Afterall,thecostsofincreasing desire andbehavior orsimplyaninabilitytopursuethat decisions. but thatsuchdesiresdonotfactorintotheirpurchasing consumers wanttheirproductsmarked withoriginlabeling THE SPECTACLE Thesis1ofTheSocietytheSpectacle 26 Isthereadiscrepancyherebetweenconsumer 29 Notably, intheyear followingthe 27 WhentheEuropeanCommission 28 For poultrycommodity 34 Whatevents like the 30 However, 31 32

Debord 33 vol. A found tocontainup100%horsemeat. invasion, itisnosurprisethatthenew campaign placed horse meatinTesco products wastoutedasaforeign Since thisaccusationproved tobetrue,andbecausethe F “having adisturbingignorance ofitsownsupplychain.” was accusedby theanti-poverty group War onWant of production anddistribution.Previous tothescandal,Tesco associated withitsmovement throughvariousstagesof of acommodity’sproductionandthehistoryownership qualities offood,aswellprovenance, thatis,thelocation on pricetoamorespectacularmeditationthesensuous this campaign,Tesco moved away fromitsformeremphasis campaign, called“Love Every Mouthful”(Figure2).With indeed, Tesco respondedtothescandal withanewad horse meatscandalreveal tobepartialandseparate, and characterize capitalistfood production. glosses over themany divisionsanddeparturesthat or inthiscaseorigin,islost.Thisimmanentstateofarrival the effectof“arriving” atmarket. Thesenseofdeparture, it moves withouttheknowledgeofman andmerelyhas is producedatsuchdistances,andacrossdivides,that terms ofPaul Virilio’s conceptofarrival: animal onitssurface. carcasses, butpresentingimagesofthewhole,unified nature ofitscontents—assembledfromnumberlessbeef frozen spaghettibolognese(Figure1)beliedthecomposite was adulterated. Thepackagingof, forexample, Tesco’s the dividednatureofmechanicallyseparated meatthat fraudulent labelingofhorsemeatasbeef, nottomention points ofproductionthattogethercontributedtothe may idealize. manageable supplychaintheEUorgoverning bodies like it igure The spectaclecanquicklysuturewhatevents like the The event alsounderminesany senseofaunifiedand 1. Packages ofTesco’s Everyday Value spaghettibolognesewere 35 Considerthesupplychainanditsopacityin P hoto : 36 TheGuardian (UK) Thecommodity 37

sense oftheword,and(2)supplychain. packaging andprice,whichisalsotosay valueinMarx’s will considerthisrationality fromtwopointsofview:(1) general glossthathidestherationality ofthesystem.I spectacle isaformofpackagingforthecommodity, a played inthescandal.Afterall,Debordstatesthat food thatwasthefocusofscandal. as beingatotaldeflection away fromthefrozen,low-price every picker, every baker” asoneofitsadsclaims—aswell that Tesco hascontrolover itssupplychain—”every farmer, “Love Every Mouthful”isanattempttoshowconsumers more emphasisonproduceofBritishprovenance. Ineffect, F July 2013. negates thecontents ofthepackagethatare considered too to Debord,asthe packagingofafoodcommodity likewise adulteration. Thespectacleisthenegationoflife,according foods predominatelyimpacted by thehorsemeat plastic packagingofconvenience foods,like thefrozen packaging itself, especiallythevery opaque paperand also adescriptionofthespectacular natureofcommodity packaging forourimpoverished lifeundercapital;itis out asanaptstartingpointforadiscussionofpackaging: igure Let usconsiderfurthertherolespectaclearguably Here, Debordstatesthatthespectacleis PACKAGING ANDPRICEDebord’sThesis15stands day society. objects, thespectacleischiefproduct ofpresent- the manufacture ofanever-growing massofimage- advanced economic sector directly responsible for gloss ontherationality ofthesystem,andas produced astheyare nowproduced, as ageneral 2. Tesco introduceditsnew“Love Every in campaign Mouthful” As theindispensablepackaging forthings 38

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 9 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 10 the circumstanceofitsproduction. banal oraretooopaquetocommunicateaswellnegating to establishprovenance. the brand orthenameofproduct’smaker, andintended communicative purposewasproprietary, thatis,displaying commodity, andtocommunicate.Historically, packaging’s unspoiled untilthetimeofitssale. commodity, solongasitispreserved intransit andremains to thenutritionalcontentorwholesomenessofafood for value.Thecapitalistasfoodproducermay beindifferent concrete form;theuse-valueisseenmerelyasacontainer to whatshapeacommoditytakes, thatis,itsuse-valueor other animals)butaboutprofit.Thecapitalistisindifferent production, whichisnolongeraboutfeedingpeople(and it glossesover therationality ofthesystemfood product). the principaldisplay panel(theforward-facingsideofa of thefood,andnetquantityaproductbeincludedon The FDA, forinstance,onlymandatesthatthebrand, name sides ofapackagenotimmediatelyvisibletotheconsumer. over nutritionallabeling,whichisalmost always locatedon product’s packaging,brand andimagerytake precedence than thecontents.Inhierarchy ofinformationona object becomesthethingdesired,packagerather purchase. and, intoday’s retailenvironment, accelerate therate of store, packagingwassupposedtobea“silentsalesman” physical form.Itrather comesintobeingthrough theactof however, doesnotissuefromacommodity’s natural, is, asanindicatoroftheproduct’s materialworth.Value, ($5.99 forafrozenpizza)asintrinsic totheuse-value,that to thecommodityfetish,wemistake valueinitsprice-form use-value, thoughpackagingmakes thismoredifficult.Due only perceive thesensuous object,thatis,thecommodity’s form oftheproduct.Duringmomentexchange wecan the truerelationsobjectifiedinnatural body orconcrete relation theconsumerbearstoaproduct,anditobscures form ofpackagingandanagentthespectacle.Priceis the illusionofintrinsicvalueincommoditiesbutisitselfa in [thecommodity].” “the money-name of thequantityofsociallaborobjectified is theconsumer-facingimageofvalue,or, inMarx’swords bodies inwhichvalueappears,itsvalue-form.Price,too, part ofthisspectacularunity. “in themindofconsumer;”Iwouldaddthatpriceisa nature ofspectacularpackaging—“fuses” withtheproduct promise” and—inlanguagethatpointstotheunifying The purposeofpackagingistoprotectandpreserve a Both thepackageandcontentsofacommodityare 43 41 “Thepackagingdesign …articulatesthebrand’s 44 Price,morethanpackaging,creates 40 Withtheriseofself-service 42 Increasingly, theimage- 39 Moreimportantly, abstract sociallabor.” labor becomestheformormanifestationofitsopposite, implicated ineachproduct.Theuse-valueor“concrete any ethicalrelationshipbetweenthemyriad individuals their provenance, orregulatoryconsequences, letalone ontological-physiological differenceofthesesubstances, objectivity ofvaluesupersedesany consideration ofthe buy andpreparewhole,nutritiousfoods. their incomeorworkschedulesundercutabilityto have littlechoicebuttopurchaselow-priced itemsbecause particular, respondtolowprices.Minimum-wage workers that consumersingeneral, andlow-income consumersin such asTesco intheUKandWalMart worldwide,know necessity, ortragedy of ourrelationshiptothesefoods can foremost option formealsinsidethehome. Americans, processedprepackaged foodshave becomethe precedence over metabolicreproduction.For 90percentof the caseoffoodslike these, capitalistreproductiontakes to theprocessesusedmake theproductshelf-stable.In consumed quickly, butwhichisalsonutrient-deprived due which canbeturnedover rapidly asacommodityand consider thepromotionofready-madeconvenience food, divided andutterlydisassociated. concrete andabstract innature,withthosenaturesbeing the commodity:tobebothqualitative andquantitative, or from itsstiffandstarchy existence asabody.” the commodity’s“sublimeobjectivityasavaluediffers price beforeallelse,themiddlemandemonstrates how profit by substitutinghorsemeatforbeef. Byconsidering between meatcommoditieswhenhecanrealizemore price isalsowhatappearstothemiddlemanchoosing with. AsIwilldiscusswithreferencetothesupplychain, material expense ofthecommoditiesweareconfronted price ofacommoditymisrepresentthetruehumanand package ofacommodityanditscontents,sotoocanthe be atotaldivorce betweenwhatiscommunicatedonthe or theconditionsofitsmanufacture.Justastherecan circumstances whollyunrelatedtotheparticularuse-value on aconcrete,physical objectbutisdeterminedby phenomenon. Thepriceofacommodityisprojected with oneanother. exchange whentwocommoditiesarebroughtintorelation the manufacturinganddistributionsectors. increasingly powerfulcomparedtotheircounterpartsin It haslongbeenacknowledgedthatretailershave grown retailers whoincreasinglysetthepriceonfoodproducts. the horsemeatscandal,andtodoso,wemustturn Value, accordingtoMarx,isasocialandabstract We candiscusswhatrolepricemay have played in 46 Thisisoneofthecontradictions of 47 49 Onemustalso 50 48 Thepopularity, Retailers, 45 The both thespheresofproductionandconsumption. be understoodasanaspectofthedeskillingthatpervades unit cost. requiring theuseoflow-grade meattoachieve suchalow asked asuppliertoproducethirty-pence‘gourmet’burger, of aninstanceintheUnitedKingdomwhereacompany successful. Inhisreportonthescandal,Elliottalsolearned held assumption thatconsumerdemandstructures the power doesnot lieattheindividuallevel, despitethelong- during production.” in price-form,isoftenalready“taken intoconsideration it, aproduct’scharacter asavalue,orinthiscase,itsvalue their partnersinmanufacturingandsupply. AsMarxputs efficiencies requiredtoproducethatcheapaproductfrom they wishtooffertheircustomersanddemandthecost applies aptlytothefoodsupply chain. moment shiftedfromthelocal tothegloballevel,” andthis infrastructure, wehave seen“thepivotal evaluative biases ofglobalITandthe distributionoftechnical this below).AlfHornborgstatesthat,duetotheinherent beef products,wereofthevery sameorigin;moreon (which, inthecaseofbrand-differentiated adulterated as relatestotheconstituentingredientsofthoseproducts sprawling heterogeneityonstoreshelves implies,especially food purchases,haslessagencythantheappearance of make purchasingdecisionsinavacuumand,thecaseof priced frozenpizzaretailingatthetime. pound frozenpizza—fiftypencecheaperthanthelowest work withthesupplierNorthernFoods toproduceaone- grocery retailerintheUnitedKingdom,Asda,wasableto already madeinproduction.” spectacle isthe“omnipresent affirmationofthechoice realize profitquicklyandrepeatedly. Debordsays thatthe a low-costitemthatcanbeproducedenmasse,soasto low-income customers.Inreality, thesecompaniespursue and pricefocusarenotperformedoutofconcernfortheir human consumption. meat categorizedasfitonlyforanimalfeedispackaged unsanctioned suppliersoreven adulteration, suchaswhen could indicatethatitsjourney tomarket may have included Elliott suggests,alowerpriceforprepacked, mincedbeef of priceisrelevant inthesphereofproduction,aswell.As as wasthecasewithhorsemeatscandal.Theoptics their foodproductsthatultimatelyhave nefariousorigins, suppliers wherethey seekoutlowerpricesfortheinputsto may risetotheoccasion.Thismay createasituationfor under thoseconditions,butonecanimaginethatothers Retailers alsohave thepowertoconceive ofaprice Tesco andothercompanies’cost-cuttingmeasures 54 Thesupplierdeclinedtoprovide theproduct 52 For example, thesecond-largest 55

56 Theconsumerdoesnot 57 Decision-making 53 Thisventure was 51

Food andDrugAdministration. circumvent stricterpoliciesbeingimposed onthemby the labeling systemsAmericancompanieshave adoptedto Wynonah Hauter’sFoodopoly unadulterated, healthy, safe,and transparent products. producers having tobeartheresponsibilityofproducing only given achoice ofspectacles(commodities), rather than responsibility ofchoosinglieswiththeconsumer, who is focus ofthispaperiswhatnot out infactsandfiguresforthe eye tosee.Ofcourse,the righteously pointtotheirpackagingaslaying everything worth buyingisuptotheconsumer, andcompaniescan ingredients andprocesses.Whetherornotthesefoodsare choice betweenbrands andproductsmadewithvery similar Packages becomebusy withweightsandmeasures of retailer’s desire. manufacturers andsuppliersleftscrambling tofulfillthe market. Thechoice,today, oftenlieswithretailers, conscious. to anew, value-addingtechniqueofwhichwewerenot have formedonourownwhen,really, weareresponding of countlessexamples oftastesweareledtobelieve we produce massamountsofmeatcommodities. that donotnaturally digestthesubstanceinorderto if itisavirtueinitself. Cornfeedwasimposed onanimals are presentedwithanattributeofcurrentfoodproductsas advertised “grain-fed” beef(or chicken, andnowfish),we is moreandproducedforbiofuels.Whenweare filler andpreservative forprocessedfoodproducts;and source offeedinindustrialmeatproduction;serves asa for directhumanconsumption,ithasalsobecomeaprolific reveal moreaboutthe ‘negatives’ inprocessed foods.” labeling initiatives thatmightmake foodcompanies an effortto“preempttheFDA’s front-of-packagingfood- Marion Nestlecalledthesevoluntary labelingprograms production. became, andremains,anear-universal commodityfor in recordyieldsofcornthemid-twentiethcentury, corn ubiquitous substance,corn. we may thinkisourpersonalchoice.Here,Irefertothat individual consumeragencyandcomestoinformwhat of howglobalindustrialagricultureinterestssupersedes that is,asvariouscommodities. multiplying thepointsofexchange asasubstrate forvalue, production becauseitisparticularlyconvenient for of industry. Cornisubiquitousinthemarketplace and overproduced toprovide acheapinputforseveral sectors Choice atthelevel oftheconsumerisoften only a When advancementsinagricultural techniquesresulted 62 59

Itisacommoditycrop,like wheatorsoybeans, 58 Let usbrieflyconsideronesuch example describesthevoluntary 63 60 seen onthepackage.The NutritionprofessorDr. Notonlyiscornaproduct 61 Itisone 64

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 11 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 12 being amongotherbeings. the proportionofanobjectdeterminesitsstatusasa From theimperceptiblylargetosmall, intended todo. of cowsonTesco’s horse-contaminatedproducts were in thepositive formofanimage,as,forexample, theimages divided nature;thespectacleresolves thosecontradictions Latour—that resolves thecontradictions ofacommodity’s form—a “presentabsence,” toborrowatermfromBruno total picture.Indeed,thecommodityfetishtakes anegative is merelyaphotonegative, anundeveloped glimpseofthe made andconvenience foodmanufacture;thepackaging of farm-fresh,butcheredjoints,andtheinputsready- between theconceptofbeef, theimagesitconjures up of force.Butthereremainsahugerepresentationalgap to thelimitsofmaterialbreakdown andtheimposition production, thatmediationisfarmoreprofound,taken it wasandthethingisintendedtobe.Inindustrialmeat imposed uponafoodobjectmediatebetweenthethingthat F relationship totheway wedefinecategoriesofbeing. of Being”:Thereisaphenomenological,perceptual deter thecustomerfrompurchasingit. contents negateany qualityofitsproductionthatmight the spectacle,thesepositive attestationstoaproduct’s nutritional orharmfulthosecontentsare.Consistentwith constituent ingredients,butwithoutany context astohow emphasized, theproducersandretailers. individual aportionisdesiredby theconsumeror, asIhave “beef,” andthento“steak”or“ground”whatever more hand andmouth,sothecowascategorygives way to of acertain“proportion” tobemanageableby thehuman (Figure 3). mechanically separated meatusedtomake productslike it igure THE SUPPLY CHAIN“Proportionsarethelimit 3. USDA image ofmechanicallyseparated beef. 68 Comparethisimagewithanofthe 66 Food objectsalsoneedtobe 67 Theproportions 65

products destinedforhumanconsumption. only suitableforanimalconsumption, makes itsway into instances whereCategory3food,whichtheEUstatesis instance ifporkissubstitutedforbeef. Elliottalsodescribes as cheapercommoditiescanbesoldathigherprices,for intervention occurred somewhereinthesupplychain, mislabeled foods,itislikely thatdeliberate human little like theanimalfleshfromwhichthey aremade. makes themripeforadulteration, asthey already lookso the sametime,stateofmechanicallyseparated meats consumption, it couldsellforatleastthreepounds fifty pound perkilogram, whereasifrepackagedasfit forhuman example, Category 3animalby-product would sellforone profit wouldbe very highfortheoffendingmiddleman. For late.” of thepoverty ofitsproduction,standsrevealed too too. Atthispointitsessentialpoverty, thenatural outcome home by aconsumer—andhenceby allotherconsumers “evaporates intovulgarityassoontheobjectistaken to Debord,the“spectacularprestige” ofthecommodity pervades every aspectofthesupplychain.According of capital,andthevisibleformittakes asthespectacle, manufacturing toemphasizethatthedivisive nature efficiencies neededtoproduceatsuchalowcost. at setprices,makingthemresponsibleforachieving the puts adownward pressureonsupplierstoprovide products power ofretailersinsettingthetermstheircontracts acknowledges, asIhave described,thattheincreased and theorganizationofpowerinsupplychain.He rooted inthenatureofindustrialmeatproduction contributing tothehorsemeatadulteration thatare it toHongKong. at leastadozenEUcountries,theproductshadeven made Not onlywerehorsemeat–contaminatedproductsfoundin that thereachofcontaminationisvast,potentiallyglobal. distributed natureoffoodproductionandsupplymeans all oftheproductscontainedvery samemeat.The retailers madeaboutthesuperiorityoftheirproduct,for products, breakingdownany claimsthatthevarious the substratum ofarelatively highnumberofcompeting mixing ofdiverse bodies,anddividedonceagain,became of adulteration. Thematerialthatwasmass-processed,a products inEuropeweretouchedby asingularinstance was broughttotheforewhenitbecameclearthatsomany packaging. Withthehorsemeatscandal,thishomogeneity qualitative homogeneityoffoodproductsaremasked by While somesuppliersmay bedupedintobuying I meditateonthisclose-upofindustrialfood In hisreport,Elliottoutlinedafewofthecircumstances 69 Theoftensickly, hyper-processed appearance and 70 72 Themarginof 71 At ingredients. There isalsosomethingtobesaid forproducts UK productsare adulterated orcontainuncommunicated and whoknowswhatelse.Asalready mentioned,athirdof had seenandpurchasedbeef, butthebodywasfedhorse— scandal makes clear. UnsuspectingEuropeanconsumers reaches insidethebodyaswell asout,whichthehorsemeat untested. labeling forgranted andprocessed itintofoodproducts, blocks, foodmanufacturersintheEUtookmeatsupply with meatbeingeasiertotestoncethawed fromthefrozen into themix. cheaper speciesoraddingredoffal,suchasheartandlungs, blocks appearhigherqualityby mixingthemwithmeatfrom easy tomake thelow-qualitytrimmeatcontainedinthese mechanically separated meatareshipped(Figure4).Itis opacity inthecoldstorage facilitieswherelargeblocksof the possibilityoffraud intheirproduct’shistory. commodity shouldalsoalertsuppliersanddistributorsto per kilogram. Elliottsays thatatoo-lowpriceonany meat F wake ofthescandal. accounting andonlyturnedtotestingrealproductsinthe addition, theEUfoodsupplychainreliesheavily onpaper contents. They arealsooftenhandledmechanically, andin often wrapped inlayers ofplasticthatfurtherobscurethe very definitionofopaque,beingimpenetrable by eye and and chemicalrinsesatalaterstageintheprocess. of introducingbacteria-killingtechniqueslike irradiation at anearlierpointinproductionisdispensedwithfavor but alsofromatechnicalpointofview, whereinspection more inspectorsremoved fromfoodprocessing plants, extensively asacost-cuttingmeasure,seeingmoreand Point system.IntheUnitedStates,HACCP hasbeenused called HACCP: theHazardAnalysisandCriticalControl the supplychainwasdeveloped intheUnitedStates. Itis igure CONCLUSION: CONSEQUENCES Thespectacle Elliott identifiesanimportantsiteofpotentialfraud and The systemtheEUusestomonitorandqualitycontrol 4. Frozen separated blocksofmechanically beef. 74 Theblocksthemselves, whenfrozen,arethe

76 Even total of3,500different products. supplied 275differentcompanies, whichhadtorecalla had never beeninspectedpriortotheoutbreak.Theplant was traced backtoasingleprocessingplantinGeorgiathat in forty-threestatesandkilled ninepeople.Theoutbreak salmonella outbreakinpeanutproductsaffectedpeople of thousandscasesillnessnationwide. In2008,a traceable casesofsalmonella poisoning,withlinkstotens were recalledafterhaving causedatleasttwothousand 2010, 500millioneggsproducedinonlytwoIowafacilities crossed statelinesandaffectedthousandsofpeople.In an extensive listofoutbreaksintheUnitedStatesthat processed andrecombined.InFoodopoly commodities travel andthedegreetowhichthey are widely distributed,duetoboththedistancesthatfood single instanceofcontaminationoradulteration canbe supply chainposesthelargestrisktohumanbodies,asa ingest potentiallyharmfulfoodproducts.Thescaleofthe inevitable, ascontaminationisalreadyconsideredtobe. retailers toconsiderfraudulent labelingandadulteration as The horsemeatscandalhaspromptedfoodsuppliersand possibility intoday’s foodsupplychain,arenotstandard. again, isconsideredtobeanongoingandincreasing However, insurance assessmentsforfoodcrime,which, proven harmfultohumanhealthandmust berecalled. insurance tocover themininstanceswhereaproductis the UnitedKingdom,have riskassessmentprofilesand Retailers, especiallythoseaslargeTesco orAsdain business thatcontaminationsandproductrecallspose. events like thehorsemeatscandal.Oneisriskto in theseexamples andthehorsemeat scandalisthatlittle products thatarethemosteasilyadulterated. food fraud orcontamination,sincethey areforcedtobuy that low-incomepeoplearemostoftenthevictimsof mass-produced andprocessedproduct—Elliottcommented meat scandal—andwecanseethisistrueforany cheap, masquerades asmorethanittrulyis.Intermsofthehorse associated withspectacularfood,whichistosay, foodthat victims, andnotonlybecauseoftheusualhealthrisks low-income peoplearethespectacle’s mostfrequent day canstillbeconsideredmalnourished.For thisreason, who isfedwithpackaged,processedfoodsthroughoutthe terms ofquantitybutnotinnutrition.Someone how peoplemay beabletofeedthemselves adequatelyin and abundanceoffoodstuffs,wemusttake accountof or poseharmfuleffectsforthebody. Despitetheubiquity that aremarketed asfoodandyet bearnonutritionalvalue The otherriskIspeakofisthatposedtothosewho There aretwokindsofriskdebatedinthewake of 79 Thestrikingconsistency , Hauterprovides 77

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 13 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 14 rule. Debordsays, decline inoversight asthespectaclesecuresits the horsemeatscandalisthereaproportionate the humanin productionanddistribution ofproducts accelerating theway ofexchange whilenegatingtheroleof substitutes areenlistedinthe spectacle, smoothingand majority oralloftheproducthasbeenconsumed. consumers oftenarenotalertedtothefactuntil when testingdoesproduceevidence ofcontamination, in termsofstoppinganoutbreakfromspreading.Infact, to indicatehumanrisk,andthatitisoftentoolittlelate production, thata“sightless”systemlike HACCP istrusted or nooversight occursattheoriginalsiteofprocessingor the benefitoftechnicalsubstitutes.” as eyewitness[es] oftangiblereality, onceandforall,to expressed the fearthatweare“about toloseourstatus working inourbestinterest. trust thattechnicalsystemsaresuperiortous,benign,and told to“letthesystemwork.” these primarilypaperaccountingsystems,inspectorsare developed intheUnitedStatesupuntilscandal.Under United Kingdomusedthesamesystemof“oversight” The Americancontext isrelevant, consideringthatthe down productionlinesaswellopportunitiesforprofit. the discovery ofadulteration andcontaminationcanshut around inAmericandiscussionsoffoodinspections,as describes how“job-killing”rhetoricisoftenthrown most importantmaterialstooursurvival:food.Hauter rendering usinactive intheproductionofone The spectaclestakes aneven greaterclaimonthehuman, development thatcaterstoprofits rather thanpeople. radically reduced,replacedwithpaperaccounting,a What becomesevident asonelookscloserat Writing several decadesafterDebord,Virilio The human’s roleinoverseeing productionhasbeen activity isbanned. rationality ofproduction … withinthespectacleall needs andresults; indeeditisitselfaproduct ofthe uneasy andworshipfulsubjectiontoproduction’s activity: itremains inthrall tothatactivity, inan is bynomeansemancipatedfrom productive of non-work,inactivity. Suchinactivity, however, leading edgeofthesystem’s evolution—into arealm principal workisbeingtransformed atlastthe associated inearliersocietieswithanindividual’s that fundamentalarea ofexperience whichwas of production, whoseproduct isseparation itself, Owing tothevery successofthisseparated system 81 82 Asever, wearesupposedto 83 Suchtechnical 80

