United Nations World Food Programme Climate Change in West Africa

Recommendations for Adaptation and Mitigation Prepared for: United Nations World Food Programme - West Africa Bureau

Address: 10 Avenue Pasteur angle Galliéni B. P. 6288 Dakar Etoile, 11524 Dakar , Senegal Website: http://www.wfp.org

West Africa Bureau Advisors: David Bulman Margot Vandervelden Becca Pass

Prepared by: Columbia University, School of International & Public Affairs Masters of Public Administration in Environmental Science & Policy April 2008

Address: 420 W. 118th St., New York, NY 10027 Website: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/mpaenvironment/

Contributing Authors : Joshua Cohen Sarah Fulton Tara Jordan Rebecca Kline Heather Matheson (Deputy Manager) Andrew Miller Jamie Pang Harmony Patricio (Manager) Dan Shepherd Angela Stucker Samantha Tress (Editor) Fang Wang

Faculty Advisor: Kathy Callahan Table of Contents

Executive Summary ...... 5

Introduction ...... 7

Background Food Security and Climate Change ...... 9 The WFP and Climate Change ...... 9 Ecology of the Region ...... 10

Global Climate Change and West Africa Regulating Properties of the Climate System ...... 11 Current Climate Projections ...... 12

Impacts of Climate on Vulnerabilities Flooding ...... 13 Drought and Desertifi cation ...... 13 Deforestation ...... 16 Food Security ...... 18

Issue Chapters Introduction ...... 19

Chapter 1: Flooding ...... 21 1.1 Flood Management Structures ...... 22 1.2 Sea Level Rise Strategies ...... 25 1.3 Aquaculture in Floodplains ...... 29

Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation ...... 33 2.1 Weather Index Insurance to Reduce Risk for Farmers...... 34 2.2 Rain Gauges and Sowing Charts for Planning Crop Planting ...... 39 2.3 Strategies to Reduce Desertifi cation ...... 42 2.4 Rainwater Storage ...... 45 2.5 Micro-Irrigation ...... 48

Chapter 3: Deforestation ...... 51 3.1 Tree Nurseries and Afforestation or Reforestation Projects...... 52 3.2 Use of Solar Cookers as Substitute for Fuelwood and Charcoal Stoves ...... 57 3.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission-Reducing Projects for Carbon Credit Generation ...... 61

3 Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security ...... 65 4.1 Incorporation of Agricultural Biodiversity through Cropping Methods ...... 66 4.2 Homestead Gardening for Resiliency and Nutrition ...... 70 4.3 Fertilizer Application ...... 75

Applied Studies ...... 79 Applied Study on Flooding: Fish-for-Work in Mali ...... 81 Applied Study on Drought and Desertifi cation: Weather Index Insurance in Mali ...... 84 Applied Study on Deforestation: Solar Cookers and Carbon Credits in Burkina Faso ...... 87 Applied Study on Food Security: Cereal and Legume Rotations in the West African Sahel ...... 90

Conclusion ...... 94

References ...... 97

Appendices I. Supplemental Resources ...... 106 II. Additional Program Recommendations ...... 109 III. Potential Partnerships ...... 110

4 Executive Summary

Executive Summary

This report was drafted, at the request of the These recommendations may provide United Nations World Food Programme useful tools for the WFP in promoting West Africa Bureau (WFP), at Columbia the adaptation and mitigation of climate University’s School of International and change as it relates to their mission. Public Affairs Program on Environmental Research efforts lead to the conclusion Science and Policy. The report provides that programs should be designed on information on the impacts of global a local scale according to the unique climate change on livelihoods and food characteristics of a community, and that security, as well as recommendations long-term development efforts will be for the WFP to inform their adoption of most effective for the work of the WFP. adaptation and mitigation strategies. The program recommendations are organized The analytical focus of this report according to vulnerability categories that emerged based on the four vulnerability the United Nations Environment Program areas as identifi ed by the UNEP. While (UNEP) has designated as being quite recommendations are organized according relevant for climate change: fl ooding, to vulnerability category, a combination drought and desertifi cation, deforestation, of programs and approaches from and direct impacts on food security. different categories will likely offer the most effective approaches. Some of these The WFP in West Africa provides aid to a recommendations are already in practice region of uniquely high vulnerability and in West Africa, but implementation of variability. Political challenges, socio- such recommendations on multiple fronts cultural diversity and extreme poverty will better achieve adaptation to climate in the region foster a state of intense change. In addition, knowledge sharing susceptibility to crises. The variation between institutions, governments, and in climates, land types, and resource local communities presents a vital channel availability has important implications for climate change preparedness. for the scale at which projects should be developed. While the WFP has the The fi rst section of this report contains logistical infrastructure to provide short- information on the links between the term critical food needs and humanitarian WFP, climate change, and food security. relief, long-term community-based We outline the ways that food security development and training programs will may be worsened by climate change, how be necessary in order for the WFP to the WFP’s work may be affected, and the address the impacts of climate change. connections to the natural environment. Following this is an overview of Many of the recommendations are based predicted climatic changes in West on successful adaptation programs that Africa, including specifi c information have been practiced throughout the world. on the abovementioned vulnerability

5 Executive Summary

categories. The report contains a basic that illustrate hypothetical applications of explanation of the Earth’s climate several program recommendations within system, as a basis for understanding the different parts of West Africa. process of climate change. The following Issue Chapters of the report contain our The challenges that the WFP faces in program recommendations for the specifi c promoting food security and sustainable vulnerability categories identifi ed, which livelihoods in West Africa cannot be include: understated. The impacts of global climate change will intensify current challenges Flooding and further complicate the ability of the • Flood Management Structures WFP to achieve its mission. We very much • Sea Level Rise Strategies appreciate the opportunity to provide • Aquaculture in Flood Plains research support and references for further work to support the efforts of the Drought and Desertifi cation WFP in promoting food security, despite • Weather Index Insurance for Reducing current and future challenges associated Farmer Risk with climate change. • Rain Gauges and Sowing Charts for Planning Crop Planting • Strategies to Reduce Desertifi cation • Rainwater Storage • Micro-Irrigation

Deforestation • Tree Nurseries and Afforestation or Re forestation Projects • Solar Cookers as a Substitute for Fuel wood and Charcoal Stoves • Carbon Dioxide Emission-Reducing Projects for Carbon Credit Generation

Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security • Incorporation of Agricultural Biodiver sity through Cropping Methods • Homestead Gardening for Resiliency and Nutrition • Fertilizer Application

These sections provide an overview of the particular recommendation, an analysis of the challenges and implementation issues, considerations regarding the relevancy of the recommendation to the work of the WFP, and an example of successful implementation. These chapters are followed by a series of Applied Studies

6 Introduction

Introduction

This report provides some of the and fl oods, while worsening the quality information and ideas that the World Food of our air.... Climate change is real, it is Programme (WFP) may use to incorporate accelerating and it threatens all of us. climate change adaptation and mitigation We must respond with urgent action to strategies into their activities. Adaptation stabilize the climate” (Ki-moon 2008). refers to the preparations necessary to survive and maintain quality of life given Through research conducted by Columbia the expected impacts of global climate University’s School of International and change. Mitigation refers to efforts to Public Affairs Program on Environmental reduce activities that enhance global Science and Policy regarding predictions warming, such as combustion of fossil fuels. of the future climate, conditions in West Africa, and strategies emerging around The necessity of actively adapting to the world, program recommendations and global climate change and working to Applied Studies to address climate change mitigate its effects has recently received in the region were developed at the request institutional recognition. The Executive of the WFP West Africa Bureau. The Director of the WFP, Josette Sheeran, program recommendations are organized has stated that the WFP should prioritize according to vulnerability categories meeting the challenges of climate change that the United Nations Environment in order to continue to fulfi ll their mission. Program (UNEP) has designated as Towards this end, she has advocated for being quite relevant for climate change. sustainable development and structural These vulnerabilities include fl ooding, adaptation through “building back drought and desertifi cation, deforestation, better,” in addition to strategies that can and direct impacts on food security be carried out in the agricultural sector, in communication systems, through This approach was selected as a useful policy-making, and through a range framework because time constraints of other mechanisms (Sheeran 2008). did not allow a more comprehensive analytical approach, such as a country- Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations level analysis. The scope of challenges have also been vocal about prioritizing and complexity within West Africa made climate change on the world agenda. it necessary to select particular foci. While In an address on World Health Day in program recommendations are associated April 2008, the Secretary-General stated, with specifi c vulnerabilities, many of these “Climate change endangers the quality program ideas are useful for managing and availability of water and food, our the effects of multiple vulnerabilities. fundamental determinants of nutrition and Transfer across vulnerability categories health. It is causing more frequent and can be considered in WFP program design. more severe storms, heat waves, droughts

7 Introduction

Many of the ideas we offer here have already proven successful in other regions or through work by other organizations within West Africa. In order to facilitate evaluation of our recommendations we have included information such as feasibility, implementation considerations, challenges, relevancy to WFP operations, scale, educational needs, and the ways that program ideas are linked to climate change and food security.

The fi rst section of this report contains information on the links between the WFP, climate change, and food security. We outline the ways that food security may be infl uenced by climate change, how the WFP’s work may be affected, and the connections to the natural environment. Following this is an overview of predicted climatic changes in West Africa, including specifi c information on the abovementioned vulnerability categories. Also included is a basic explanation of the Earth’s climate system, as a basis for understanding the process of climate change.

The Issue Chapters which follow contain program recommendations for the specifi c vulnerability categories identifi ed. These chapters are followed by a series of Applied Studies that illustrate hypothetical applications of several program recommendations in areas within West Africa. Additional information and program ideas can be found in the appendices.

8 Background

Background

Food Security and Climate Change The mission of the WFP, to eradicate poverty and hunger, is being made increasingly more diffi cult by adverse Efforts to reduce extreme poverty and changes in the capacity of local hunger are inextricably linked to climate. populations to be self-suffi cient. Weather- The people who are most vulnerable related shocks raise the demand for food and lack secure sources of food depend aid, decrease the local food production on rainfed agriculture and water sources capacity and ultimately increase the for their livelihoods. They live in international prices for commodities. the least developed countries where Impacts from changes in climate are extreme weather events can be the most putting a strain on the ability of the WFP devastating to their health and well-being. to meet its mission directives (Sheeran The changes to climate that have been 2008). Transporting food aid may also observed and predicted will lead to more become increasingly challenging as extreme weather events, which will occur infrastructure is damaged by the elevated with increased frequency and severity. intensity of precipitation and fl ooding events predicted to occur as a result of Periodic droughts and fl oods have been climate change. Rising sea levels and long-standing obstacles to fi ghting changes in agricultural capacity caused poverty and hunger in developing by highly variable weather patterns may counties. The impacts of climate change prompt large movements of populations, will only make this fi ght more diffi cult. which may also increase the long-term Developing countries currently lack need for food aid. the capacity and resources to adapt to existing impacts, let alone those that are Supporting sustainable development anticipated. Shifts in growing seasons, programs that help secure local unpredictable rainfall fl uctuations and livelihoods as well as building capacity increased temperatures associated with for communities to adapt to climate climate change increase the diffi culty change is an important element of WFP of both self-suffi cient and larger-scale operations. These efforts will help to agriculture production, reducing local moderate the effects of climate change food security and amplifying the need for on vulnerable communities and temper food aid. the increasing need for WFP food aid and relief. West Africa is home to many of The WFP and Climate the poorest countries in the world and the chronic threat to food security in the Change region is only expected to worsen.

9 Background

According to the UN Human Development central portions of the Central African Index, 7 of the 10 lowest ranked countries Republic and Ghana, northern Cote are in the West Africa region (UNDP d’Ivoire, southern Benin, Guinea and 2007). While the WFP has the logistical Guinea Bissau. infrastructure to provide short-term critical food needs and humanitarian relief, 3. Dry Sub-humid: Typically, these it will likely be their community-based regions are defi ned by having less food assistance and training programs precipitation than water lost through that provide the tools necessary for long- evapotranspiration, with average annual term adaptation and mitigation efforts to temperatures higher than 18°C. They have manage climate change in the developing one rainy season and are mostly winter countries of West Africa. dry and summer wet. They are comprised of mostly woodlands. Examples include Ecology of the Region coastal Gambia, northern and central Cameroon and Benin, northern Ghana, In order to understand the connections southern Chad and Burkina Faso, and between climate and livelihoods, coastal Senegal. knowledge about local climate zones is essential. The West African region 4. Semi-arid: Typically, these regions receiving aid from the WFP spans 18 receive less precipitation than dry sub- countries. Within these countries are six humid areas and are also winter dry and climate zones based on Köppen-Geiger summer wet. They include mostly steppe climate classifi cation. Some countries (grasslands) and woodlands. Examples are homogenous while others fall within include central Burkina Faso and Senegal, multiple zones. These climate zones and northern Benin and Cameroon, and their corresponding land types include: southern Niger.

1. Humid: Typically, these regions have 5. Arid: Typically, these regions receive annual average precipitation of at least well below 60mm of precipitation and are 60mm and an average temperature of mostly dry in both seasons. They contain 18°C. They are partly or fully forested. mostly desert or semi-desert vegetation, Annual precipitation exceeds water in addition to some steppe. Examples demand during two rainy seasons. include central parts of Niger, Mali and Examples include the Guinea, Liberia, Chad, Cape Verde, northern Senegal and Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone southern Mauritania. and southern Cameroon. Some of these regions are also affected by the tropical 6. Hyper-arid: Typically, these regions monsoon. have the least precipitation, are dry in both seasons and are mostly desert. Examples 2. Moist Sub-humid: Typically, these include northern Chad, Mali, Mauritania regions are roughly comparable to the and Niger. humid areas in terms of temperature, but have less than 60mm of precipitation. (Kottek 2006; WMO, UNEP 2002) They are comprised of forest transition areas and mosaics. These areas have two rainy seasons. Examples include the

10 Global Climate Change and West Africa

Global Climate Change and West Africa

Regulating Properties of the greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide naturally Climate System cycles through the environment, but has dramatically increased in concentration Global Climate due to human activities. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has The sun produces massive amounts of increased from a pre-industrial revolution energy, which drive the Earth’s climate value of 280ppm to 379ppm in 2005 (IPCC system. The majority of this incoming 2007). Some of the WFP’s activities, such solar radiation is received at the equator, as transportation, contribute to increased but the physical properties of heat energy carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. cause it to diffuse throughout the globe. Refugees burning fuelwood in connection The climate system is driven by the to deforestation activities is also a source movement of this heat energy, and the of carbon dioxide emissions. properties of the atmosphere, deep oceans, land surface, cryosphere (ice cover) Methane, another greenhouse gas, has and biota (living organisms). The Earth twenty-one times the heat absorption “wants” to maintain a radiation balance capacity of carbon dioxide, meaning that over time, emitting the same amount of each molecule traps more heat inside energy into space that it receives from the the Earth’s atmosphere (IPCC 2007). It sun. However, this process of coming to comes from sources such as combustion equilibrium would lead the Earth to be of fossil fuel and livestock production. much too cold to sustain life. To keep Earth Additionally, rice fi elds have recently at a temperature higher than equilibrium, been discovered as large methane emitters the greenhouse effect absorbs heat in the (Neue 1993). atmosphere. Human comfort, nutrition and health are all infl uenced by the Regional Climate – West Africa global climate system. Biodiversity (the variety of organisms and habitat present Recent advances in modeling, higher in an ecosystem) and the wide array of resolution, and further understanding of the cultural and social traditions on Earth physical processes of the climate system are infl uenced by variations in climate have made regional climate projections between different regions. (Philander increasingly more reliable (Ward 2008). 1998) Most of the rain in West Africa falls between July and September (IPCC Sources of Greenhouse Gases 2007). Rainfall variability is impacted by the regional climate, including local sea Current changes in climate are partially surface temperatures (SST) in the Gulf caused by increasing emissions of of Guinea, the West African monsoon,

11 Global Climate Change and West Africa

Short-term Predictions topography, and local land surface interactions (Zeng et al. 1999, Giannini et al. 2003, Cook and Vizy 2006). When • It is predicted the number of extremely the position of the rain belt shifts, there dry and wet years will increase during are large local changes of rainfall (Ward the present century (IPCC 2007). 2008). West Africa presents particular rainfall variability, partially connected to • It is still uncertain how rainfall will the West African monsoon. change over this century in the Sahel, along the Guinean Coast, and in the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) southern Sahara (IPCC 2007). has a signifi cant infl uence on rainfall at interannual scales (IPCC 2007). It was • It is likely that past climatic trends originally thought that the explanation for will continue, with semi-arid areas the drought that has been occurring in the becoming more arid (Druyan 2008). Sahel since the 1970s was primarliy due to land use changes. However in recent • The high variability in precipitation studies sea surface temperatures are will continue, and it is possible that considered to have a strong role in rainfall the mean level of rain will be a little variability (Nicholson 2000; IPCC 2007; higher, though it is still uncertain. Even Giannini et. al. 2003). if successful predictions about the mean rainfall of a given season can be made, the distribution of precipitation Current Climate throughout the season still cannot be Projections predicted reliably (Druyan 2008).