6. Ibid. Consumers: Food, Europa, 2013. 5. EuropeanCommission,“Q&A onhorsemeat,” Healthand DNA foundinsomebeefburger products,” 2013. 4. Food SafetyAuthority ofIreland,“FSAIsurvey findshorse 2012), 143. Wynonah Hauter, Foodopoly continued useofrapid growthhormones inbeefproduction. US isfarlessstringentwithregulation,forexample, withits is interestinggenerally asafoilfor EUfoodpolicy, sincethe I alsodiscusstheAmericancontext inafewinstances,which Kingdom. Hence,IwillrefertopricesusingBritishcurrency. duction andsupplyand,even morespecifically, theUnited 3. ThisarticlefocusesontheEuropeancontext offoodpro- 2008), 24. 2. GuyDebord,TheSocietyofSpectacle rell5_2.html. http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/5_2/Wor- Critical TheoryoftheSpectacle,” Fast Capitalism 1. MarkP. Worrel, “TheCultofExchange Value andthe ENDNOTES capital. inequities concretisedandreproducedby thetopologiesof The scandaltrulyliesinourcontinueddisavowal ofthe human folly, attributabletoindividualgreedorignorance. The irony isinourassumptionthatthescandalamarkof the contentsas“beef,” addedinsulttospectacularinjury. like theadditionofpackagingthatdefinitively advertised and facilityoforigin.Further manufacturingprocesses, the EU’sprotracted supplychainobscuredthecountry allowed horsemeattoeasilymasquerade asbeef, while become. Thepulverizing mechanismsofmeatprocessing opaque thenatureoffoodproductionanddistributionhas spectacular origins,isexemplary forshowingjusthow price andpackaging.Thehorsemeatscandal,withits that everyone, inasense,fallsvictimtothespectacleof risk inevents like these,thisarticlehasattemptedtoshow government andretailers.Whileconsumersbearthemost but forallactorsinthefoodsupplychain,including of theEUhorsemeatscandal,notonlyforconsumers and tasteaproductbeforepurchasingit. substitute fortheindividualconsumer’sabilitytosee,touch, with itspicturesandinformationpanels,becomesa merely ameansofcirculatingvalue.Even foodpackaging, which areforusthemeansofsubsistencebutcapital The pointofthisarticlewastodiscusstheimplications (NewYork: TheNewPress, (Brooklyn:Zone, 5.2(2009), Michael Harris and RimmaShiptsova, “Consumer Demand Values 29(2012):509. Onthispoint,Drescheretal. citeJ. Food IndustryandMeat Purchases,” Agriculture andHuman 22. LarissaDrescheretal.,“Consumer’s StatedTrust inthe 21. Ibid.,317. 20. Ibid.,309. and HumanValues 26(2009):311. backs, andthe‘Food fromSomewhere’ Regime?,” Agriculture Theory: Corporate Environmentalism, EcologicalFeed - 19. HughCampbell,“BreakingNewGroundinFood Regime Elsevier, 2005). ed. Frederick ButtelandPhillipMcMichael(Amsterdam: gimes,” New talism: SocialMovements andtheEmergenceofFood Re- 18. HarrietFriedmann, “From ColonialismtoGreenCapi- 17. Food SafetyAuthorityofIreland,“FSAIsurvey.” tion scandal,” DailyMailUK prisoners foundtocontainporkinlatestmeatcontamina- 16. LucyCrossley, “Halalpiesandpastiesgiven toMuslim 7, 2014. show thirdofproductsmislabeled,” TheGuardian, February 15. Felicity Lawrence, “Fake-food scandalrevealed astests ment oftheUnitedKingdom,2013. Food SupplyNetworks—InterimReport,” Gov.Uk. Elliott, “ElliottReview intotheIntegrityandAssurance of 14. EuropeanCommission,“Q&A onhorsemeat.” Chris March 20,2013. 13. “BannedBritishmuttonseizedinFrance,” TheTelegraph, 12. Ibid. September 10,2013. Spanghero managersover horsemeatscandal,” RFIEnglish 11. RadioFrance Internationale,“French policearrest beef scamresponsibility.” 10. Ruitenberg,“Horse-meatsuspectSpangherodenies test results.” 9. EuropeanCommission,“Commission publishesEuropean February 15,2013. Spanghero deniesbeefscamresponsibility,” Bloomberg daily dose.” RudyRuitenberg,“Horse-meatsuspect tainted horsemeataday toconsumecloseahuman’s 8. “A personwouldhave toeat500600burgersofpure leases, Europa, 2013. test resultsonhorseDNAandPhenylbutazone,” PressRe- 7. EuropeanCommission,“Commission publishesEuropean Directions intheSociologyof Global , February 2,2013. Development , Govern- , , , is, tobesold.Alongside theseevents, theincreasingspe- humans began producing itemsforsomeoneelse’s use,that items fordirect,personaluse, to market economies,where living, wherehumansproduced foodandvariousother consistent withtheincreasing move away fromsubsistence possibly pinpointingthehistorical originsofthefetish,itis of theirlaborisahistoricalone. Whilethereisnoway of mans comeintoafetishizedrelationshipwiththeproducts the workplace,andasconsumers.Theprocessby whichhu- subjects aroundwhichhumansorganizethemselves, bothin of thecommodityfetish,whereby commoditiesserve as lations betweenthings”(1976,166).Thisishisdescription but as …materialrelationsbetweenpersonsandsocialre- not asdirectsocialrelationsbetweenindividualsatwork, ing thelaborofoneindividualwiththatrestappear, 33. MarxstatesinCapital, 32. GuyDebord,Spectacle 31. Ibid. January 10,2014. results inslidesalesofredmeatBritain,” TheGuardian, 30. Sarah ButlerandRebeccaSmithers,“Horsemeatscandal 29. Ibid.,9. 28. Ibid.,7. 27. Ibid.,7,9. Development, Europa, 2013:4. Goat Meat,” Directorate General forAgricultureandRural Mandatory OriginLabellingforPig,Poultry andSheep& 26. EuropeanCommission,“Executive Summary:Studyon are likewise mediatedby thecommodityform. reproduce themselves (througheatingandleisure), which the wagelaborrelationbutalsoinways inwhichthey under capitalismaresubjecttocoercion,mostobviously in ceeds ontheassumptionthattosomedegree,allpeople 25. “Boomforbutchers,” July5,2013.Thisargumentpro - bridge, Alberta. Conference (2004),Lethbridge CommunityCollege,Leth- Value Chain:InsightsfromtheUK,” presentedtotheTiffin Fearne, “Post-bse ImpactsontheBeefIndustryand meat scandal,” TheGloucesterCitizen 24. “Boomforbutchersdiesdownsixmonthsafterhorse 23. Drescheretal.,“Consumer’s StatedTrust,” 510,515. no. 1(September2006):149-160. styles withRegardtoMeatConsumption,” MeatScience and KlausG.Grunert,“Future Trends andConsumerLife- Journal ofFood DistributionResearch 38,no.3(2007):22-36; for Convenience Foods: Demographics andExpenditures,” , 12. vol. 1that“therelations connect- , July5,2013.Andrew 74,

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 15 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 16 50. Hauter, Foodopoly 49. Drescheretal.,“Consumer’s StatedTrust,” 510,515. tics 48. Hauter, Foodopoly,70. Gustafssonetal., RetailingLogis 47. Ibid.,165. 46. Ibid.,150. 45. Ibid.,144. 44. KarlMarx,Capital, 43. Ibid.,235. 42. Ibid.,40. 41. Ibid.,22,30. (Hoboken: Wiley, 2006),5. ing Design:SuccessfulProduct Branding from ConcepttoShelf 40. MarianneR.KlimchukandSandra A.Krasovec, Packag- expenditure ofhumanlabor-power”(Marx 1976, 160). common character … humanlaboringeneral, ofbeingthe it isthereductionofallkindsactuallabortotheir nature isexplicitly broughtout,namelythefactthat forms andusefulpropertiesofwork.Itsownpositive labor inwhichabstraction ismadefromalltheconcrete of commoditiesisnotjustpresentednegatively, as 39. “Inthismannerthelaborobjectifiedinvalues 38. Debord,Spectacle 2011), 38. and RiseoftheSupermarket Chains 37. AndrewSethandGeoffrey Randall,TheGrocers: TheRise 2008), 56. 36. Paul Virilio,OpenSky (Philadelphia: Kogan Page US,2006),41. Food Packaging: ManagingChangeintheSupplyChain 35. Kerstin Gustafssonetal.,RetailingLogisticsandFresh 34. Debord,Spectacle the commodity. commodities. Theirrelationshipthereforerevolves around may meetatthemarket, they dosoas buyers andsellersof especially trueintoday’s globalmarket. Even thoughpeople relationship tothosepeoplewhoproducedthem,whichis the productsofhumanlaboratmarket, bearingno to produce.Intheend,oneonlycomesintocontactwith useful things,except fortheoneitemthey wereemployed increasingly separated fromtheproductionofallmanner cialization anddivisionoflabormeantthathumanswere , 44. , 16.Emphasisadded. , 12. , 66. vol, 1(London: Penguin, 1976),202. (London andNewYork: Verso, (London: Kogan Page,

ing oftheontological natureofproportionfrom thefollow- dimensions.” Virilio,Grey Ecology, 27.Itake my understand - is noobjectwithoutproportions. Thereisnomanwithout other ontologicalcategory, isamatterofproportion:“There 66. Viriliotellsusthatwhatwe knowtobehuman,orany 65. Paul Virilio,Grey Ecology 64. Ibid. 63. Hauter, Foodopoly eral termusedby economists. not refertoMarx’sdefinitionoftheterm.Itis rather agen- 62. “Value,” hereandinthecontext of“value-added,” does 61. Hauter, Foodopoly 60. Marx,Capital 59. Hauter, Foodopoly to bear91%ofthecostslabeling.Ibid.,9. For poultrycommoditylabeling,consumerswereprojected extra costs [wouldbe] transmitted totheconsume.” Ibid.,7. be] transmitted totheproducers,whileabout88%of in theEU27about12%ofextra costsforlabeling[would pork commoditylabeling,itwasreportedthat“on average the EuropeanCommissionpublishedareportonimproving chain eitherfallonproducersorconsumers.Ibid.,7,9.When costs ofincreasingtransparency andtracking inthesupply ability topursuethatdesireindollarterms?Afterall,the between consumerdesireandbehaviour orsimplyanin- Mandatory OriginLabelling,” 4.Isthereadiscrepancyhere European Commission,“Executive Summary:Studyon such thingsdonotfactorintotheirpurchasingdecisions. want theirproductsmarked withoriginlabelingbutthat ed labelingregulationsintheEUsuggestthatconsumers 58. Reportsproducedinthewake ofthescandalthatdebat - ciety the Cultural Foundations ofCapital,” Theory, Culture andSo 57. AlfHornborg,“Technology asFetish: Marx,Latour, and 56. Debord,Spectacle 55. Ibid.,37. 54. Elliott,“ElliottReview,” 22. 53. SethandRandall,TheGrocers, 48. 52. Marx,Capital rants. life inautomatedsettingslike factoriesorfastfoodrestau- promoted by foodmanufacturers,andacommonqualityof cooking, attributabletothepressuresofworklifebutalso 51. Bydeskilling,Irefertothelossoftraditional skillslike 31, no.4(2013):14. , 293. , 166. , 13. , 47. , 157. , 34. (New York: Atropos,2008), 34. - 70. RadioFrance Internationale,“French policearrest 69. Debord,Spectacle 189. ence Studies 68. BrunoLatour, Pandora’s Box: EssaysontheRealityofSci only purchasedchickens whole. portions like thighsandbreastswhenpeoplehadpreviously McNuggets) influencedtheproductionandsaleofchicken how itsdemandforhand-heldfoodportions(i.e.chicken of McDonald’seffectonthepoultryindustry, particularly 67. SeeEricSchlosser’sFast Food Nation the modernworld.” Virilio,Grey Ecology, 27-28. amazing towhatdegreeproportionshave disappearedfrom man. Thisisunthinkable.Today, everything islike this.Itis meters. Ifamanmeasures20metersinheight,itisnot to beamanismeasurebasicallybetweenoneandtwo power ofBeing.AndnowI’llgive you avery clearexample: of theworld …Greatorweak,thisvastnessconstitutes which reducestonothingorpractically nothingthevastness the space-timecontinuumsufferingatemporal contraction wecallreal-timeleadsto ing passageinparticular:“What (Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press,1999), , 45. (2005) forahistory - 83. Virilio,OpenSky 82. Hauter, Foodopoly 81. Debord,Spectacle 80. Elliott,“ElliottReview,” 15. 79. Hauter, Foodopoly 14, 2013. ed totriggerinsurance claims,” BusinessInsurance, February 78. Sarah Veysey, “Europeanhorsemeatscandalnotexpect - 77. Elliott,“ElliottReview,” 12. 76. Hauter, Foodopoly January 17,2013. the onlynastysecretinchillcabinets,” DailyMailUK 75. J. Blythman,“Thereallybadnews?Horseburgersaren’t 74. Ibid.,38. 73. Ibid.,37. 72. Ibid.,36. 71. Elliott,“ElliottReview,” 15,22. Spanghero managers.” , 91. , 21. , 129. , 137-8. , 123. ,

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 17 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 18 abstract keywords often substituted,deleted,andaddedindifferentwaystoachievethischeapergoal. budget cookbooksteachreadershowtocookcommonmainstreamrecipesinexpensively.Theanalysisfindsthatingredientsare and afterTheFoodStampAct.BycomparingrecipesinbudgetcookbookstoeditionsofJoyCooking,thispaperarguesthat ways inwhichpeopleeatcheaply.ItdoesthisthroughanalysisofninebudgetcookbookspublishedtheUnitedStatesbefore inflation; sincethe1970s,incomeinequalityhascontinuedtogrow.Thispaperinvestigateseffectofthisatmosphereon | from 1970to2014,therewere 223. published; from1900to1969, thereweretwenty-five; the following:Before1900,five budgetcookbookswere online catalogkeyword searchof“budget cooking”reveals of cookbooktitlesby decade fromaLibrary ofCongress cooking onabudgettookoffinthe1970s.Aquicksorting But intheUnitedStates,arealsocialconsciousnessof produces striking results:Four werepublishedin the‘60s of budgetcookbooks publishedinthe1960sand the1970s Makes 4servings.” milk andseasonings.Pour over bread andcheese …Bake for40minutes. “Alternate layers ofbread thencheeseinthecasserole. Combineegg, Cheese Fondue Budget CookinginAmerica Margarine forButter: ASHLEY HIGGS and DaintyDishesforSlenderIncomes, include Tempting DishesforSmallIncomes, a newphenomenon.EarlyAmericanbudgetcookbooks guests. Cookbookscateringtoreadersonabudgetarenot making “Fondue,” typicallyafancyteatimemealeatenwith minded cookbookgives the readeracheapalternative for and forms.Intheabove recipecomparison, a 1964budget- |

The 1960sand1970sareknownpoliticallyforLyndonB.Johnson’s“WaronPoverty”economicallyhigh INTRODUCTION Budgetcookingtakes many shapes

Dash ofpepper 1/8 teaspoondrymustard ½ teaspoonsalt 1 cupmilk 1 largeegg,beaten 1 cup(1/4pound)processed Americancheese,shredded 5 slicesbread cutincubesorstrips 3 tablespoonsbutterormargarine Budget cooking,cookbooks,ingredients,foodstamps,poverty 2 —Budget CookBook,1964 publishedin1900. Comparingnumbers published in1881, 1

percent increase. in the1960sand1,0061970s,whichisonlya114 just theword“cookbook” yields469cookbookspublished For reference,akeyword searchintheonlinecatalogof and forty-twointhe‘70s,whichisa950percentincrease. new concept;they hadbeenissuedfrom 1939to1943. The Food StampAct(P.L. 88-525). Food stampswerenota reached 22.1percentin1959. legislation inresponsetoanational poverty rate that Lyndon B.Johnsonlaunchedhis“War onPoverty” sustained interestinbudgetcooking. In1964,President 1970s, several trendsexplain thispiquedandultimately economic situationintheUnitedStates1960sand consciousness. onward, budgetcookingwasrisingintheAmericanpublic with fresh fruitandtea.” soft sideanddiptheimpaledbitintowell-warmedcheese handled fork—preferably twoorthree-tined—spear thebread from the side ofcrust.At thispointtheguests, eachequippedwithaheatproof- bread cutinto1x¾-inchpieces,makingsure thateachpiecehasone “Have ready abread basket orbowlfilledwithcrusty French orItalian Fondue Economic SituationLooking atthebroaderpolitical- Nutmeg, whitepepperorpaprika 1 teaspooncornstarch 3 tablespoonskirsch 2 cupsdrywhitewine A clove ofgarlic 1 lb.Emmenthaleror½andGruyère cheese 4 Thisdatasuggeststhatfromthe1970s 5 Onepieceoflegislationwas —Joy ofCooking,1964 … Serve 6 But 3

increases over time. Inflation means the general costs of goods—including food— two years) between1969and1982. inflation thatwouldnotdropbelow5.5percent (except for decade’s lowof5.5percent. remained lowrelative tothe’70s,staying belowthat in numberasinflation rates stabilized.Theinflation rate same timethenumberofpublishedbudgetcookbooksrose. The priceoffoodwasrisingdramatically inthe1970s, percent theyear beforeanddidnotdropagainuntil1997. unemployment rate jumpedto5percentin1970from3.5 then shotupthereafter, peakingat9.6percentin2010. rate never droppedbelow4percentfrom1997to2007and was introducedin1961,culminatingthe1964Act. the ’60ssaw resurgenceinneedforthem,andaprogram 1983 to2013. in thepriceoffoodslowed,increasingonly2.9percentfrom and 14.3percentfrom1969to2009. of 22.1percent,thepoverty rate remainedbetween12.4 rates remainedhigh.Althoughdroppingfrom1959’shigh inflation infoodpricestheearly’70sredirectedmiddle- 1969 to1983,theannualizedpriceincreased7.1percent. price increasefrom1950to1968was1.3percent; workforce increased. disappeared andtheranks ofthepart-timeservice or shifteddownward asdecently-paidblue-collarjobs middle classes.Theclass’swealthlargelystagnated accompanied by awideninggapbetweentheupperand Economically, theendof’60ssaw persistent Budget cookbooks,however, continuedtoincrease High unemployment andpoverty rates were 2014 2012 1996 1985 1980 1979 1971 1964 1951 Year Published Books

13 analyzed However, the poverty andunemployment 10 16 Looking atfoodalone,theannualized Accordingtooneaccount,“the

12 Good and Cheap and Good Cookbook Gourmet Budget Stamp Food The Food Cheap Good The Budget Saving Meals Cookbook Budget Cookb Gourmet Stamp Food The Book Budget Cook Econo Title Similarly, therate ofincrease Food Stamp Gourmet Stamp Food

- Meals 8 Theaverage yearly 14

Theunemployment : ook

Budget Menus Budget : Eat W ell on $4/Day on ell W Eat :

11 9

grocery shopping. price asanimportantorvery importantconsideration when market, andtoday consumersalmostunanimouslyreport This gap in the ’80s created a “budget-conscious” blue-collar Analyzed, they reveal asociety’sfoodpreferences. to asociety’shistoricandsocialevents. also provide credibleinformationthatcanbecorrelated published intheUnitedStatesfrom1950sto subtractions. created withcheapingredientsubstitutions,additions,and culture. Cheaperversions ofmainstreamdishesare as opposedtoforgingacompletelynewbudget-cooking cookbooks mimicculturally common,mainstreamrecipes, it arguesthattherecipesfoundinthisemerginggenreof cookbooks publishedfromthe1970son.Furthermore, dramatic andsustainedincreaseinthenumberofbudget the 1960stopresentdecadewereresponsiblefor that thepoliticalandeconomicchangesinAmericafrom and economicstatesinAmericanhistory. Thispaperargues economic historiesdescribedabove markimportant events of thepoorandtowardstheirown.” class attentionaway fromthecostofshoppingbaskets 6.6 timesgreaterthanthatofthe46percentinmiddle. gap hasexpanded today, with21percentoffamilies’wealth stabilized andfoodpricesincreasedonlyslightly, theincome understanding cookingandeatingbehaviors ofthepast. budget-focused cookbooks. the wideninggapisreflectedinsustainedpublishingof

Thispaperanalyzesninedifferentbudgetcookbooks Cookbooks areimportantsourcesfor Leanne Brown Dinerstein J. Don Miriam Carrie Paananen M. Donna Kowit Steve and Kowit Mary Wm. Library Cooking Better (pamphlet) Company & Gamble Procter Author

Brown

Bailey

Ungerer

Thissocioeconomicatmosphereof

17 Whileinflation rates 22 Thepoliticaland

21 They 20

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 19 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 20 nonfiction bestsellerlistsin1962and1997. It wasanationwide bestsellerin1943andreachedthe American kitchenssinceitsoriginalpublicationin1931. Joy ofCooking editions ofJoyCooking their mainstreamanalogues,thepaperalsoanalyzesfour present day. Inordertocomparebudgetcookbooks during mostof the timeperiodanalyzed. Of chicken, beef, andpork,chicken wasthe cheapest meat vegetable-based dishesareanalyzedforeconomic reasons. that suchdishesaregoodasmain meals.Chicken- and based dishesareonlyincluded iftheauthorswriteorimply soup, egg,orvegetable sections, chicken- andvegetable- cooking- andeating-behaviour.” they “permitgoodconclusionstobemadeaboutaltered editions areimportantas,accordingtoEdithHörandner, current trendsinthekitchenandgainednewrecipes. the “kitchenbible,” andeacheditionhasevolved toreflect societies fromwhichthey arepublished. documents canserve asrecordsofcookingandeatingby is the1950s,when chicken costmorethan beef. or “foodstamp” inthetitle. analysis becausethey have thewords“budget,” “cheap,” compare budgetcookingtomainstreammethods. categorization focusingoningredientsandtheirqualitiesto applies qualitative documentanalysismethodsofadaptable method by whichtoanalyzetheircontent. as catalogingingredientsandtheirqualities,isauseful a singlefacetofcookbookorgroupcookbooks,such large repositoriesofknowledge,andthereforeexamining situations thatariseinthedocuments. but isopentoconstantdiscovery andcomparison ofnew interpretation thatusescategoriestodirectinitialstudy relies onadaptabledatacollection,coding,analysis,and themes indocumentsanalyzed. description” tofindunderlyingpatterns,meanings,and research methodologythatfocuseson“discovery and forward, JoyofCooking not beattributedtobudgetcookingperse.From thispoint serves asacontrolforcultural shiftsincookingthatshould main dishesareincluded. sample sizeislarge,onlychicken- andvegetable-based similar dishesinthebudgetcookbooksandJoy ingredient comparisonsbetweenrecipesforthesameor Books andRecipesThesecookbookswerechosenfor Document Analysisanalysisisaqualitative METHODS isusedbecauseithasbeenaninfluencein will bereferredtoasJoy (1964,1975,1997,and2006). 31 30 For booksthatcontainseparate Theanalysisfocuseson 26 25 Suchqualitative analysis Inthisway, JoyofCooking 27 Cookbooksas 28 32 Cookbooksare Theexception 29 Thispaper 23 Itisknownas . Asthebook . 33 Also, 24 New

the product. shortening), as it isapromotionalpamphletcookbook for 1965 to81.8poundsin2012. increased rapidly, from33.7poundsannuallypercapitain pork consumptiondeclinedwhilechicken consumption consumption datashowthatfrom1965to2012,beefand the present. eggs, have remainedcheaperthanmeatfromthe1950sto cookbooks. Non-meatproteins,mainlygrains, legumes,and that chicken wouldbeapopularmeatproteininbudget and “nutritious.” states thatthesebudgetmenusare“delicious,” “thrifty,” & GambleHomeEconomicsDepartmentin1951.Thecover is asmall,thirty-four-pagepamphletreleasedby theProcter and discussionofingredientstrends. begins withabriefdescriptionofthebook,followedby analysis by datepublishedandappearby budget cookbooktitle.Each cooking inlightofeconomicdata. deletion trendsandwhatthesesay aboutbudget attention ispaidtoingredientsubstitution,addition,and ingredients usedintheircounterpartJoy used inthebudgetcookbookrecipescomparedto pictures, historyofrecipe,tips,etc.). cost (ifgiven by author),andany additionalnotes(suchas equipment required,preparation time(ifgiven by author), number ofservings,ingredientsused,cookingmethods, budget cookbooksandJoy if recipeswerecomparable. Eachrecipefoundinboththe however, ingredients andmethodswereusedtodetermine names orcreative takes oncommontitles.Insuchcases, as oftentitlesinthebudgetcookbooksincludepeople’s These recipesdidnotnecessarilyhave theexact sametitle, the correspondingdecadeforsameorsimilarrecipes. list wasthencomparedtotheindex oftheJoy meal chicken- orvegetable-based disheswascompiled.This dessert, withrecipesforoneor twoitemsfromthemenu. book provides adinnermenuwithmaindish,sides, anda planning withinthefamilybudget.” help herwithoneof“mosttryingtaskstoday—meal the pamphletwasspeciallycreatedforhomemaker to introduction addressed,“DearHomemaker,” andstatesthat Every recipeinEcono-Meals Econo-Meals: Budget Menus Econo-Meals:Budget Econo-Meals: BudgetMenus RESULTS ANDANALYSIS Results appearchronologically The followingdataanalysisfocusesoningredients Recipe AnalysisFirst,alistofallrecipetitlesformain 35 39 JoyofCooking 36 The pamphlet opens with a two-page Thepamphletopenswithatwo-page wasthencodedby recipetitle, 1964doescall forshortening 34 Itwasexpected, therefore, includesCrisco(vegetable 37 Each page of the Eachpageofthe recipes.Specific published in 38

consumption patternschangeinresponse. Budget CookBook on-a-budget endeavor. Ofthefifteen recipes bothin that thisdoesnothave tobeso. concerning foodcanbefrighteningbutreassuresthereader The introductionstatesthattheword“budget”when paprika, andbasil. Joy relies solelyonsaltandpepperforspicingdishes,while Casseroles notes itcouldalsobemadewithchicken), IndividualChicken Budget CookBook cooking utensilsaroundpageborders, emphasizethat with smallblackandwhiteillustrations offancyfoodsand and “give agourmet’s touch.” mixes withnewflavor twistsandtricksto“fancyup” dishes and usepreparedfoodssuchascannedsoupscake book willshowthereaderhowtomake disheseconomically waste, and,therefore,money waste. resourcefulness andacommitmenttopreventing food the Tetrazzini callsforleftover turkey orchicken, showing Meals useslessmeatperserving,showingfrugality, and dish andlesskitchenequipment. Econo-Meals consumed, thesedataisexpected. meat consumptionpatternsshowingbeefwasthehighest opposite inallproceedingdecades)andcombinedwith costing morethanbeefinthe1950s(compared tothe in 1964tohelphomecooksbudgetmoney andtime. tablecloths withvasesofflowers. on every page,withmealsserved onfinechinaset from theintroductiontopicturesofpreparedrecipes cooking. This book strives to portray budget food as elegant, or tastegoodandisnotassociatedwithgourmetfood that theauthorbelieves cheapfoodisassumednottolook vegetable oils. of thistime,asCriscoin1951wascheaperthanbutterand every recipemakes economicsenseforabudgetcookbook fleshed-out Joy reveals thatEcono-Meals which werevegetable-based. in Joy the recipesanalyzed. as aningredientincertainrecipesbutdoesnotuseit The ingredientsdataalignwith thebook’sgourmet- The threerecipesareTurkey Tetrazzini Budget CookBook Of twenty-five maindishrecipes,seventeen arefound calls foradditionalspicesandherbs,suchasparsley, , threeofwhicharechicken recipesandnoneof , andSouthernFried Chicken. comparedtoJoy 41 recipes.

andJoy strives toteachgourmetcooking. 48 Ingredientcomparisononthewhole 40 UsingCriscoasafatingredientin 49 recipesarebasicversions of

, whenever butteriscalled forthe 52 42 uses feweringredientsper Thesestatementsreveal Inlightofchicken actually 51 46 Itfurtherstatesthatthis 53 Specifically, Econo- 43 Thephotos,combined Aspriceschange, 47 45 Econo-Meals Oftheserecipes, waspublished (thecookbook 44

also 54 50

bread andAmericancheesecasserole. baking. butter flavor” and produces different textures than butter in margarine, JoyofCooking or vegetable-based. cuts costs.One-thirdofthemaindishrecipesarechicken- same classyname. and makes itabasic,cheap,andeasyfamily mealwiththe Cook Book without theEmmenthalercheese,wine,andkirsch,Budget ingredients list,therecipealsonotes,“or margarine.” trendy. potentially associatedwithfoodstampsby callingthem afford much;theauthorworkstoovercome theshame to readers’desiresstilleatgoodfoodwhennotable than Parmesan. cheese ingredientforany reciperequiringcheeseother cheap cheeseproduct—isusedalmostexclusively asthe cheaper thanbutter. economical. decade stillfavored beefandpork,chicken was thenmore was aneconomicalsubstitutionforthebudgetcook. than margarine,andsodespiteitsshortcomings,margarine recipients. several specificallycateringtofederal food stamp explosion ofbudgetcookbooksontheshelves, including Brown, thisbookwaswritteninadecadethatsaw an one dipsbread. Joy with cheaperingredients. demonstrate howbudgetrecipesmimicmainstream budget.” “who wouldlike toeatexcellent food,butmustdoitona popular ways ofeatingcheaply.” Gourmet choices suchaslobsterandcrab. recipes inJoy by eitherusinglessmeatperservingthancorresponding three editionsalsoanalyzed. any recipeanalyzedinthiseditionofJoy life, TheFood StampGourmet mainstream dishes. cheap buthipanddeliciousfood whilestrivingtoimitate gourmet, fancyfood,TheFood StampGourmet recipemakes atraditional meltedcheesedishinwhich Meat isanotheringredientwhereBudgetCookBook The Food StampGourmetPublishedin1971by Wm. One noteworthy recipecomparisonistheFondue. The Strewn withcaricatures ofpeoplefromallwalks of 70 56 68 “becausefoodstampsarenowoneofthemost Incontrast toBudgetCookBook Margarinedoesnotappeariningredientslistsfor ItfurtherstatesthatitiscalledTheFood Stamp 67 takes whatisgenerally portrayed asafancydish 61 Thisbookstatesthatitiswrittenforpeople RecipesinBudgetCookBook or by usingchicken insteadofmoreexpensive 64 63 TheBudget Thesethreemainingredientsubstitutions 66 60

58 Whileconsumptiondatainthis Butterin1960costthreetimesmore 1964says it“lack[s]thedesirable assumesthereader isnewto CookBook 57 Margarinewas(andstillis) 69 62 Thesestatementscater Also,Americancheese—a 65 recipemakes a Nodoubtcheaper thatmimics or theproceeding reflectthistrend features 59 55

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 21 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 22 one poundofporkchops. 1970, fifty-ninecentscouldbuy adozenlargeeggsor cooking. runaway inflation.” Cookbook the walletofcook. cook’s discretion,preservingtheeleganceofdishand An essentialingredientinrisottobecomesoptionalatthe meat ingredientsincludebeans,cheese,andeggs. corresponding recipesinJoyofCooking chicken- orvegetable-based, andofthose,thirteenhave still eatingmainstreamdishes. bit oftimetolearnhowavoid highfoodexpenses while written forfamilieswithlimitedmoney forfoodbutwitha butter isrequired. margarine isalways listedasanalternative wherever option. suggests usingdomesticdrywhitevermouth asacheaper and TheFood StampGourmet, serving. Cookbook price,” andmake “elegant” useofleftovers. ingredients, “preparebasicfoods …forafraction ofthe value,” preserve foods,make substitutionsforexpensive appear inJoyofCooking include chicken, zeroarevegetable-based, andfive also a cheapfashion.Ofthirtytotalmaindishrecipes,seven The Food StampGourmet four tosixpeople, whileJoy The budgetrecipe callsforonewholechicken to serve half cupofParmesan, “ifyou have someandfeellike it.” cheese inRisotto quantity ofingredients.Andallwithdignity:OnParmesan they dosocheaplywithsubstitutes,lowerquality, andless mainstream dishes’principalflavors andingredients,but alongside theactualcookinginstructions. again liststheingredientsonewillneedineachstep required, timeneeded,costperserving,andinthemargins meat (whileJoy budget dishesonlycorrespondtorecipesinJoy Cookbook cheaper ingredienttrendsarefoundincomparingBudget than correspondingJoy less meatperservingplusasmallervarietyofingredients order tocutcosts,Food StampGourmet Budget CookbookPublishedin1979, Of seventy-seven main dishrecipes,twenty-eightare Although writtenforanovice, budget-boundcook, 76 84 71 TheFood StampGourmet Themoststrikingexample isOven-Fried Chicken: andJoy declares, “Thisbookisaweaponagainst recipes uselessofanexpensive ingredientper Eachrecipeliststheingredientsandequipment hasnovegetable alternative). , theauthorinstructscooktostirina . Onetrendisthatseveral vegetable 75 78 Several recipescallforwineinbothJoy Readerscanlearnhowto“shopfor recipes. 1975. mimicsmainstreamrecipesin 83 AnothertrendisthatBudget callsforthesame toserve but theauthoroflatter 73 Thesefive reveal that,in 74 ’s dishesmimicthe Like inBudgetCookBook recipes tendtouse 1975. 72 79 Thisbookis 80 81 Many Substitute that contain 82 In 77

, Joy vegetable-based disheshave meatinthecorresponding ingredient costshortcuts.Firstofall,tenthefourteen several examples ofmainstreamrecipemimicrywith in BudgetCookBook where Joy the latter. Thesesubstitutionsarefoundinevery recipe, cream; BudgetCooking margarine forbutter, andmilkcombinedwithdryfor saving trendsarethesubstitutionofregularoilforolive oil, sounding meal.Lastly, themostcommonandbasicmoney- cheap dishiselegantlytransformed intoamoreexpensive- But withasophisticatednamelike “soufflé,” asimpleand has afamilyandiscookingontightbudget. photos, andtherecipesthemselves allsuggestthereader introduction, shortparagraphs prefacingeachsection,afew cookbook waspublishedin1980.Whilethebooklacksan used inany recipethatmay otherwisecallfor cream. Four, drymilkmixed withfreshmilkisalmost exclusively Looking at all sixteenoftherecipesandtheir comparisons, in JoyofCooking chicken- orvegetable-based, withsixteenalsoappearing in nicedishesoncloth-covered tablessetwith flowers. obtain freevegetables andthephotographs ofmealsserved the table,asimpliedby several referencestogardening also wantstoputahealthy, cheap,yet elegantmealon two. $2.79 perpound. large eggswereeighty-threecentscomparedtobeefat of Mushroom Soup onions andpotatoes,asintheCreamy OnionSoup substantial by addingmoreofthecheaperingredientslike Saving Meals Joy and by theeconomicdataoftime. to cook,explained bothinBudgetSavingMealsCookbook per servinginnumerousrecipes, suchasthelentilsoup. equivalent; andsmalleramounts ofthemainproteinused pound eggplantforthesamenumber ofpeopleintheJoy which calledforaone-poundeggplantcomparedtotwo- canned tomatoesfortheliquidinJoy the liquid,comparedtomeatandbeansforprotein chili, whichusesonlybeansforproteinandwater used inmany oftherecipes.Several examples are:the to beserved asmaincourses. prepared heartierinthebudgetrecipeandareexpected recipes. eitheralsosuggestsoronlylistsmargarineinBudget Budget SavingMealsCookbookThisbudget Of fiftytotalmaindishrecipes,twenty-nineareeither 85 Soupsthatareserved thinandasstartersinJoy calledforthelatterofthesepairings. 93 . 96 Usinglessmeatisavery economicalway Three,asmallervarietyofingredientsis 1975. 95 . 87 Second,any recipecallingforbutterin , isjustabreadandcheesecasserole. TheSoufflé 92 uses theformer, whereJoy Thesesixteenrecipesshowcase 86 Recipesaremademore budgetrecipe,like Fondue ; theStuffedEggplant 94 In1980,adozen 90 Thereader 89 andCream

calls for 98 are

91 97

different ingredientswhileJoy the samerecipes,TheFood StampGourmet the eightrecipesinbothbookshighlightsthisparallel. For recipes. Countingallofthedifferentingredientsusedin dishes. Theserecipesaregenerally simplerversions ofJoy half oftheanalyzedsamplestrive toreplicatemainstream recipes usecheaperproteiningredients,andmorethan wine). of cheese(Emmenthaler)andalcohol(kirschwhite Swiss methods,includingtheuseof“correct” kind version beginswithahistoryoffondueanditstraditional also reveals this.Oneexample istheCheeseFondue. TheJoy simpler recipes.Looking atspecific recipecomparisons range ofingredientsforaseeminglydiverse menusuggests Interestingly, allrecipesanalyzed arevegetable-based. the numberofservingslisted. Additionally, eachrecipestatesthetotalcostofmealfor anyone tryingtolearncookorcheaply. ingredient orutensil,creatinganapproachablespacefor book hasinsteadonesmall,humblesketch perpageofan white drawings detailingfoodsandkitchenutensils,this photographs ofmealsserved infancydishesorblackand that unlike several otherbudgetcookbooksthathave data supportherclaim.However, itisinterestingtonote Cooking chicken- orvegetable-based, andeightappearinJoyof by theNationalFood StampProgram atthetime. cost sixtycentsperpersonmeal,theamountallotted on asimilarlytightfoodbudget.Eachmealisdesignedto published in1985,iswrittenforpeopleonfoodstampsor food” isanalternative every timecheeseisrequired. replace any stocknotreplacedwithwater;and“cheese follows: Water issubstitutedforstock; bouilloncubes egg, anddairymainmeal. puts anelegant-soundingspinonotherwiseplainbread, ingredients. the versions foundinJoy most recipesinBudgetSavingMeals of foodsserved inelegantrestaurants.” declares, “many oftheserecipesaresimplified versions and skipsthekirschwine. “cheese food,” adds milk and eggs to make up for less cheese, less cheeseperserving,permitstheuseofany cheeseor approach tofondue:Thedishbecomesdinner. Italso uses tea. Of twenty-fourtotalmaindishrecipes,fifteenare Ingredient trendsinthisbudget cookbookareas The Food StampGourmetTheFood StampGourmet 107 106 Incontrast, TheFood StampGourmet 1975. Also,itistobeserved for brunchorafternoon 99

104 Morethanhalfofthetotalmaindish withcheaperand/or fewer 101 108 usesthirty-one. Inthepreface,author Thisfondueischeapbut closely replicate 102 Theingredients useseighteen takes adifferent 103 105 100

Asmaller

109 ,

110

an easy-to-use,practical referencebook. recipes readingmorelike anextended conversation than introductions toeachsection,ingredientbiographies, and mouths forlessmoney. Itis331pageslong,withlengthy interest infoodandcookingthatgoesbeyond justfeeding cookbooks analyzed.Thisbookisforpeoplewhohave an of GoodCheapFood most available thatday. to enableflexibility forcookstobuywhatischeapestand is thecaseformostmeatdishesinTheFood StampGourmet and doesnotincluderecipescallingforunspecifiedmeat,as This isbecausemeatrecipeanalysislimitedtochicken fatal dullness.” specified, becausethesubstitutionwouldresultina itcomestoolive oil,Idon’t“When mean‘saladoil’unless Another isheropiniononolive oilsubstitutes:Shewrites, lower. of ingredientsthemajoritytime,whichkeeps costs Cooking Cheap Food food stamps. probably hasahigherfoodbudgetthanonegoverned by this bookhasthetimetoreadandcookextensively and embrace itasaninexpensive alternative tobutter). acceptance ofmargarine(whereotherbudgetbooks example istheauthor’sunconvincing andcircumstantial rarely manifestsasasubstituteoflesserquality. One was publishedin 2012forthosehitespecially hardby the foods arecheapinsectionintroductions. local andfreshfoodsmentionsthatthey andother previous decades’budgetcookbooks.Theemphasisison 1996 andhasadifferentattitudetowardfoodthanthe main dishesforlessmoney. book’s effortstoprovide recipesforelegantmainstream 1997. or vegetable-based, andthirteenareinJoyofCooking sacrifice oftasteformoney willnotbemade. mimicking mainstreamrecipes. being thehighest—nordoesitsupportbudgetcookbooks proteins costingtheleastandchicken consumption or consumptiondataofthetime—chicken andvegetable are completelyoriginalideas. methods, andequipmenttoJoy However, inlookingattheingredientsdataGood The Food StampBudgetGourmet CookbookThisbook Good CheapFood GoodCheapFood Of 153maindishrecipestotal,forty-ninearechicken- 115 118 1997, recipesdorequirelessorthesamenumber Thesedatadonotstronglysupporteconomic Also,theserecipesarevery similariningredients, comparedtocorrespondingrecipesinJoyof 114 Olive oilcostsmorethansaladoil,buta is differentfromallotherbudget 111 Thesetrendsallsupportthe 119 116 , showingthatnotallrecipes

Thetoneandcontent waspublishedin 112 117 Butcheapness Theuserof 113

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 23 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 24 Cooking (Cultural cuisinecategoriesaremoreprevalent inJoyof recipe wouldcostforty-twocents. the amountofflourneededtomake eighttortillasfrom the 2012, apackageofeightflourtortillascost$3.59,while cocktail parties. (meaning therearemorecoursestofollow)orserved at According toJoy price perounce. table salt,” acheaperalternative costingone-quarterofthe are always accompaniedby “can substitutewithregular however, introduces anewsubstitution.Callsforseasalt Vegetarian. by cuisinecategories:American,Asian,Italian,Tex Mex, and quesadillas, chicken wings,andstuffedmushrooms. to recipesintheappetizerssectionofJoy oil: Itisnever substitutedforby saladoil. cheaper thanafastfoodmealforone. all canbemadeforlessthanfive dollarsperserving, Cookbook liv[ing] undersimilar conditions.” people livingon SNAP”andthe“untoldmillions more … published in2014andis“designed … tofitthebudget of expensive mealwhilesuitingatight budget. elevates themeal’s statusandhasthefeelofamore foods asthemainmealinTheFood StampBudgetGourmet marks aspecialoccasion.Theuseoftraditional appetizer beyond anormaldinnermeal,andthereforetheappetizer online forjust$2.99. recipes always callforbutter. modern recipes.For example, margarine never appears; published budgetcookbooksarenotasprevalent inthese dishes atlowercost.Theingredienttrendsseeninearlier suggest TheFood StampBudget Gourmet protein. AhighnumberofcorrespondingrecipesinJoy dishes suggestspriceisoftenkept lowby usingacheaper stamp budget. economic downturnin2008—forthoseeatingonafood ingredients, suchastortillasandenchiladasauce. recommending andproviding recipesforbasicpackaged incorporated intothemainstreamcorporate foodsystem. beginning inthe1960samongupperclassandlater and reflectsAmericans’growinginterestinethniccuisines, recipes inJoy or vegetable-based, andtwelve have corresponding A newtrendisthatseveral maindishrecipescorrespond Good andCheap:EatWell on$4/Day This bookwas Of thirty-onemaindishrecipes,seventeen arechicken- 2006 aswell). featuresthirty-onemaindishrecipesandclaims 123 . 126 Thisisthefirstbooktobedividedinthisway 120 133 129 Thishighnumberofchicken andvegetable , appetizersareeitherafirstcourse Thebookisavailable asanelectronicbook Bothscenariossuggestafoodevent Anotherway pricesarekept lowisby 121 125 TheFood StampBudgetGourmet

127 Thesameistrueofolive 134 131 Asthisintroduction and

122 mimicsmainstream Thebookisdivided 128 , suchaseggrolls, Thebook, 130 132 In

124

a cheapersubstitute. olive oilisusedwherever appropriatewithoutsuggesting margarine isnever used,asbutterisalways calledfor, and as tacos,dumplings,quiche,andfettuccini. which GoodandCheap vegetable andmeatversions ofseveral morerecipesfor are spicesthatrecurthroughouttheentirebook. caloric contentofthedish).Thebulkingredientslisted being any ingredientthatcontributessignificantlytothe the correspondingJoy are basedononeortwofewersubstantialingredientsthan However, further analysisreveals thatthebudgetrecipes in Joy recipes, withsixteenofthosecombinedthatalsoappear there aretwenty-twovegetable-based andtwochicken Joy ofCooking also goodfood,withmany having correspondingrecipesin the titlesuggest,thisbookhasrecipesforcheapfoodbut was $1.55to$8.10perpound. price range formeat,spanningfromwholechicken tosteak, peppers, wassixty-seven centsto$2.37perpound; the range forfreshvegetables, spanningfrompotatoestobell is economicallylogicalforcheapmeals:In2014,theprice buy meanslessmoney spent.Also,thefocusonvegetables the mainway theserecipesarecheap:Fewer ingredientsto 1971. population wasvegetarian comparedto1percentin choice trenddata:In2012,5percentoftheAmerican popular inmainstreamcookingandcorrespondstodietary that vegetable-based maindishesarebecomingmore types oflentilsonemay use; recipe forDal for thecooktoevaluate what ischeapest.For example, the cook whatever isonsaleatthetime. budget requiresflexibility andawillingness”tobuy is highlyencouraged. Statedinthe introduction,a“strict budget isthatthey areflexible, andingredientsubstitution cookbooks ofprevious decadesthatsimplycalledforless. Good andCheap substitute. Soup when GoodandCheap poverty andhungerto theforefrontofAmerican percent culminating inTheFood StampActof1964brought recipes theopportunitytobeeven cheaper. Of atotalofthirty-onemaindishesinGoodandCheap Another way theserecipesfitintoafour-dollar-a-day By thenumberofingredientsrequiredineachrecipe, CONCLUSION Anationalpoverty rate ofover 20 recommendsthatany wintersquashwillbeafine . 139 135 Like TheFood StampBudgetGourmet 145 Thisbuilt-inflexibility gives alreadycheap hasseparate instructionsforthe different 2006. andJoy 136 doesnot. onlyhasavegetable version, such recipes (substantialingredients ThreerecipesinJoy arefairlyequivalent,unlike budget 144 142 therecipeforButternut 137 However, Joy 143 Thisleaves room 138 callformeat (2012), Thissuggests offersboth 141 Thisis , 140

the poortobudgetingforoneself. and inflationrosequickly, turningthefocusfromhelping conscience. Soonthereafter, theeconomy inthe’70sslowed and unemployment rates. increasingly poorermiddleandlowerclasshighpoverty could notshake theneedtobudgetfoodexpenses, withan large andgrowingportionofthepopulationnevertheless published. Althoughinflation rates decreasedinthe’80s,a reflected inthejumpnumberofbudgetcookbooks 6. “TheHistory ofSNAP,” SNAPtoHealth, www/poverty/data/census/1960/. accessed July10,2015,https://www.census.gov/hhes/ in 1959,1969,1979,1989,and 1999by State,” CPH-L-162, 5. UnitedStatesCensusBureau, “Persons by Poverty Status By=PUB_DATE. sults?searchId=2303&recPointer=0&searchType=0&sort- December 2,2014),http://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/searchRe- “cookbook,” SortBy:Date(newesttooldest);accessed 4. Library ofCongress,OnlineCatalog (Keyword Search: 3. Ibid. 2. Ibid. By=PUB_DATE. sults?searchId=2303&recPointer=0&searchType=0&sort- December 2,2014),http://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/searchRe - “budget cooking,” SortBy:Date(oldest tonewest);accessed 1. Library ofCongress,OnlineCatalog(Keyword Search: ENDNOTES to betterunderstandhowcheaplymimicked mealscookup. budget cookbooksandnon-budgetatthetime, is tofocusontheendproductsby preparingmealsfrom benefit economically from their instructions; another option target andarereadusedby populationsthatwould may focusonaudienceandwhetherthesebooksactually could addressawidevarietyofconcerns.Oneapproach made by eachauthor. Future researchonbudgetcooking budget cookbookswithattentiontoeconomicdecisions nonexistent. Thispaperanalyzesingredients fromnine such asmargarinesubstitutedforbutter. included ingredientsubstitutions,deletions,andadditions, mainstream recipesincheaperways. Commonmethods Budget cookbookslargelymimicked culturally common, did not,however, createanentirelynewbudgetcuisine. show, thisemergenceofanewlypopularcookbookgenre of thetwenty-firstcentury. Astheresultsandanalysis titles continuedtobepublishedthroughtheseconddecade the publicconsciousness;cookbookswithbudget-focused Prior researchonbudgetcookbooksislimitedor 147 Budgetcookingremainedin 146 Theseevents are accessedDecem - 17. Levenstein, Paradox ofPlenty York: OxfordUniversity Press,1993),245. of Plenty:ASocialHistoryEating inModernAmerica University Press,2007),192;Harvey Levenstein, Paradox terculture Took OntheFood Industry 16. Warren J. Belasco, AppetiteforChange:HowtheCoun pdq/SurveyOutputServlet. 1997-2014; accessedJuly10,2015),http://data.bls.gov/ Type ofdata:Percent orrate, Age:16years andover, Years: employment Rate, Labor forcestatus:Unemployment rate, LNS14000000, SeasonallyAdjusted,Seriestitle:(Seas)Un- “Databases, Tables &Calculatorsby Subject”(SeriesId: 15. USDepartmentofLabor, BureauofLaborStatistics, Poverty Status.” of eachdecade.UnitedStatesCensusBureau,“Persons by erty rate every tenyears, publishingdatafortheninthyear 14. TheUnitedStatesCensusBureaureportsnationalpov- price change,” 29. 13. USBureauofLaborStatistics,“One hundredyears of 12. “HistoricalInflationRates,” USInflationCalculator. and-the-american-inflation-experience.pdf. dred-years-of-price-change-the-consumer-price-index- http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2014/article/pdf/one-hun- Review Index andtheAmericaninflation experience,” MonthlyLabor price change:TheConsumerPrice 11. USBureauofLaborStatistics,“One hundredyears of serve.gov/faqs/economy_14419.htm. 2014, accessedDecember2,http://www.federalre- nors oftheFederal Reserve System,lastmodifiedApril30, evaluate changesintherate ofinflation?,” BoardofGover- isinflationandhowdoesthe 10. “What Federal Reserve pdq/SurveyOutputServlet. 1950-1997; accessedJuly10,2015),http://data.bls.gov/ Type ofdata: Percent orrate, Age:16years andover, Years: employment Rate,Laborforcestatus:Unemployment rate, LNS14000000, SeasonallyAdjusted,Seriestitle:(Seas)Un- “Databases, Tables &Calculatorsby Subject”(SeriesId: 9. USDepartmentofLabor, BureauofLaborStatistics, culator.com/inflation/historical-inflation-rates/. culator, accessedJuly10,2015,http://www.usinflationcal- 8. “HistoricalInflationRates:1914-2015,” USInflationCal- 7 .“TheHistoryofSNAP,” SNAPtoHealth. ry-of-snap/. ber 1,2014,http://www.snaptohealth.org/snap/the-histo- 16(21):April2014,accessedNovember 9,2014, , 157. , 2nded.(Ithaca:Cornell (New -