West Africa will face climate Long-term Predictions changes in the near future and over long-term timescales. Increasing global • Warming in Africa may be higher temperatures are resulting in different than the global average and persist climate impacts across the West Africa throughout all seasons (IPCC 2007). region. The following are some of the leading projections of trends and scenarios • The moister tropics may experience for West Africa. These projections attempt less warming than drier subtropical to predict the “climate state” at a certain areas (IPCC 2007). point in time. Long-term projections lack the ability to be verifi ed due to the • There are discrepancies between long time scale, as opposed to seasonal models regarding expansion or forecasts, which can be predicted with contraction of vegetation: some more certainty. With any projection there models project signifi cant drying of is a given level of uncertainty. However, land, while others project a general they provide useful information for making wetting and expansion of vegetation decision for the future. These projections into the Sahara (IPCC 2007; Hansen come from the latest Intergovernmental 2008). Panel on Climate Change Report (IPCC 2007) and leading climate experts who • Drier conditions may result from land are conducting research in this region. use changes and degradation – two factors that are not simulated by some models (IPCC 2007).

12 Impacts of Climate Change on Vulnerabilities

This section describes how global have altered their activities in relation to climate change is related to the major increased water levels. Severe fl ooding vulnerabilities of fl ooding, drought and events may cause severe damage to these desertifi cation, and deforestation. It also communities. describes some of the direct impacts of climate change on food security. Precipitation This information is meant to explain the infl uence of a changing climate on Annual rainy seasons and heavy storms landscapes, people, and livelihoods in are normal occurrences in parts of West West Africa. Africa. The enhanced fl uctuations in African climate have increased the spatial Flooding and temporal variability of rainfall in West Africa (IPCC 2007). Although a decline In West Africa, land beside rivers, deltas, in annual rainfall has been observed estuaries and along the coast will become since the early 1970s, the change was more vulnerable as climate change will not equally distributed. In the tropical likely increase the severity and frequency rain-forest zone, declines in mean annual of fl ooding events in some regions (IPCC precipitation have been around 4%, while 2007). Many communities have adapted along the Guinean coast there has been to living and farming in fl oodplains, and about a 10% increase in annual rainfall

13 Impacts

during the last 30 years (Nicholson et likely, as both Greenland and Antarctica al. 2000). The unstable climate status is glaciers could become signifi cant sources partially related to the occurrence of El of water. Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. Coastal cities are home to 40% of the This status has caused unexpected fl ood population in West Africa and this number events in arid countries (for example, is expected to rise. As many urban Niger in 2005). residents depend on regional production for food supplies, the impacts of climate Rising global temperatures cause an change on agriculture will not only be felt intensifi cation of the hydrologic cycle, in rural areas. Projected sea level rise will as evaporation and levels of water vapor have signifi cant impacts on large coastal in the atmosphere are increased. More cities due to the high concentrations of water vapor leads to more frequent and poor populations living in hazardous heavy precipitation events. The rainfall locations (IPCC 2007). patterns in West Africa are controlled by complex interactions, which are diffi cult The Third Assessment Report of IPCC to predict. However, it has been predicted pointed out that the projected rise in that the number of extremely wet years sealevel from 1900 to 2100 was 9 – 88 will increase in the 21st century (IPCC cm, with a mid-range estimate of 48 2007). Shifts in seasonal runoff may cm (IPCC 2001). At the local scale, the contribute to fl ood risk for populations change in sea level depends on the global located in fl ood plains, causing damage mean sea level rise and regional deviations to crops and structures, soil erosion, and from the mean (Nicholls and Lowe 2004). landslides. Floods can also trigger malaria Additional short-term variations on local epidemics in arid and semi-arid locales scales are associated with extreme weather (IPCC 2007). events such as storm surges. The results can also be considered regionally (see Sea Level Rise Nicholls 2004), and West Africa, along with the southern Mediterranean, East Although sea level rise is a gradual Africa, South Asia and South-East Asia, process, the impacts on local residents will likely have the largest absolute sea could be substantial and irreversible. level increases compared to other parts Global climate change leads to a of the world. The impact of sea level rise signifi cant increase in the mean global on coastal areas will likely intensify the sea level, amplifying the risk of fl ooding need for WFP aid, as a growing number in costal areas (Nicholls and Lowe 2004). of people are displaced inland. Already, many island nations have felt the impacts of this change. The intensifi ed Drought and rate of ice melt at the poles will cause sea levels to rise. However, thermal Desertifi cation expansion of ocean water is the major driver of sea level rise. As the temperature Drought and desertifi cation have already of the oceans increases, the same mass demonstrated signifi cant impacts in West of water expands in volume. If climate Africa. Residents of the region have been change continues beyond the 21st century, living with drought and desertifi cation for substantial additional rises of sea level are many years and have developed methods for surviving in arid regions. The Sahel is

14 Impacts particularly susceptible to these impacts sustained droughts along with a decrease due to the generally low and variable in summer rainfall. rainfall. Rising temperatures intensify the impacts Droughts result from extended periods of of desertifi cation, reducing resources below-normal rainfall and are naturally such as freshwater, fertile soil, forests and common in arid and semi-arid locations. vegetation (Zukang 2008). The complex Higher temperatures and low precipitation feedback mechanisms associated with levels increase soil evaporation. When deforestation, changes in land cover and rains return, lands can recover if they altered levels of dust in the atmosphere are are well managed. However, continued particularly important in the persistence pressure on land during a drought can of drought in the Sahel (IPCC 2007). lead to land degradation (USGS 1997). Increasing frequency of drought can also The Sahelian drought of the 1970s and affect the interactions between natural early 1980s had devastating impacts on and managed lands. land and livelihoods. One of West Africa’s most notable Desertifi cation as defi ned by Chapter 12 characteristics is the high contrast of “Agenda 21” and the International between wet and arid regions (some areas Conventions on Desertifi cation is fl ood while others suffer from drought), degradation of the land in arid, semi- resulting in an uneven distribution of arid and sub-humid dry areas caused by water resources (IUCN 2004). While climatic changes and human activities the Sahelian countries have limited (Koohafkan 1996). The processes that supplies of freshwater, most countries in lead to desertifi cation create greater aridity the humid tropical zone have abundant and loss of vegetation, which can have water. Africa is actually not water scarce, an impact on local climate by decreasing as the rainfall in some areas is adequate the amount of water that is available for enough to meet the needs of the current the local hydrological cycle. Human population up to 7 times over if the proper activities, such as overgrazing can increase irrigation techniques, water management, land degradation and deforestation. The and technical infrastructure were used process is somewhat self-reinforcing, as (AWDR 2006; Black 2006). However, the reduced vegetation limits the capacity of demand for water is increasing rapidly in a locale to hold and cycle water, leading most countries due to population growth, to even drier conditions. and will be a greater challenge with intensifi ed periods of drought (AWDR, Climate change is expected to exacerbate 2006). these vulnerabilities as temperatures increase. On average, a decline in annual A recent study identifi ed in the latest rainfall has been observed in West IPCC report predicted that the number of Africa since the end of the 1960s with a extremely dry and wet days will increase decrease of 20 to 40% from 1969-1990 as during the present century. This study compared to the period from 1931-1960 was based on four Global Climate Models (IPCC 2007). Climate change may cause (GCMs) for the Sahel region (Huntingford evapotranspiration (evaporation of water et. al. 2003). Other scenarios and modeling and transpiration from plants) to exceed of droughts appear to be consistent with precipitation, leading to more severe and these scenarios. By the second half of the

15 Impacts

21st century, the frequency and duration environmentally and economically as of droughts are expected to increase they provide raw materials and medicinal (IPCC 2007). products, house two-thirds of the world’s species, protect watersheds, and support Recurrent drought resulting from climate many other ecosystem services. However, variability accelerates desertifi cation, due to the conversion of forested land to which in turn contributes to the persistence non-forested land from climate change, of drought (IUCN 2004). Extreme agriculture, fuel collection, urban weather events, including drought and development, and other causes the amount heavy rains, will have dramatic impacts of total global forestland continues to on already degraded soils and erosion decrease (UNEP 2006). (UN Sec. Gen. 2007). The creation of the Permanent Interstate Committee for The FAO estimates the global rate of Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) deforestation to be about 13 million and the United Nations Conventions to hectares per year. On a positive note, Combat Desertifi cation (UNDCCD) has the net rate of deforestation, which facilitated signifi cant collaborations in accounts for both the loss and expansion the region to address these challenges. of forestland, has recently decreased. The FAO reports the net loss in forested Drought and desertifi cation directly area between the years 2000 and 2005 to affect livelihoods in the region, as most be -7.3 million hectares a year, which is agriculture is rain-fed and soil fertility is down from the -8.9 hectares estimated per quite variable. Droughts have contributed year from 1990 to 2000. This decrease to migration, cultural separation and in the net rate of deforestation can be population dislocation (IPCC 2007). The attributed to afforestation and forest importance of planning for the impacts of preservation efforts. Afforestation is the climate change in order to respond to the establishment of forests in areas that were needs environmental refugees cannot be not previously forested. Some regions that understated. have experienced considerable losses of forestland include South America, Africa, and Asia. Between 2000 and 2005 South Deforestation America experienced the largest loss of forestland, followed closely by Africa Research has shown that forest biomass which lost 4 million hectares per year has decreased in the West African Sahel to (FAO Forest 2006). a level that cannot support the fuelwood needs of current population densities West Africa is one of the least forested (Gonzalez 2001). In addition to settled regions of Africa, with only 12% of its communities, the needs of refugees land area covered by forests. Guinea- for fuelwood further limit the ability of Bissau is the most forested country the regional vegetation to sustain these within West Africa with 60.5% of its land populations. Loss of forests leads to soil area in forest, and Mauritania the least erosion and decreased soil moisture, with only 0.3% (FAO Forest 2003). In limiting the agricultural productivity of a general, forested area within West Africa deforested area. has become considerably vulnerable to deforestation since the 1970s due to the Forests are considerably important both increased use of wood fuel, drought,

16 Impacts overgrazing, urbanization, and confl ict. to predict, as many variables must be It is estimated that from 1990 to 2000, considered. For instance, the way that over 12 million hectares of forest were humans use land can infl uence climatic lost in the West Africa region alone patterns. Drier conditions may result (Golubiewski 2007). from land use changes and degradation which are not simulated by some of the Particular areas of concern include the climate models (IPCC 2007). There Guinea Forest, which spans six West is currently no consensus on whether African countries and has been noted as changes in land cover on a small scale are one of the world’s important “hotspots” highly infl uential in the wider regional for biodiversity. Biodiversity supports climate. However, patches of overgrazing the functioning of ecosystems and and deforestation in certain local areas promotes the natural services which many are infl uencing climate at the local scale in poverty depend upon, such as water (Taylor et al. 2002; Ward 2008). This is fi ltration and pollination of crops. Due a factor that can be addressed through to logging and agricultural activities this improved land management. While forest has become fragmented and greatly changes in land use may have played a reduced in size, with only 15% of the role in the Sahelian drought by causing a original forest remaining. Countries with later onset of July rains, it is probably not the highest rates of deforestation include the main cause of the drought (Taylor et Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire, which together al. 2002). It is expected that the impacts have an estimated annual deforestation of reduced forest and vegetation cover rate of 663,000 hectares (Golubiewski will have a stronger impact on regional 2007). climate in coming years (Taylor et al. 2002). While human activities are a major factor in deforestation, increasing global temperatures also reduce the ability of Food Security forests to survive. Higher temperatures raise the rate of evapotranspiration from Climate change directly impacts food trees, the daily water needs of forests security in West Africa, largely because increase. If the region is also subject most West Africans rely on agriculture to drought, it may be diffi cult for trees for their livelihood and sustenance. This to survive or for seedlings to develop. region has coped with extreme conditions Forests are a very important piece of local for many years, but climate change is hydrological cycles, infl uencing local expected to exacerbate already existing precipitation and soil moisture. Once agricultural challenges. Variations in an area becomes denuded, soil dries, temperature, precipitation, and the length groundwater infi ltration may decline, and of the growing season directly effect crop the amount of water in the local cycle yields. Repetitive cultivation of marginal decreases rapidly. This process often lands has increased land degradation, results in desertifi cation, which leaves the altering soil fertility and depleting essential land in a state that makes regeneration or nutrients. As temperatures increase, the restoration very diffi cult. infl uences of climate variability on periods of drought and fl ood, as well as long term The long-term affects of climate change changes in temperature may impact food on forests in West Africa are diffi cult availability, access, and acquisition of

17 Impacts

nutrients directly and indirectly (IPCC crops or cropping methods accordingly. 2007). Though there is a lack of consensus Rain-fed agriculture dominates the regarding the long-term climate predictions region, with a high dependency on an for West Africa, it is certain that changes in increasingly unreliable source of water. rainfall and temperature are directly linked Crops grown in drought-prone areas to food security. Integrating ecologically are especially vulnerable. Although sustainable agricultural practices will be individual crops are affected by climate central to maintaining and improving variability in distinct ways, research food security in West Africa. Strategies shows that cowpea, maize, and millet are that focus on locally maximizing yields expected to be impacted most by climate are favorable and practical in the short- change. This is due to the late-season term. Maintaining a focus on the long- planting of these particular crops, and term adaptability of crops and cropping their vulnerability to insuffi cient rain from choices is also central to food security. June to September (Adejuwon 2006). The Proactive, sustainable agricultural IPCC 2007 report estimated that parts of techniques can improve resilience and the Sahara will experience agricultural temper the impacts of climate change on losses of 2-7% of their GDP by 2100 food security. Choices made in West Africa (IPCC 2007). Conversely, projections should consider factors beyond resistance that cite increased rainfall combined with to drought or disease, and should include potentially heightened solar radiation as a cultural preferences, palatability and seed result of reduced cloud cover estimate an storage capacity (IPCC 2007). increase in agricultural yields in the fi rst In this report we address four issue half of this century. In the second half areas that, as a result of global climate of the 21st century, these models predict change, will affect the WFP’s mission a decrease in yields due to increased and work in West Africa. Though all the temperatures and atmospheric carbon effects of climate change are interlinked, dioxide (Adejuwon 2006). program recommendations have been divided into four chapters according to Intra-annual temperature oscillations the vulnerability categories of: fl ooding, impact crops through the inability drought and desertifi cation, deforestation, of particular varieties to cope with and direct impacts on food security. temperatures above or below a certain Though these programs have been chosen threshold (Adejuwon 2006). The impact with the West Africa region in mind, there of interannual temperature variations on is a high degree of transferability to other crops is diffi cult to predict for the West regions where the WFP operates. African region. For example, projections cite an initial increase in maize yields with rising temperatures, followed by a net decrease in yields between the near- term and 2099 (Adejuwon 2006). For farmers, seasonal prediction is a powerful tool to manage the potential effects of temperature fl uctuations on yields. Access to projections regarding rainfall would directly enable farmers to adjust their

18

Introduction to Recommendation Chapters

Each issue chapter begins with an actually reduce long-term food security. introduction that includes climate In addition, these types of indicators can change information specifi cally relevant help determine if programs that were to the vulnerability addressed in the designed with environmental intentions chapter and the ways in which it will are accomplishing their goals. The WFP’s impact the WFP’s programs in West Environmental Review Guidelines Africa. Each chapter contains three to (WFP 1999) provide valuable tools for six program recommendations, which developing environmental indicators include a descriptive overview of the for program assessment. Indicators will recommendation, implementation likely vary by project, but may include considerations, relevancy for the WFP, items such as estimated amount of carbon possible challenges, and examples of sequestered, fl ood damage avoided, or successful application. In deciding which number of trees planted which are still programs to recommend to the WFP, living after a period of time. elements such as cultural appropriateness, fi nancial and time constraints, regional environmental characteristics and the . potential links with other WFP programs were considered.

The program recommendations in each chapter are designed to address particular vulnerabilities brought about by climate change. However, it should be noted that some programs will be benefi cial in more than one issue area. In many cases it is likely that using a combination of programs and approaches will be the best solution, addressing concurrent problems simultaneously.

When the WFP undertakes evaluation of these and other program recommendations, we recommend that environmental indicators be incorporated into the process. This more comprehensive evaluation strategy can help reduce the potential for unintentionally infl icting environmental damage, which may

19 20 FLOODING Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding

Floods can lead to losses of human and growing number of people have to move animal lives, agricultural soil, crops, and inland and to higher ground. In addition, infrastructure such as roads, housing, saltwater intrusion in these coastal areas and farm structures. The extent to which may damage crops in the region, leading global climate change is altering rainfall to a higher reliance on food aid. West patterns is diffi cult to determine because Africa’s currently low adaptive capacity of the complexity of the mechanisms that may aggravate the losses caused by fl oods affect rainfall, but it has been predicted (IPCC 2007). that the number of extremely wet years will increase in the 21st century (IPCC This chapter contains three 2007). In addition to rainfall, sea level recommendations that the WFP can use to rise is expected to increase the occurrence assist vulnerable populations in adapting of fl ooding in West Africa in coastal and to fl ood situations infl uenced by climate deltaic areas (IPCC 2007). change.

Although sea level rise is a slow and These programs include: uncertain process, the impacts on local • use of fl ood mitigation structures residents could be substantial and • strategies for sea level rise irreversible. As sea levels rise, WFP • aquaculture aid to these areas may intensify as a

21 1.1 Mitigation Stuctures

Recommendation 1.1: Mitigation Structures

Overview run because they will not have to use so much of their limited resources to recover There are a variety of physical structures from fl ood damage. The construction and that may be used to adapt to the increased maintenance of many structures could be fl ooding events that will occur with climate done in partnership with the community. change. These structures can be used to reduce damage caused to crops, property, and livelihoods and to decrease soil Implementation erosion. Some structures have the added Considerations benefi t of taking advantage of fl oodwaters for agricultural use. These structures can Determining the particular structure or also be used to secure transportation combination of structures to use in a given routes that food aid is heavily reliant upon. area is a technical process and should be Building these types of structures will determined by engineering professionals. prepare communities for future fl oods and Decisions may be based on location, will also make them better off in the long

22 Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding topography, soil type, frequency and activities can pose moderate to high risk of source of fl oods, cultural appropriateness, adverse environmental effects if they are and availability of materials. Detailing not properly designed and implemented” which structures are appropriate in (WFP 1999). This means that proper site specifi c contexts is beyond the scope of and structure assessment, planning, and this report. However, there are several construction must be done to ensure that recommendations for considerations mitigation structures do not cause more that should be part of the planning and problems than they solve. construction of fl ood-related structures. The construction of some of these Whenever possible, structures should structures requires engineering expertise be “built back better,” both in terms and heavy machinery. This may pose a of materials used, planning, and good fi nancial challenge for implementation workmanship, to ensure that they are in some instances. Partnering with other able to withstand repeated fl ooding organizations which specialize in these episodes (Sheeran 2008). In this activities could be useful (see Winrock same vein, materials used should be International, under Supplemental environmentally friendly and fl ood- Resources). resistant. It would be particularly effi cient and benefi cial if structures are designed for more than one purpose or use. For instance, some vegetative barriers help to control soil erosion, can be harvested for supplementary income, and act as a carbon sink. Likewise, walls can be built that divert fl oodwaters for both protecting and irrigating crops.

Relevancy for the WFP . The construction of these structures may be built in partnership with the community. In addition, it may be helpful to teach community members how to maintain structures, so the WFP is not required to maintain or rebuild them as often. Training people to build and maintain these structures can encourage development, self-suffi ciency, and food security.

Challenges

According to the WFP’s Environmental Review Guidelines, “certain infrastructure and natural resource management

23 1.1 Mitigation Stuctures

Example of Success

Flood Management Structures in Kenya

The Kenyan Red Cross Society has been successful in implementing a program that incorporates community participation into the construction and maintenance of fl ood mitigation structures through a fl ood preparedness initiative in Nyanza, Kenya (UN- FCCCd 2008). Flooding occurs in this area when Lake Victoria expands due to heavy rain, destroying crops, property, and livelihoods. In addition, soil erosion takes place because of the level of deforestation that has occurred. The Kenyan Red Cross Society (KRC) has been training communities “to prevent and respond to fl oods.’

The KRC has provided training in waterway drainage and desilting which helps to keep villages from being fl ooded. Proper drainage of the excess water is ensured through the enlarging of riverbeds, draining of existing waterways, and desilting after each fl ood. The KRC has also taught community members how to build trenches and dams around their plots of land. Villagers are trained in dyke maintenance, and also plant trees, often eucalyptus, along the edges to hold the soil in place (UNFCCCd 2008).

24 Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding

Recommendation 1.2: Sea Level Rise Strategies

Overview Implementation Considerations A signifi cant global mean sea level rise (SLR) is expected due to human-induced warming during the 21st century (IPCC Different from other natural disasters, SLR 2007; Nicholls and Lowe 2004). The risk is a slow process with many uncertainties. of SLR and recent coastal erosion are Therefore, strategies against loss are among the most serious issues facing West normally preventative measures to adapt Africa, especially considering that 40% to the gradual change, and can be grouped of the population lives in coastal cities into three categories: protection methods, (IPCC 2007). Projections have estimated accommodation methods, and retreat that the 500 km of coastline between measures (IPCC 1990; Nicholls 2003). Accra and the Niger Delta will become a continuous urban megalopolis with more Protection: Protection against SLR than 50 million inhabitants by 2020, and involves construction of solid structures will be particularly vulnerable due to the (such as sea walls and dikes) as defensive poverty of the population (IPCC 2007). measures. There are also “soft” approaches As a result of increased fl ooding risk (such as dunes and vegetation) that can be and storm intensity, SLR will affect food used to protect areas and to allow existing security in West Africa. land uses to continue. This strategy is especially important for countries facing A recent study has projected which areas emergent threats from SLR, such as in Africa would be affected if the sea Cameroon. level rises between one and six meters (U. Arizona 2008). With a one-meter rise, the Human activities such as fi lling wetlands southeast of Cameroon (Figure 2), several and damming rivers can destroy the spots along the west coast of Mauritania, natural protection provided by these Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, features, and should be limited. The Guinea, Sierra Leone, and islands in Cape protection of natural buffers, such as Verde will be affected (Figure 3). If there wetlands and mangroves should be is a six-meter rise in sea level, the affected prioritized, especially for countries where areas will be extended greatly (Figures coastal erosion and loss of wetlands are 4, 5). The impact of SLR on people is severe (as in Cote d’Ivoire). amplifi ed because a large portion of the affected areas is densely populated. Accommodation: This strategy allows people to continue to use the land at risk without attempting to prevent the land from being fl ooded. This option includes erecting emergency fl ood shelters,

25 1.2 Sea Level Rise Strategies

elevating buildings on piles, converting that promote sustainable agriculture agriculture to fi sh farming (for more techniques, protection of wetlands information refer to recommendation 1.3), and mangroves, and use of fl ooded or growing fl ood or salt tolerant crops. coastal areas for aquaculture (please see recommendation 1.3) may help to reduce Retreat: Under this approach, no effort the need for farmers to move and over- is made to protect the land from rising cultivate land. water. The coastal zone is abandoned and ecosystems are allowed to shift inland. In West Africa, a policy of retreat may Challenges be considered under the precautionary The reluctance of coastal residents to principle, and the potential loss of coastal move to inland areas is a challenge that the land and movement of populations WFP would face if a strategy of retreat is should be kept in mind when planning encouraged. The pattern and rate of SLR development programs. It is advised that is still unclear and uncertain. Improving WFP does not locate important regional scientifi c and public understanding of the centers or long-term projects along problem would be a critical component vulnerable coastlines. for the WFP to develop a response strategy (IPCC 1990). To increase public Of the above strategies, it is recommended understanding, the WFP could incorporate that the WFP concentrate its efforts on the SLR information into other programs, protection of wetlands because they are such as food-for-education. important contributors of food sources and water fi ltration, and act as buffers to The complexity of the SLR issue makes SLR by protecting fertile land near river the scientifi c understanding of it another deltas. challenge. Because SLR is a global issue and there are many other organizations and Relevancy for the WFP institutions researching it, the WFP may benefi t from setting up partnerships with In order to protect wetlands and mangroves, them by sharing information: the WFP understanding and appreciation by local could provide the frontline data while residents of their ecological signifi cance the other organizations could provide is crucial. Due to the gradual and slow warning information. For example, it is process of SLR, it is hard for local reported that the available information on people to recognize the emergence and coastal land elevation is poor, and there severity of negative impacts. The WFP are relatively few countries with reliable could organize informative workshops data to determine how many people and to educate government or community how much development is at risk (IPCC leaders regarding the importance of 1990). The WFP could set up “Food-for- protecting wetlands. Information” programs to invite local people, who are more familiar with the The movement of populations in Africa, local environment, to observe and report often in search of cultivatable land, has any changes in coastal regions. This been a factor in some cases of local information would also be very useful to ecosystem degradation, including that other research institutions. of wetlands and mangroves. Projects

26 Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding

The third challenge would be the potential protection option, if structures were built impacts on ecosystems of these response to protect against salt water incursion, strategies. Under the retreat option, for example, the structures would block wetlands could remain largely intact, as wetlands’ landward migration, and a much they would be able to migrate landward larger proportion of these ecosystems as the sea level rises, though the total area would be lost. of wetlands would still decline. Under the

Figure 2: Cameroon at 1 m rise in sea level

Figure 3: West coast of West Africa at 1 m rise in sea level

27 1.2 Sea Level Rise Strategies

28 Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding

Recommendation 1.3: Aquaculture in Floodplains

Overview regular rainy seasons. Cropping methods for this type of system include alternating Aquaculture, or fi sh farming, is used to rice with fi sh, or concurrent rice and fi sh augment wild fi sh catches, or to cultivate cultivation. A common fi sh used in indoor fi sh where wild fi sh are not available. aquaculture facilities in the United States It is the fastest growing food industry is tilapia, a native African variety. Local, worldwide (Peterson and Kalende culturally appropriate fi sh adapted to fl ood- 2006). Global fi sheries are increasingly prone areas should be fi rst considered in threatened, which is particularly evident West African aquaculture operations. By off the West African coast. A further promoting localized aquaculture, areas decline is fi sh stocks likely due to a will become less dependent on food aid. growing European demand for fi sh These systems can also be community- (Lafraniere 2008), and alternative fi shing managed for greater access, control and methods can present promising strategies success. for feeding local populations. Aquaculture can be used to supplement ocean catches Implementation and improve farmer livelihoods in poor, rural areas. It may also be used in Considerations fl oodplains. This method of cultivation employs marginal areas that may not be Floodplains are generally fl at, dry areas useable for growing crops during certain of alluvial deposits near a stream or other periods of the year, particularly in areas water body that are susceptible to periodic prone to fl ooding. As climate change inundation of water (Peterson and Kalende increases storm severity, leading to higher 2006). Aquaculture in these areas is fl ood risks, agriculturally productive land susceptible to storm surges and/or drying, may become more vulnerable to mounting and operations located near coastal areas water levels. This may occur inland as a are particularly susceptible to saltwater result of greater precipitation, as well as incursion as sea levels rise. They may in coastal areas susceptible to rising sea also be affected by upstream dams and levels. irrigation. Use of man-made wetlands, could be considered for these operations. Land that is otherwise unsuitable for use The ability of wetlands to purify water can become productive by cultivating fi sh may help to maintain healthy fi sh stocks, in fl oodplains during the rainy season, serving as a sanctuary and nursery for fi sh through a system of enclosing an area and other animals (Peterson and Kalende with netting in order to maintain fi sh 2006). stocks. Aquaculture can promote high- quality, nutrient-dense food production The start-up costs associated with and enhance farmer income in areas with aquaculture are minimal. These include

29 1.3 Aquaculture in Floodplains

the fi ngerlings (juvenile fi sh) and the appropriate on a local level, and can netting/fencing to maintain the fi sh stock. be administered through community Typical netting in fl oodplain aquaculture management practices. There are three uses a material such as bamboo, but typical operation forms: Small-scale materials vary for each location. The homestead pens; trap pond management; expense of netting is incurred when and enhancement of wild catch through setting up an aquaculture system, but the improved traditional gear (DMI 2008). nets typically last for more than one rainy The latter operation is applicable to both season. Natural vegetative fencing can aquaculture and open water bodies and will also be used to lower net costs, though not be the focus of this recommendation. the labor of planting should be included In general, production level is limited to in cost considerations (DMI 2008). the frequency of fl ood, length of water capture period and size of fl oodplain. If rice is being grown, there are labor costs to plant and harvest, in addition to harvesting the fi sh at the end of the Climate Impacts on fl ood period. Consider both family and hired labor to guard, harvest and perform Implementation post-harvest operations as variable costs. Also, some farmers may consider adding With rising global temperatures and greater nutritional inputs to quickly add body storm severity, West African fi sheries mass to fi sh populations; this may be will likely be impacted, wherever these preferable in places with shorter rainy operations are located. Simulations based seasons. These feed materials may include on the National Center for Atmospheric agricultural by-products, such as rice Research’s Global Climate Model (NCAR bran, cotton waste and fi shmeal. Profi ts GCM) reported in the Fourth Assessment from aquaculture and rice production, if Report of the Intergovernmental Panel cultivated together, are likely to offset on Climate Change (IPCC) found that start-up costs and have been shown to when carbon dioxide was doubled in their bolster net income to farmers (Dey and model, the resulting rise in extreme wind Prein 2004). turbulence was found to reduce fi shery productivity by 50-60%; with a 10% If the alternating fi sh and rice method decline in spawning ground productivity is used, there may be reduced need for and an increase of 3% in the main feeding dry season fertilizer input as a result of grounds (IPCC 2007). In relation to the nutrient residues left in the fl oodplain environmental impact of aquaculture, sediment from fi sh excrement. During biodiversity and wild fi sh population the rainy season, this contribution to abundance were not found to be impacted soil fertility, paired with evidence that by aquaculture operations in case studies there is reduced need for pesticides in in Bangladesh and Vietnam (Dey and these systems, has been found to raise Prein 2004). rice productivity and profi ts. If pesticide application on rice is considered, it should West Africa is a vast region with differing be part of an Integrated Pest Management rainy seasons. In areas with a bimodal system, so as to not negatively impact fi sh rainy season (e.g. along the Guinea coast), populations (Graham et al. 2007). two short periods of rain will allow for two aquaculture cycles, rather than one Using fl oodplains for aquaculture is cycle in other areas of West Africa. These

30 Recommendation Chapter 1: Flooding operations will depend on precipitation Challenges levels and localized fl ood patterns. Ideally, fl oodplains would maintain minimal Property rights may be a consideration in water levels for at least 4-5 months for some areas when developing aquaculture maximizing fi sh production (DMI 2008). schemes, though case studies have Unpredictable, sporadic fl ooding is less shown success with both landowners and desirable for raising fi sh, unless there is landless laborers. During the dry season means to capture enough of the incoming cultivation is secured by land tenure, but water for use. during the fl ood season land is not visible and water areas often become community property. This allows for community- Relevancy for the WFP based management as appropriate and effective (Dey and Prein 2004). To implement a successful aquaculture operation, education may be needed During the rainy season, maintaining on local fi sh varieties and fi ngerling community management is a key to high identifi cation, as well as rice varieties, with aquaculture yields. To overcome start- consideration of submergence tolerance up costs that may limit participation in of deepwater rice and elongation ability. an aquaculture operation, subsidies or The latter depends on water depth of the loans for netting could be administered to usable fl oodplain. Additionally, business farmers. Communities could reinvest in education may also be needed in some future net maintenance, and repay these areas to adapt this farming technique to loans with the surplus from selling fi sh. the local market. The challenge of keeping fi sh alive The role of community support during the dry season is a major concern and involvement reinforces social in some areas; in parts of the Sahel, deep acceptability of these localized operations wells or holes are dug to support fi sh and can be used to strengthen economic until the next rainy season (Peterson and development and encourage better local Kalende 2006). In other areas, smaller nutrition. Aquaculture is self-sustaining supplemental ponds may be needed as a once a community establishes a method fi sh refuge during periods of drought. In of entrapment (e.g. nets made from addition, outside source pollution may bamboo, native vegetation growing in the contaminate fl oodplains in some areas, fl oodplain acting as a natural habitat for reducing fi sh stocks and making them species or a fl ood embankment of some less suitable for human consumption. form) and management mechanism. Another major concern in West Africa is Aquaculture may be classifi ed as food spoilage. In some areas, spoilage by a development project, supporting as much as 50% of fi sh catches has been livelihoods and food security with reported (Peterson and Kalende 2006). patterned fi shing cycles. The rice-fi sh To address this issue, many communities technique is easily reproducible and smoke fi sh as a means of preservation. As appropriate to West Africa. From case aquaculture operations extend to areas not studies in Bangladesh and Vietnam, areas accustomed to fi sh preparation, education of social accord were a prerequisite for may be needed on smoking techniques success (Dey and Prein 2004). and other means of storage.

31 1.3 Aquaculture in Floodplains

Example of Success

Aquaculture in Floodplains in Bangladesh and Vietnam

A study conducted by the Worldfi sh Center tested two types of rice-fi sh production between 1998-2000: 1) Alternating rice-fi sh culture (during the fallow period) in deep fl oodplains through community-based management, and 2) Concurrent rice-fi sh in shallow fl oodplains.