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 25 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 26 ber 4,2014,http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/11/garden/ ing,” NewYork Times Florence Fabricant,“TheJoy ofCookiesStartsintheCook- chine/1973/11/11/91031841.html?pageNumber=465; 4, 2014,http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesma - New York Times geNumber=18; “Paperbacks: Recommended NewTitles,” com/ timesmachine/1956/08/02/305885752.html?pa- accessed December4,2014,http://timesmachine.nytimes. are somesuggestions,” NewYork Times cookbook towhichrefer, Whichshould shebuy?Here “General Cookbooks:Ifthenewbrideistohave onlyone chine/1948/11/21/96605446.html?pageNumber=104; 22, 2014,http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesma- York Times century.” RalphThompson,“InandOutofBooks,” New most remarkableAmericancookbookofthetwentieth seen throughNewYork Times and editions,establisheditselfinAmericankitchensas 24. Furthermore, JoyofCooking edu/%7Eimmer/booksall. accessed November 22,2014,https://www.ocf.berkeley. iel Immerwahr, “TheBooksoftheCentury:1900-1999,” thejoykitchen.com/all-about-joy/history-joy-cooking; Dan- Joy ofCooking, 23. AnneMendelson,“TheHistoryoftheJoy ofCooking,” (2001): 13,doi:10.1046/j.1471-5740.2001.00002.x. Document: AScottishCaseStudy,” Food ServiceTechnology 22. JanetMitchell,“Cookbooks asaSocialandHistorical (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press,2012),229-230. The Oxford HandbookofFood History 21. Ken Albala,“Cookbooks asHistoricalDocuments,” in Publishers, 1981),119. der Fenton andTrefor M.Owen(Edinburgh:JohnDonald Recipe BooksasSources,” inFood inPerspective, ed.Alexan- Socio-Historical Document:OntheValue ofManuscript 20. EdithHörander, “TheRecipeBookasaCultural and butes-while-grocery-shopping/. statistics/294945/us-adults--importance-of-product-attri- Statista, tance ofproductattributeswhilegroceryshopping2014,” 19. Belasco,AppetiteforChange tank/2014/12/17/wealth-gap-upper-middle-income/. accessed July10,2015,http://www.pewresearch.org/fact- est onrecord,” Pew ResearchCenter, December17,2014, between middle-incomeandupper-incomefamiliesiswid- 18 RichardFry andRakesh Kochhar, “America’s wealthgap accessedJuly10,2015,http://www.statista.com/ , November 21,1948,accessedNovember accessedDecember2,2014,http://www. , November 11,1973,accessedDecember , December11, 1996,accessedDecem- articlesandis“perhapsthe , throughthedecades , 193;“U.S. adults’impor- , ed.Jeffrey M.Pilcher , August2,1956, 1 Company, 1951). 36. Econo-Meals:Budget Menus 21, 29 35. USBureauofLaborStatistics, “One HundredYears,” 17, livestock-1965-to-estimated-2012-in-pounds. dustry/statistics/per-capita-consumption-of-poultry-and- 2014, http://www.nationalchickencouncil.org/about-the-in- last modifiedOctober9,2014,accessedNovember 12, to Estimated2014,inPounds,” NationalChicken Council, 34. “Per CapitaConsumption ofPoultry andLivestock, 1965 com/50sfood.html. accessed December2,2014,http://www.thepeoplehistory. 33. “1950sFood andGroceriesPrices,” ThePeople History, usda.gov/data-products/meat-price-spreads.aspx. sheet, downloadedNovember 12,2014,http://www.ers. vice, “HistoricalBeef, Pork, andBroilerData,” Excel spread- 32. USDepartmentofAgriculture,EconomicResearchSer- are thereforenotstrictlyvegetarian. is notusedbecauseseveral recipescallformeatstockand include egg-orcheese-basedmeals.Theterm“vegetarian” when writingaboutrecipesthatdonotcallformeat.These 31. Theterms“vegetable” and“vegetable-based” areused Health. but onecookbookanalyzed.“TheHistoryofSNAP,” SNAPto is nowSNAPsolelybecausethatthelanguageusedinall Stamp Program” and“foodstamps”whenreferringtowhat known asSNAP)in2008.However, thispaperuses“Food the SupplementalNutritionAssistanceProgram (commonly 30. Thefederal Food StampProgram waslegallychanged to 29. Ibid.,276-277. versity ofCaliforniaPress,2014),276. Freedman, Joyce E.Chaplin,andKen Albala(Oakland: Uni- Historical AssociationCompaniontoFood History for SocialHistory,” inFood inTimeandPlace:TheAmerican 28. Barbara Ketcham Wheaton,“Cookbooks asResources Press, 2008),128. Nagy Hesse-BiberandPatricia Leavy (NewYork: Guildford Analysis,” inHandbookofEmergentMethods 27. David Altheideetal.,“EmergentQualitative Document doi:10.1016/S0304-422X(00)00005-X. Document Analysis,” Poetics Altheide,“Tracking26. David L. DiscourseandQualitative 25. Hörander, “RecipeBook,” 119. “History oftheJoyCooking. the-joy-of-cookies-starts-in-the-cooking.html; Mendelson, 27,no.4(2000):290-291, ” (TheProcter& Gamble , ed.Sharlene , ed.Paul 183-85, 192-93, 201,204,209,215,221,224, 228,237, Joy ofCooking 70, 472;IrmaS.Rombauerand MarionRombauerBecker, 183, 186,198,201,204,235,244, 248,261,263,466,469- 57. RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 56. RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 55. Ibid.,29,33,38,43,49,53,54,57. 54. Ibid. 53. Ibid.,5-123. 52. Ibid. 51. Ibid. Ottenheimer Publishers,1964),5. 50. BetterCookingLibrary, BudgetCookBook Becker, JoyofCooking 49. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus Becker, JoyofCooking 48. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus Menus, 21. Becker, JoyofCooking 47. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus Becker, JoyofCooking 46. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus 45. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus 2 (2010):216,doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.151415. Demand forFood,” AmericanJournalofPublicHealth Systematic Review ofResearchonthePriceElasticity Brownell, “TheImpactofFood PricesonConsumption:A 44. Tatiana Andreyeva, MichaelW. Long, andKelly D. tion ofPoultry andLivestock,” NationalChicken Council. USDA ERS,“HistoricalBeef, Pork, andBroiler”;“Consump- 43. “1950sFood andGroceriesPrices,” ThePeople History Joy ofCooking 42. Econo-Meals:BudgetMenus prices/1950.html. accessed December2,2014,http://www.gti.net/mocolib1/ 1950, MorrisCountyLibrary, lastmodifiedJune15,2006, 41. “HowmuchdiditcostinMorrisCounty, NewJersey?,” 186, 466,470,840. Cooking 40. IrmaS.RombauerandMarionBecker, Joyof 39. Ibid. 38. Ibid.,3-32. 37. Ibid.,1. (Indianapolis:TheBobbs-MerrilCompany, 1964), (NewYork: Scribner, 1975),171,174,177, . , 186,466,470. , 186,466,470. , 186,466,470.Econo-Meals:Budget , 186,466,470. , 21,25,27;Rombauerand , 21,25,27;Rombauerand , 21,25,27;Rombauerand , 21,25,27;Rombauerand , 21,25,27. , 3-32;RombauerandBecker, , 1964,510. , 1964,99,182, (Owings Mills: 100,no. ; 71. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet http://www.jstor.org/stable/4225379. gram.” JournalofEconomicIssues by EligibleHouseholds:TheCaseoftheFood Stamp Pro- 70. Doe,C.Richard.“Nonparticipation inWelfare Programs 69. Ibid. Bellerophon Books,1971),2. 68. Wm.Brown,TheFood StampGourmet 67. Library ofCongress,“BudgetCooking.” 66. RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 65. BetterCookingLibrary, BudgetCookBook 64. RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 63. Ibid.,35,38,43,49. 53-4, 57. 62. BetterCookingLibrary, BudgetCookBook history.com/60sfood.html. History, accessedDecember2,2014http://www.thepeople- en Council.“1960sFood andGroceriesPrices,” ThePeople 61. “Consumption ofPoultry andLivestock,” NationalChick- 8, 41-3,49,53-5,57. 60. BetterCookingLibrary,Book Cook Budget 59. “Howmuchdiditcost?,” 1960,MorrisCountyLibrary. net/mocolib1/prices/1960.html. ber 10,2010,accessedDecember2,2014,http://www.gti. Jersey?,” 1960, MorrisCountyLibrary, lastmodifiedDecem- tool=XGtable; “HowmuchdiditcostinMorrisCounty, New http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/APU0200716116?data_ soft, tubs,perlb.(453.6gm);accessedDecember2,2014), APU0200716116, Area:Midwesturban,Item:Margarine, “Databases, Tables &Calculatorsby Subject”(SeriesId: htm; USDepartmentofLabor, BureauofLaborStatistics, averageretailfoodandenergyprices_usandmidwest_table. ber 2,2014,http://www.bls.gov/regions/mid-atlantic/data/ Region,” Mid-Atlantic InformationOffice,accessedDecem- “Average RetailFood andEnergyPrices,U.S. andMidwest 58. USDepartmentofLabor, BureauofLaborStatistics, 436, 486,570. 143, 189,192,255,257,273,284,327,341,349,356,424, York: Scribner, 2006),77,80,92,102,104,109,129,131, on RombauerBecker, andEthanBecker, JoyofCooking 137, 257,305,579,596,602,605;IrmaS.Rombauer, Mari- Cooking bauer, MarionRombauerBecker, andEthanBecker, Joyof 252, 254-55,263,304,422,424-27,490,493;IrmaS.Rom (NewYork: Scribner, 1997),102,110,126,130-31, 17,no.4(1983):1038. , 2-48. , 1964,244. , 1964,244. (SanFrancisco: , 29,33,35,37- , 49. , 29,33,37, (New -

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 27 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 28 93. Paananen, BudgetSavingMeals Cookbook 209, 237,247,252,304,422,490, 493. er andBecker, JoyofCooking 92. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 91. Ibid. waukee: IdealsPublishingCorp.,1980),4-63. 90. DonnaM.Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 201, 215,221,228-9,254,263,304,424,427,490. 52-55; RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 89. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook Becker, JoyofCooking 88. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook 87. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook and Becker, JoyofCooking 86. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook Becker, JoyofCooking 85. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook 229, 254,263,424,490. 53; RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 84. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook history.com/70sfood.html. History, accessedDecember2,2014http://www.thepeople- 83 82. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook 851-915. bauer andBecker, JoyofCooking 81. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook 9, 254,263,304,424,427,490. and Becker, JoyofCooking 80. Kowit andKowit, BudgetCookbook 79. Ibid. Valentine Publications,1979),2. 78. MaryKowit andSteve Kowit, BudgetCookbook 77. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet and Becker, JoyofCooking 76. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet 75. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet and Becker, JoyofCooking 74. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet Becker, JoyofCooking 73. Brown,TheFood StampGourmet 72. Ibid.,8-48. “1970sFood andGroceriesPrices,” ThePeople , 1975,229. , 1975,424. , 1975,209,228,422,425,427. , 1975,183-5. , 1975,183-5,201,215,221,228- , 1975,209,425,427. , 1975,422,425,427. , 1975,174,177,183-5,193, , 1975,215,254,263,490, , 15. , 4,14,20;Rombauer , 14-15,23. , 14,20,23;Rombauer , 8-48;Rombauerand , 20,22,35-6,43,47, , 53;Rombauerand , 20,22. , 20,22;Rombauer , 36;Rombauerand , 20,22,36,43,52, , 43,52-3,55. , 43,52-3,55;Rom- , 7-128;Rombauer , 1975,183,185, , 1975,183-5, , 12-13,15-17, , 4-63;Rombau- (Miami: (Mil- 130-1, 137,257, 305,579,596,602,605. Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking 115. Ungerer, GoodandCheap 114. Ibid. 113. Ibid.,xvii. Press, 1996),vii-viii,5,34,69,88. 112. MiriamUngerer, GoodandCheap 111. Bailey, TheFood StampGourmet 110. Ibid.,10,13,45,49-50,57-8,62. 109. Ibid.,62,10,13,58,45,57. 108. Bailey, TheFood StampGourmet 107. Ibid. 106. RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 192, 201,204,214,224,254. 8, 62;RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 105. Bailey, TheFood StampGourmet Cooking of Joy 104. Bailey, TheFood StampGourmet 103 102. Ibid. 101. Ibid. ley FamilyPartnership, 1985). 100. CarrieBailey, TheFood StampGourmet 183-5, 193,209,237,247,252,304,422,490,493. 27-8; RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 99. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook Rombauer andBecker, JoyofCooking 98. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 304, 177,185,193,490. 17, 27-8;RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 97. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 247, 422,490. 25; RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking 96. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 95. “Howmuchdiditcost?,” 1980,MorrisCountyLibrary. prices/1980.html. cessed December2,2014,http://www.gti.net/mocolib1/ Morris CountyLibrary, lastmodifiedJune15,2006,ac- much diditcostinMorrisCounty, NewJersey?,” 1980, 94. Paananen, BudgetSavingMealsCookbook 177, 183-5,209,304,490,493. 21, 27-8;RombauerandBecker, JoyofCooking Ibid. , 1975,120,171,192,201,204,214,224,254. , 3-32,68-293;Rombauer, , 1997,102,110, 126, . , 57. , 10,13,45,49-50,57- ; RombauerandBecker, , 1975,183-5. (NewJersey: TheEco , 1975,174,183-5, , 1975,254. , 1975,174,177, , 1975,120,171, (Colorado: Bai- , 12-8,21,25, , 12,15,17; , 15,27,13, , 12-13,15-18, , 25;“How , 1975,177, , 1975,174, U.S. cityaverage, Item:Flour, white,allpurpose, per lb. Calculators by Subject”(SeriesId:APU0000701111, Area: of Labor, BureauofLaborStatistics,“Databases,Tables & todays-interesting-commerical-discovery/; US Department January 27,2012,http://whatever.scalzi.com/2012/01/27/ covery,” Whatever: Mightbe LostbutNotForgotten 131. JohnScalzi,“Today’s InterestingCommercialDis- chap. 5. 130. Dinerstein,TheFood StampBudgetGourmetCookbook http://www.walmart.com/search/?query=salt. 129. Walmart (Search:salt;accessedDecember5,2014), 128. Ibid. 127. Dinerstein,TheFood StampBudgetGourmetCookbook 92, 102-4,131,192,273-4,284,436-7,486,570. Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking 126. Dinerstein,TheFood StampBudget GourmetCookbook 1073-1132. 125. Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking also Belasco,AppetiteforChange 124. Levenstein, Paradox ofPlenty 123. Ibid.,Table ofContents. Introduction. 122. Dinerstein,TheFood StampBudget GourmetCookbook met+Cookbook. field-keywords=The+Food+Stamp+Budget+Gour- amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss?url=search-alias%3Daps&- Cookbook; accessedDecember5,2014),http://www. 121. Amazon(Search:TheFood StampBudgetGourmet tion, Introduction. book 120. DonDinerstein,TheFood StampBudgetGourmetCook 596, 602,605. of Cooking 117, 144,153,156,161;Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, Joy 119. Ungerer, GoodandCheap 110, 126,130,131,596,602. Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking 118. Ungerer, GoodandCheap 117. Ungerer, GoodandCheap Chicken Council. food.html; “Consumption of Poultry and Livestock,” National December 2,2014,http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/90s- Food andGroceriesPrices,” ThePeople History, accessed 116. USDA ERS,“HistoricalBeef, Pork, andBroiler”;“1990s (UnitedStates:DonJ. Dinerstein,2012),Kindleedi- , 1997,102,110,126,130-1,137,257,305,579, , 11,31,80,92,107-8,115, , 11,31,107-8,117,144,161; . , 61-65,216,246. , 123,218,222-24;see , 2006,77,80, , 1997,102, (blog), , 2006, , . ; , - come andupper-income familiesiswideston record,” Pew Rakesh Kochhar, “America’s wealthgap betweenmiddle-in- 147. Belasco,AppetiteforChange, 146. Levenstein, Paradox ofPlenty, 157. 145. Ibid.,40. 144. Ibid.,35. 143. Brown,GoodandCheap 142. USDLBLS,“RetailFood andEnergyPrices.” 101, 114,118,121,133-4. 141. Brown,GoodandCheap 344-6, 356-7,424. Cooking 101, 114,121,134;Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, Joyof 140. Brown,GoodandCheap aspx. gallup.com/poll/156215/consider-themselves-vegetarians. July 26,2012,accessedDecember4,2014,http://www. markets.html#sthash.jg8H98dA.dpuf; “Well-being,” Gallup, low-meat-and-no-meat-diets-are-impacting-consumer- blog.euromonitor.com/2011/08/the-war-on-meat-how- tional, August26,2011,accessedDecember4,2014,http:// are ImpactingConsumerMarkets,” EuromonitorInterna- 139. “TheWar onMeat:HowLow-Meat andNo-MeatDiets 344-6. Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking 138. Brown,GoodandCheap er, andBecker, JoyofCooking 137. Brown,GoodandCheap 101, 114,118,121,133-4. 136. Brown,GoodandCheap 255, 257-8,327,341-2,344-6,349,356-7,424. er, JoyofCooking 135. Brown,GoodandCheap 9c5aT4eSlRfMzVpbC0xemtkSlE/good-and-cheap.pdf. bc10e0dd7cb61ef11502c.googledrive.com/host/0B- 2014, PDFe-book,6,https://41aac1a9acbe9b97bce- 134. Leanne Brown,GoodandCheap:EatWell on$4/Day 69. 133. Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, JoyofCooking ing chapters 2,5,6;Rombauer, Becker, andBecker, JoyofCook 132. Dinerstein,TheFood StampBudgetGourmetCookbook gov/timeseries/APU0000701111?data_tool=XGtable. (453.6 gm);accessedDecember4,2014),http://data.bls. , 2006,77,80,92,284. , 2006,39,108-9,129,188,190-3,255,257-8,327, , 2006,39,108-9,129,143,188,190-3, , 6. , 35-6,39-40,77-80,89,93,97, , 35,39-40,77-80,89,93,97, , 77,98,114,134;Rombauer, , 36,97,101;Rombauer, Beck- , 35-6,39-40,77-80,89,93,97, ; Rombauer, Becker, andBeck- , 2006,143,255-7. 192;RichardFry and , 2006,108-9,188,327, , 2006, , , -

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 29 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 30 by ElizaMurphy Pork Ribs |2015 lators by Subject”(SeriesId:LNS14000000,SeasonallyAd- bor, BureauofLaborStatistics,“Databases,Tables &Calcu- Bureau, “Persons by Poverty Status”;USDepartmentofLa- wealth-gap-upper-middle-income/; UnitedStatesCensus 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/17/ Research Center, December17,2014,accessedJuly10, 2015), http://data.bls.gov/pdq/SurveyOutputServlet. Age: 16years andover, Years: 1997-2014;accessedJuly10, status: Unemployment rate, Type ofdata:Percent orrate, justed, Seriestitle:(Seas)Unemployment Rate,Laborforce by ElizaMurphy Radicchio |2015

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 31 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 32 abstract keywords findings challengecommonassumptionsaboutAFSalterity. substantive rationalitycanbothplayaroleinmotivationstoparticipateornotcertainSFSCmarkets.These Hinrichs wasdevelopedtoparseoutandorganizetheseinternalcontradictions.Theresultsdemonstratehowformal seemed toholdcontradictorygoals.AqualitativecodingframeworkbasedonthetheoreticalarcofGranovetter,Block,and conducted withVermontvegetableanddiversifiedfarmers.Withinindividualsbetweeninterviews,somefarmers have forparticipatinginSFSCmarketvenues.To shedlightonthesemotivations,nineteensemi-structured interviewswere and broaderfoodsystemsoutcomes.Oneareawheretheseassumptionshavecastashadowisonthemotivationsthatfarmers andproduceradherencetoAFSvaluesystems assumptions ofacausalrelationshipbetweenparticipationinAFSstructures proximal economicexchangesthatareembeddedinandregulatedbysocialrelationships.Recentscholarshiphasquestioned | the conventional foodsystem(CFS). food productionanddistribution—herereferredtoas different andopposedtothedominantparadigm of a consequenceofassumptionsthatAFSsarefundamentally Fred Block,andClareHinrichs. subsequently critiquedandmodified by MarcGranovetter, of economicanthropologistKarlPolanyi, whichhasbeen AFS respectively. role offormalandsubstantive rationality intheCFSand fundamental differencestemsfromaperceived dominant the analyticalframework isappliedtothreecase studies. study wasdeveloped fromrecent AFSliterature. Third, paper explains how theanalyticalframework forthis briefly reviews the evolution of AFS theory. Second,the practical insightintofarmermotivations.First,thepaper recent challengestoAFSalterity aswellproviding theoretical andpractical literature on AFSsby confirming chain (SFSC).Indoingso,thispapercontributestoboththe participating inatypeofAFSknownasshortfoodsupply vegetable anddiversified vegetable farmershave for used tointerpretthemotivationsthatasampleofVermont in economicdecisionmaking.Inthisstudy, this modelis concomitant influenceofformalandsubstantive rationality Expectations andReality Alternative FoodSystems: RICHARD ROBERTO RICHARDS of farmersparticipatinginAFSs. studies thatexamine thevalues,motivations,and practices evolve. whether ornotthey live uptoexpectations continuesto underpinnings ofalternative foodsystems(AFSs)and |

Short foodsupplychains(SFSCs)areatypeofalternativesystem(AFS)whosealterityisdefinedbysocially This oppositionalframing findsitsrootsinthetheory The debateregardingthelegitimacyoftheoretical

Alternative FoodSystems,ShortSupplyChains,Embeddedness,KarlPolanyi 1 Thereisatpresentalackofin-depthqualitative 4 Thesescholarsposita 2 Inpart,thisresearchgapis 3 Thisnotionof for moreauthenticfoodways. production, alackoftransparency andtrust,ayearning are moreexistential, includingasenseofalienationfrom include increasingly fewerandlargerfarms;vertical and shaped thestructural characteristics oftheCFS,which health impacts,andsocialjusticeissues. vanishing farmerlivelihoods andrural communities,human impacts aretangible,includingenvironmental damage, agriculture andthefoodsystemtoday. Someofthese research areidentified. this conclusionarediscussed,andareasinneedoffurther goal orcanattimescomeintoconflict.Implicationsof These motivationscanbealignedinpursuitofacommon participate ornotincertainSFSCmarkets. rationality canbothbeplaying aroleinmotivationsto Finally, thepaperconcludesthatformalandsubstantive system (CFS) and exchange—here referred toastheconventional food typify thedominantparadigm ofagricultural production from asetofvalues,practices, andcharacteristics that concerned producersandconsumers,theseimpactsarise specialization, andexploitation. consumer dependence,competition, dominationofnature, embody suchprocessesandvalues ascentralization, There arenumerousproblemsassociatedwith The Conventional Food System BACKGROUND These concernedindividualsperceive theCFSto 7 . 6 For acertainsubsetof 8 Thesevalueshave inturn 5 Otherimpacts society. needs. Inthisway, economicactivitywasembeddedwithin political considerations, aswelltomeetindividual socially definedobjectives, suchassocial,religious,or was viewedprimarilyasameansforachieving noneconomic through substantive rationality; thatis,economicactivity societies, economicdecisionswereevaluated primarily Transformation anthropologist KarlPolanyi inhis1944bookTheGreat of adisembeddedeconomy wasdeveloped by economic agriculture (CSA), farmers markets, localism, andmorecan Fair Trade andorganicmovements, communitysupported of theCFSthey focusonasapointofdifferentiation.The incredibly diverse intermsofwhichvaluesandimpacts consumers. physical andsocialdistancebetweenproducers chain; increasinglyglobalizedsupplychains;andincreased processors, distributors,andretailersinthefoodsupply horizontal integration ofinputmanufacturers,producers, against thedisembeddingofeconomicactivity. movements canbeviewedasakindofanti-systemicprotest Systems SociologistElizabethBarhamarguesthatallAFS alternative foodsystems(AFSs). labeled alternative foodnetworks—herereferredtoas that areemergingfromthismovement have beenloosely consequence ofthesevariables. to resolve negative impactsthatareperceived tobea practices, andcharacteristics acrosstheboard,inorder production andexchange thattypifytheCFS. against theformalizationanddisembeddingofagricultural economy. AFSscanbeunderstoodasacountermovement take actiontoprotectthemselves fromthedisembedded would have severe negative impactsandthat peoplewould society. or inhiswords,theeconomy becamedisembeddedfrom an ideaofeconomicswithalogicoutsidesocialcontrol; this interpretationoftheeconomy, Western culturecreated structures andinteractions. Polanyi arguedthatby adopting human trait, notasaproductofuniquesociocultural gain orutility. Thisformalrationality ispositedasauniversal is ideallyguidedby aninternallogicofmaximizingindividual the theoryofformalrationality, economicdecisionmaking informed andmotivatedby formalrationality. Accordingto beginning toperceive economictransactions asbeing abrupt transformation followingtheindustrialrevolution, Theoretical Foundations ofSFSCsFSshave become Origins oftheConventional andAlternative Food Polanyi arguedthatWestern societiesmadean 15 14 Polanyi predictedthatthisunrestrained economy 9 Agrowingsocialmovement rejectsCFSvalues, . 13 Polanyi believed thatinpre-industrial 10 11 Thevaluesandstructures

12 Theidea or cannolonger successfullyparticipateinthe increasingly opportunities are attractive tofarmerswho donotwishto values thatarenotrewardedin commoditymarkets. Such are willingtopay foritgives farmersaway toprofitfrom consumers. product andtherelationaldistancebetweenproducers of contextual informationdelivered withacommodity and transparency isimpossible intheCFSduetolack these valuesarepresent.Thisdegreeofperceived control and alsoconfirmthroughquestioningobservationthat communicate thevaluesthey want embodiedintheirfoods Relational closenessallowsconsumerstodirectly how—a powerthatisconfirmed by SFSCproducers. consumers adirectroleinwhatproducersprovision and The relationalclosenessthatdefinesSFSCsconfersupon products thatalsodeliver socialrelationshipsandtrust. middlemen inthefoodsupplychain,provisioning food the elimination,reduction,orsocialcontextualization of structurally differentiatesitselffromtheCFSthrough impacts oftheCFS. all ultimatelybecharacterized asrejectionsofavalueor transactions. along withagricultural products. consumers anddeliver sociallycontextualizing information foster moredirectinteractions betweenproducersand exchanges throughstructurally differentiatedmarkets that specifically by sociallyre-embeddingagricultural economic supply chain(SFSC).SFSCsattempttochallengetheCFS have theshortestrelationaldistance. as situatedinasocialrelationshipandareunderstoodto opportunity foreconomicexchanges tobeexperienced sells productslocallyaswellupanddowntheEastCoast. extended transactions wouldbearegionaldistributorwho contextualizing information.Oneexample ofspatially local consumersbutstilldeliver productswithsocially which occurthroughnon-localmiddlemenandnon- schools. Finally, therearespatiallyextended transactions, grocery stores,restaurants, andeven institutionsand These couldincludecooperatives, specialtystores, encoded withinformationaboutthecontext ofproduction. local middlemenwhilestilldelivering productsthatremain spatially proximal transactions, whichareconductedby agriculture (CSA), andon-farmretail. Second,thereare markets, pick-your-own operations, communitysupported Examples offace-to-facetransactions includefarmers These arethemostembeddedandlikely themostlocal. Provisioning contextual informationto consumerswho There arethreekindsofshortfoodsupplychain The firsttwokindsoftransactions createthemost 18 First,thereareface-to-facetransactions. 17 OnetypeofAFSiscalledashortfood 19 Thus,theSFSC 20

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 33 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 34 multiplier. additional economicactivity—aneffectcalledan middlemen outofthesupplychain,andeven generating keeping economicexchanges local,cuttingprofit-taking includes communityeconomicdevelopment, achieved by competitive CFS.AnotherpotentialbenefitofSFSCs building. exchanges, rather thangenerate trustthroughrelationship are liabletobepredisposed trustproducersindirect However, someresearchsuggeststhatconsumersinSFSCs production ofandvaluesembodiedintheirfoodpurchases. to interrogateproducersaboutthemethodsusedin food supplychainsaresupposedtoenableconsumers assumptions withrespecttosocialproximity. Short these assumptionsordonothave away totestthem. impacts, even thoughthey donottake theinitiative totest adherence tocertainvaluesorwithoutcomes that consumersconflatethestructureofan exchange with not necessarilytobetrue. chains. Nevertheless, theseassumptions have beenshown purchased throughspatiallyextended conventional supply natural, andlessenvironmentally harmfulthanfood believe thatlocalfoodisfresher, ofhigherquality, more being spatiallyproximal. Consumershave beenshownto consumer’s valuesystemsimplyasaresultoftheproduct context ofproductionandproduceradherence tothe that consumersmake many assumptionsaboutaproduct’s food systemsimprovements. resocialize foodproductionineffortstoachieve desirable overemphasized structural approachestorespatializeand structures like SFSCs.Academicandpoliticalentities have a necessaryoutcomeoftheuseandproliferation ofAFS to assumethatcertainvalues,practices, orimpactsare assumptions aboutshortfoodsupplychains. policy makers alike may bemakinganumberofunfounded widespread, thereisincreasingconcernthatconsumersand However, asshortfoodsupplychainshave becomemore valuation ofpublicgoods,localeconomicactivity, andmore. producer agency, consumer-producerrelationships,market seems toallowforgreatertransparency, consumerand and experience higherrates ofcivicengagement. proximal businessesscorehigheronqualityoflifeindicators argued thatcommunitieswithmorespatiallyandsocially placing anemphasis onsocialproximity, SFSCshave attimes inherent quality ofthetypeexchange. Inaddition,despite to beanoutcomeofaprocess, isperceived tobean Similarly, consumersmay besusceptibletomaking There isincreasingevidence thatindividualsseem The DebateOver AFSsThestructureofAFSexchange 25 Thus,itseemsthateven trust,whichissupposed 21 Perhaps morecontroversially, ithasbeen 24 Thesestudiesbegintosuggest 23 Ithasbeendemonstrated 22 as SFSCsthatthisdichotomy shouldbeenacted. However, itis notaninherentqualityofAFSstructuressuch play aroleinany given economictransaction. instrumentalism, itdoesnotpreclude them,andallcould While embeddednessisopposed tomarketness and and instrumentalismplay varyingrolesinatransaction. the context ofthetransaction, embeddedness,marketness, Depending ontheuniquecharacteristics oftheactorsand specialization, andexploitation associatedwiththeCFS. consumer dependence,competition,dominationofnature, gain-maximizing behaviors suchascentralization, motivated goals—rather thantheformallymotivated, with nature,diversity, andrestraint—substantively is expected tovalueindependence,community, harmony privilege substantive rationality. AnauthenticAFSproducer that producerswhoparticipateinAFSmarket structures formally motivatedCFS,thereseemtobeassumptions rationality. SinceAFSsareframed asbeingopposedtothe Karl Polanyi’s opposingformsofformalandsubstantive of opposingvalues,practices, andstructuresrestsupon Polanyi andBarhamabove. Fundamentally, theassumption core ofAFSauthenticityasdiscussedthroughthework dichotomous oppositionalframing appearstobeatthe by Polanyi. framing ofdisembeddedandembeddedeconomiesposited other harmfulsocialdynamics. perpetuating whiteprivilege,unequitabledistribution,and been showntobeneglectfulofthebroadersocialgood, market logicorcompletelyconstrained by theexpectations of asocietyshaped andconstrained by anindependent Granovetter andBlockcompletely do away withthenotion to, andfundamentallydifferentfromtheCFS. their inappropriateframing asbeingopposedto,superior and outcomesareaninherentqualityofAFSsarisefrom and theimportanceofindividualgoals,respectively. relations andexpectations, theimportanceofprice, and instrumentalismrefertotheimportanceofsocial every economictransaction. Embeddedness,marketness, considerations ofmarketness andinstrumentalismin consideration ofembeddedness isintensionwith always embeddedeconomy by positingthatthe independent logicofthefreemarket inmodernsocieties. social relationshipsinformandconstrain thesupposedly supported hisargumentbeexamining ways inwhich economies werenever whollyembeddedeither. He activity isnever whollydisembeddedandthat preindustrial Granovetter calledintoquestionthedichotomous Some arguethatassumptionscertainvalues Fred Blockfurtherrefinestheargumentof the 30 Granovetter arguedthatmoderneconomic 26

32 27 Thus, This 29

their employees. There weremany opportunities toask were spentworking alongsidetheselectedfarmers and observation wasconductedon threefarms.Two days were codedwithHyperResearch. transcribed withHyperTranscribe, andthesetranscripts done inpersonbutaway fromthefarm.Interviewswere done over thephone,andthreeotherinterviewswere early springmonthsof2014.Two of theinterviewswere interviews occurredatthefarmsduringwinterand hours, thoughmostwereaboutanhourlong.Mostofthe in lengthfromasshorthalfanhourtolongtwo reputation ormarket presence.Theinterviewsranged identifying farmerswhohadnotyet builtasignificant alterity basedonembeddedness. exchange tobearonAFSs,usingitdismantletheirposited informed by substantive rationality. embeddedness prioritizingsocialandmoral obligationsis of individualgain,areinformedby formalrationality, while Marketness andinstrumentalism,bothinvolving thepursuit and embeddednessinevery economicexchange. acting uponprioritizationofmarketness, instrumentalism, embedded insociety, andindividualsareindependently of society. Instead,economicdecisionsarealways interviewees. sampling methodswereusedtoidentifypotential studies wereinterviewed,butsubsequentlysnowball who hadpreviously participatedinUniversity ofVermont Vermont, andparticipatedinSFSCs.Initially, farmers farmers whooperated nearBurlingtonorMontpelier, by theauthorwithvegetable anddiversified vegetable participating inSFSCmarkets isderived. analytical framework forparsingoutfarmermotivations farm level. Itisfromthistheoreticalcontext thatthe simultaneously motivatedecisionmakingontheSFSC how formalrationality andsubstantive rationality can dialogue provides evidence andaframework forexplaining the friendlyantithesisofmarket.” present. Thus,“embeddedness shouldnotbeseenas determines thatinstrumentalismandmarketness are relationally proximal typesofAFSexchanges, Hinrichs exchanges atfarmersmarkets andCSAs,twoofthemost embedded exchanges oftheAFS?Byobservingeconomic and instrumentalismbefoundinthesupposedlyhyper- formally rational CFS,Hinrichsasks,couldmarketness be foundtoinfluencetheworkingsofsupposedly In additiontosemi-strucutured interviews,participant Hinrichs bringsBlock’sinterpretationofeconomic METHODS Nineteeninterviewswereconducted 35 Thismethodwasparticularlyusefulfor 33 Ifembeddednesscan 34 Thisevolving analytical framework discussedbelow. as structural coding,organizedtheholisticcodesintoan was developed. Thissecond-cycle codingtechnique,known scheme, whichclassifiedandorganizedfirst-cycle codes, been attributeandholisticallycoded,asecond-cycle coding and motivations.Afterallthedatawerecollectedhad holistic codesidentifiedgeneral farmergoals,challenges, was undertaken togainfamiliaritywiththedata.These a formofexploratory codingknownasholistic participation, andadditionaldemographic features.Second, such asfarmtype,size,farmerexperience, age,market coding wasdonetopulloutfarmandfarmercharacteristics Two first-cycle codingstrategies wereused.First,attribute and participantobservationwerestillbeingconducted. identify potentialthemes,beganwhilefarmerinterviews which wereusedtogainfamiliaritywiththedataand themes. These pattern codeswereembedded inthe coding technique calledpatterncodingtoidentify relevant coding process,werelumpedtogether usingasecond-cycle motivations, identifiedthrough theholisticfirst-cycle for Qualitative Researchers. two stagesusingmethodsoutlinedinTheCodingManual depth below. analysis, andthesethreefarmsareshowcasedingreater participant observationhelpedtosupportandinformthe questions andtake copiousnotes.Insightsgainedfromthe rationality, areoftenequallyweighted. Marketness and instrumentalism,bothinformedby formal formal andsubstantive rationality tosimplifytheanalysis. of codeswasrecodedbackintobroadercategories instrumentalism, orembeddedness.Later, thisorder informing themotivationwascodedasbeingmarketness, participation inamarket. Next, thetype ofrationality participate oranegative motivation toreduceoravoid whether themotivationwasapositive motivationto extended market. Thesecondorder ofcodesindicated face market, aspatiallyproximal market, oraspatially SFSC market venue wasbeingdiscussed:aface-to- contradictions. was developed toparseoutandorganize theseinternal on thetheoreticalarcofGranovetter, Block,andHinrichs contradictory goals.Astructural codingframework based and betweeninterviews,somefarmersseemedtohold for participatinginSFSCmarkets. Withinindividuals revealed incongruitiesinsomefarmers’ motivations ANALYSIS Qualitative datacodingwasconductedin The firstorderofcodesindicatedwhatkind The holisticcodesandtheparticipantobservation 36 First-cycle codingmethods, 37 38

Finally, theactual

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 35 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 36 the results below.the results markets.in SFSC participating for motivations will framestructure The organization ofthefinalcodingscheme. each otherweremadeapparent.Figure1showstheoverall structural codingframework sothattheirrelationshipsto F conducted forallfarmsparticipatinginthestudy. hitting a revenue figure. In this industry, most people are not asked it’smainlyabout abouthisgoalsforthe farm:“Well, at thevery beginningoftheinterviewwhenFrank was with howwellthey contributetothefarm’s economicsuccess. farm operations andmarket venues strictlyinaccordance vegetable storage andprocessingarea.Frank manageshis vegetable washingequipment, andanewclimate-controlled mechanized withseveral tractors, implements,specialized the roadthatabutsfarmproperty. Thefarmisrelatively farm isunmarked topassersby, withno visiblesignagefrom Frank isinhisthirties,married,andhasayoung child.The stores, aswellataface-to-facewinterfarmersmarket. through anumberofnearby cooperatives andspecialty Burlington, Vermont, where mostofhisproductsaresold around twelve acres, waslocatedaboutahalfanhourfrom on thefarm.Frank’s farm,average insizeforthisstudyat of theinterviewandobservationsgatheredwhileworking of Frank’s farm operation isderived fromboththecoding and wintersquashharvests. conducted onFrank’s farmduringtheheightofpotato goals, thoughattimesthesegoalscanbeintension. operate farmsthatachieve bothformalandsubstantive farmers seemtoprivilegeformalrationality, whileothers participate ornotincertainSFSCmarkets. Some substantive rationality canbothplay aroleinmotivationsto be highlightedinordertodemonstrate howformaland paper, theexperiences of aselectnumberoffarmerswill igure DISCUSSION Theanalysisdescribedabove was This penchantforformalrationality wasdemonstrated Formal RationalityParticipant observationwas 1.

Shows theoperationalShows diagram usedtocodefarmer 40 The following description Thefollowingdescription 39 Inthis participating in certainSFSCmarkets. farm decisionmaking isreflectedin Frank’s motivationsfor land andlaborinpursuitofaneconomicreturn. following quotation,istomaximizetheefficientuseofhis commercial crops.Hisreasoning,asdemonstrated inthe crops inagrowingseason,Frank onlygrewaboutsix the areawhogrowupwardsoffortydifferentcommercial This datainformedmanagementdecisionsonthefarm. these dataonaregularbasisandclaimstoenjoy doingso. farmers whowereinterviewed,Frank inputsandexamines labor costs,inputandsalesfigures.Unlike many The firstwasthrough extensive record keeping regarding difficult business. wanted toearnmorethan“mostpeople” inthisnotoriously much money doyou wanttoearn?”ItwasclearthatFrank netting morethan25percentoftheirfarm’s gross,sohow This prioritization offormalrationality formanagingon- Unlike many farmersparticipatinginSFSCmarkets in On thefarm,Frank pursuedthisgoalinseveral ways. not thatforgiving. think weare notguessing,becausethisbusinessis crossing ourfingersalotofthetime,butIlike to I amnotguessingatmuchmostofthetime,weare sequence too …Itrytobepretty systematic, Ihope the fourth,andintoJune,theyharvest inthat second, wintersquashthethird, sweetpotatoes put theonionsinfirstweek,potatoes nothing isincompetition[forlabor].SoMay, we year theyrequire themostwork,soideaisthat all complementeachotherintermsofthetime At thispointwehave aboutsixmaincrops, andthey management decisions. dollars are peracre. Allthestuffthathelpsyou make acres Iplanted.So,knowwhatmy yieldsand everything Ihave sold,whatIsolditfor, howmany of thepage.Iknowexactly howmany poundsof and atwhatprice.Thatalltalliesupthebottom what crops were inthatsale,howmuchofeach, I have inmy computerevery singlesaleIhave made, how my brain likes tolookatstuff. doing statisticalcomparisonsonstuff. Butthatis people mightsayitisoverkill howmuchtimeIspend actual computerworkaday, justforthefarm.Some I probably spend …betweenone totwohoursof farmers market, itisacceptableto bringalowdiversity of to beinformed by formalrationality. First,inthewinter not expanding thesemarket opportunitiesalsoseem winter farmersmarket andhisnegative motivations for satisfied. social interaction, somethinghedoesn’t needmuchoftobe nonpecuniary rewardsoffarmer’smarket participation is in theinterviewwhenFranks impliesthatoneofthemain economically valuabletime.Thissentimentisrepeatedlater that inmostsituationsfarmersmarkets areawasteof participating), butby Frank’s calculationsitisclear formal economiccalculations(they get“energy” from fulfil goalsthataremotivated by somethingotherthan participate inface-to-facetransactions inorderto spectrum. Frank seems tobesaying thatsome farmers conception andself-positioningontheformal-substantive Frank perceived tobetheirinherenteconomicinefficiency. enter thesemarkets onawiderscalewastemperedby what wholesale outlets.However, thispositive motivationto there, whichhedoesnotgetthroughhisspatiallyproximal a desiretocapturethepricepremiumthathecan main reasonFrank participatesinface-to-facemarkets is suggest anegative perceptionofthesemarket venues. The for participatinginthismarket, andsomeofhiscomments market. Frank onlydiscussesformallymotivatedreasons market venues, Frank onlyparticipatesinawinterfarmers The otherreasonsthatFrank participatesinthe This quotesuccinctlydemonstrates Frank’s own Face toFace Markets Withrespecttoface-to-face is plenty. great tohear. Gettingthatonceaweekorsomething delicious.’ AndIsay‘Thankyou!’ andthatisreally sweet potatoesat[a localcoop], andtheywere really someone andthey’llsay‘OhIboughtsomeofyour social gratification. Igetthateven now, Ibumpinto to hundred peopleatamarket togetmy fill of deliver tothestores. Idon’t thinkIneedtogotalk I like talkingtopeople,andIgetthatwhengo markets. is agreat situation.Iamkindofneutral onfarmers good atit,theygetalotofenergyfrom it,andthat stand andsellstuff. For somepeople,theyare really markets you are takinganentire dayawayjustto markets, Ihadafulltimejob.Andyou knowfarmers When Istarted[farming]couldn’t gotofarmers or fordifferentreasons. motivated farmerbuttodifferentdegree,inaway, to participateinthesamemarkets asamoreformally more motivatedby substantive rationality. They may choose viability ofhisbusinessmodel.Otherfarmers,however, are participate inthembecausethelowpriceswouldhurt spatially extended markets asextremely efficient,hecannot or todeliver toinproportionthevolume ofsales. spatially proximal salesthattake toomuchtimetonegotiate higher pricesthanspatiallydistantmarkets. Frank avoids the season,andthey buyhighvolumes ofproduct and pay winter, eliminatingtheneedforFrank tofindbuyers during Several ofthesestoresplantheirpurchasesduringthe local cooperative grocerystoresandspecialtystores. met isinspatiallyproximal wholesalemarkets, including possible financialreturns.Where Frank findsthesegoals and sellinghisproductswantstoachieve thehighest spend theleastamountoftimefindingbuyers, delivering, activities competingforhistime. winter therearefeweralternative economicallyproductive spatially proximal wholesalemarkets. Second,duringthe Rather thanmeetthisdemand,Frank electstoutilize no longeracceptabletofarmersmarket andCSAcustomers. However, inthespringandsummerthisdiversity ofcropsis prioritizes efficientproductionofalowdiversity ofcrops. products, which aligns with his on-farm production plan that harvested andwhilesheepwerebeing dewormedand farm whilenumerous cropswerebeingweeded and children. Participant observationwasconductedonthis over ten years, andthey aremiddle-agedandhave young in livestock production.They have beeninoperation for in vegetable productionandmany moreacresinvolved husband operate arelatively largefarm,withover 40acres Formal andSubstantive Rationality Spatially ExtendedMarkets ThoughFrank views Spatially Proximal WholesaleMarkets Frank wantsto three hoursforfive stops. farm forthatlong.WhenIdodeliveries ittakes me a farmattheIntervale, butIcan’t beawayfrom the 6 hoursonaTuesday driving.Thatwouldworkfor around, andchattingwithchefs,theyspendlike with perishablestuff. Butsomepeoplelove driving summer, soIsticktotheplanadegree, especially dollars insalesisjustnotwhere Iwanttobeinthe idea ofmakingcallstorestaurants tomake forty I sellalmostallofmy stufftosixcustomers,andthe Helenandher

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 37 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 38 planning. preseason subscriptionsmake foreasiercropandlivestock cash flowatthebeginningof the season;inaddition, participate inthem.Helen’s CSAis profitableandprovides Helen mentionsseveral formallymotivated reasonsto time andefforttoorganizemaintain.Nonetheless, increasingly competitive and take asignificantamountof have customerspickupsharesonthefarm have become notes elsewhereintheinterviewthatsummerCSAs motivated desiretoprovide acommunityservice.Helen the formofadelivery CSA andHelen’s substantively motivated pursuitoflucrative market opportunities in markets. rationality inhermotivationsforparticipatingcertain service. Thissuggestsastrongerroleofsubstantive as away tomake alivingbutalsoasformofcommunity philosophy, Helendescribesherrelationshiptofarming participating incertainSFSCmarkets. and substantive motivationsforparticipatingandnot root cropsforwintermarkets. Helenexpressed bothformal was beingbuilttoaccommodatethefarm’s focusonstoring advertised foodsfromthefarmstore.Alargenewcooler invited drivers topullintothefarm’s parkinglottopurchase farm’s packingshedwasvisiblefromtheroad,andsignage and picturesque.Alargefarm-themedmural paintedonthe moved fromonepasturetoanother. Thefarmwaswellkept A similartension isrevealed in Helen’s discussions The quotereveals atensionbetweentheformally Face-to-Face Markets Whenasked aboutherfarming well aseatitandexperience it. food comesfrom, Iknowhowitgrows, Icanseeitas offer that.Iwantpeopletosay, Iknowwhere this want to.ButIthinkitisimportantandto They don’t even have togooutthere iftheydon’t in thegardens, oreven justtalktousandseeafield. program. Theyhave theopportunitytocomepick up theirshares justgetsomuchmore outofthe feel like thepeoplewhocometofarmandpick want thisonfarmpick-upcomponent,andIalways sort ofapartthemarket. ButIalways,always kind ofresisted it,andIreally don’t like it,butitis component. We dodeliver shares now, andIhave have alwayswantedtohave anon-farmpickup a connectiontolandtoo…Like withtheCSA,we food, theyneedhighqualityand You knowthisissomethingpeopleneed.Theyneed one ofus,thebusiness owners,needstobethere, wecan’t to reallybeeffective atthefarmersmarkets wefeelthat choice, you know, itisalotofwork,and itisweekends, and farmers markets in thisway: her business.Helendescribed herevolving opinionabout is anecessarysacrificefortheeconomicsustainabilityof is requiredtoparticipateinthem,whichshenolongerfeels significant amountoftime,energy, andlaborcosts shefeels motivation fornotparticipatinginfarmersmarkets isthe spatially proximal wholesalevenues. Anegative formal participating inthesemarkets canbemadeupthrough is diminished,andsheconfidentthattheincomefor that formalmotivationforparticipatinginthesemarkets now thatherreputationisestablished,Helenfeels that participatesinalternative market structures.However, development ofareputationasanauthentic AFSproducer generating income,isinitialpublicexposure andthe motivation forparticipatinginfarmersmarkets, besides transition. accounts. Formal rationality hasmuchtodowiththis model andtransitioning tospatiallyproximal wholesale eliminating thisfinalfarmersmarket fromthebusiness the farmhasevolved. Helenenvisions herselfeventually the roleoffarmersmarkets onthisfarmhasdiminished as so. market. Thequotebelowexplains hermotivationsfordoing commercially sheonlyoperated aCSAandatfarmers of servingherneighbors.Whenshestartedfarming social connections,andthey fitintoherphilosophy respect tosubstantive rationality, sheenjoys cultivating markets forbothformalandsubstantive reasons.With regarding farmersmarkets. Helenisattracted tofarmers Weaning fromthefarmersmarket ismoreofalife According toHelen,themostsignificantformal Helen’s farmcontinuestoattendafarmersmarket, but vegetables. So Iusedtobabysittheirkids,andnowgrow their I waslike, ‘Ok,Iamgoingtofillthat role forthem.’ fresh food,butjustcouldn’t fititintotheirlives. So there were peoplewhoappreciated biggardens, and know there wasthissensein thecommunitythat and everything, andnowitismuchlessso,you more sothenthannow, everybody hadgardens be apartofthat.Andyou knowgrowing uphere, a farmandknowhowtheirfoodwasgrown and to give peopletheopportunity, like Isaidtoknow I wantedtoselldirectly totheconsumer. Iwanted but shechooses nottoinordermeethersubstantive extended markets whichshecouldsuccessfully exploit, opportunities bothinspatially proximal andspatially markets, potentiallycurbingeconomicrewards. and even constrain herparticipationinspatiallyproximal to meetthesesubstantive goals,thesegoalsdirectlyguide does Helenframe participationinthesemarkets asaway strong role.Asthequotationbelowdemonstrates, notonly community andhersubstantive goalscontinuetoplay a market venues; however, hercommitmenttolocal The majorityofHelen’s revenue nowcomesfromthese reason anticipatedproductiondoesnotmeettheirdemand. large volumes ofgoods;andthey areflexible ifforsome needed tosellaunitofproduct;certainbuyers reliablybuy venues aremoreefficientwithrespecttothelabortime restaurants, Helengives many reasons.Thesemarket to spatiallyproximal localcoops,specialtystores,and rationality–informed motivationsforincreasingsales not occur. business rootedinface-to-facemarkets sothatthisdoes proximal markets insuchaway andkeeps part ofher service; however, sheexplicitly managesthesespatially markets couldthreatenhersubstantive goalsofcommunity commitment every Saturday tobeatthefarmersmarket. one ofus[thefarmowners]tobethere,andthatisahuge just always have ourstaffdoit …wethinkitisimportantfor Helen perceives theretobeadditionalmarket Spatially Proximal Markets Withrespecttoformal This transition away fromfarmersmarkets towholesale use any distributors. it. Itisallwithin25milesofthefarmandwedon’t or whohave acustomerbasewhoare interested in who weknoware committedtothe localmovement, reach outtowholesale …We onlyworkwithbuyers and production capacityincreased itmade senseto days aweektobuytheirgroceries, soasourvolume everybody isgoingto cometothefarmstandthree their foodlocal.’ You know, werealize thatnot them inreaching thesecustomersdirectly toget so thenwewere like ‘Ok,nowweare supporting were asanentityandwhattheywere tryingtodo, understand eachrestaurant orstore as whothey didn’t knowall oftheircustomersperse,wegotto got toknowthempersonally, andeven thoughwe expanded, westartedtalkingtobuyers foreggswe So, onthewholesaleend,whatIfoundaswe transition toregionalwholesale markets. too muchandnotmakingenoughmoney. variety offreshproduce,andEddyfeltthathewasworking to meettheexpectations thathiscustomershadforawide property ledtoanumberofcropfailures.Itbecamedifficult conditions andinexperience withthesoilsonhisnew However, hisgoalshave beeninterrupted.Poor weather of cropssoldtolocalwholesalersandthroughaCSA. intensive hand-poweredcultivationofasmallnumber seasons ago,intendingtoestablishhisoperation through to supplyalocalfoodsystem.Eddystartedhisfarmtwo soil, andparticipatecooperatively withothersmallfarmers operation. and therewasnosignageindicatingthepresenceof Little ofthefarmoperation wasvisiblefromtheroad, outdoor washandpackareacoolerontheproperty. one smallgreenhouse,ahightunnel,andsturdyhandmade and fieldweedingwerethemaintasksathand.Therewas was conductedwhilelettuceharvesting, squashfertilizing, on adead-endgravel dirtroad.Participant observation most visibleintheseinstances.Eddy’sfarmwaslocated between formalandsubstantive rationality wereoften their productsandtheway thatthey currentlydid.Conflicts between theway thatthey wouldideallylike tomarket were numerousinstanceswherefarmersnotedaconflict economic goalsareproving hardtomeet. substantive andformalrationality seemstoarisewhen costs inthepursuitofsubstantive goals.Conflictbetween seems dependentontheabilitytotake oncertaineconomic the relationshipseemstobeharmonious.Thisharmony between formalandsubstantive goals,onHelen’s farm in spatiallyextended markets. Whilethereisanegotiation share hersubstantive valueswhilerejectingparticipation engaging onlywithspatiallyproximal wholesalerswho less efficientandlucrative face-to-facemarkets and motivated goalsby keeping herfarminvolved inrelatively way tosuccessfullybalanceherformallyandsubstantively goals ofservingherlocalcommunity. Helenhasfounda Formal rationality informedEddy’smotivationsto Eddy’s goalsaretomake adecentliving,careforthe Conflict between Formal andSubstantive Rationality a commission,so your marginsare lower, butyou of space …There is a truckingchargeandthere is parsley Icangetahighreturn ona smallamount do alittleover 3/4of an acre. You knowwiththe It allowsyou tobemore efficient. You know, Ionly you are goingtobegettinginto,intermsofincome. The advantage [of wholesale] isthatyou knowwhat There