In Bangladesh, there were three types of trial sites: 1) Small area (<5 ha) with 30-60% perimeter fencing and minimal feeding, 2) Small area (<5 ha) with less than 30% perimeter fencing and minimal feeding, and 3) Large area (10-20 ha) with less than 30% perimeter fencing and moderate feeding. Participating group (i.e. farmers) size averaged 38 in Bangladesh, including both landowners and landless laborers.

This study found an improvement in fi sh production in Vietnam and Bangladesh in shallow (<50-150 cm) fl ooded areas by around 600 kg/ha/year and in deep (150-250 cm) fl ooded areas by up to 1,500 kg/ha/year. Production resulted in 20-85% addi- tional profi tability over wild fi shing methods.

In Vietnam, the alternating method produced an additional income of US $135/ha and the concurrent method, US $346/ha; in Bangladesh, the alternating method produced an increase of US $437/ha and the concurrent method, US $138/ha. Both alternate rice-fi sh and concurrent rice-fi sh were found to be profi table, though the alternat- ing system proved to have a higher net increase in profi t (as fi sh yields were higher) in Bangladesh, but a lower net increase in Vietnam. In Bangladesh, culture periods ranged from 150-210 days, whereas in Vietnam, the average was 210 days.

Though most operations were profi table, some farmers in Bangladesh incurred net losses from natural events (e.g. fl oods and storms), and/or poor water quality. Per hectare cost of community-based aquaculture in fl oodplains was found to vary from USD $168 to USD $811. Fingerlings (juvenile fi sh) represented 49-75% of total costs, whereas fencing was only 4-33% of the total costs (with less than 30% perimeter fencing). Costs varied due to site specifi cations, management and type of enclosure. There were no reported reductions in rice yields nor wild fi sh catch.

In conclusion, the study reported that fl oodplain aquaculture was technically feasible, economically viable, socially acceptable and ecologically non-destructive in Bangla- desh and Vietnam. These methods should be transferable to West Africa, particular- ly in locations prone to fl ooding where rice production is common (Dey and Prein 2004).

32 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought & Desertifi ca tion DESERTIFICATION DROUGHT &

Drought and desertifi cation directly by climate change in combination with affect the livelihoods of people in the ineffective water management programs. West Africa region, as most agriculture is Because of unique physical, geological rain-fed and soil fertility is quite variable. and socio-economic characteristics, the According to the Fourth Assessment availability of water varies considerably, Report of the IPCC, stresses resulting even within countries. Currently, the from droughts and fl oods in Africa are hydro-agricultural potential of West increasing, and the low adaptive capacity Africa has not been reached and the level has aggravated the losses caused by of water control in West Africa has much these disasters (IPCC 2007). In addition, room for improvement (IUCN 2004). West Africa has a much shorter weather prediction lead time compared to other The following section will outline areas of Africa. Higher temperatures and important climate change adaptation lower precipitation lead to an increase and mitigation strategies that the WFP in the frequency and the intensity of might consider to address drought and droughts. If lands do not recover from desertifi cation in West Africa. The fi ve periods of drought, it is predicted that recommendations include: desertifi cation or land degradation will • weather index insurance intensify, reducing water availability, soil • rain gauges and sowing charts for crop fertility, forests and vegetation cover. planning • strategies to reduce desertifi cation Water availability is already a problem in • rainwater storage parts of Africa, and the situation is further • micro-irrigation complicated by frequent droughts and increasing desertifi cation brought about

33 2.1 Weather Index Insurance

Recommendation 2.1: Weather Index Insurance to Reduce Risk for Farmers

Overview is researching index insurance for the climate-related hazards of locust, fi re, Weather index insurance (index insurance) malaria, and livestock disease (Osgood). for agriculture is a valuable drought- related adaptation program option for the The index is an established relationship World Food Programme in West Africa between historical rainfall records and as it works to maintain food security and crop yields. The index is the set amount protect the livelihoods of populations. of rainfall needed by a crop in each stage Index insurance contracts insure a of growth in order not to fail (Osgood). weather index (e.g. seasonal rainfall The Food and Agricultural Organization needed to grow a crop) rather than a crop (FAO) of the United Nations has like traditional crop insurance contracts established a crop-specifi c indicator for (Osgood). Traditional crop insurance can rainfall amounts and yields known as the be exploited by farmers who allow crops Water Requirement Satisfaction Index to fail to collect insurance payments (WRSI). For this reason, index insurance (Hellmuth 2007). Index insurance programs utilize precipitation data programs are being developed to support provided by meteorological collection rain-fed agriculture in several countries, stations (Osgood). If precipitation levels including Malawi, Ethiopia, and India. fall out of a range established by the Index insurance is benefi cial to farmers index—and is low or high enough to in times of drought-related crop failure cause crop failure—the insurer will pay because insurers pay farmers immediately farmers the amount of the loan, so the (Hellmuth 2007). With these payouts farmer can survive without market income farmers do not suffer fi nancially or sell from the crop (Osgood). If precipitation assets to survive, and can continue to farm levels are within index range the farmer when rains returns (Hellmuth 2007). Index uses proceeds from yields and insurance insurance protects farmers and allows investment to pay off the loan (Osgood). them to take risks to increase yields, such The additional profi t, beyond the amount as investment in fertilizer or advanced owed on the loan, is retained by the seeds, which can increase overall yields farmer. Overall, the farmer pays the full (Hellmuth 2007). Since West Africa has fi nancial cost of program (Osgood). For several different land types and climate this reason banks also benefi t from index zones, index insurance for fl ood, drought, insurance by expanding their lending and other weather variations should be portfolios in a managed manner (Syroka considered. The International Research 2007). Institute for Climate and Society (IRI)

34 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

pilot program (see “Example of Success” below) can be operational in six months to a year, while national programs could take one to several years to fully implement (Hellmuth 2007).

Financial Considerations

Some index insurance contracts offer bundled loans that pair bank loans with insurance policies and allow farmers to purchase agricultural inputs (e.g. seeds and fertilizer) with credit from the loan. Farmers can expect a net gain in farming Several other international organizations production profi ts and can then repay the partner to recommend and/or fi nancially loan themselves (Hellmuth 2007). Index support index insurance. For example, insurance programs may need fi nancial The World Bank recommended index support initially, but will become more insurance in its 2008 World Development self-sustaining in the long-run, as Report, stating that “index insurance can farmers pay for the full fi nancial cost of reduce risks and cover loans to fi nance program (Osgood). Elements of index new technologies” (World Bank 2007). insurance that often need subsidies are meteorological data collection, assistance Implementation of index insurance for contract design (Osgood), and start-up requires several inputs. Inputs include costs for farmers (World Bank 2007). privately-owned lands with potential for rain-fed agriculture, an index, climate information from meteorological entities, Scale Considerations banks to provide loans, insurance companies to provide policies, subsidies Index Insurance has the potential to be for farmer start-up costs, and continued implemented on a local, regional, or subsidies for meteorological data national level. Two local-level, pilot index collection and contract design assistance insurance programs were implemented (World Bank 2007, Osgood). successfully in Malawi between 2005 and 2007 (Syroka 2007). The majority of West Africa’s population work in rain fed Implementation agriculture and a large portion of land in Considerations this region is subject to periods of drought (Hellmuth 2007). This combination of a Time Considerations rain fed majority and prevalent drought make index insurance a viable policy for this area. One benefi t of national index Once the meteorological data system, insurance is the fact that weather risk crop, index, bank, and insurance is spread across a larger farmland area provider are selected, implementation and higher number of insurance holders. is dependent on the scale of the index Smaller, local programs are higher insurance program. Small-scale index risk because if all local crops fail at the insurance programs, such as the Malawi

35 2.1 Weather Index Insurance

same time, insurance companies may be insecurity. Therefore, WFP’s could view strained by larger simultaneous payouts. current support for index insurance as an investment that could lower future food Infrastructure Considerations aid needs. Meteorological data centers must be Challenges operational to collect measurements, and banks must be able to provide affordable One limitation of index-insurance is the loans. Insurance companies must exist amount of experience that poor rural and be willing to provide contracts with populations may have with insurance insurance premiums that are affordable contracts and loans. A second limitation is for the farmer, while supportive of their high transaction costs for micro-insurance business requirements (Syroka 2007). It policies. A third limitation is the impact is important that insurance contracts are of weather shock on an entire region. understandable for stakeholders, with Weather shocks may exceed local coping minimal training. mechanisms, such as local credit and labor supply. Therefore, large fi nancial Relevancy for the WFP institutions may be better for supporting this type of program. The development of contracts, collection of meteorological data, educational needs, Public outreach campaigns could help and communication requirements of index to mitigate the distrust that community insurance are all potential options for members may hold toward these WFP involvement. The farmers are not unfamiliar fi nancial institutions. If mistrust expected to need a high level of education is severe, insurance from local banking to take out insurance policies and loans, institutions may be more appropriate than but rather an awareness of how to use the a national bank. However, as small local seeds and fertilizers that come with the institutions may lack the necessary coping loans, and how to properly communicate mechanisms for this type of insurance, with these fi nancial institutions should a larger institutions may be better suited to confl ict arise. handle these demands. The choice of scale should be appropriate for local conditions. One option is the creation of a cash or Overall, it is recommended that the WFP food-for-training development program, consider national or multinational index in which farmers, insurance companies, insurance plans that are able to respond and workers of meteorological stations to different climate outcomes and shocks undergo training for their respective across a variety of land types. specialties of work, and are provided with food during the training period. Food Public-private partnerships, where insurers allocations could be phased out as crop and governments spread risk between productivity increases. themselves to fund disaster preparedness, will increase the effectiveness of these Since index insurance provides fi nancial programs. The establishment of additional support for farmers in periods of drought weather monitoring centers in some and can increase local production of food, areas may be needed to ensure accurate it has the potential of decreasing food measurement collection.

36 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

Example of Success

Index Insurance in Malawi

Malawi was an ideal country for an index insurance program because over 80% of its citizens work in farming and 90% of its agriculture is rain-fed (Hellmuth 2007). In July of 2005, the World Bank initiated the Malawi index insurance pilot program with a stakeholders meeting (Hellmuth 2007). The key organizations of this program included: National Smallholder Farmers Association of Malawi (NASFAM), the Ma- lawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC), Opportunity International Banking Malawi (OIBM), Malawi Met Offi ce (meteorological offi ce), and others organizations. The Malawi Met Offi ce is ideal for the program, with over 30 years of operation, 21 main synoptic stations, and over 200 rain gauges (Syroka 2007).

In Malawi bundle loans cover the costs of insurance premium, seed, interest, and tax and were provided by OIBM and MRFC (Syroka 2007). The risk of insurance policy was spread across seven insurance providers that have unifi ed as the Insurance As- sociation of Malawi (Syroka 2007). NASFAM sold groundnut seed in 2005 pilot and groundnut and hybrid maize in the 2006 pilot (Syroka 2007). In 2005, approximately nine hundred farmers participated and the sum insured a total of USD $35,000 (Sy- roka 2007). In 2006, approximately two thousand and fi ve hundred farmers partici- pated and the sum insured total USD $110,000 (Syroka 2007).

An example of a bundle loan in Malawi: A bundle loan total is USD $ 39-35 (4,500 Malawi Kwacha)/acre. Included in this bundle was ground nut seed for USD $25, interest of USD $ 7, insurance premium of USD $ 2, and tax of USD $ 0.50. The prices of each component in the bundle varied by site, and the insurance price was equal to Average (payout) + Loading (Value of Risk – Average) (Vicarelli). The sum of the loan and interest was equal to the maxi- mum liability of the insurance (Vicarelli).

Success of Malawi Pilots: Food security benefi ted from index insurance as farmers indicated they attained high- er yields with the quality seeds (Syroka 2007). Livelihoods also benefi ted as 1,800 farmers are now credited by fi nancial markets. The agricultural industry also ben- efi ted from the addition of the OIBM—a fi rst time agricultural loan provider (Syroka 2007). Overall preference for index insurance is growing and farmer interviews re- veal a preference for expansion of land coverage and inclusion of other crops (Hell- muth 2007).

Complications included rainfall measurement errors, seeds that failed to germinate, farmers that sold to traders other than the contracted buyer (NASFAM), and low pay- outs from long distance between meteorological centers (Hellmuth 2007). The loan for agricultural inputs is based on cultivating one acre of land, though most participat- ing farmers own four acres of land and would like larger loans (Vicarelli; Osgood).

37 2.1 Weather Index Insurance

Example of Success

Index Insurance in Ethiopia

In March of 2006 WFP announced a partnership with AXA Re insurance for a na- tional index insurance program for Ethiopia. The index insurance program cost USD $930,000 and provides insurance for 17 million Ethiopian subsistence farmers with up to USD $7.1 million in contingency funds (Lacey 2006). Rainfall is measured by 26 weather stations around Ethiopia (Lacey 2006). This rainfall data is ensured by satellite-based weather forecasting information of MDA Federal Inc. (Lacey 2006). This national program is benefi cial because it transfers risk from developing nations like Ethiopia to international risk markets, like insurance markets (WFP News 2006).

In the fi rst phase, from 2004–2006, WFP, the World Bank Commodity Risk Man- agement Group, and the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) started to develop a comprehensive drought-risk fi nancing scheme (Haile 2007). The fi rst phase in demonstrated that Ethiopian rainfall data are accurate and timely enough to allow Ethiopian drought risk to be transferred to international re- insurance markets (Haile 2007).

The second phase of this program aims to scale up the fi nancing package to USD $135 million, comprising contingent funding from bilateral, multilateral and insurance sources (Haile 2007). In early 2007 as part of the second phase, the World Bank ap- proved a USD $175 million safety-net operation for Ethiopia that includes a USD $25 million contingent grant based on the drought index designed by WFP (Haile 2007). Rainfall was suffi cient during the 2006 pilot and no payouts were dispersed (Haile 2007).

Projected Success: Director of Business Planning at WFP Richard Wilcox believes that the Ethiopia in- dex insurance program represent a promising new way of fi nancing aid to natural di- sasters in developing nations (WFP News 2006). Wilcox said that “We have shown that the reinsurance sector can have an important role to play in effective fi nancing for responses to natural disasters in developing countries” (WFP News 2006). Yale University Professor Robert Schiller also praises index insurance as “a win-win for developed and developing countries (WFP News 2006).

38 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

Recommendation 2.2: Rain Gauges & Sowing Calendars for Planning Crop Planting

Overview Time

The combination of rain gauges and The results can be both immediate sowing calendars is a low-cost adaptation and long-term depending on the option for the WFP to address drought- implementation timeframe. If effort is related food insecurity and support the focused on training farmers in a timely livelihoods and nutrition of populations in manner, farmers will be able to use their West Africa. Rain gauges allow farmers knowledge immediately to improve their to measure the amount and distribution of farming decisions. The program can rainfall on their land. Sowing calendars also offer long-term benefi ts, as farmers inform farmers of the best time to plant can use the information every growing and the best crops for the location, based season, independently of the WFP, once on rain gauge measurements (Hellmuth they obtain the knowledge of how to use 2007). Programs to supply rain gauges rain gauges and sowing calendars. This and sowing calendars will work to lower program may take six months to a year incidence of crop failure and increase crop to start. yields by providing farmers with vital information about what crops to plant and Cost when to plant. Rain gauges themselves are low cost A rain gauge and sowing calendar tools that are essential to the success program can help rural farmers maintain of this program. Imported rain gauges agricultural productivity despite the range in cost from USD $2 to 10 dollars variability in precipitation expected as a each. However, if local production of result of climate change. This program rain gauges can be initiated, as was the recommendation can be used in any land case in Mali, gauges can be available type, but is most important for locations at lower costs (Hellmuth 2007). In the that are vulnerable to severe drought and initial phases of the program the WFP unpredictable weather. may consider full or partial subsidies for rain gauges and sowing calendars. Implementation The cost of sowing calendars depends on Considerations existence of published sowing calendars or availability of historical precipitation data throughout planting seasons, crop

39 2.2 Rain Guages and Sowing Calendars

development data, and soil data. If and development program, in which sowing calendars are not published for farmers receive training on the use of rain the West Africa region additional funding gauges and sowing calendars. As crop and contracting may be needed to gather productivity increases, the WFP may necessary data and to formulate ideal be able to phase out food aid to an area. sowing calendars. One potential source Once farmers are trained to use these of historical cereal production data is materials they can operate independently the Food and Agricultural Organization. of the WFP. It is likely that farmers will The FAO has record of historical cereal pass their knowledge on to others in their production for many countries in the West community. Africa region and crop-specifi c indicator for rainfall amounts and yields—the Water Requirement Satisfaction Index Challenges (WRSI) (FAO). One challenge are the initial costs involved with the implementation of this program Meteorological information to improve including provision of rain gauges, the use of sowing charts can be phased creation or purchases of sowing calendars, in gradually. Perhaps the effort to training, and operations associated with incorporate climate information into meteorological information delivery. It is the WFP’s Vulnerability Analysis and recommended that the WFP partner with Mapping (VAM) can aid in this process. other organizations, as was the case in There is also the potential for transferring Mali, to provide these types of instruments support to national governments, as was and meteorological information to farmers the case in Mali. at little or no cost.