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 39 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 40 actively recognizethatsubstantive goalsplay arolein operating within theAFS.Others,suchasHelen andEddy, seem toprivilegeformalrationality whilesuccessfully participating inSFSCmarkets. Somefarmers,suchasFrank, spectrum regardingtheroleof substantive rationality for enacted by AFSparticipants.Infact,thereseemstobe a oppositional framing oftheAFSand theCFSisnotstrictly rationality andformalrationality thatisreflectedinthe Hinrichs. Thedichotomousoppositionbetweensubstantive the theoreticalframework ofGranovetter, Block,and farmers have forparticipatinginSFSCmarkets, validating substantive rationality play aroleinthemotivationsthat long run. ways toachieve bothformalandsubstantive goalsinthe spatially proximal wholesalemarkets areviewedasviable in anefficientway. For Eddy, face-to-facemarkets and local foodsystemandthepresentneedtogenerate income motivation toparticipateinmarket venues thatserve the throughout theinterview. goals toreturnsellinglocalmarkets several times markets, heexpressed substantively informedlong-term income hascausedEddytotransition toregionalwholesale CONCLUSION Itisclearthatbothformaland There isatensionbetweenanexpressed substantive Though themotivationtomoreefficientlypullin you know, growing alotofstuffforwholesale. business outofitthenIwouldbeatadifferent scale, to do.You know, ifIreally wantedtomake ahuge just aboutwhatI,yea, it’smy visionofwhatIwant food system …Yea, it’spartlyethical,anditsmore reasons, butIwouldlike tobemore partofthelocal grocery stores anddistributors]formonetary in thelocalarea. You knowIselltothe[regional I thinklongtermI’d rather have salesbasedmore pound. would bemuchdifferent thangettingfive dollarsa get tendollarsapoundformy saladmix,thenthat on where you are. IfIwasinBurlington,andcould marginal, like saladmix.You know, italldepends than someoftheotherthingsthatare alittlemore but Ijustmake somuchmore moneydoingthat think itwasgoingtobeasmuchofafocuswas, know howtogrow itproperly. You knowIdidn’t spend alotoftimeworkingagain,soaslongyou have more volume ofsale,andyou don’t have to framework. for measurementmightbetheCommunityCapitals social, andeconomicsustainability. Onepotentialmetric AFS participantsingeneral—have onenvironmental, to identifymeasurable impactsthatsuchtransitions—and relationship tothecommunity. Researchneedstobedone the structureoftheirfarmbusinessevolves asdoestheir markets tomeetfinancialgoals. To serve thesemarkets, turning tospatiallyproximal andspatiallyextended stopping orreducingparticipationinface-to-facemarkets, identified increasingcompetitive pressureasreasonsfor more popularandthemarkets morecompetitive. of howwellsubstantive goalscanpersistasAFSsbecome goals seemvulnerable tocompromise.Thisraises aquestion monetary orlaborresourceconstraints, thesesubstantive farm businessesmustmake aprofit,andinthefaceof reasons forparticipationintheAFS.Nonetheless,these guiding themanagementoftheirfarmoperations and and patience,all ofwhichwererequired.Iam alsograteful thank you toDavid S.Connerfor hisguidance,feedback, and intotheirlives foreven abrief time.Iofferaspecial farmers whotookmeintotheir homes,intotheirfields, the pursuitofmorefundamentalandlastingchange? to be.CouldAFSinfactbeasmokescreen, distracting from even nowAFSarenotthepanaceathatmany assumethem respond toincreasedcompetitionandpopularity. However, the impactsandcharacter ofAFSwill changeasthey of thefreeorregulatedmarket. Itremainstobeseenhow engagement rather thanthrough the pricemechanisms and distributionwouldbedeterminedby democratic exchange. Indoingso,the impacts ofagricultural production remove agricultural productionfromtherealmofcapitalist movement, whoadvocate formoreradical changesthat are some,suchasproponentsofthefoodsovereignty childcare, andinfrastructure investments. Ofcourse,there stress onfamilyfarmsby reducingcostssuchashealthcare, that arefoundtobebeneficialorminimizethefinancial be usedtosupportcertainfarmmanagementstrategies engage inthesemarkets. Alternatively, subsidiescould values andgrowthebodyofconsumerswhocaneffectively education couldbeintensifiedinordertochangeconsumer production forthepurposesofexchange foodsystems, interventions. Withinthecurrentparadigm ofagricultural capital itmay benecessarytointervene inthatprocess. AFSs doindeedthreatensubstantive goalsandcommunity Several experienced farmersinterviewedinthis study ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Iwouldlike tothank allofthe There aremany modelsuponwhichtobasesuch 41 Ifincreasingcompetitionandthescalingupof one hasaccess to themeansofproduction,thus challenging still producingfood forprofitinasociretywhere not every- right tofoodtrumpsacorporate righttoprofits.Civic AG is bilizing philosophieswhichmeet theneedsofeveryone. A needs offew, tofundamentally transformative anddesta- Nature 418(2002):671–77.tosystems whichmeetthe cultural SustainabilityandIntensive ProductionPractices,” Carolina Press,1992),226-248;David Tilmanetal.,“Agri- munity intheMidwest Sonya Salamon,Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, andCom Small Farms (USDepartmentofAgriculture,1998),10-14; A TimetoAct:ReportoftheUSDA NationalCommissionon ares.2011.020105; NationalCommissiononSmallFarms, Research 2,no.1(December7,2011):68–86,doi:10.3167/ ity andNeoliberalism,” Environment andSociety:Advances in Alkon, “MappingtheFood Movement: AddressingInequal- England, 2004),8-60;Teresa MarieMaresandAlisonHope Food, andCivilSociety org; ThomasA.Lyson, CivicAgriculture: ReconnectingFarm, ture oftheMiddle” (2000):1-4,11-16,www.agofthemiddle. Fred Worry Kirschenmannetal.,“Why abouttheAgricul- (United NationsEnvironmental Programme, 2011),38-43; 5. HansR.Herren,Agriculture: Investing inNatural Capital 295–303. Agricultural Market,” JournalofRural Studies and Local Food Systems: NotesonTwo Types ofDirect California Press,1990);C.ClareHinrichs,“Embeddedness Block, Postindustrial Possibilities ican JournalofSociology Social Structure:TheProblemofEmbeddedness,” TheAmer & Rinehart, 1944); Mark Granovetter, “Economic Action and 4. KarlPolanyi, TheGreat Transformation Neoliberal,” 157-61. 3. McClintock,“Radical,Reformist,andGarden-Variety 2. Turner andHope,“StagingtheLocal,” 153. 147–71. culture’s Contradictions,” LocalEvironment den-Variety Neoliberal: ComingtoTerms withUrbanAgri- 20602; NathanMcClintock,“Radical,Reformist,andGar- 46, no.2(2015):147–53,doi:10.1080/00049182.2015.10 thinking ScaleinFarmers’Markets,” Australian Geographer 1. Bethaney Turner andCathy Hope,“StagingtheLocal: Re- ENDNOTES grateful fortheeditingandsupportofErinGolden. Vermont wholentanearandadvice.Lastbutnotleast,Iam to numerousotherfacultyandpeersattheUniversity of (Chapel Hill,NC:University ofNorth (Lebanon, NH:University ofNew 91,no.3(1985):481–510;Fred (Los Angeles:University of (NewYork: Farrar 19,no.2(2014): 16(2000):

- - Market SocietyandIts‘Disembedded’ Economy,” Jour 14. MicheleCangiani, “KarlPolanyi’s Institutional Theory: 13. KarlPolanyi, TheGreat Transformation ture,” 239-40, 242. 12. Barham,“SocialMovements forSustainableAgricul- works.” Marsden, andBanks,“UnderstandingAlternative Food Net- Development,” SociologiaRuralis Supply ChainApproaches:ExploringTheirRoleinRural 11. Terry Marsden,JoBanks,and GillianBristow, “Food Development.” Exploring theRoleofShortFood SupplyChainsinRural and Banks,“UnderstandingAlternative Food Networks: doi:10.1080/08941929709381023; Renting,Marsden, Society &Natural Resources 10,no.3(1997):239–49, able AgricultureinFrance: APolanyian Perspective,” 10. ElizabethBarham,“SocialMovements forSustain - Hope, “StagingtheLocal,” 147-48. University PressofNewEngland,2004),8-60;Turner and Reconnecting Farm, Food, andCivilSociety 72, no.4(1996):550–53;ThomasA.Lyson, CivicAgriculture: lard W. Cochrane, “TheTreadmill Revisited,” LandEconomics Agriculture oftheMiddle,” 1-21;RichardA.Levins andWil- Worry2010), 1,6-7;Kirschenmannetal.,“Why aboutthe (US DepartmentofAgriculture,EconomicResearchService, Small Farms intheUnitedStates:Persistence UnderPressure 9. RobertA.Hoppe,JamesM.MacDonald,andPenni Korb, Ordinary People,” HumanOrganization Attributes ofanAlternative Food SystemwithCompetent, burg etal.,“Tasting Food, Tasting Sustainability:Definingthe Debate,” Rural Sociology Alternative Agriculture:TheParadigmatic Rootsofthe 8. CurtisE.BuesandRiley E.Dunlap,“Conventional versus a3510. ment andPlanning Short Food SupplyChainsinRural Development,” Environ- standing Alternative Food Networks:ExploringtheRoleof 7. HenkRenting,Terry K.Marsden,andJoBanks,“Under- 2012; Turner andHope,“StagingtheLocal,” 147-53. Paxson, TheLifeofCheese:Crafting Food andValue inAmerica 1 (2011):114,doi:10.1007/s10460-011-9331-0; Heather Systems Governance,” Agriculture andHumanValues 29,no. 6. PhilMount,“Growing Local Food: ScaleandLocal Food (CFSC; n.d. the foodsystem.Th eCommunityFood SecurityCoalition food sovreignty, whichistheabilitytohave agencyover 35,no.3(2003):393–411,doi:10.1068/ 55(1990):590–616;JackKloppen- 40,no.4(2000);Renting, 59,no.2(2000):179. (Lebanon, NH: . - ,

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 41 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 42 riculture,” 590-616. 28. BuesandDunlap,“Conventional versus Alternative Ag- Neoliberal,” 10-13. 27. McClintock,“Radical,Reformist,andGarden-Variety 26. Turner andHope,“StagingtheLocal,” 152-54. 25. Mount,“Growing Local Food,” 113-14. 24. Turner andHope,“StagingtheLocal,” 148-153. and Research 26(2006):195–207. Systems inPlanningResearch,” JournalofPlanningEducation and MarkPurcell,“Avoiding theLocal Trap: ScaleandFood 23. Mount,“Growing Local Food,” 108-109; Branden Born Business to theSpecialCommitteeStudyProblems ofAmericanSmall and CivicWelfare: ReportoftheSmallerWar PlantsCorporation 61-83; C.WrightMillsandMelvilleUlmer, SmallBusiness Government PrintingOffice,1946); Lyson, CivicAgriculture, Committee toStudyProblems ofAmericanSmallBusiness Report oftheSmallerWar PlantsCorporation totheSpecial 22. Walter Goldschmidt,SmallBusinessandtheCommunity: Service, 2010),43-44. Issues (USDepartmentofAgriculture,EconomicResearch Martinez etal.,LocalFood Systems:Concepts,Impacts,and ries: ABetterUnderstandingofOurFood Costs 21. Patrick Canning,ARevisedandExpandedFood DollarSe 20. Ibid,115. RAF2005134. and Food Systems cally Focused AgricultureinMaine,” RenewableAgriculture 19. NancyJ. Ross,“HowCivicIsIt?SuccessStoriesinLo- proaches,” 425-26. 18. Marsden,Banks,andBristow, “Food SupplyChainAp- 6-7. Humboldt JournalofSocialRelations33,no.1/2(2010): Honey: Framing theEmergentAlternative Food Systems,” 17. NoahZerbe, “Moving fromBreadandWater toMilkand ture,” 239-240,242. 16. Barham,“SocialMovements forSustainableAgricul- 15. Ibid,182. doi:10.2753/JEI0021-3624450110. nal ofEconomicIssues (USGovernment PrintingOffice,1946). 21,no.02(2007):114,doi:10.1079/ 45,no.1(March1,2011):179–82, , 2011,2;Steve (U.S. - Press, 2013). ties : Legacy+Change Flora,41. CorneliaButlerFlora Rural andJanL. Communi this studyinordertoprotecttheirprivacy. 40. Pseudonyms areusedforallthefarmersdiscussedin (Master’s thesis,University ofVermont, 2015),51-103. for ProducerParticipation inShortFood SupplyChains” codes, pleaseseeRichardRichards,“DifferingMotivations 39. For anin-depthenumeration andanalysisofthepattern 38. Block,Postindustrial Possibilities, positive ornegative, formalorsubstantive? coding schemedescribedinthefigure. Was themotivation codes referredtowereinterpretedthroughthestructural reasons why afarmerfarms.Finally, thephrases thatthese ard,” and“EducatethePublic”mighthave beenidentifiedas would becoded;forexample, “Make Money,” “BeaStew- Experienced. Thentheirgoals,challenges,andmotivation ence wouldbeplacedinthreecategories:Young, Small,and ing onlessthanfive acres,andhaving one year of experi- categories. For example, afarmeryounger thanforty, farm- identified. Theseattributeswereusedtoputthefarmsinto experience andagethefarm’s sizeandtypewouldbe unique IDnumber. Thencategoricaldataaboutthefarmer’s ed aninterviewwithafarmer, thefarmwouldbeassigneda 37. Anexample ofthisprocessisasfollows.After Iconduct- 2013). searchers (ThousandOaks,California:SagePublications, 36. Johnny Saldaña,TheCodingManualforQualitative Re- other farmersyou thinkIshouldtalkto?” I wouldendtheinterviewwiththisquestion:“Are thereany subjects recommendwhomtheresearchershouldcontact. ing potentialresearchparticipantswherecurrent 35. Snowballsamplingisanon-random methodforidentify- 34. Ibid,296. 303. 33. Hinrichs,“EmbeddednessandLocal Food Systems,” 295- 32. Ibid,46-73. 31. Block,Postindustrial Possibilities, 481-510. 30. Granovetter, “EconomicActionandSocialStructure,” 303. 29. Hinrichs,“EmbeddednessandLocal Food Systems,” 295- , 4thed.(Boulder, Colorado: Westview 46-73. 46-73. - by ElizaMurphy Garden Basque | 2015

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 43 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 44 by ElizaMurphy Piglet | 2015 Durham: DukeDurham: University Press.2013.352pp. Chaia Heller Modified Crops Agriculture andGenetically Farmers ChallengeIndustrial Food, Farms&Solidarity:French BOOK REVIEW|EMMAMCDONELL they expanded the categoryofexperts to include farmers. to includeGMOs’ impactsonproducers,and in doingso in themid-1990s,they broadenedthetermsofdebate scientists hadtheexpertise tobackclaimsforeithercamp. too riskyorthedangerswere grossly exaggerated; only this hegemonic“riskocentric” discourse,GMOswereeither (i.e., newproducts)faroutweighedtheinflatedrisks.Within Proponents arguedthepotentialbenefitstoconsumers incur indelibleharmtoconsumersandtheenvironment. contending GMOswere“Frankenfoods” thatwould and environmentalists spearheadedanti-GMOactivism, pose tohumanandecologicalhealth.Consumergroups 1990s, discussionsrevolved aroundpotentialrisksGMOs public debatesaboutGMOseruptedinEuropetheearly social movements accessibletoadiverse readership.When successes andtheanalyticaltoolsscholarsusetoanalyze innovative modelofactivistscholarship makes CP’s of analysis though thebook’smostimportantimpactisitsintegration movement studies,foodandpolitical ecology, contributions toacademicscholarshipwithinsocial food system.Food, Farms andSolidarity inspire andinstructanyone whodreamsofamorejust impart practical insightsandtheoreticaltoolsthatcan employs richethnographic detailandcriticaltheoryto Global Southwhoarealsofightingfortheirway oflife. paysans’ missionisexplicitly insolidaritywithpeasantsthe food movements intheGlobalNorth (e.g. organics),the scale farming.Whileconsumerstypicallyleadalternative development paradigm thatthreatenstheviabilityofsmall- to anencroachingindustrialagriculturemodelandneoliberal GM cropsconstitutesoneaspectofCP’sbroaderchallenge role intheirprohibitionthroughoutEurope.Oppositionto scope ofpublicdebatesaboutGMOsandplayed apivotal genetically modifiedorganisms (GMOs) that expanded the of French paysans(peasants)wholedacampaignagainst Heller investigates theConfédération Paysanne (CP), When CPbeganorganizinganti-GMO demonstrations Heller’s lucidanalysisofCP’screative protesttactics In Food, Farms andSolidarity,anthropologistChaia andanalysisfor

foodactivists.Heller’s makes valuable a union a union hauling dirt,hay, and livestock intogovernment offices or orders. Paysans frequentlycreate “farmsofthefuture” by comical orironiceffectthatdisrupts neoliberal symbolic business suitsandcowmanure, theseprotestscreatea performance artandjuxtaposing unexpected signslike discursive level. Bycombiningnonviolent protestwith use tocapturemediaattentionandprovoke shiftsata detail thehighlysymbolicdirectactionstrategies paysans pioneers ofamoreecologicallyandsociallyjustfuture. assert thatpeasantsarenotcharacters fromthe pastbut backwardness, paysanschoosetoidentifyaspeasants While theterm“peasant”isoftenassociatedwith Global Southwhoarealsofightingfortheirlivelihoods. unity withthemillionsofself-identifiedpeasantsin organizations suchasViaCampesina,paysanscultivate By identifyingaspeasantsandnetworkingwithpeasant shows thattheirsolidarityethicreachesbeyond France. neoliberalization ofEuropeanagricultural policies,Heller tinkering andprofitfromtheproductsof tinkering. Mother Naturebutbecauseitiscorporations thatdothe not becausethey areproducedby “unnatural” tinkering with food, andknowledge.Assuch,CPconsidersGMOsunethical the socialrelationshipsatheartofexchanges ofseeds, farmers is“efficient,” paysansseeGMOsasdetrimentalto corporations engineeringseedsinlabsandsellingthemto knowledge networksbetweenfarmers.Whilemultinational require fertilizerssoldby thesamecompany, undermining farmers fromsharingorreusingseeds,andoftenGMseeds are subjecttoprivatepropertylaw, corporations prohibit this powertomultinationalcorporations. AsGMseeds which alsofosterfarmersolidarity, biotechnologyaffords trading practices sincetheadvent ofagriculture,practices innovated newgeneticmaterialthroughseedsaving and of socialfabricsandhumanwell-being.Whilefarmershave based rationality” concernedwithmaintainingtheintegrity convincingly arguesthatpaysansadvocate a“solidarity- inefficient” andthereby unviable. farms whilerenderingsmallholderfarming“economically enhance theprofit-makingcapacitiesofplantation-style chemical fertilizersandmonoculturesastechnologiesthat services obsolete.Paysans categorizeGMseedsalongside the primarygoaloffarmingandattemptstorendertheir of capital-intensive agriculturethatmakes profit-making and socialhazardepitomizingtheinstrumentalistlogic they areahealthhazardbutbecausethey areapolitical For paysans,GMOsposeanimminentthreatnotbecause Heller draws uponextensive ethnographic fieldworkto While CP’simmediateaimistochallengethe In contrast totheeconomizinglogicofcapital,Heller

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 45 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 46 BOOK REVIEW|JOHNC.JONES socially justfoodsystems. sow theseedstoimagineandcreatemoreecologically conversations betweenscholars,students,andactivists Offering morethanacaptivatingread,thisbookwillignite transgresses boundariesofacademic/nonacademic writing. presents anencouraging example ofscholarshipthattruly rigor remainexceedingly rare. ChaiaHeller’sinvestigation findings inaccessibleprosewithoutsacrificinganalytical of theIvory Tower, researchproductsthatcommunicate to callforengagedscholarshiprelevant beyond thewalls and usetheirconclusionstofostermoreeffective actions. conduct similaranalysesofthemovements they engagein prose andappliesthemtoCP’scampaignssoreaderscan hegemony andFoucauldian discourseinrefreshinglyclear study todevelop theory, Hellerexplicates abstractions like most scholarshipthatwouldusethemovement as acase swaying publicopinionaboutGMOsinEurope.Yet unlike a discursive shiftandwhy theirtacticsprove soeffective in Haraway toexplain howConfédération Paysanne provoked including MichelFoucault, AntonioGramsci, andDonna own proteststhataimtosubvert hegemoniclogics. Heller equipsreaderswiththeknow-howtodesigntheir the Confédération’s stunt-like protestsandpowerfuleffects, cause garneredinternationalmediaattention.Bydetailing showed upinsupportoutsideBové’s trial,thepaysans’ under constructioninMillau.When50,000demonstrators arrested whilesymbolicallydismantlingaMcDonald’s place in1999,whenCP’sspokesperson, JoséBové, was bags. Themovement’s mostfamousdemonstration took uproot plants,andtossroughageinto“hazardousmaterial” “crop pull,” inwhichdemonstrators enteraGMcropfield, with farm-freshfood.Anothercommondemonstration isa fast foodrestaurants andthenstagingaleisurelypicnic New York: Bloomsbury. 2014.251pp. Siniscalchi Carole Counihan andValeria and Economy Food Activism:Agency,Democracy, for globalcoffee trade, Food Activism:Agency, Democracy, winegrowers to thecorporate sector–bornUtzcertification While ithasbecomecommonplaceforsocialscientists Heller enlistsanimpressive array ofsocialtheorists From thebiodynamic viticultureofactivistFrench on thedefinition offoodactivism,divergent definitions interconnected, multi-nodalglobal system. the editors’central contentionthatfoodactivismistrulyan Columbia. Thegeographic diversity ofthecasessupports the UnitedStates,Egypt,France, Japan,SriLanka,and the GlobalNorthandSouth,includingCanada, movements. Chapterauthorsexamine casesfromboth four national-scalemovements, andfive international scale. Thebook’sethnographies include five localcases, three parts,eachexamining foodactivismatadifferent food systemumbrella.Theeditorsdividethebookinto of experience, andresearchinterestsunderthebroad This diversity extends acrossgeographic location, level anthropologists andsociologistsfromacrosstheglobe. one case.Thechapterauthorsareadiverse groupof studies intotal,witheachchapterofthetext addressing of food.CounihanandSiniscalchipresentfourteencase populism, localcontrolofproduction,andtheritualspace resistance, agencyinthefaceofneoliberalism, democratic solid socialsciencebackground.Commonthemesinclude with abasicunderstandingoffoodsystemtheoryand between foodandhumanity. scholarship butalsocallstothedeeplyprimalrelationship across theworld.Thisidearesonateswithinfoodsystem interconnected withothermovements ofvarying scope globalization. Thisself-determinationsurroundingfoodis increasing awareness ofself-determinationintheface Taken collectively, theeditorspresentanarrative of geographic, economic,political,andcultural boundaries. and uniformitywithinfoodactivistmovements across have assembledindividuallysuggestbothdiversity of foodactivismacrosstheworld.Thecasestudiesthey these goalsby effectively weaving aholisticexamination food activistmovements. Theeditorsachieved eachof to investigate theinteraction betweenglobalizationand discuss tensionswithinfoodactivistmovements; and4) the interconnectednatureofglobalfoodactivism;3)to of foodactivismacrosstheglobe;2)todemonstrate for Food Activism produce, distribute,and/or consumefood”(3).Theirgoal food systemacrosstheglobeby modifyingtheway they food activism,definingitas “efforts by peopletochangethe Movement. CounihanandSiniscalchitake abroadviewof while conductingfieldresearchabouttheSlow Food Siniscalchi. Theeditorsdecidedtoassemblethisbook collected andeditedby CaroleCounihanandValeria and Economy isacollectionofethnographic casestudies Although most of theauthorsinthisvolume agree Food Activism’s chaptersareeasilyreadableforanyone wasfourfold:1)todocumentexamples an examination offoodactivism relatedtoanti-hunger specifically tied toanti-hungercampaigns,suggesting that First, theeditorsneglectedtopresent any foodactivism and hegemonicinternationalorganizations. countries, regardlessofbothneoliberal economicpolicies the rightsoffarmerstoproducefoodwithintheirhome Via Campesinaisabottom-upmovement thatsupports like theUnitedNationsandWorld Bank.For Thivet, food securityexpressed by establishedinternationalbodies corporate interestsaswell concernsover traditional idea offoodsovereignty inoppositiontobothneoliberal peasant movement ViaCampesinaandthemovement’s in LaViaCampesina,” DelphineThivet caststherural “Peasants’ Transnational MobilizationforFood Sovereignty separate fromtheirworking-classcounterparts.Second,in an anti-mafiaandorganicproductionactivismthatis in Italy. Inthiscase,thecooperative’s distributorspossess distribution sidesofagrarian anti-mafiawinecooperatives by exploring theclassconflictbetweenproductionand demonstrates thatunityinactivismisnotalways universal in Contemporary Sicily”by TheodorosRakopoulos position. First,“Food ActivismandAntimafiaCooperatives as resistancetoexternal power, butfromadivided discursive language,andboycotting consumption. produced by thecentral government, includingrumors, people engagedinseveral indirectattacksagainstfood withdrawal offoodaidfrompost-Soviet Russia,common due toacombinationoftheAmericanembargoand production. Confrontedwithdecreasedfoodaccessibility Cuban people’s subtleresistancetostate-sponsoredfood Food ActivismthroughUrbanAgriculture” presentsthe chapter entitled“EngagingLatinoImmigrants inSeattle bake price-controlledbread.Second,Teresa M.Mares’s to ensurebakers donotmixdirtintotheflourusedto inspection oflocalgovernment-sanctioned bakeries example ofyouth activismistheimpromptu,unauthorized the BrotherhoodandinEgyptianstate.Apowerful need tobucktheauthorityoftheirsuperiorsbothwithin obligation tothepoorandneedyinyouth members’ “Islamic foodactivism” isrootedbothinIslam’s communal Muslim BrotherhoodinEgypt.AccountingtoNaguid,this in Egypt”describestheactivismofyouth membersofthe chapter entitled“BrothersinFaith:IslamicFood Activism force againstexterior power. First,NefissaNaguib’s world. Two chaptershighlightfoodactivismasaunifying complex, andnuancedideaoffoodactivismaroundthe suggested by someauthorsofferreadersamorecomplete, Readers may observe twominorissueswiththework. Conversely, twootherchaptershighlightfoodactivism studies, agrofood studies,andsciencetechnology best toimprove theirhealthandnutrition. the internationalfoodpolicycommunity determinehow that theirvoices aresilencedastheexperts whoconstitute targeted by hiddenhungerinterventions increasestheirony The factthatthesearethevery peoplewhosebodiesare hunger, disease,andpoverty, many ofwhomarewomen. and practices: thevoices ofthevery peoplewholive with points outthatsomethingelseishiddeninthesediscourses and requiresexpert intervention tocureit.ButKimura from them.Thereforethe“hunger”ishiddenthem iron, andiodine,areofteninvisible tothosewhosuffer by alackofessential micronutrients,suchasvitaminA, hidden hungerdiscourse,diseasesanddisorderscaused in thedietsofworld’spoor. Accordingtoprominent micronutrient deficiencies,orthelackofsufficientnutrients in thedeveloping worldisgenerally understoodtorefer interventions intotheproblemsofhungerandmalnutrition refers inthetitleofhercritiquefortification-based Cornell University Press.2013.226pp. Aya HirataKimura Politics ofSmarterFoods Hidden Hunger:Genderandthe BOOK REVIEW|JESSICALOYER cases presented. inspiration fortheirowninitiatives andpoliciesfromthe movements. Activistsandfoodpolicy experts willfind as itchallengesnotionsofagencyandcontrolwithinfood find thenuancebetweenprofiled movements intriguing, discussions andresearchprojects.Food systemscholarswill use ofjargon,aswellexcellent materialforin-class Students willfindtheworkclearlywritten,withminimal movements mentionedinindividualchapters. stretch tounderstandtheinterrelatednatureofsome readers. Absentsuchaconclusion,readersmustoccasionally excellent opportunitytorevisit theircentral thesiswith as aconcludingchapterwouldprovide theeditorsan work containsnoconcludingchapter. Thisisproblematic, hunger activismfromtheworkisnotnoticeable.Second, scope isbothlogicalaswellpractical. Theabsenceofanti- initiatives wouldrequireitsownbook.Thisnarrowingof Drawing upontheoretical foundationsinfeministfood The “hiddenhunger”towhichAya Hirata Kimura A numberofreaderswillfindFood Activism useful.