Scale A second challenge is the fact that some farmers of this region use traditional Rural farmers are the target for rain indicators to make farming decisions. gauge and sowing chart programs so Traditional indicators include: the moon or these activities can be implemented on a the appearance of specifi c birds or insects community or regional level throughout (Hellmuth 2007). Farmers use traditional West Africa. Communication between indicators to judge the beginning of rainy weather centers and farmers can greatly seasons, time to till fi elds, and when improve the scheduling of planting too, and what seed to sow (Hellmuth 2007). so involvement of national or regional Farmers that use these cultural methods meteorological organizations will improve of decision-making may be resistant to success. Also, support by government at change and diffi cult to train. Farmers all scales will help to standardize methods are often unwilling to risk the use of and facilitate information sharing. (Further unfamiliar techniques when they know details in the “Example of Success” at the what to expect from traditional methods. end of this recommendation) These issues should be considered and addressed in the development of training Relevancy to WFP programs. Incorporation of traditional techniques that are successful can be aided The WFP could support this by communication with local farmers recommendation through a training during the development of training

40 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

Example of Success

Rain Gauge & Sowing Calendar Program in Mali:

A rain gauge and sowing chart program is active in Mali as part of an agrometeorological known as the Centre Régional de Formation et d’Application en Agrométéorologie et Hydrologie Opérationnelle (AG- RHYMET), which was activated in 1982 (Hellmuth 2007). Rain gauges and sowing calendars are primary elements of this agrometeorological program. An important addition to this program is climate information from various organizations including International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), World Meteorological Organization, the Afri- can Centre of Meteorological Application for Development (ACMAD), the national meteorological service, agricultural extension agents, and farmers (Hellmuth 2007). This meteorological information is delivered to farmers over radio stations, television stations, and paper reports, and is presented as seasonal forecasts, ten-day bulletins during the growing season, and three-day weather forecasts (Hellmuth2007).

After the fi rst year of AGRHYMET it was shown that the fi elds of farm- ers that utilized the program had higher yields than those that did not participate (Hellmuth). These higher yields resulted in more participa- tion, growing from 80 farmers in 1990 to over 2,000 in 2007 (Hellmuth 2007). In 2003-2004 crop yields and farmer incomes were again high- er where the agrometeorological program was used, most notably with maize, which brought in 80% more income (Hellmuth 2007). Higher yields have increased farmer confi dence and investment in higher tech- nology seed, pesticides, and fertilizers, which have increased agricultural production further (Hellmuth 2007).

This program is moving away from being sustained by aid agencies towards national management. In 2001 the Mali government made a fi - nancial commitment to strengthen the meteorological service, resulting in the opening of new and improved meteorological buildings in 2004 (Hellmuth). Furthermore, in 2005-2006 the Mali government allocated about USD $1.2 million for new weather stations and equipment (Hell- muth 2007).

41 2.3 Strategies to Reduce Desertifi cation

Recommendation 2.3: Strategies to Reduce Desertifi cation

Overview according to the underlying causes, but most desertifi cation can be controlled Desertifi cation can be caused by a through altering human activities (Dregne combination and variety of different 1986). General measures to adjust non- factors. Drought has caused additional sustainable activities are summarized in stress on the biological resources of the Figure 6. Sahel. If resource management is adequate, The activities of land modifi cation little permanent damage is caused by mentioned above are the root causes of droughts. When resource management is desertifi cation. Modifi cation of these inadequate, a drought accentuates adverse activities would increase the resiliency impacts and accelerates land degradation. of local ecosystems that provide the Strategies to combat desertifi cation resources upon which people depend. In are unique and should be designed West Africa some immediate measures

42 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation may be put in place to prevent further loss in reducing desertifi cation in a shorter of arable land due to sand movement and time frame (normally in 1-2 years). the expansion of the Sahel which results This project idea should be kept in mind from wind erosion (Dregne 1986). As when implementing agricultural and wind erosion contributes the most to sand reforestation programs in Sub-Saharan movement, measures to mitigate wind countries, as the stone bunds (described erosion, such as windbreaks made from below) are designed to protect plants or trees and bushes, stone stacks around grass. By increasing the protection of the base of trees, and grooves dug into areas that may be arable, these projects the ground, should be considered. Due will increase potential agricultural to the economic and development status productivity. This is especially the case of many West African countries, a “stone when such efforts are integrated with stacks” project is recommended. This effective land management policies. type of project requires minimum capital input and increases the resiliency of the Relevancy to the WFP land, as well as the ability of communities to reduce desertifi cation. The WFP could implement this project via development programs at local or Implementation community levels in regions along deserts. The techniques for these projects Considerations are simple and require minimal fi nancial support, except for the supply of grass Financial Considerations seeds or tree seedlings. With minimal labor, local residents can easily contribute The low cost of “stone stacks” projects to the project. In addition to food-for- is the greatest advantage of this work, “Seedlings-for-Work” or similar approach compared to other projects. programs could also be effective. The Local availability of the stones or rocks potential economic value of harvesting is important, otherwise the cost of or producing products from seedlings (or transportation and its environmental grass) that survive and grow should be impact may outweigh the benefi ts. noted.

Scale Considerations Challenges The scale of the project is very fl exible, There are some factors that may and the projects can be assigned to potentially limit the success of this small households living near desert areas. This scale project: 1) It requires a good supply type of project could also be incorporated of local stones, as transport of stones from into a large-scale sand-block building other regions is costly (and increases project, which could extend to the country carbon emissions); 2) Considering the or regional level. Projects at this larger stability of stones, the slopes of the scale should be coordinated and managed landscape should be no more than 2%, by regional offi cers. otherwise there might be a safety concern; 3) The planting and growth of vegetation Timeframe Considerations requires a certain level of precipitation Compared to the measures listed in and/or irrigation, thus the availability of Figure 6, small projects can be effective water should be taken into account.

43 2.3 Strategies to Reduce Desertifi cation

Example of Success

The Agro-forestry Project (PAF) in Burkina Faso

This project idea was adapted from the Agroforestry Project (PAF) initiated in Burkina Faso by FAO (Critchley 1991). It was not specifi cally designed for treatment of de- sertifi cation, but rather was a general strategy to extend arable land area. However, as this small-scale strategy requires building stone bunds, which protect the plants against moving sands, it can be used as an option to reduce desertifi cation problems caused by sand expansion.

The Agro-Forestry Project (PAF) of Yatenga Province, Burkina Faso, has earned the reputation of being one of the most successful soil and water conservation projects in sub-Saharan Africa.

Traditionally, simple stone lines had been used to help reduce the risk of sand ex- pansion and erosion in fi elds, but this practice had largely been forgotten. However, through discussions with the people, PAF saw this as the basis for improved food pro- duction. The new design allows the rainfall runoff to spread evenly through the fi eld. When runoff reaches a stone bund, it spreads out and slowly trickles through the small holes between the stones. In addition, organic matter from the catchment area, such as eroded soil, bits of dead plants, and manure, is fi ltered out of the runoff. This rich sediment builds up behind the bunds and this improves the soil.

(Illustration from Critchley 1991.)

The combination of contour stone bunds and other techniques leads to rapid benefi ts for farmers. Yields are improved in the fi rst season after the land has been treated, and even in very dry years these techniques ensure some yield. For these reasons the techniques have proved very popular, and by the end of 1989, some 8,000 hectares in over 400 villages had been treated with stone bunds (Critchley 1991).

44 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

Recommendation 2.4: Rainwater Storage

Overview the drought period, and alternative water sources (GWP, UNEP). Rainwater harvesting is a simple, low In choosing the type of water harvesting cost, and small-scale supply technology intervention for crop production, several that has been practiced for thousands factors are considered, including: of years since its origination. It is • rainfall amounts and intensities a convenient way to collect water, • evapotranspiration rate particularly when either surface water or • soil infi ltration rate, water holding ground water sources are not available capacity, fertility, depth or are not easily accessible (IFAP, 2005). • crop characteristics- water requirements, It involves the collection, storage, and length of growing period, resistance to productive utilization of rainwater. In waterlogging; addition, it reduces surface runoff and • land topography and hydrology prevents soil erosion, thereby contributing • socio-economic factors - of population to environmental conservation (GWP, density, priorities, costs of materials, land UNEP). Water harvesting on croplands tenure and regulations governing water may be achieved through micro- resources use (GWP, UNEP) catchment or macro-catchment systems or through fl oodwater farming (in situ Effective water harvesting requires rain water harvesting). Under micro- community participation, which can be catchment systems, runoff is collected fostered through: close to the crop growing area and is used • sensitivity to community needs, culture, to water the crops (GWP, UNEP). Macro- indigenous knowledge, local expertise catchment systems involve the collection • full participation in all aspects and storage of runoff from large areas via • consideration of gender issues watercourses or pipes. In situ harvesting • consideration of the prevailing farming involves small movements of rainwater systems as surface runoff in order to concentrate • consideration of national policies and the water where it is wanted, such as roof community by-laws (GWP, UNEP). harvesting techniques (Hatibu). Relevancy to the WFP Implementation Approximately one third of Africa is Considerations suitable for rainwater harvesting. For this reason, it is recommended that rainwater Factors considered for choosing rainwater harvesting be used not only for domestic harvesting for domestic use include uses, but also for crop irrigation (Black catchment type and size, cost of the 2006). Rainwater harvesting projects may harvesting system, family size, length of

45 2.4 Rainwater Storage

be integrated into the WFP’s development projects in semi-arid and drought-prone areas, as it enhances yields and reliability of crop production. It also conserves soil and prevents fl ood damage, which can have positive effects on food security.

Challenges

The immediate challenge of rainwater harvesting is assessing various technological options in terms of their technical feasibility, economic viability, social acceptability and environmental sustainability. A cost-benefi t analysis should be run, along with integrating knowledge of the local culture, amount of rainfall, climate and land types in order to make a proper recommendation on which rainwater harvesting technique to use.

46 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation

. Example of Success

Rainwater Harvesting in Kenya

According to reports released by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the World Agroforestry Centre, communities and countries suffering or facing water shortages as a result of climate change could dramatically boost supplies by collecting and storing rain through rainwater capture systems (Black 2006). Thus, the UNEP and the World Agroforestry Centre have urged local governments and other stakeholders to invest more widely in rainwater capture systems, a technology that is cost-effi cient and simple to deploy and maintain. Unlike big dams that collect and store water over large areas, small-scale rainwater-harvesting projects lose less water to evaporation because the rain or run-off is collected locally and can be stored in a variety of ways. The reports mapped rainwater-harvesting potential of nine countries in Africa: Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In addition, similar assessments are underway for Addis Ababa, Dar es Salaam, Kigali, Maputo, Lusaka, Lilongwe and Harare (UNEP 2006). The pilot project that tested these report data in Kisamese, a Kenyan Maasai community located in East Africa, has improved water supplies through building collection and storage facilities. It has also been observed that Maasai women are now spending 4 hours less each day fi nding and fetching water. Harvesting technologies used in this case include installing containers and mini-reservoirs or “earth pans” (macro-catchment techniques), storing rainwater on roofs (in situ techniques), and digging trenches to help water soak into the soil in the small kitchen gardens that were established as a result of these technologies (micro-catchment techniques) (Hatibu; UNEP 2006). Not all rainwater is captured; one-third goes back into rivers and lakes, but it is estimated that over half a million liters of water has already been stored.

Capture systems help manage water resources more effi ciently: Image: Rainwater Storage Tank (Black 2006)

47 2.5 Micro-Irrigation

Recommendation 2.5: Micro-Irrigation

Overview lead to more production per unit of water used. Drip systems have a particular Micro-irrigation refers to individualized niche in monsoonal climates. They allow small-scale technologies for lifting, farmers to plant earlier so that the crop is conveying and applying irrigation water. already established at the onset of rains, These systems apply water through small enabling the effi cient use of rainwater. devices that deliver water onto the soil This helps to avert a crop loss, by reducing surface very near the plant, or below the declines in yield that could arise from a soil surface directly onto the plant root, dry spell or the early cessation of rain. at regular and frequent intervals (IMWI Institutional support will be very helpful 2006). This reduces stress due to moisture for implementing these systems (IMWI fl uctuation in the root zone, often 2006). resulting in a larger and better quality yield (IMWI 2006). In addition, proper Relevancy to the WFP water management can control the timing of the harvest. Improving the reliability of water supply for agriculture is a necessary condition Implementation for reducing poverty and malnutrition. Proper irrigation techniques can have Considerations a large impact on food security because 30% of West Africa’s gross domestic Micro-irrigation technologies are product (GDP) comes from agriculture increasingly seen as a means of addressing (IUCN 2004). One of the key advantages the growing competition for scarce water of using such technologies is that they help resources. They can be categorized to extend the use of water during times of into two types based on their technical drought or water scarcity. Micro-irrigation and socioeconomic attributes: low-cost can thus improve livelihood security micro-irrigation technologies (which for poor farmers who are vulnerable to include drip technology, bucket and drum rainfall variability (IMWI 2006). kits, micro sprinklers, and micro tube drip systems) and commercialized, state- of-the-art micro-irrigation systems used Challenges in many industrialized nations (IMWI 2006). It is recommended that the low- The initial investment and maintenance cost technologies be implemented in costs of a micro-irrigation system may the West African region. Appropriate be higher than other irrigation methods. low-cost drip systems have been shown As a result, small-scale farmers have to have positive effects on crop yield, been apprehensive in implementing these incomes, and food security because they techniques, and they are more widely used

48 Recommendation Chapter 2: Drought and Desertifi cation by wealthier farmers. In addition, there are to the poor and smallholder farmers. It the challenges regarding the availability of should be stressed that, despite the higher micro-irrigation technologies and lack of initial cost of these systems, farmers can knowledge in applying these techniques generally recover their initial investment (IMWI 2006). To address these problems, capital within 1 to 3 years due to the high special efforts and additional institutional effi ciency rate and increased crop yields or governmental support would be required (IMWI 2006). to market cost-appropriate technologies

Example of Success

Micro-Irrigation Pilot Project in Northern Ghana

Northern Ghana receives about 1016 mm of rain per year, most of which is concen- trated in a 3-month period. This weather cycle only allows the production of one rainfed crop of cotton, rice, sorghum, or other grain per year. For the remaining 9 months of the year, farmers do not generally produce crops because they have little experience or access to irrigation methods. Winrock International, a non-profi t orga- nization, developed an irrigated agriculture program to improve rural nutrition and increase the incomes of farm families through production of high value crops. They set up demonstration sites where adequate water resources were available, and vari- ous types of micro-irrigation equipment were used. Four pilot areas were chosen, which used drip irrigation and treadle pumps for dry season farming. The organiza- tion also trained farm leaders in using the technology. March 2004 reports state that rural households have access to an adequate year round supply of water through an increase in the number of sustainable potable water sources, as 53 boreholes have been completed and are in use.

49 50 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation DEFORESTATION

Deforestation has considerable bearing recommendations that the WFP might use on the activities of the WFP, as the to address deforestation in West Africa. organization serves areas with large These three recommendations include: refugee populations where deforestation • development of tree nurseries and and the destruction of natural landscapes planting projects can have a negative impact on food • use of solar cooking technologies security. The reduction of forested land • development of carbon credit pro in West Africa is an important factor grams. in climate change, as forests sequester carbon dioxide. Strategies that reduce the demand for fuelwood not only help avoid deforestation, but also reduce the negative impact on human health that is caused by exposure to wood smoke.

The following section will provide climate change adaptation and mitigation

51 3.1 Tree Nurseries and Planting Projects

Recommendation 3.1: Tree Nurseries and Afforestation or Reforestation Projects

Overview Tree planting can be combined with agriculture in order to increase yields and This program would establish community secure soils (see section 4.1 on cropping tree nurseries to grow seedlings that methods for more details on agroforestry). could be sold for income and used for Agroforests have been shown to be a reforestation or afforestation efforts. very profi table land use in Cameroon Reforestation is the restoration of forests (Gockowski et al. 2001). that have been cleared, while afforestation is the establishment of new forests in Some of the key elements for success areas that were not previously forested. include: Education for community leaders and members regarding techniques for nursery • signifi cant community involvement and seedling management is an essential • rights to manage planted areas and use component of the program. The selected the tree products varieties of trees should be appropriate • small and local scale for projects for the local climate, and the use of local • planting trees in concentrated areas so seed sources can reduce costs. Nursery they are easier to maintain varieties can include a combination of native, exotic and fruit-bearing species. The planted seedlings must be cared for during at least the fi rst two years, The selection of species is important by protecting them from bush fi res and because of water requirements and ability livestock and clearing grass around them to withstand local and changing climate. (Ripple Africa 2008). In general, local species may be more suited to the climate, but there is some Afforestation or reforestation efforts debate on this issue associated with the address many of the impacts associated poleward shift of species driven by global with global climate change. Increased tree climate change. Some reforestation coverage reduces fl ood potential, increases efforts are focusing on drought resistant food and crop security, and increases species, which may not be native, in carbon sequestration and soil retention order to prepare for the effects of rising (Smith and Scherr 2002). Trees can be temperatures. Planting a variety of species planted to support agriculture through reduces the risk of widespread failure provision of animal fodder, windbreaks, from climatic changes, pests or disease. fencing, and erosion control (Smith and Scherr 2002). Trees are an important aspect of local hydrological processes,

52 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation increasing the moisture capacity of soil, and maintenance equipment. Some increasing water retention in the local type of communication infrastructure is climate, and tempering the effects of needed to promote the sale of seedlings drought (Taylor et al. 2002). and enhance community participation in development of nursery sites and Community tree nurseries and reforestation maintenance of planted areas. Market projects aid in both adaptation to the infrastructure needs are low (Smith and impacts of climate change, as well as Scherr 2002). mitigation of contributing factors which enhance it. Reforestation mitigates Property Rights Considerations contributions to climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide and reducing The communities managing the deforestation impacts from the collection maintenance of seedlings must be of fuelwood, providing a potential somewhat permanent, in order to assure source of income through carbon credits seedlings are cared for until establishment. (see section 3.3 for more information The nurseries could be located on on carbon credits). Rehabilitation and government or private land. The rights establishment of forests also enhances a of the community to protect and manage broad range of ecosystem services which regenerated forests should be clear (Smith increase the resiliency of communities and Scherr 2002). that are dependent on their immediate environment, enabling them to better Community Involvement withstand environmental shocks (Smith Considerations and Scherr 2002).

An essential component, and the core of Positive results from these types of the program, is community involvement. adaptation activities can be seen in a short This program should be driven by time frame, through more diversifi ed community demand. Educating leaders and livelihoods, in addition to providing direct demonstrating the results of deforestation sources of income, food, and fuelwood. and the potential for growing fruit tree The benefi ts will be sustained and will crops stimulates community interest increase with time, as forests mature, (Ripple Africa 2008). The community community tree nurseries become more provides labor at seedling nurseries established, and management strategies and maintenance of planted areas. The are solidifi ed. local government, such as the forestry department, can help with maintenance. Implementation Considerations Program Sustainability Considerations Infrastructure Considerations These projects can sustain themselves Educational needs are moderate, and by providing income through the sale technical requirements are moderate to of seedlings to other communities or low. Required infrastructure is moderate, individual landowners, and also by such as tubes, seeds, and simple planting providing direct food sources, market products, and fuelwood. Also, some of

53 3.1 Tree Nurseries and Planting Projects

the income from carbon credits can be clearing grass from around the seedlings, reinvested to support project continuation. providing suffi cient water, and protecting Once the technical capacity is developed them from livestock and bush fi res (Ripple and the initial resource needs are met, the Africa 2008). Some afforestation projects communities should be able to manage in Senegal and Niger have failed because projects on their own. Funding or support of a lack of irrigation at tree plantations from other NGOs and volunteers could (UNFCCC 2003). Encouraging work at help this process and provide the WFP community nurseries may be challenging with an exit. as well. To address these challenges it is important to educate community members on Relevancy to the WFP management techniques, such as keeping herd animals away from seedlings. The establishment of community nurseries By concentrating seedlings together could be implemented through Food-for- in particular areas they are easier to Work, Food-for-Training, or Food-for- manage (Ripple Africa 2008). Smaller Assets types of programs. Nurseries help projects that don’t require capital- diversify the livelihoods of community intensive irrigation methods can avoid participants, providing an alternative some of the challenges experienced in source of income and forested areas Senegal. Combining tree plantings with serve as a source for products such as other crops makes more effi cient use of consumables, market goods, construction water resources. Also, designating direct materials, and medicinal resources. responsibility and defi ned resources for management of planted seedlings is Tree nurseries and reforestation efforts important for success. enhance food security through soil and water retention, production of Some of the income earned through carbon consumables, reducing fl ood risk to credits could be used to compensate a crops, and providing an alternate source community member for work as a manager. of income through carbon credits. If community members are compensated Regenerated forests also provide sources for their work at the nursery through a of income and food through non- portion of revenues from seedling sales timber forest products (NTFPs) such as or a percentage of the resources that construction materials and animal fodder. are gathered from replanted areas, this In a Zimbabwe survey of 29 villages, the could provide a work incentive. Initial poorest 20% of the population earned compensation for tree management and over one-third of their total income from nursery work could be achieved through NTFPs (Cavendish 2000). a Food-for-Work or Cash-for-Work program, until the project was developed Challenges enough to be more self-sustaining.

Some projects have encountered challenges with the management and protection of planted seedlings. It is necessary to train locals or engage regional forestry managers to maintain seedlings until they are established. This requires

54 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation

Example of Success

The Green Belt Movement of Kenya

The Green Belt Movement (GBM) was founded by Wangari Maathai, who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize for her work. The GBM of Kenya has worked for over 30 years to maintain natural resources vital to human health and food secu- rity, through tree planting projects. Seedlings are purchased from group nurseries. The fi rst phase of the project lasted from 1977-1997, and tree plantings were mainly conducted through women’s groups on farms. Women were also paid per each tree distributed, as compensation for their work as extension specialists to ensure farmers cared for the trees. In 1997 they had planted over 20 million surviving trees.

They have created a 10-step process for establishing tree nurseries:

1. Sensitization and mobilization seminars to spread information on the relevance and importance of tree planting, open to anyone.

2. GBM staff support the registration and formation of interested groups with GBM Kenya, often stemming from women’s groups, church groups, farmers, or schools.

3. Registration as members of GBM Kenya is supported by volunteers, initiating communication and follow-up between groups and organization staff.

4. Registered groups are assisted in the establishment of nurseries. Some initial seeds are provided and group members collect seeds from surrounding forests.

5. Seedlings are transplanted to individual containers for distribution. Groups are as- sisted in submitting monthly reports about the status of the nursery, number of seed- lings available and any challenges.

6. Availability of seedlings is announced to the community and those interested are assisted in the preparation of holes for planting. All trees are monitored to ensure planting.

7. Group members check holes to ensure proper size of .61m width and depth.

8. Approved holes receive seedlings. Seedling distribution is recorded in monthly reports. Groups receive a partial payment for seedlings from GBM Kenya as an in- centive for work.

55 3.1 Tree Nurseries and Planting Projects

9. Groups check seedling survival and proper care after one month and send informa- tion to GBM Kenya.

10. Groups check seedlings after three months and if reports are acceptable to the monitors the seedlings are paid for by GBM Kenya.

The fi rst phase was successful because the benefi ts of tree planting were understood and the skills of raising and planting seedlings were learned.

The second phase is meant to advance environmental awareness by moving tree plant- ing to public lands. Indigenous trees are used and the same 10-step procedure is fol- lowed. Simultaneously, individuals and groups continue planting on farms without compensation, and are encouraged to commercialize tree nurseries. Tree planting is expanding to forest catchment areas (watersheds) and riparian reserves. The species of tree is determined by the intended purpose of planting: Source: The Green Belt Movement International. http://gbmna.org/w.php?id=13

56 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation

Recommendation 3.2: Use of Solar Cookers as a Substitue for Fuelwood and Charcoal Stoves

Overview Solar cooking devices are feasible for use in the West African region due to Solar cookers present a positive alternative the considerable solar radiation the area to wood-based fuel due to the associated receives, and the low costs associated deforestation and health concerns. They with the construction and use of most are devices that cook food using energy solar cooking technologies. These from the sun’s rays. It is estimated that devices require particular materials for currently in West Africa wood-based fuel construction, and training to understand provides more than 90% of household how to build and use the cookers. There energy needs, and demand for this fuel are a few different models of solar continues to grow. The United Nations cookers that have different equipment Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and knowledge requirements. The main reports that between the years 1980 and types of models include the Solar Box, the 2000 the consumption of wood for fuel Panel Cooker, and the Parabolic Cooker. purposes increased in the region from 114 million m3 to 175 million m3 (FAO The Solar Box is a box structure that is 2003). The high demand and consumption made with dark panels and is covered on of wood-based fuel has had considerable top with clear glass or plastic. When the consequences on West African forest box is closed and left in the sun, it heats lands, resulting in the reduction of the up and cooks the food inside. region’s forested area. Deforestation and high fuelwood demand can be amplifi ed by increasing populations, along with the movement of refugees and internally displaced peoples. The smoke emitted by the burning of wood can also be harmful to health, particularly for those cooking over wood-fueled fi res. Exposure to wood smoke can result in asthma attacks, acute bronchitis, and susceptibility to respiratory infections. Long-term exposure can reduce lung function, cause The Solar Box chronic bronchitis and in some cases death (USEPA 2008).

57 3.2 Solar Cookers

The Parabolic Cooker is a structure The Panel Cooker is made of a refl ective shaped like a curved dish that cooks material that combines structural elements quickly at high temperatures and can of the Solar Box and the Parabolic Cooker. be used in households or larger scale It is portable and can be left unattended institutional cooking. out in the sun to cook food.

The Panel Cooker

The Parabolic Cooker (Illustrations from Solar Cooker International 2004)

Implementation Considerations

(Solar Cooker International 2004)

58 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation

Cultural Considerations to all the communities where the WFP works. Communities may also not be The solar cookers do not perform in the able to afford the materials to build these same manner as the ovens and cooking types of devices. Some of the cookers fi res that West African communities are also are complex and require signifi cant used to. Some cookers are also only able knowledge in order to construct them. to cook one pot of food at a time, which The WFP can resolve these complications may prove diffi cult for larger families. by providing pre-assembled cookers or Limitations such as these may require the materials to build cookers. It would that individuals begin cooking meals also be important to provide recipients of earlier and for longer periods of time. aid with the training needed to build and Also, it may take some experimentation use the devices. to understand how traditional foods can be cooked in these devices. Other key considerations are the limitations of these cookers and the cultural challenges associated with Relevancy to the WFP these cookers, as mentioned above. To overcome this challenge, workshops Solar cookers can promote the mission of designed to help people better understand the WFP by provide recipients of food aid what the cookers are capable of and with a method of cooking that is low cost allow them to experiment would be and sustainable. As the need for fuelwood benefi cial. To improve success of a solar would be reduced, the effort spent on cooker program the provision of these gathering fuelwood would decline. The solar cookers to communities should time saved from reduced collection be combined with a period of technical of fuelwood can be dedicated to other support and assistance. productive activities. The WFP has also shown a commitment to addressing health issues, particularly those that pertain to women’s health. As it is women who do most of the household cooking they receive considerable exposure to wood smoke that can have adverse affects on health. These solar cooking devices can address these health concerns and support self-suffi cient and sustainable livelihoods.

Challenges

One challenge for implementing this recommendation is the material requirements involved in building the solar cookers. The Solar Box and the Parabolic Cooker in particular require quite a few materials that may not be readily available

59 3.2 Solar Cookers

Example of Success

Solar Cookers International in Kenya

In July of 1995 the organization Solar Cookers International began a program in Kenya in which they provided solar cookers to two refugee camps in Kakuma and Dadaab. The organization held workshops in which women were taught how to use the solar cooker (the panel cooker model was used) and were given a solar cooker to take home. In the case of Kakuma the solar cookers were given out for free, along with a ration of food, to those who attended the workshops. In Dadaab those who wished to participate in the workshop and receive a solar cooker had to participate in work projects conducted within the camp such as tree planting or clean up of the area in exchange.

This project was considered a success and by October 1995, 1,500 families had come to the workshops to receive a solar cooker and training on how to use it. Periodic monitoring of the refugee camps showed that women continued to use the cookers. The organization also found that these solar cookers provided women with more time during the day as they did not have to spend as much time searching for and gathering fuelwood as they had in the past (Colby 2006).

Solar Cooker Pilot Program in South Africa

In a study conducted in the northwestern region of South Africa, 70 families were provided with solar cookers for a year and then surveyed to determine how often they used the cookers and how useful they were. They found that before receiving solar cookers on average 50% of meals were cooked using fuelwood, and that after receiving the cookers about 35% of meals were cooked using the solar devices and the amount of meals cooked by wood fuel decreased to 42%. After the study ended participants were given the opportunity to purchase solar cookers, and 51 were sold (Solar Cooking, 2001).

60 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation

Recommendation 3.3: Carbon Dioxide Emission-Reducing Projects for Carbon Credit Generation

Overview Kyoto Protocol, country X has committed to reducing its emissions by 10% and now To address the issue of deforestation they have an allowance of 90 MtC. To within the context of climate change, this meet the reduction commitment, country program recommendation will propose X needs to either reduce its emissions a combination of strategies. Enhanced by 10 MtC, or buy carbon credits worth cooking stove technologies exist that are 10 MtC. Normally they would plan a more fuel-effi cient, have fewer emissions, balanced combination of reductions and and can use renewable forms of fuel other credits that made the most economical than wood. In combining a solar cooker sense for their situation. Higher demand program with the burgeoning markets for carbon credits can increase their price for carbon credits, it may be possible to and thus give an incentive to a country to also generate revenue from using new reduce its emissions if mitigation options cooking stove technologies. With these are cheaper than buying carbon credits. If recommendations the WFP may be country X decided to reduce its emission able to develop programs that provide below their allowance to 80 MtC, then opportunities for enhancing community they would have a surplus of 10 MtC livelihoods, improving food security and which they could sell as carbon credits on reducing threats to the forest resources of a carbon trading market. West Africa. There are several kinds of carbon markets. Understanding Carbon Credits Some carbon markets trade carbon credits that can be used to comply with Carbon fi nance uses market-based mandatory emission target reductions, solutions to fi ght climate change by such as in the example above. Others funding projects that reduce global are considered private markets for those greenhouse gas emissions (Labatt 2007). who are not bound by regulation, but are In simple terms, regulatory measures, such choosing to voluntarily offset their carbon as the Kyoto Protocol, give allowances for emissions. This could be a corporation greenhouse gas emissions that are usually or an individual who has decided to buy lower than the regulated entity is currently carbon credits to offset the carbon dioxide emitting. For example, let’s assume emissions generated by their airline fl ights, country X produced 100 million tons of for example. Each market has different carbon dioxide (100 MtC). Through the types of carbon credits with different

61 3.3 Carbon Credit Generation

prices, and each will have different $60 million for 2007 (Hamilton 2007). regulations for how the carbon credits Most of the CDM projects have occurred can be created to be sold on the market. in Asian and South American countries, For example, a reforestation project in often targeting effi ciency and emission Ghana would have specifi c regulations or reduction opportunities in industrial guidelines to follow depending on what and power generation processes which kind of carbon credits it would generate. produce high volumes of CERs. Many The global carbon market was valued at African countries currently do not have USD $30 billion in 2006 (Capoor 2007). highly developed industrial sectors in The majority of that is in the trading of their economies, and thus only 2.6% of allowance credits with levels around USD the global CDM projects can be found $25 billion; the trading of credits that on the continent today (Capoor 2007). are generated by project-based activities However, it has been recognized that more makes up the remaining USD $5 billion. investment through the CDM needs to occur in Africa, where there is a growing The Clean Development interest in the carbon market. In September Mechanism and Africa of 2008, Senegal will host the new All Africa Carbon Forum, sponsored by the UN Framework Convention on Climate The Kyoto Protocol sets emission reduction Change (UNFCCC) and the International targets for the European Union and 36 Emissions Trading Association (IETA). industrialized nations that have ratifi ed the This conference will specifi cally target protocol. Industrialized nations are called capacity development within Africa for Annex 1 countries. As of the end of 2007, participation in CDM projects. 137 developing (non-Annex 1) countries have ratifi ed the Kyoto Protocol, but have no obligations for emission reductions. Implementation Considerations This group includes all of the countries in the WFP West Africa Bureau. The Clean There are signifi cant initial costs that Development Mechanism (CDM) created are often taken on by the partner in the under the Kyoto Protocol encourages industrialized country in order to get a opportunities for sustainable development large-scale project successfully developed and low-carbon technology transfer in and approved by the CDM. The partner these developing countries. Under the country has the economic incentive and CDM, developing countries can partner the capital to fi nance the project’s up- with Annex 1 countries on greenhouse front costs, as well as the costs of ongoing gas emission reduction projects. The monitoring and verifi cation that are carbon credits (called Certifi ed Emission required under the CDM guidelines. Reductions or CERs) generated as part of these projects can be used by the Relevancy to the WFP industrialized countries to comply with their Kyoto Protocol allowance mandates There are exciting market opportunities (Labatt 2007). To date, CDM projects to sell carbon credits. These projects have transferred nearly USD $9 billion to generate carbon credits either by reducing developing countries and make up almost existing emission levels, such as utilizing all of the project-based carbon credit renewable energy sources like solar market (Capoor 2007). The voluntary cookers, or by providing new carbon offset market is estimated at only USD sinks that sequester existing atmospheric