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 47 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 48 She develops theconcept of“charismatic nutrients”to representation ofmalnutritionandthefoodproblem. to emphasizethehistoricallycontingent natureofthe her argumentsinsubsequentchapters. Chapter2serves historically andgeographically specificcasestosupport hunger alleviation policiesinChapter1andthen provide context forKimura’s critiqueonglobalmalnutritionand enriched productsofferedby the market” (11). “became synonymous withtheconsumptionofnutrient- world’s poor. Thussolutionstomicronutrient deficiencies trade asthebestway toprovide affordablefoodtothe a market-based solutioninlinewithanideologyofglobal fortification andbiofortification.Neoliberalism encouraged the solutiontoproblemcamebecastintermsof only incombinationwithwidespreadneoliberalization that the thirdworld’sfoodproblemasanutritionalone,itis nutritionism iscertainlyresponsibleforthediagnosisof productive resources,orrisingfoodprices”(5).Butwhile than livingconditions,lowwages,lackoflandandother individuals cometobeconsideredtheproblem,rather “nutritional compositionoffoodandbadeatinghabits approach toaddressingfoodinsecurity. Undernutritionism, food, health,andthebody, intheincreasinglyscientized rather thanincontext ofthecomplex relationshipsbetween food isviewedprimarilyasavehicle fordelivering nutrients underlying causes. to addressnutritionalinadequacieswithoutchangingtheir broader context ofpoverty andsocialinequality, itsought Instead ofsituatinghungerandmalnutritionwithinthe also served toportray theproblemasapoliticalinnature. hands ofexpert scientistsandagrofoodcompanies but turn notonlyputthepowertosolve thisprobleminthe by nutritionalandagricultural science,themicronutrient framing theproblemasatechnicalquestionbestaddressed produce morenutrient-densecrops)asthesolutions.By biofortification (alteringfoodsatthegeneticlevel to fortification (addingnutrientstoprocessedfoods)and Simultaneously, they advocated technologicalfixes of as thepredominantproblemindevelopingworld diets. micronutrients, suchasiron,zinc,vitaminA,andiodine, Experts andpolicymakers diagnosedthelackofsufficient witnessed whatKimura callsthe“micronutrientturn.” 1990s, internationalfoodpolicyregardingtheseproblems hunger andmalnutritioninthedeveloping world.Inthe micronutrient deficienciesastheprimaryproblemof discourses andpractices thatconstitutethefocuson studies, Kimura constructsanuancedcritiqueofthe The bookisstructuredtofirstdevelop thetheoretical Kimura implicatestheideologyofnutritionism,inwhich (171). listening topeople’s—and particularlywomen’s—voices” of suchhungerandissuesthat canbeaddressed“only by that arethesocial,political,and economicfoundations the “scientifictriumphalism” ofhiddenhunger:discourses all, itbegsforrecognitionofthatwhichistrulyhiddenby even ofhungerbut,instead,“foodsovereignty.” Most of problem itselfnotasoneofmicronutrientdeficiencyor requires notonlynewsolutionsbutareframing ofthe movements suchasViaCampesina.Thisalternative discourses anddraws upontheworkofgrassroots social departure fromscientizedmainstreamfoodinsecurity families. Thealternative thatshe offersisaradical malnutrition andthedailychallengesoffeedingtheir despite theirintimateknowledgeoftheexperiences of silenced theirabilitytocontributeperspectives providing propernourishmentfortheirchildren,and victims ofnutritionalignorance, shamedthemfornot simultaneously broughtattentiontowomenasinnocent as atechnicalmatterrequiringexpert intervention has questions abouthowcastingtheproblemofhiddenhunger hidden hungerpoliciesandpractices. Sheraises crucial through whichshereveals thehighlygendered natureof field offoodstudiesisKimura’s strongfeministapproach, solutions. nutritionism andanideologyofneoliberal market-based how theseinterventions areunitedunderadiscourseof and biofortificationinthecaseofgoldenrice.Sheshows wheat flour, voluntary fortificationinthecaseofbaby food, type ofintervention: mandatoryfortificationinthecaseof in Chapters5,6,and7.Eachchapterlooksatadifferent grounded inhistoricalanalysisandethnographic fieldwork nutrition policy. Shepresentsindividualcommoditystudies her studyinthehistoricalevolution ofIndonesianfoodand such interventions occurinpractice, beginningby situating anti-hunger initiatives inIndonesiaasanexample ofhow fit withneoliberal ideology. Chapters4through7 examine fortification asafavored intervention becauseofitsgood World Bankandsimilarlendingorganizationsinadvocating global politicsofhiddenhunger. Shereveals theroleof biofortified foodstotheworld’spoor by investigating the the “micronutrientnetwork”thatsuppliesfortifiedand of changingscientificknowledge.InChapter3shedissects social, politicalandeconomicfactors,notsimplyasamatter changed fromthe1960stopresentday asafactorof demonstrate howdiscoursesaboutthefoodproblemhave Perhaps thegreatestcontributionofthisbookto BOOK REVIEW|GURPINDERLALLI phenomenological approach. and socialmatters, anditarguesthatfoodstudy requiresa This sectionalsoadvocates furtherexploration offood in socialmessagessurrounding Chinesefeastbehavior. ethnicity, and lifestyle.Suchsocialdistinctioncanbeseen his placeinsociety(171).Food communicates socialclass, in theprocessofapersondefining hisindividualityand communication. Itismostclearlyatoolofcommunication from theauthor, withadiscussionaboutfood asameansof to illustrate desiresforandconsumption ofalcohol. from anearlymedieval era andthemid-eighteenthcentury reflections andliterature. Anderson alsoutilizespoetry presence isclearthroughoutthisbookinhisvivid which arepartoftheethnography. Anderson’s personal Mediterranean countriesandinclude powerfulimages, in China,Papua NewGuinea,Istanbul,Mexico, andthe data collectedarebasedontheauthor’spastexperiences pleasure inanautoethnographic pieceofresearch.The Pleasure,” detailsAnderson’s personalviewsoffoodas as pleasure,andfoodmedicine.Chapter7,“Food as human evolution, foodways, religionandethnicity, food between cultures.Overall, thekey topicscovered include the aestheticsofeatingandvarioussensoryperceptions which explore thebiocultural issuesoffoodchoicesfrom separate biologyandgeneticsfromcultural andsocial studies. is, by definition,biocultural andbiosocial.Onecannot process. Theauthorpointsoutthatnutritionalanthropology production, distribution,andconsumptionaspartofasingle should focusontheentirefoodsystem,specificallylookingat sparks particularinterests.Therefore,emergingliterature effective demand(4).Theactofbuyingandacquiringfood argues thatconsumptiondeterminesproductionby creating cultural reasonsforwhy humanseatwhatthey do.Anderson draws onanutritionalcontext toexplain thesocialand phrase, “it’snotwhatweeat,it’showeat.” Everyone Eats has recentlyshiftedtowardemphasizingthenewlycommon granted. Theriseofnutritionalanthropologyandfoodhistory to placefocusonproductionwhiletakingconsumptionfor for foodchoices.Moststudiesofworldproblemstend New York: NewYork University Press.2014.362pp. E.N. Anderson. and Culture, SecondEdition Everyone Eats:UnderstandingFood Chapter 9alsodraws onanautobiographical account The bookisorganizedintothirteenchapters,allof Everyone Eatsprovides insightintothebiocultural reasons

fat, andbreads low incarbohydrates. Theseproductsall drinks fortified withvitamins,buttersand yogurts low in We aresurroundedby cerealsenhancedwithcalcium,soft New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press.2013.352 pp. Gyorgy Scrinis Politics ofDietaryAdvice Nutritionism: TheScienceand BOOK REVIEW|ANETTKALVIN-TOTH societies. in exploring theimportanceoffoodchoices intoday’s provides adiverse accountofthecomplexities involved text forfuturecoursedesignandpolicymaking, asit between foodandsociety. Furthermore, itisaprovocative a relevant text forresearchersexploring therelationship foods have impactedhislifeexperiences. Everyone Eats account onperceptions.Heoffersareflective viewofhow personal experiences offoodsmakes foraninteresting the fieldoffoodstudies.Theauthor’semphasishisown is aparticularlyinviting text forundergraduates entering exploring thesociocultural processesoffoodchoicesand historical factorsandfoodchoices. recognized, whichisoneofthereasonsforhisemphasis ensure thattheaccomplishmentsoftheseindividualsare Anderson, nutritionalanthropologyhasaresponsibilityto creators whohave never beenpreviously identified. For is situatedwellasthebook’sfinalwordonpoliticsoffood. mishaps, miscalculations,wars,andcorruption.Thischapter vision inwhichallgovernments areabletoovercome any based onthefoodavailable, whichheclaimsisanidealistic critiques thosewhoclaimthatthewholeworldcanbefed discusses thepoliticalaspectsoffooddistributionand for thewealthy rather thantostaplesforthepoor. Anderson agricultural researchfundsareploughedintoluxurycrops problem inthepoliticsoffoodandscience,wheretoooften universal phenomenon.Theneedforsocialjusticeisareal facts togetherdemonstrate theimportanceoffoodasa is oneofthemostcommoncausesdeath(250).These a billionpeoplearestillundernourished,andstarvation While amplefoodisavailable throughouttheworld,over focus ontheimportanceofunderstandingfoodways. We currentlylive in theageof“functionalnutritionism.” This bookoffersasnapshotoftherecentdrive towards The finalchapterofthebookrecognizesunsungfood Chapter 13,anaccountofworldfoodproblems,places is

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 49 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 50 “good” and protective nutrients to meet their recommended which advocated people“eat more” oftheseessentially They alsoconstitutethenutritionalmessageofthis era, into ameasurable, comparable, andquantifiable object. deconstruct anddecontextualize food,thereby turning it protein, fats,vitamins,andcalories. Thesenutrients characterized by thescientificdiscoveries ofcarbohydrates, mid-nineteenth tothemid-twentiethcenturiesandis present (45). application ofnutritionalknowledgefromthe1800sto These paradigms frame theproduction,interpretation,and “good-and-bad nutritionism,” and“functionalnutritionism.” identifies threemainparadigms: “quantifying nutritionism,” forms throughoutthehistoryofnutritionscience.Scrinis his nutritionismconcept.Nutritionismhastaken different evolution ofscientificknowledgefrom theperspective of give directionsintoday’s confusingnutritionallandscape. present arealalternative paradigm tonutritionismor and foodmarketing. Yet thebookfallsshortby failingto in dietaryguidelines,nutritionlabeling,foodengineering, how nutritionismhasbeenapplied,utilized,andexploited nutritionism conceptandoffersacomprehensive critiqueof the contestedhistoryofnutritionsciencethroughhis dietary guidanceforthepublic.Scrinispowerfullyillustrates science, whichhearguesfailtoofferasolidandtrustworthy Scrinis questionstheconventional paradigms ofnutritional and thusoverlook thelargerproblems ofnutritionscience. scientific knowledgeismistranslated intodietaryadvice Marion NestleorMichaelPollan, have focusedonlyonhow He arguesthatothercriticsofnutritionscience,suchas Scrinis claimstohave astrongcritiqueofnutritionscience. contemporary popularaccountsanddebatesonnutrition, 150 years. guidelines, andthepublicunderstandingoffoodinpast practices ofthefoodindustry, nutritionalscience,dietary “nutritionism” andillustrates howtheconceptshaped healthy food.Scrinisreferstothisreductive focusas the productionandprocessingqualityofoursupposedly our attentionaway frommoreimportantissues,suchas nutrients, andtheabsenceof“bad”wedraw the nutrientcompositionoffoods,presence“good” have theeffectsweexpect. Heargues thatby focusingon his bookNutritionism consumption ofharmfulones.AsGyorgy Scrinisshowsin consumption ofbeneficialnutrientsandminimizingour claim tomake ushealthierandskinnierby optimizingour The era ofquantifyingnutritionism ranges fromthe One ofthebestsectionsthisbookisananalysis Drawing onscientific,sociological,historical,and , though,thesefoodsdonotalways ingredients. This frame emphasizestheimportance of reconstituted foods areconstructedentirely from these additives, refined,and extracted ingredients,processedfoods (218–19). While refined-processed foods only contain whole, refined-processed,and processed-reconstituted of processingwhenevaluating food,distinguishingbetween paradigm focusesonthequality ofproductionandthelevel eliminating thefindingsofnutritionalscience.This meant tounderstandhealthy andnutritiousfoodwithout paradigm,” amorenuancedandcomplex framework alternative paradigm tonutritionism,the“foodquality between saturated fatsandtherisk ofheartdisease. benefits ofasinglenutrientandsimplifyingtherelationship from itsbroaderdietarycontext, exaggerating thehealth components oftheproductitselfby removing anutrient distract attentionfromthehighlyprocessedandchemical the presenceorabsenceof“good”and“bad”fats—can the reductive focusonasinglenutrient—inthiscase reduces bloodcholesterollevels. Thishistoryshows how the era offunctionalnutritionismby claimingmargarine took advantageofthereductive focusonnutrientsin of heartdisease.Healsoillustrates howthefoodindustry which claimedthatsaturated, “bad”fatsincreasetherisk nutritionism basedonthen-premiernutritionalresearch, promoted margarineover butterintheera ofgood-and-bad Scrinis inthischaptershowshownutritionalexperts cast asahealthier, moredesirable alternative tobutter. margarine, whichismadefrompolyunsaturated fats,was relationship betweensaturated fatsandheartdiseases, when scientistsintheearly1960sfoundevidence ofthe consumed by thepoorersegmentofpopulation.But margarine hadbeenmainlyacheapsubstituteforbutter, paradigms identified by Scrinis.Beforethe1960s, nutritional reductionismandillustrates theshifting described inChapter6illuminatesthepractices of to “eat smarter”(162). suggests optimizingtheconsumptionoffunctionalnutrients role ofspecialnutrientsandfoods.Functional nutritionism bodily healthbutemphasizesthepositive, health-enhancing notion ofasinglecausalrelationshipbetweennutrientsand began inthe1990sandcontinuestoday. Itperpetuatesthe fat andbutter. Finally, theera offunctionalnutritionism was to“eat less”of“harmful”nutrientsandfoods,suchas of good-and-badnutritionism,andthedominantparadigm nutrients thatcanleadtochronicdiseases.Thisistheera distinguish betweenthesenutrientsandidentified“bad” calorie intake. Beginninginthe1960s,scientistsstartedto In thefinalchaptersofbook,Scrinispresentsan The “trans-fats fiasco” orthehistoryofmargarine BOOK REVIEW|EMILY CONTOIS lay audience. attention ofnutritionandsocialscientistsaswellthe are confusingattimes,thebookisstillworthy ofthe though theneologismsandcomplex theoreticalframework the workingmechanismsofthisnutritionalideology. Even supports andillustrates hisargumentsandrendersvisible historical approachoffersadetailedbackgroundthat of bigfoodcorporations inexploiting thisknowledge.His epistemic practices ofthescientificfieldtostrategies a paradigm, andanideology. Hisideasrange from the to extensively critiquenutritionalscienceasapractice, unique theoryofnutritionscience.Heusessocial of scienceandsocialtheory, whichmakes Nutritionism to furtherhiscritique. understanding ofnutritionscienceanddonothelpScrinis or the“nutricentricperson,” arerather confusingforour and Food QualityLexicon,” suchasthe“nutritionalgaze” other conceptsheintroduceswithinhis“Nutritionism presentation ofthehistorynutritionscience,several While hisnutritionismconceptispowerfulinitscritical criticism” heearlierdisparages: Eatlessprocessedfood. Scrinis’s alternative seemstoagreewiththe“weak diets (236). preparing foodtoidentifyhealthy andwholesomefood well asthesensual-practical experiences ofgrowingand cultural-traditional knowledgeaboutfoodandhealthas New York: Bloomsbury. 2012.272pp. Amy Bentley(editor) Modern Age A Cultural History ofFoodinthe about food,eating, eaters,orfoodsystems.The making Became America’s Drink Melanie DuPuisarguesinNature’s Perfect Food: HowMilk scope andspecificindetail,the text reinforceswhatE. Age present. Focusing primarily ontheWest, Food intheModern the cultural historyoffoodfromantiquitytothevery near Fabio Parasecoli andPeter Scholliersthatencompasses the ModernAge Who offoodstudiesscholars,ACultural HistoryofFood in Overall, Scrinis’sexpertise isthehistoryandphilosophy Despite thecomplexity ofthefoodqualityparadigm, Featuring eleven essays pennedby averitable Who’s takes uptheyears from1920onward. Bothbroadin concludesthesix-volume seteditedby

(2002):Thereare noperfectstories a story.” Blockusesthisbrief2009shortage ofKellogg’s attention tofood desertsbutalsothesalience of“theEggo the limitsofglobalfoodproduction, citingnotonlyrecent chapter onfoodsystems,Daniel Blockalsodemonstrates intense socialstakes andeconomicimplications(88).Inhis every stage andsectorofthefoodsystembecause accessible, andaffordablefood,politicaldebatesinundate global foodsystemtoproducesafe,nutritious,abundant, argue thatdespitethepotentialdesireandabilityof this issointheirchapterdedicatedtofoodpolitics.They ever before.Maya JosephandMarionNestlereveal why famine, whichtookmorelives inthetwentiethcenturythan security, safety, and crisesaroundthecommontropesof nearly polemicstatement,heorganizeshischapteronfood twentieth centuryisahistoryofhunger”(69).To support his Atkins assertsinthetext’s thirdchapter, “A historyofthe unsustainable, levels ofproduction.Despite this,Peter Such actionshave yieldedexceptional, butultimately concentration, standardization,andglobalization” (44). that modernfoodhasbeencharacterized by “greater production, Jeffrey Pilchereffectively andsuccinctly argues the ColumbianExchange, inthefirstchapteronfood and dependent.Whileglobalizationhasshapedfoodsince during themodernagebutalsomoregloballyconnected food restaurants servingquick,cheapfare. families consumedcanned,bottled,andboxed foods;fast supermarkets fullofprocesseditems;dinnertables atwhich and locality:farmfieldsshaped by theGreenRevolution; a uniquelyAmericanmarkonfoodscapesofevery size The policies,products,andtechnologiesofthewarmade food, settingthestageforremainderofcentury”(5). production, manufacturing,andadvertising ofindustrialized that World War II“changed, accelerated, andalteredthe adequacy formany eaters.Bentley demonstrates, however, diets thatboastednewvarietyandimproved nutritional began theindustrializationoffoodsupply, yielding and compoundingconsequences.Pre-waradvancements emerges asacentral character, fullofambivalentmeanings modern historyoffood.Inthisstory, processedfood changes, andsocialtransformations thatshapedthe political events, technologicaldevelopments, economic pages, editorAmy Bentley’s introductionsketches the contradictions andparadoxes. modern agemustaccommodate,balance,andnegotiate decline anddegeneration. Rather, thestoryoffoodin linear narrative arcofeitherascensionandprogressor of themodernfoodsystemisastorybesttoldnotwith Food systemsbecamenotonlymoreindustrialized Laying volumes ofcontext inless thantwenty-five

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 51 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 52 Chapter 9,Signe Rousseauoffersperhapsthe most well astoprovide inspiration forfurtherresearch(ix). text’s dominant focusupontheUnitedStatesandEuropeas modernity,” workingtodecentralize andcontextualize the connections andconsequences “at themarginsofWestern Developments,”“World FabioParasecoli explores these of connectionsandconsequences”(179).InChapter10, and consumercultures“also broadenedpeople’s awareness modern era, asadvancements inscience,globallinkages, pronounced, moralized, complicated, andelusive duringthe the soul”(182).Thisprocessofreconciliationgrewmore material demandsofthebodywithnoblelongings as oneinwhicheaterseternallyaspire“toreconcilethe explores thisconflict,characterizing theactofeating “a mythic agrarian past”(147). enacted by womenandmothers)nostalgicfeelingsfor eat collidewithsocialidealsoffamily(particularlythose the globalsystemsdeterminingwhatandhowconsumers (163). Itisatthedinnertable,bothrealandimagined,that of concern for food and for social and political development” contemporary times,thefamilymealhasbecomelocus Julier addressesfamilyanddomesticity, arguing,“In paid kitchenlabor. Withinthisconstantlyshiftingcontext, arrangement, socialprestige,andaffective character of social transformations alteredthelocation,hierarchical practices, demonstrating howthetwentiethcentury’s of kitchenwork,Trubek explores thefluidityofculinary structures ofthebroader, globalfoodsystem.Inherstudy marked bothprivateandpublic,areintricately linked tothe explore howallaspectsofcookingandeating, inspaces (125). InChapters6and7,Amy Trubek andAliceJulieralso of restaurants withinacompetitive culinaryenvironment about producingdifference” inordertoensurethesurvival twenty-first century, morethan ever, diningoutwillbe and “perceptiblyunstable” (113).Sheconcludes,“Inthe the meaningofeatingoutbecomes“manifestlyvariable” so blursthedistinctionsbetweenprivateandpublicthat In herstudyofeatingout,shearguesthataglobalizedworld the simpleandfancy, thequotidianandspectacular. between insidersandintruders,tradition andinnovation, the boundariesconstructedtodivideeatinginandout— also Americanculture” (67). it “isstillvery muchapartofnotonlyAmericaneatingbut industrial food’svulnerabilities, excesses, andproblems, to consumersatthetime,demonstrate thatdespite Eggo waffles,whichwasofnearly hyperbolic concern In herstudyoffood mediaandrepresentations in In Chapter8,“BodyandSoul,” Warren Belascoalso In Chapter5,PriscillaParkhurst Ferguson examines DuPuis, E.Melanie.Nature’s Perfect Food: HowMilk Bibliography scholars andstudentsalike. food duringourmostrecentcenturyandissuretoengage Age and globalhistory. ACultural HistoryofFood intheModern singularly contributesvaluableinsightstothestudyoffood demonstrative, enlightening,andcohesive. Thisvolume the cultural historyoffoodisnownotonlypossiblebut topic unworthy ofseriousinquiry, thisseriesdedicatedto past momentswhentheacademy shunnedfoodasa points totheachievement ofthistext andseries.Despite about andnegotiatinglife” (200).Inthisway, Rossseau through—food, becauseitisanatural conduitforthinking argues, “People willcontinuetotellstoriesabout—and porn, fineart,magazines,andtelevision programs, she its continuityover time.Citingscientificliterature, food optimistic accountoffoodinthemodernera, gesturingto Oxford: Oxford University Oxford Oxford: Press. 2012.304pp. Jon Stobart in ProvincialEngland,1650-1830 Sugar &Spice:GrocersandGroceries BOOK REVIEW|KIMICERIDON sellers ofthese items.Throughtheexamination ofparticular themselves fromotherretailersto becomethemosttrusted their personalizedsellingpractices, grocersdifferentiated developing acomplex supplynetworkandby cultivating drapers andmetalsmiths.Sugar&Spice items atavarietyofshopkeepers, suchasapothecaries, middling andlowerclassescouldpurchasethesespecialty goods wereenjoyed notonlyby thegentryandelite: and tobacco.Widespreadavailability meantthesenew newly available productssuchasspices,sugar, tea,coffee, led toadaptive retailingtechniques foracquiringandselling systems offlexible procurementandsellingpractices that Beginning inthelateseventeenth century, heexamines Sugar &Spice:Grocers andGroceries inProvincial England practices dateasfarback longseventeenth centuryin habits, procurementtechniques,andmodernretailing provides athorough,varied,anddynamichistoryof Jon Stobartpersuasively showsthatdailypurchasing University Press,2002. Drink.NewYork:Became America’s NewYork shows thatby .