62 Recommendation Chapter 3: Deforestation carbon, such as planting trees as part of a global partnership of research institutions, reforestation project. corporations and environmental organizations, with their CCB Standards Each project needs to go through a process being well regarded (CCBA 2005). of validation, verifi cation and certifi cation The WFP would likely benefi t from to be approved by the CDM. This process cooperation with a partner organization gives assurance to potential buyers or possessing experience in climate change traders that the carbon credits generated mitigation projects, whether they choose are verifi able for the life of the project. to support CDM or voluntary projects. A For example, a potential compliance partner can help to facilitate the funding CER buyer will want to be assured that needed for project development, assist in the project that guarantees credits today project design to meet market standards, with new tree plantings is not going to and negotiate the contracts for the sale of get cut down tomorrow making their carbon credits. carbon credit investment worthless and fail to meet their compliance regulations. While the project standards are high, the CDM projects have specifi c standards transaction costs, in both time and money, and approved methodologies to provide to get a CDM project certifi ed have created projects with the best chances for success. a barrier to the small-scale non-industrial It is common to have an independent projects that organizations like the WFP third party organization, accredited by might be involved in. The bundling of the UFCCC, who acts as an intermediary several small-scale project activities into to the CDM process. CDM projects will one aggregate project is an approach not provide direct carbon credit revenue being utilized more frequently. For the to the WFP. However, these mechanisms CDM, a small-scale project is defi ned as have the potential for direct fi nancial one that mitigates less than 15,000 tons support to the communities where the of carbon dioxide emissions per year WFP is currently engaged in sustainable (t/CO2e/y). To put that in context, an development programs that increase approved CDM project in Indonesia that local livelihoods. The WFP could have a bundles the use of 1,000 solar cookers consultative and facilitating role in CDM is projected to account for emission projects, which would enable the project reductions of 3,500 t/CO2e/y (CDM initiatives to leverage their existing 2005). There are several approved CDM community development efforts. methodologies that cover solar cookers and renewable cooking fuel methods. In June 2007, a regional workshop was held Challenges in Senegal on improved cooking stoves projects across West Africa (HEDON The DCM has rigorous methodologies 2007). Using a bundled approach, the which their approved projects must adhere WFP could possibly help facilitate a to. For the voluntary project market, country-wide alternative cooking fuel standards are beginning to evolve. The program into one CDM project eligible Climate, Community and Biodiversity for carbon credits. This same bundling Alliance (CCB) has created a set of approach could be done for small-scale project design standards specifi cally for reforestation projects and conservation “multiple-benefi t land-use climate change agriculture practices conducted through mitigation projects.” The CCB is a broad existing WFP development programs.

63 3.3 Carbon Credit Generation

Example of Success

Energy-Effi cient Cooking Stoves in Lesotho

Cooking stoves in the developing world rely predominately on fuel derived from the burning of biomass such wood, charcoal, and animal dung. Many traditional stove designs have been improved to burn biomass more effi ciently with fewer emissions. Fewer emissions are not just tied to climate change, but also to reducing negative health effects from breathing stove exhaust. Stoves that burn wood and charcoal more effi ciently reduce the demand on timber resources as well as reduce the costs of cook- ing fuel for families.

A project for the use of more effi cient cooking stoves in the African country of Lesotho has been developed by the Programme for Basic Energy and Conservation (ProBEC) in Southern Africa, a program of the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), and the WFP. By building on an existing relationship between ProBEC and the WFP’s school lunch programs, the introduction of new stoves at 550 schools and orphanages was possible. The new technology, called Rocket Stoves, can reduce the amount of fuel wood needed to cook meals for 100 people by 90%. Local artisans have been trained to build the stoves, which helps to decrease the stove cost and provides needed job skills and employment for the community.

GTZ and their carbon credit partner, Climate Care, developed the methods to aggre- gate the emission reductions across the 550 project sites and generate carbon credits. Using the sustainable principals of the Clean Development Mechanism, but applying them to the voluntary market, they were able to create a credible market opportunity for selling offsets of 15,000 tons of CO2. The revenue generated by Climate Care and GTZ helps to pay for the implementation of the stove project (Barclays 2007; ProBEC 2008).

64 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security FOOD SECURITY

Success of agricultural yields and food The following recommendations availability will depend directly upon incorporate criteria based upon strategies that help farmers adapt to feasibility, effi ciency, sustainability, the challenges of climate change that proven successes, expert opinion, and impact food security, such as increasing the general consensus of links between temperatures, increased evaporation, and climate change and agriculture. These higher variability in rainfall. West Africa’s three recommendations include: dynamic landscape and topography, climate vulnerabilities, and soil types • incorporation of agricultural biodiver- require agricultural practices that are sity through cropping methods designed specifi cally to complement • fertilizer application local conditions. Maintaining agricultural • homestead gardens to improve resilien- resources and promoting sustained cy and nutrition benefi ts beyond the present may initially seem challenging. However, these goals are achievable, and critical for sustained food security in the region.

65 4.1 Cropping Methods

Recommendation 4.1: Incoporation of Agricultural Biodiversity Through Cropping Methods

Overview The following alternatives to monoculture systems are meant to preserve and By the year 2030 the overall population of replenish soil nutrients, prevent soil developing countries is expected to more erosion, maintain soil moisture, increase than double, yet the rural agricultural crop yields, increase pest resistance, and population is likely to remain constant promote food security (Thrup 2000). (Dixon, Gulliver et al. 2001). This Traditional crops and cropping methods implies an increasing ratio of urban to are being lost around the world and being rural residents, highlighting the demands replaced by ‘modern’ and ‘intensive’ that will be placed on agricultural varieties and techniques (Wood and Lenne systems to provide for increased urban 1995). These diversifi ed cropping systems populations. As this population dynamic may involve combinations of crops, changes, appropriate farming systems livestock, and trees. In recommending will not only be vital to food security in these programs, it is essential to agricultural communities but to the rest of incorporate traditional or local crops that the country, continent, and world (Dixon, are adapted to the climate of the region Gulliver et al. 2001). Agricultural and thus require lower inputs (Wood and biodiversity, or agrobiodiversity, is a key Lenne 1995). Inclusion of local cropping and often overlooked component to food methods and native varieties is vital for security and sustainability (Thrup 2000). the successful implementation of the Incorporation of practices which promote following cropping methods (Thrup 2000, agrobiodiversity into traditional crops and Dixon 2001). Every crop and method cropping methods used in the West Africa suggested here should be tailored not region is key (Thrup 2000). Increasing the only to the region and community, but to diversity in crops and cropping systems the farmer as well. in an agroecosystem can help maintain or replenish agrobiodiversity and the many The options for diversifi ed cropping ecosystem services it provides, such as systems include but are not limited to: genetic resources, soil fertility, nutrient cycling, productivity, and pest control • Mixed systems—the integration of a (Palm, Sanchez et al. 2007; Thrup 2000). food or cash crop with livestock. They In addition, increasing agrobiodiversity can be agroforestry systems that support on existing farmlands increases their livestock grazing, or grain crops that productivity, reducing the need to convert livestock may feed on after harvest. For natural lands for farming use (Thrup example, cowpea grains can be grown for 2000).

66 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security food and the crop residue may be used as will protect the soil from drying out and fodder for livestock (Ortiz and Hartmann from erosion. Enhancing agrobiodiversity 2003). can also help to mitigate climate change by increasing storage of biomass in the • Agroforestry—Tree cropping for soils, which sequesters carbon (Tieszen, harvesting of the product of the tree, such Tappan et al. 2004). Consideration and as fruits or nuts, rather than for lumber. employment of local species and varieties This may be integrated with natural forest is a key requirement for food security in systems (Sanchez 1995). the region (Thrup 2000).

Ally cropping —a form of agrofor- estry in which a food or cash crop is Implementation grown simultaneously with a tree crop Considerations (rows of trees alternating with rows of an annually harvested crop). The Cultural Considerations annual crop may provide income while the trees mature. Once mature, it is Much can and should be learned by important that the tree and the crop do examining the traditional or historical not compete for nutrients in order to farming practices of a community and the continue production of the crop. use of native crops (Thrup 2000). Using these resources may be essential for • Crop Rotation—The alternating of adapting to the future effects of climate two crops, one per growing season. change. While in most rural agricultural Crop rotations of sorghum with millet communities vast monocultures are or cowpea are common in West Africa uncommon, it is important to note that (Bagayoko, Buerkert et al. 2000). this technique can reduce the long-term viability of land. Monocultures will strip • Intercropping—Simultaneously planting the soils of their nutrients more rapidly two or more crops in adjacent rows. than practices based upon diversifi ed Similar to ally cropping, but not limited cropping methods (Wood and Lenne to agroforestry projects. Intercropping 1995). can be used with millet and groundnut (peanut) (Bagayoko, Mason et al. 1996). Crop Considerations

• Aquaculture—Use of croplands for fi sh Agrobiodiversity can be achieved farms in times of fl ood (see section 1.3 on through use of any of the abovementioned aquaculture for more details.) methods, as well as others not referenced in this report. When choosing a cropping As the impacts of climate change in the method it is important to consider regional region become more sever, it will be ever specifi cs such as: more important to consider the ability of crops to withstand fl ood and drought. • which crops are grown Increasing agrobiodiversity can promote • which crops are consumed food security in the face of climate change • what infrastructure is available to by improving the viability of farming in transport goods risk areas. Specifi cally, in areas that may • which cultural practices may be experience drought the use of cover crops

67 4.1 Cropping Methods

innovative and effective season) can also increase soil organic carbon and nitrogen in the soils when Establishing this information will help biomass is returned to the soil before the to select the most appropriate crops and rainy season (Reicosky and Forcella 1998). cropping methods. The use of drought Soil organic carbon plays a vital role not resistant and water tolerant crop varieties only in nutrient resources for crops, but will help ensure crop production in areas also in maintaining water, temperature that are susceptible to drought or fl ooding and aeration in the soils(Reicosky and (Dixon, Gulliver et al. 2001). Some of the Forcella 1998). Agroforestry systems may drought resistant varieties that grow well work well in arid regions, as the shade in Sahelian Africa include sorghum, millet, from the trees will also help decrease cowpea and groundnut (peanut) (Leff, evaporation from the soils (Kiepe and Ramankutty et al. 2004). Groundnut is Rao 1994). Ally cropping may be used to grown especially in Senegal, Guinea, and earn a profi t while the trees are maturing. Guinea-Bissau (Leff, Ramankutty et al. In areas that experience fl ooding, cover 2004). These crops are already grown in crops can be used to prevent soil erosion the region, but farmers can increase yields and loss of soil nutrients (Reicosky and and diversify diets by growing more than Forcella 1998). one crop in an intercropping or crop rotation system. Water tolerant or water Fertility Considerations loving crops like rice and maize grow well along West African coastal areas during One of the biggest constraints to crops is the rainy seasons, along with secondary the availability of soil nutrients. When crops like cassava (Leff, Ramankutty et using crop rotation, intercropping, or a al. 2004). The use of crops better adapted mixed system with livestock, nutrients to the region, like white maize instead of are returned to the soil. One of the yellow maize, or improved varieties of crops in a crop rotation or intercropping African rice instead of Asian, will require system should be a legume—legumes the use of fewer inputs. fi x atmospheric nitrogen into available nitrogen for plant uptake. Examples Climate Considerations of legumes in West Africa are cowpea, groundnut (peanut), and acacia (a tree As climatic conditions become more common in the region). The remainder extreme, and if semi-arid locales become of the plant, the stover, can be returned more arid, it is wise to avoid the growth to the soil to replenish nutrients and of water intensive crops such as rice, maintain soil cover. In a mixed system maize and soybean in these regions. As with cowpea, after the cowpea is harvested temperatures increase, evaporation of soil for human consumption the stover can be moisture will also increase. Intercropping consumed by the livestock that will then with cover crops (typically a legume) in dry return concentrated nutrients to the soil areas can help maintain soil moisture and in their manure (Wood and Lenne 1995). replenish soil organic carbon (Reicosky However, these organic fertilizer inputs and Forcella 1998). It is important that are often not suffi cient for maintaining the the main crop and the cover crop do not levels of soil fertility needed in cropping compete for nutrients. The use of cover systems (Vanlauwe and Giller 2006). crops during winter months (or the dry Although diversifi ed cropping systems

68 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security may require fewer chemical fertilizer purchasing harvests for market sale or inputs, the specifi c nutrient requirements local procurement of food aid is very of the crop may require additional fertilizer benefi cial. application (Vanlauwe and Giller 2006). Challenges Scale Considerations Some limitations to implementing these Implementation will likely be most methods include: benefi cial on a community level. • Nutrient defi cient soils when beginning Agrobiodiversity is already seen in these projects as it takes time to replenish homestead gardening, and we recommend soil nutrients, and the careful application implementing these practices in larger of appropriate fertilizers will be essential scale crop operations. In rural areas where for guaranteed successes. agriculture is the main source of income, improving the agricultural systems could • The intrusion of intensive or monoculture improve the health and well being of the farming practices in the region entire community. Increasing agricultural productivity has repeatedly been shown • Dependence on rainfed agricultural to be an effective tool for decreasing systems, which face mounting threats poverty in highly agricultural economies from climate change. Planting of crops (Dixon, Gulliver et al. 2001). A higher and fertilizer application will be especially diversity of available crops is associated sensitive to unpredictable rainfall. an increased variety in nutritional intake within the community (FAO Nutrition • Unreliable rainfall is an obvious barrier 1997; Frison, Cherfas et al. 2004). that is diffi cult to overcome because the high reliance on rainfed agriculture. As Relevancy to the WFP climate predictions and communication networks improve, so too will effi ciency One of the most signifi cant obstacles and crop success. to successful agricultural production in rainfed systems is access to seeds and fertilizers. The WFP could make a signifi cant impact by providing access to these resources or investing in seeds and fertilizers for the development of local producers. Holding a training program in communities would be a great way to inform farmers about methods of improving their current cropping systems.

In order for farmers’ incomes to increase . along with their yields, they need dependable access to markets. In areas where seeds, fertilizer, and training are provided the practice by the WFP of

69 4.2 Homestead Gardening

Recommendation 4.2: Homestead Gardening for Resiliency and Nutrition

Overview experimented with in these gardens. Combining water-catchment tanks for A homestead or kitchen garden is a the dry season with these projects can small piece of land containing crops provide both educational and practical cultivated for exclusive or near-exclusive uses for the community. Increased access consumption in the household. In many to education and agricultural technology settings worldwide, homestead gardening increases the resiliency of communities in has served as a method of providing the face of climate change. As the success household foodstuffs. They are a proven of using improved water-management strategy to curtail malnutrition, provide techniques, crop diversifi cation, soil environmental education, and improve health-enhancing practices, and other food security in developing nations environmentally sustainable systems (Helen Keller 2001). In addition to these is proven in homestead gardens, larger advantages, homestead gardens can foster agricultural producers may be inspired to positive externalities for community adopt these practices as well. members, genetic preservation of crops, and venues for new and improved crop Mounting challenges for rural livelihoods technologies. make these simple gardens a powerful strategy for dealing with the changing Homestead gardens range from simple, conditions resulting from increasing small plots supplementing nutrition to temperatures and climate fl uctuations. larger productions that can bring business Furthermore, environmental education and environmental education to families, promoted through these gardens can potentially providing household income help individuals to mitigate their through surpluses. Homestead gardens own contributions to climate change. diversify access to water and crops Because kitchen gardens are designed through creative solutions to small-scale to exclusively supply households, food resource scarcity, thereby increasing the security is reinforced. The studies cited in ability to adapt to climate fl uctuations this section highlight the positive impacts (Drechsel 2007). They serve as natural of homestead gardens on food security, experiment stations, or points of entry for both the participating household and for new technologies in agricultural the community at large. production and water management. For example, new fertilizers can be

70 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security

Implementation administrative expertise. However, additional access to agricultural and Considerations water management technologies is highly recommended. Homestead gardens can Women and Communities also support food security and community education with very little infrastructural There are many options for the successful or technical requirements, such as roads establishment of homestead gardens or complex irrigation systems, as the in West Africa. The fi rst and perhaps inputs and outputs are largely internal. most crucial challenge is entry into the Scale Considerations community. Community involvement, as opposed to fi nancial support or In Nepal, the average kitchen garden was intricate technologies, has been cited observed to measure between 5.7-7.7% of by the FAO as the most important the family’s total land holdings. Gardens factor for a successful school garden can be as small as bags or boxes lining the (FAO School Garden 2005). Engaging walls of participating women’s homes, women through direct cooperation with and as large as hectares surrounding the a fi xed agriculture extension specialist home. They can also be equally valuable (agronomic professional who provides in urban settings. In Accra, for instance, educational resources and programs for the informal agricultural sector supplies farm communities), social worker, or over 280,000 people living in the city health worker could be the most effective with perishable vegetables such as lettuce strategy for long-term acceptance of the and onions (Drechsel 2007). project. Helen Keller International had great success with kitchen and school Cost Considerations gardens in Burkina Faso by using community female social workers to According to the FAO guidebook lead the implementation and education on creating gardens, the cost can be components. The gardens can empower extremely minimal (FAO School Garden women with increased participation in 2005). Many tools can be borrowed, household decision-making and a greater seeds can be saved or bought locally, and ability to infl uence child health. The organic cultivation can decrease costs for direct infl uence of women over the crop inputs such as fertilizers and pest control. production provides them with authority The most expensive items are likely to of its use. The close involvement of be storage space for equipment, water- women in their children’s’ diets has proven management technologies, and fencing. to increase child health signifi cantly A source of regular income in addition to compared with diets controlled by males initial start-up costs is necessary, in order (Dasgupta 1995). to maintain the equipment, continue to upgrade technologies, and have access to Education Considerations evolving information.