to thestateofhousehold supplies.Yet othersmadeerratic purchasing. For others,purchasesweremade inresponse Sometimes andforsomeindividuals, thismeanthabitual than duetoaconstantpursuit ofnovelty andimitation. decisions basedonday-to-day circumstancesrather the assertionthatindividualsmade grocery-shopping behind consumerbehavior. argues they areonlypart ofmorecomplex motivations not dismissthenotionsofnovelty andimitationbutrather individual actionsinbuildingaglobaleconomy. Stobartdoes and grocersasindividualsrecognizestheimportanceof ability todefineidentity. Assuch,Stobarttreats consumers decisions basedonhisorherindividualneeds,desires,and of theconsumerasapersonmakingdailyconsumptive agency. Hedismissesthiscaricatureby creatingaportrait the consumerasamindless,homogeneousgroupwithno driven by novelty andimitationresultsinacaricatureof that treatingeighteenth-centurypurchasingbehaviors as and examines habitsofgrocersandhouseholds. Heargues perspective inTheIndustriousRevolution displays ofgoodsforreadyinspection. environments, withparlorsforpolitesocializationand figures. To establishtrust,grocerscreatedwelcoming tea packagingthroughgraphics ofpagodasandChinese from theeighteenthcenturyenduresincontemporary imagery tofurtherenforcethesequalities.Such Advertising mediaandtrade-cards usedprovenance and trust, quality, authenticity, andpersonalreputation. hone theirtrade over time. shopkeepers usedcustomizedandflexible techniquesto Stobart piecestogetheramorenuancedpictureinwhich argue newproductssuddenlyrevolutionized retailing, in ShopsandShopkeepers ofEighteenth-CenturyEngland, day-to-day shoppinginteractions. Unlike Muiandwho, records andcorrespondences,recipebookstoexamine inventories, taxaccounts,storereceipts,grocercredit selling spaces,advertising andhandbillmaterials,estate geographical trends,descriptions,andillustrations of individuals withintheglobalsystem.Hedraws on influenced by individualconsumersandsellers. Stobart effectively remindsustheglobalisconstitutedand focusing onthepractices ofindividualswithinglobaltrade, discuss theeveryday consumptionhabitsofindividuals.By corresponding consumers,Stobarttakes alocalizedviewto grocers’ salesrecordsandthepurchasinghabitsof Stobart usesstorerecordsandadvertising tosupport Unlike historianJandeVries’s market-based economic Sellers andconsumerscultivatedrelationshipsthrough Stobart usesasocialhistoryapproachtoexamine , Stobartzoomsin

anything, Sugar&Spice to trendinessand moretoindividualcircumstances. If century consumerswerepurchasing groceriesdueless however, Stobartdoeseffectively showthateighteenth- contrast. Despitethelimitationsofavailable evidence, all ofEnglandmay notbesufficientlylocaltosharpenthis with theglobalperspectives. An analysisencompassing sense, Stobartstrugglestobalancethelocalperspective pressure onthebehaviors ofgrocersandconsumers.Inthis but itisunclearhowlargersocioeconomicforcesexerted of multiplegrocersprovides cohesioninthenarrative, examination ofprintadvertising andthecreditaccounts availability ofrecipebooksandestateinventories. Theclose spatial conclusionsaboutconsumptionbasedonthelimited an anomaly. Such limitedcomparisonscouldconstituteeitheratrendor acting accordingtoneedsspecificatimeandlocation. grocer inthelateeighteenthcenturytoshowtwogrocers of onegrocerintheearlyeighteenthcenturytothosea location. For example, hecomparesthe purchasinghabits conclusions fromevidence thatisdisparate inbothtimeand evidence fromsmallgeographic areasofEngland.Hedraws according toindividualpreferences,hedoessowith exerted agencyindefiningtheirtrade andconsumption and offeredascomforts. indicate thesegoodswerepartofordinaryday-to-day life were notinthepositiontoimitateelite,purchases and tobaccoarepurchasedforinmates.Sincemostinmates workhouse. Heresupposedluxuriessuchastreacle,tea, discusses isanoverseer’s accountsoftheSt. John’s and occasion.Themosttellingpieceofevidence Stobart but rather purchasesexpressing preference,affordability, indicating notpurchasingpatternsdriven by imitation of teaandinfrequentlypurchasedhighergrades oftea, lower-class customersregularlypurchasedlowergrades From acloseexamination ofcreditrecords,heshowsthat patterns andhabitsemergedtomaintainthedemand. (tea, forexample) eventually woreoff, andnewconsumer distinction. rather thanasaprocessforcreatingandcultivatingmarket comfort, individualpreference,economy, andavailability shopping emergedasaprocessofaddressingneeds, with intent,planningpurchasespriortoshopping.Grocery by fashion.Rather, mostconsumersvisitedtheirgrocer needs. People didnotpurchasegroceriesonawhim,swayed and oftenchaoticpurchaseslikely basedoninstantaneous The samemay besaidofestablishingtemporal and While Stobartdemonstrates grocersandconsumers Stobart recognizesthatthenovelty ofnewgroceries demonstrates the need formore

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 53 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 54 BOOK REVIEW|ARIELKNOEBEL sellers. examining thelocalinfluencesofindividualconsumersand coffee, andtobacco,Stobartpresentsacompellingcasefor increasing consumptionofnewgoodslike spices,sugar, tea, trade onanindividuallevel. Whileglobaleconomicsindicate localizes and,thus,examines eighteenth-centuryglobal eighteenth centuryretailing,Sugar&Spice emulation. Asasocialhistorytracing thedevelopment of by individualandpersonalchoicesrather thansolely treating eighteenth-centurygrocerypurchasesasdriven play inglobaltrade. localized socialhistoriesthatexamine therolesindividuals University 2014.222pp. Press. ofCalifornia George Solt Global FoodCraze Political CrisisinJapanSpawneda The UntoldHistoryofRamen:How their foodtraditions tothequicklyindustrializing country. changes inJapan whilemigrant Chineseworkers brought nineteenth century, Europeanimperialismdirectedcultural first threechapterstotrace thedish’s history. Inthelate to cosmopolitancrowdsacross theglobe.Soltuses Chinese immigrant identity, intoaJapanese cultural export soba, originallyassociatedwithmanuallabor, poverty, and is adishworthy ofitsownnarrative: Itevolved fromShina during ColdWar andJapanesenationalidentity. as afetishfood.Instead,heexamines issuesofglobaltrade in popularculturebutdeliberately avoids examining ramen history ofJapanthroughramen’s changingrepresentations Japan’s changingnationalidentity. Solttraces thecultural as anevolving dishbutasalenstodiscussfood,labor, and in Japanesecultural texts. Hespeaksoframen notsimply ramen andtheextensive documentationofitsconsumption characteristics, andmoves ontodiscusstheubiquityof ramen, paying respecttothevarietyofstylesandregional begins hisintroductionwithacomprehensive definitionof manual laborerstoafashionableworldwidecraze. Solt the calorie-richsustenanceofChineseimmigrants and beloved nationalfoodtraces ramen fromitsoriginsas Overall, Stobartprovides acompellingcasefor Any readercanseethroughSolt’srecordthatramen George Solt’samplenarrative ofthehistoryJapan’s

successfully portion ofthebook’s content,causingthereader tomiss Solt’s lengthy discussion offoodrationing takes upalarge of theinstantramen industryinJapanandtheworld. was essentiallyremoved fromthemenu),andahistory food rationing inAsiaduringtheColdWar (whenramen of ramen inpopularculture,acomprehensive lookat cultural andlaborchangesin Japanthroughrepresentations into threeseparate books:adiscussion ofthehistorical with thecentral point.Solt’swork couldhave beendivided modern context, largeportionsofthebookfeelunaligned the cultural relevance oframen bothinahistoricaland specialty shopsandsubculturesacrosstheworld. transformation oframen intoafashionableobjectworthy of significantly morecompellingway. Here,Soltdescribesthe of cultural artifacts,whichrelatetothemainargumentina second sectionincludesmuchmoreappropriatereadings relation tothecentral theme.Bycontrast, thestronger the book,insteadjustfeellike digressive storieswithfrail of evidence, whichcouldhave strengthenedthethesisof few tie-instohiscentral argument.Theseimportantpieces corporation, andpopularmovies andbooks—butprovides specific casestudies—theRaumenMuseum,theNissin to Solt’smainargument.Heoffersstrongdescriptionsof and cultural analysesthatlackstrongcontext orconnection Japan fromaconsumerlevel. implications ofthemostrecentramen crazes outsideof chefs butmissesanopportunitytoexamine thesocial artistry andcommitmenttoexcellence ofmany ramen place intoday’s foodworld,Soltexamines thecontinuing popularity inrecentyears. Inhisfinalanalysisof ramen’s to theinternationalscene,inwhichramen hasrisento about itscreationandcontents.Hethenexpands hisscope at theforefrontofhisanalysishere,goingintogreatdepth masterpiece. SoltplacestheJapaneseRaumenMuseum its abilitytotransform intoagloballyregardedculinary the dish’s staying powerasaJapanesecultural stapleand One ofthemostremarkablepartsstoryramen is into aJapanesenationalfoodandgloballyiconicdish. American culture. the implicationsoframen’s popularityonbothJapaneseand marketing andtechnologyinJapanexamines many of diet. Chapter3changesfocustodiscussinstantramen the effective eliminationoframen fromtheJapanese rationing andtheshortagesinwheatmeatthatcaused US government documentstodiscussColdWar food Chapter 2usesawell-researchedanalysisofdeclassified Although Soltmakes acompellingargumentregarding This firstsectionofthebookfeelsrifewithdigressions Chapters 4and5followthetransformation oframen BOOK REVIEW|ROBERT MCKEOWN understanding ofexactly howthatcametobe. in Japan’s cultural supremacybutwithoutathorough reader withageneral satisfactionregardingramen’s role change inJapan.Uponconcluding,thebookleaves the the author’sargumentaboutramen asamarker ofcultural Ramen fallsshortinfullyutilizingthisevidence toenhance and interestedreadersalike. However, TheUntoldHistoryof to read.Thebookisaccessibleandappealingscholars important partofJapanesecultureintheinter-warperiod. to hisdigressive approach,whichappearedblindtoan Solt’s argumentandengagedthereaderfurther, incontrast period. Further researchinthisvein wouldhave supported discussion ofthecultural implicationsorhistoryofthistime mentions ofablackmarket forramen butoffersnofurther about breadandotherfoodstuffs.Heincludesmere ramen noodleswhenrecordsappearedtobemuchmore evidence aboutwheatrationing inordertorelateit to andnever discussed.Soltseemedtobestretchinghis market—a facetoftheramen storythatisonlyalluded out oninterestingevidence oframen ontheJapaneseblack Honolulu: University ofHawaii 2014.304pp. Press. Robert Ji-SongKu Politics ofEatingAsianintheUSA Dubious Gastronomy:TheCultural their natural borders—Ji-Song Ku’sDubiousGastronomy: “authentic” Asianculturesand cuisines—especially outside how weeat(1). era thatdemandsnewways todiscuss anddefinewhy and citizenships, andfluidethnicidentities”—in otherwords, an and capital,shiftinggeographic borders, flexible cultural Song Kulabelsasdefined by “trans-national flowsoflabor America. ThiscategoryhasrisenatatimeauthorRobertJi- and parcelofaculturethatisrepresentative ofAsiansin of foods:thosesynonymous withAsiabutentirelypart United Statesthey have cometorepresentanewcategory mainstream butubiquitous.Withinthebordersof of dishesandcuisinesthatarenotjustavailable inthe around theworld.Oneconsequencehasbeenrise cooking aswellaparallel increaseinitsavailability Overall, Solt’saccountfeelswellresearchedandeasy Set againstabackdrop of fear forthewaningof The lastdecadehasseenaboomofinterestinAsian role inthechoice oftopic.Ji-SongKumixes ethnographic residence (Los Angeles, Manhattan,andHawaii) play aclear background (Korean-American) andplaces ofbirthand yet personalyarnfromalover of allthingsediblewhose (Asian andAsian-American); onanother, itisanintellectual is across-disciplinaryexploration offoodandculture of consumptioninNorthAmerica.Ononelevel, thisbook of theirrespective entries intothepsyche andlandscape China, andKorea—and takes asaseriesoftastecasessome Seoul (5). a laksacooked inPenang oramisopaste-permeatedsoupin the very existence ofacuisineatitsgastronomicroot—say, culture inQueensisasimportant,” asequallymeaningful, practice aredirectlyconnected [totrends,then]food Song Kuarguesthatif“thehealthandvitalityofacultural status andhistorically-rootedpatternsofidentification,Ji- out offocus,newtechniquesandtechnologiesappear”(25). have ahistory:tastesshift,regionaldistinctionsgoinand within theboundariesofhisobjectstudy:“all cuisines to underlinetheconstantstateoftransformation atwork the oft-citedArjunAppadurai, inhisLetter onAuthenticity, with theediblevarietybeingnoexception. Hecallsupon This typeofdiscourse,hefurthers,rulesallformsculture, way hediscussesfoodinbothacultural andpoliticalsense. Indeed, thisstructuringphilosophy plays akey roleinthe thanks toacertainpoliticaleconomy ofcommunication. the elevated statusofany formoflanguageonlyholds Asian foodculturetoamothertongue.Heunderlinesthat foods tothepidginformofany languageandthetraditional complexity thanwemay think. sense, they arealsomoresubtleandpervasive intheir may appearlessrobustly“authentic” inthetraditional sets outtoprove that,whileAsian-American foodcultures the ideaofauthenticityincertainglobalizedAsianfoods,he Is authenticityanillusion?Orisitatrap? Byrefashioning critical explorations ofAsianfoodsinAmerica,hequestions: Americanization and,finally, transformation. Inaseriesof inducing, disrespectful(inthetraditional sense) processof specifically somethingwhichhasundergoneadoubt- labels withfondnessandenergyas“thedubious,” ormore entirely newsetofcultural politicsatwork:onewhichhe the very focusofauthenticityby positingthatthereisan ruination ofso-calledauthenticfoods,Ji-SongKurelocates mean? Ratherthanlamentingthebastardizationand exactly, doestheAmericanizationofAsianfoodculture The Cultural Politics ofEatingAsianinAmerica Dubious Gastronomy focusesonthreecultures—Japan, Spotlighting thetensionbetweentrend-driven cultural Ji-Song KucomparestheAmericanizationofAsian askswhat,

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 55 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 56 of theEast’smost celebrated cuisines,fromThailandto delicate Kyoto cookingand teaculture,forexample. Some the dimensionsofregionalcuisines—fiery Szechuanfoodor Northeast Asianfoodstuffsfrom threeculturesexcludes his obvious strengths.Hisexclusive focusona handfulof they tendtoemergefromthesameareasthatare also driven restaurants. as atablecondimentingeneration ofhipster-run, chef- foodstuffs. Oncederided,henotes,MSGisnowavailable Vogue Japanese scientist’sdiscovery andlaterfindingitsway into (MSG) followsasimilarredemptiontrail, beginningwitha superfood intheUnitedStates.Monosodiumglutamate national treasurewithitsownmuseumandapresent-day kimchi), tracing itspathasitbecomesacelebrated Korean (meant toestablishparameters forwhatcanbecalled battles withJapaneseconglomerates ataCODEXhearing considered shamefulandstinky. Hedocumentsthedish’s certain ingredients;asachile-ladendish;andfoodonce place onearth.Hegives kimchicontext asaproductof his childhoodhauntofFlushing,Queens,themostdiverse exchange ofingredients(mostimportantly, thechile) andto Korean homeland,through thehistoryofNewWorld parents gave himtotake thereadertoextremes ofthe path ofabottlethefermentedcabbagepicklethathis In hisodetokimchi,Ji-SongKutraces thecreationand culture takes centerstage,asdodiscoursesofauthenticity. creation myths andtheirmeanings.Americanhegemony in development oftheCaliforniaroll,unpacking different strong featureofJi-SongKu’swork.Hetraces thehistoric tackles monosodiumglutamateandSPAM. on kimchianddogmeat;thethird,“artificial gastronomy,” subjects; thesecond,“disreputable gastronomy,” focuses gastronomy,” usingCaliforniarollsandChinesetakeout as American foodculture.Thefirstdiscusses“inauthentic and ethnographic exploration ofasingleaspectAsian- a differentaspectof“thedubious”throughcasestudy distinct sectionsinDubiousGastronomy, andeachexamines and politicsfortheirnative cuisines.Therearethree fellowship” intheirconstantroleasguardiansofculture position ofcultural isolationtoonedefined by a “discursive States, Ji-SongKuredeploys Asian-Americans froma culture hasassumedaplaceinthepopulistpantheon. extrapolated foranincreasinglycomplex timeinwhichfood origins, literary theory, ethnichistory, andtextual analysis, research andfieldinterviewswithforays intolinguistic If thereareweaknessestoJi-SongKu’sapproach, Deep, ethnographic historiesofhissubjectsarea Matching hisculinaryfocustothebordersofUnited magazineandanenormouspercentageofAmerican foodways arenotthesoleproductofculinary tradition but diversity andunity. They arguethat AsianAmerican uses foodtosimultaneouslyand superficiallycelebrate America possessed, andingested”(3).The authorsofEatingAsian a peopleandnation ..[but]commodity tobebought, term “Asian” being“notmerelyadescriptive categoryfor such as“Chinese,” “Asian,” or“foreign.” Thisresultsinthe national andregionaldifferencesundergenericheadings Asians intoasinglegastronomicbodyandsubsumes the processofracialization. Thisprocess essentializes works aroundthepremisethatfoodisaway tofacilitate famous chefs,orbusinessowners.EatingAsianAmerica and visibilityinAmerica,whetherasindenturedworkers, role. Food isapermissiblerealmforAsianadvancement that have restrictedanddefinedAsiansintoanalimentary foodscape istheresultofexternal forcesandinequalities answer. Theoverwhelming AsianpresenceintheAmerican Eating AsianAmerica than otherimmigrant orethnicgroups.Theeditorsof delicious, orAsiansaremoredevoted toentrepreneurship Asians arenaturally goodcooks,Asianfoodisintrinsically American foodscape.Commonpositsforthisarethat Asian andAsian-influencedfoodisanintegral artofthe Mannur (Editors) F. ManalansanIV,andAnita Robert Ji-SongKu,Martin Studies Reader Eating AsianAmerica:AFood BOOK REVIEW|LIZBADA New York: NewYork University Press.2013.210pp. Today 2,no.4(August,1986):25. “On CulinaryAuthenticity,”Appadurai, Anthropology Arjun Bibliography served andconstantlychanging. a commonAmericatable—oneonwhichAsiancuisineis professional chefs,andacademicsalltotake aseataround that invites thelikes offoodadventurers, homecooks, questions andproviding conciseanswers.Hisisagesture Ku’s bookaccomplishes,however, isnotsomuchidentifying India, areentirelywithoutrecognitionhere.WhatJi-Song Eating AsianAmerica refute theideaofagenericmulticulturalism that consideradifferent,morecomplex addressesthequestionofwhy

still smallenough tofitintoasinglebite” (375).Phillipsalso sense ofplacethat impliesthewidenessof worldbutis borders. “Theresultofthecartographies thatshedraws isa broader regions,withlooselydefined and overlapping features suchaslanguageorreligion. Itresultsinmuch in avery differentshapethanmapsbaseduponcultural culinary practices. Thisrecartography draws theworld Jaffrey’s processof describingacultural spaceby its globalization toasetofmarket forces.Phillipsexplores hegemonic globalcorporations, which worktoreduce perspective, Jaffrey’s text opposes thepresenceof experience. ByaddressingglobalismfromaSouthAsian in whichitrecentersglobalizationontheSouthAsian cookbook MadhurJaffrey’s World Vegetarian the artistic.InPart IV, DeloresB.Phillipsdiscussesthe navigate Americanculture. shops provide asafespaceinwhichimmigrants canlearnto culture. ThroughconstantcontactwithAngelenos,donut structured tohelpmaintainandreproduceCambodian Cambodian donutshopshasresultedinanetworkperfectly a unifiedimmigrant culture.The overwhelming presenceof commodity, donutshopsalsoprovide ameansforcreating culture aswell.Althoughproviding auniquelyAmerican only betweencultures,butwithinCambodianimmigrant strongly by heranalysisofhowthatnegotiationoccurs,not shops actasasiteofcultural negotiation.Thisissupported headstrong immigrant, Ted Ngoy. Curtisarguesthatdonut culture primedfordonutbusinessestoflourishandasingle Curtis traces thisphenomenonbacktotheconfluenceofa Cambodians ownapproximately 90percentofthose shops. to moredonutshopsthanany othercityintheworld,and owned donutshopsinLos Angeles. Los Angelesishome section, ErinM.Curtisfocusesheressay onCambodian- culinary laborupontheagencyofAsianAmericans.Inthis definition ofAsianAmericanidentity. of foodasaguidetounderstandingtheconstructionand IV, theauthorsexplore literary andartistic representations category of“Asian American” isconstructed.Finally, inPart Americanness. InPart III,theauthorsinvestigate howthe primary way forthemajoritytointerpretAsian/Asian discuss theprocessesthroughwhichfoodcametobe and entrepreneurshipinfoodservice.InPart II,theauthors experience. InPart I,theauthorsaddressissueoflabor focusing onadifferentaspectoftheAsiangastronomical and classedhierarchies” (6). result fromacombinationof“racial, gendered,sexualized, Part IVshiftsthefocusfromexperiential to Part IcentersthediscussionaboutAsianAmerican There arefoursectionsinEatingAsianAmerica andtheway , each specialty subject. vital aspectofAmericanfoodculture andnotrelegatedtoa niche topic.EatingAsianAmerica it isimportantthatthisbooknot beconsideredtoexplore a growing conversation aboutAmericanfoodways; assuch, addition tofoodstudies.Itisasignificantthe food studies.Thisbookisahighlyuseful,andmuchneeded, the Asian/Asian Americanperspective tothedisciplineof communities inBrooklyn. of studyareasfamiliarwiththeFilipinodiaspora orUzbek encountered, itisunlikely thatscholarsoutsideofthisfield American internmentcampsmay have beenpreviously the storiesofChineserestaurant workers orJapanese book takes caretoincludeawidespectrumofvoices. While identities areperformedandreceived. Inaddition,this identities arecreatedbutrather onhowthoseestablished The essays inthisbookfocusnotonhowAsianAmerican the expression, asopposedtotheformation, ofidentity. leaders andcreatorsofeconomicmovements. agency ofAsianAmericansintheglobalmarketplace, as history isrootedinmigrant labor. Thisbookhighlightsthe relation toAsianAmericans,asAmericanimmigrant in any arena,butthisisaparticularlyglaringomissionin between foodandlaborhave notbeenextensively studied consumption, andartisticefforts.Therelationships to foodservicebutalsointermsofproduction,distribution, boy.” AsianAmericanlaborisdiscussednotjustinrelation essentialized characters like “thecook”ordelivery common tropeofslottingAsianAmericanlaborinto in theserviceeconomy. However, thisbookavoids the identity. ThisbookdoesaddresstheroleofAsianAmericans strengths isitsexploration oftheeconomicaspects largely absentfromthefield.OneofEatingAsianAmerica entirely novel, theauthorsaddressitfromaperspective between foodandidentity. Whiletheconceptitselfisnot into theongoingconversation abouttheinteraction actions. reduced toapicturesqueintroductionFirstWorld no investment inorconnectionto.ThirdWorld laboris Third World processthatthereadercanobserve buthas experience ofIndianwomensortinglentilstoageneralized First World reader. Shetransforms thespecificcultural both highlightsandobscuresThirdWorld womenfromthe allows thatJaffrey’s text isnotwithoutitsproblems.Jaffrey Eating AsianAmerica Eating AsianAmerica Eating AsianAmerica doesanexcellent jobofintroducing bringsanumberofnewvoices also putsparticularemphasison shouldberecognizedasa ’s

GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 57 GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 58 by ElizaMurphy Venison with Scene |2015 T Call forArtwork www Reviews. agogy, nutrition,philosophy, religion,andthenatural sciences.TheJournalalsoincludesasectionforBook pology, history, historyofscience,sociology, cultural studies,gendereconomics,art,politics,ped- der debateamongstudentsacrosstheacademiccommunity. their exceptional academicresearch.TheGraduate JournalofFood Studieshopestofosterdialogueandengen- ing submissionsforitsfourthedition;thedeadlineis31January2016. couraging and promoting interdisciplinary food scholarship at the graduate level. The The Graduate Food of Journal isaninternationalstudent-runandrefereedjournaldedicatedtoen- Studies T Call forSubmissions www its firstannualconference. For moreinformationonjoining,pleasevisitthewebsite. pers forfood-relatedconferences,offersshortprimersonprofessionalization,andiscurrentlyorganizing ing theirexceptional work. the springof2014withgoalsconnectinggraduate studentswhoareinterestedinfoodandpromot- The Graduate AssociationforFood Studies(GAFS) isaninterdisciplinaryacademiccommunityfoundedin T Call forMembers 8.5x11 sheetsashi-resolution(300dpi).pdfor.jpgfiles tothefollowingaddress: locales (thoughthesecouldbeinterestingtoo). welcomes drawings, paintings,andcollages asalternatives todigitalsnapshotsof dinnercoursesinexotic ambitious andconsiderate ofbothbroadermedia,as well astriedandtruetechniques.TheJournal conceived asaseriesisappreciatedbutnotrequired. to: itsproduction,availability, preparation, journey, cultural context andhistory, taste,texture, etc.Work broadlyincluding,butnotlimited feature inforthcomingissues.Artworkmustconsiderthetopicoffood Instagram: @gradfoodstudies Facebook: “Grad Food Studies” Twitter: @gradfoodstudies Join UsonSocial Media art The Graduate Food of Journal isseekingoriginalartworkfromartists,students,andreadersto Studies he he he The Journalfeaturesfood-focusedarticlesfromdiverse disciplinesincluding,butnotlimitedto:anthro- Published bi-annuallyindigitalandprintform,thejournalisaspacewhichpromisingscholarsshowcase The organizationpublishestheGraduate Food of Journal Studies,provides itsmemberswithcallsforpa- If you areinterestedinsubmittingyour workforourreview, pleasesend6-10imagesformattedon While welive inaphotographic socialnetworkingage,it’simportantthat your contributionsare @ . graduatefoodassociation J J A . graduatefoodassociation gradu ournal ournal ssociation atefood association . . org . org org

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GRADUATE JOURNAL OF FOOD STUDIES 59 A Word on the Fonts Given the importance of self-presentation in academics, we think that having a striking-yet-professional graphic look is important for the GAFS. Designer Claudia Catalano gave the Journal its original layout, something we’ve tinkered with just slightly in our move to print. With that move, we decided that we needed both a serif and sans serif font, both of which would do well in print as well as digitally. We went with the following two fonts, Lato and Merriwether, and here’s a bit about them (with some text borrowed from Google Fonts).

Lato Lato is a sans serif typeface family started in the summer of 2010 by Warsaw-based designer Łukasz Dziedzic (“Lato” means “Summer” in Polish). When working on Lato, Łukasz tried to carefully balance some potentially conflicting priorities. He wanted to create a typeface that would seem quite “transparent” when used in body text but would display some original traits when used in larger sizes. He used classical proportions (particularly visible in the uppercase) to give the letterforms familiar harmony and elegance. The semi-rounded details of the letters give Lato a feeling of warmth, while the strong structure provides stability and seriousness.

Merriweather Merriweather was designed to be a text face that is pleasant to read on screens.There are currently four weights: Regular, Light, Bold, and Black. Designed by Eben Sorkin, Merriweather features a very large x height, slightly condensed letterforms, a mild diagonal stress, sturdy serifs, and open forms. volume II no.2 | September 2015 Graduate Journal of Food Studies

a peer-reviewed journal on food studies by graduate students