The level of education needed to implement Funding could be provided for the initial a homestead garden is minimal, since they 2 to 3 growing seasons for baseline are essentially alternative expressions materials, including fence materials, mini- of local agricultural knowledge and plows, and other inputs via the WFP, local

71 4.2 Homestead Gardenting

government agencies, or even a micro- fi nance system. The micro-fi nancing option may be the best option in terms of increasing women’s empowerment and ownership of the project. Starting grants or sponsors, followed by the sale of some items in the garden, can provide for the initial capital, recurring expenses, and incentive to work in the garden.

Relevancy to the WFP

Workshops addressing agricultural concerns like soil fertility and crop diversifi cation have been an essential component of all the homestead projects cited in this proposal. Nutrition education fortifi es the connection between agriculture and health, while entrepreneurial training increases women’s ability to secure household income with surplus produce. This aspect of homestead gardening projects is especially emphasized as an important element of success by Helen Keller International (Helen Keller 2001). to produce within the same season of They worked on an organizational level, establishment. bringing together participating women for educational workshops, water- resource management, creation of market Challenges system strategies for surpluses, and other relevant meetings (Helen Keller 2001). If Despite the proven advantages of the WFP were to organize such a project homestead gardens, challenges to with the village women and community implementation do exist. These include leaders fully involved, the only ties to the good seed and water availability, WFP following the set-up phase would establishing program evaluation be via regular support for equipment structures, the cultural acceptance of upgrades and information sharing. These new crops, the costs of tools, reliable two roles, however, could eventually be access to educational programming, and taken over by other development-oriented the limitations of depleted soil. The next local organizations. The project would section addresses implementation options likely take three months to organize, for each of these challenges. and another three months to begin preparation of the land and administrative In Bangladesh, where a homestead details of implementation. With effi cient gardening program has been successful, coordination between funding agencies village nurseries supply seeds, water and participants, the gardens could begin accessibility, pest control strategies,

72 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security fencing, and credit methods (Helen women or cooking workshops where Keller 2001). Other entities that could children as well as women are able to fi ll this role include the WFP or local experiment with the new foods (Sifri, government agencies. Households can Bendech et al. 2003). create partnerships with a central nursery, participate in seed selection educational One of the reasons why homestead programs, or connect with already existing gardens are so powerful is that they can seed-enhancement technologies being be adapted to a variety of cultural settings. utilized in the villages for cash crops. The foods or herbs grown can and should vary depending on climate as well as A homestead gardening project in Burkina cultural identity of the participants. Faso had access to wells for water, but The homestead garden project should worked to plant drought-resistant crops simultaneously encourage women to as well in an effort to address the issue plant diverse crops. This diversity should of water availability. Connections with be designed to specifi cally provide the existing water-management strategies are micronutrients commonly absent from ideal for this aspect of the program. benefi ciaries’ diets, which will vary depending on the locale. Agricultural extension workers, health workers, and other community workers A known barrier to success of homestead can provide the crop production, gardens is misunderstanding. If local nutrition, and business education residents do not understand or are workshops. Agricultural workshops could uninvolved with the development of support women in developing effective the project, it can appear as though the composting and crop rotation strategies gardens are designed to keep community for their gardens. Access to fertilizers members from developing careers outside via the cash-crop programs already of agriculture. This lack of participation established in communities would also can also feed into the idea that gardens benefi t participating women. facilitate developing nations’ dependence on aid. This is why involving residents In order to create an effective evaluation in the planning and construction of metric, simple questions can be asked homestead gardens is essential for success. of participating women regarding This is also a practical approach, as the benefi ts and challenges of the gardens. expertise of many local adults lies in the Observational data regarding yields effective management of agriculture. and diversity of crops should also be documented for on-going collaboration with nutritional information collected by nutritional extension services.

Although in the program in Burkina Faso, new crops like orange-fl eshed sweet potatoes were readily accepted, introducing new foods presents a programmatic challenge (Helen Keller Worldwide. 2001). Options for addressing this type of diffi culty are nutrition education workshops for participating .

73 4.2 Homestead Gardening

Example of Success

Widespread Homestead Gardening Projects

Increased production allows for the possibility of marketable surplus. In a joint USAID/OFDA (Offi ce of United States Foreign Disaster Assistance) garden project in Somalia, participating women sell their extra produce, thereby providing funds for other household needs including health care and education costs (USAID 2007). This income is often signifi cant, even if the sum is modest, since it usually represents the only income generated by participating women.

In an experiment in rural South Africa on the impact of homestead gardens on vitamin A levels in children aged 2-5 years old, participating and non-participating households had increased vitamin A levels after one year. Although households with homestead gardens displayed signifi cantly higher vitamin A levels than those not participating, the study explained that the non-participating households’ increased levels of vitamin A was due to their consequential consumption of butternut squash as a result of the surplus produced by households with homestead gardens (Faber et al. 2001).

In a study of traditional Nepalese homestead gardens, species richness and homestead gardens were positively correlated. The study found that crop species tend to be pre- served in homestead gardens when development threatens species diversity, promoting reliable access to the preservation of genetic diversity of crops (Sunwar et al. 2005). Maintaining genetic diversity of crops increases the resiliency of production systems to threats such as disease and pests.

According to a study on the effectiveness of kitchen gardens in a rural Nepali com- munity, the group participating in a kitchen-gardens program had signifi cantly more knowledge of nutrition (38% versus 13% in the control group knew one of the causes of night-blindness, and 17% versus 3% in the control group knew one of the causes of anemia). Participants were more likely to feed special complementary foods to infants, to preserve food, and to consume higher quantities of 16 types of home-produced micronutrient-rich vegetables and fruits (Jones et al. 2005).

74 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security

Recommendation 4.3: Fertilizer Application

Overview and temperature variability may prove detrimental to agriculture if nutrients Fertilizer application and replacing are not retained in the soil. While many nutrients in soil can help farmers adapt to benefi ts are associated with the use of the direct and indirect impacts of climate fertilizers in West Africa, the debate as to change. The effects of climate change the best type of fertilizer to use remains in combination with the current state of unresolved. Characteristics of the soil degradation of cropland in sub-Sahelian moisture and nutrients, as well as crop countries may make fertilizer necessary type and local conditions will infl uence the for maintaining productivity. Adaptation choice of which fertilizer and application to climatic changes using available methods are most appropriate. organic fertilizers will improve conditions in a more immediate timeframe, but inorganic fertilizer use may be required Financial and Cultural if adaptation measures are aimed at Considerations utilizing unproductive or degraded lands (Buerkert and Hiernaux 1998). However, Traditional methods utilizing organic we do not recommend the use of highly and locally available fertilizers (animal marginal lands as these farming systems manure and crop residues) are critical will be highly unreliable and the costs of and necessary for current agriculture. inorganic fertilizer may be prohibitive. However, changing environmental conditions may require the modifi cation Fertilizer complements agricultural of traditional techniques to ensure future production by providing nutrients, securing sustainability (Buerkert and Hiernaux moisture, and maintaining soil structure. 1998). Solutions are not necessarily simple African soils often lack nitrogen, which is and information may not be suffi cient. one of the three most important nutrients For example, nitrogen, phosphorus, and in regional crop development. Overall, potassium availability are typically cited any fertilizer application will likely result as the primary concerns in the spatial in increased productivity, but unintended variability of crops such as millet, however consequences or associated effects of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and fertilizers are posssible depending on sodium, in combination with aluminum, application methods. are responsible for the spatial variability in soil fertility (Vanlauwe 2002). Although Implementation addressing every specifi c situation presents a challenge, local nutrient availability can Considerations be generally improved through organic fertilizer application. Though chemical The effects of climate change on rainfall

75 4.3 Fertilizer Application

fertilizers can offer promising results, These farmers are likely to be unfamiliar without proper management and planning with the application of fertilizer and may they may have detrimental consequences require training on its use. Fallow periods for cropland, the environment, and decline as land becomes scarce, which public health. In addition, economic often encourages intensifi cation. This considerations regarding the ideal situation may promote the perception infrastructure for inorganic fertilizers are that it is more benefi cial for farmers to quite different in comparison to those for hire cheap labor to increase their outputs, organic fertilizers (Matthews 2002). rather than using fertilizer to supplement defi cient soils. Regional Considerations III. High population density, good The following three scenarios provide marketaccess information which should be taken into consideration for programs aimed Market access allows farmers to be aware at improving agricultural productivity of and utilize more advanced options, such and farmer income, using strategies as fertilizer. These may be good locations such supplementing defi cient soils or for fertilizer aid as they are experienced improving market access. with its use and their proximity to the market provides an advantage in achieving I. Low population density, poor market economic gains from surplus. access Organic versus Inorganic Farmers in these regions often use methods Fertilizers that are more land intensive (increased land and decreased labor, fertilizers, Organic fertilizers can be produced and machinery). Farmers may utilize from sources such as manure, compost extensive amounts of land because other and crop residue. One of the benefi ts of inputs are harder to locate and market using crop residue is that it is produced access is low. Farmers in this situation on site, avoiding transportation or are likely to expand farmland rather than distribution costs. The most productive increasing the amount of inputs such as and effi cient crops which leave behind fertilizers. These areas are less likely to the most biomass provide good access to accept intensifi cation suggestions and agricultural residues. technologies, and other strategies such as improving market access and diversifying The choice between organic or inorganic crops may be more appropriate for these fertilizers can be diffi cult and should be conditions. determined according to local context and conditions. The following can help to II. High population density, poor market inform an appropriate choice. access • Advantages of organic fertilizer: In this scenario, farmers have scarce land, There is a relatively low cost to WFP or to labor is abundant, and market access is the community in need, as transportation low. This often results in a decreased use of costs are mostly eliminated. A less (and low preference for) purchased inputs. intense input of nutrients may also benefi t

76 Recommendation Chapter 4: Direct Impacts on Food Security the environment by avoiding some of across areas may help develop a more the damage to water quality which can general solution. During the planning result from inappropriate application of and implementation of activities relating inorganic fertilizers. to fertilizer, it is important to consider the makeup of soil, which is a refl ection • Disadvantages of organic fertilizer: of climate, geology and topography. They are somewhat less predictable in WFP could serve communities through terms of nutrient amounts and nutrient programs such as food-for-work, where ratios, as compared to inorganic local residents receive aid in exchange fertilizers. for gathering or disseminating this type of information. Training programs which • Advantages of inorganic fertilizer: inform farmers on effective fertilizer The guarantee of complex nutrient techniques would also be very benefi cial. composition allows relatively more Establishment of community or homestead predictability. composting projects can provide farmers with a dependable and free source • Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizer: of fertilizer. By assisting farmers in The cost of purchasing and transporting developing fertilization techniques which these fertilizers is often prohibitive for are appropriate for the situation, WFP can small farmers. Inappropriate application increase the self-suffi ciency and success can cause long-term damages to of these farmers. environmental quality. Challenges Additional Implementation Considerations The cultural acceptability of different fertilization techniques may pose a It is important to consider that other uses barrier to implementing what farmers for crop residue that may exist in a locale, perceive as novel or risky strategies. which may compete with the use of residue Educational opportunities can help to for fertilizer. Often leftover biomass is address this challenge, and could be used for animal fodder, construction, or fi re effectively combined with programs such fuel. Promoting techniques which reduce as homestead gardens (see section 4.2). In the need for fi re fuel, such as effi cient order to address the challenge of fertilizer stoves or solar cookers (see sections 3.2 costs, these inputs can be provided and 3.3) can reduce competing demands through bundled loans related to weather on crop residue. The benefi ts of increased index insurance (see section 1.1). agricultural productivity which can be gained through use of crop residue as fertilizer should be weighed against the need for fi re fuel.

Relevancy to the WFP

When developing any plans that may be applied to a wide variety of conditions, knowledge of what conditions are similar

77 78 Applied Studies

To illustrate how our program ideas could food security. These Applied Studies be effective in West Africa, we have are meant to help translate the program applied recommendations from each Issue recommendations to the specifi c context Chapter to specifi c areas within West of the West Africa region, and to assist the Africa. The fi rst applied study examines WFP with implementation. how an aquaculture project in Mali can help communities adapt to increased fl ooding and even take advantage of it to improve their livelihoods. Second, also looking at Mali, a potential weather index insurance program is explored as a method for adapting to increased drought events. The applied study for deforestation is about a program in Burkina Faso that would incorporate solar cookers and carbon credits. Our fi nal applied study explores using cereal and legume rotations in the West African Sahel to improve

79 80 Applied Study on Flooding

Applied Study on Flooding: Fish-for-Work in Mali

Overview Infrastructure Needs

Mali is one of the largest countries in For this applied study, the areas of Niono, West Africa, in both land area (1,241,000 Sikasso and Kadiolo have been selected km2) and population (13.1 million) (IRIN within Mali, due to interest of local 2008), though its population density is women. All areas are in central Mali, relatively low compared with other West which is prone to fl ooding. In fi shing African nations. Several land types and communities, women are the head of climate zones fall within Mali’s national the family. Management of aquaculture borders, from moist sub-humid forest to production needs to be directed toward hyper-arid desert. This diversity makes women, as they are responsible for 90% it an informative location for applied of fi shing activities in Mali. The above study. Agricultural production is high, regions, though, have experienced particularly in cereal production, with diffi culty in implementing past aquaculture 80% of all national production being rice projects. Mopti may be a better location (Peterson and Kalende 2006). Mali also to begin a pilot program for the World hosts the largest fi shery production in the Food Programme. Mopti marks the Sahel and 40% of West Africa’s freshwater confl uence of the Niger and Bani Rivers fi shery production comes from the Niger and lies within the Central Delta, where River and tributaries of the Senegal. in the month of October fl ood waters can Between 10-20% of fi sh production in cover over 20,000 km2. It is estimated Mali is exported. The combination of that this fl oodplain produces an estimated high cereal and fi sh production makes the 70,000 to 150,000 tons of fi sh per year country ideal for a Fish-for-Work program (Peterson and Kalende 2006). A study that cultivates rice patties with fi sh. There between 1996-2002 by the FAO Special are three principal fi sh production zones Programme for Food Security highlighted in Mali: the Central Delta of the Niger the area as having high potential for River and two artifi cial lakes—Lake success with NGO support (Peterson and Sélingué and Lake Manantali (Peterson Kalende 2006). and Kalende 2006). Due to climate change the area within Mali which experiences The Fish-for-Work program administered fl ooding will expand and these events by the World Food Programme would help will likely occur more frequently with to support local livelihoods. There would greater intensity. These weather patterns need to be an educational component to may allow aquaculture to be expanded to work with local farmers in developing areas that were previously not viable. a community management strategy and technical skills. These skills would include assembling appropriate nets or fences to section off areas for aquaculture,

81 Applied Study on Flooding

stocking fi ngerlings (juvenile fi sh) and smoking fi sh once harvested. In West Africa, food spoilage is a serious concern. To combat this, fi sh smoking is common in Mali. As aquaculture is extended to other areas of West Africa, education on smoking techniques and storage should be considered integral to implementation. In addition to using fl oodplains, irrigation systems can be used for aquaculture. However, these systems can be very expensive. According to the FAO, Mali has the necessary resources to develop such systems (Peterson and Kalende 2006). instance, revenue from concurrent rice- fi sh cultivation was higher per hectare Project Cost Estimates than that for either rice or fi sh, at USD $1,746.90/ha, while total costs amounted The start-up costs of aquaculture are to USD $1,174.49, and included both the primary constraint in developing a variable and fi xed costs. Variable costs successful system. These include costs of included such items as lime (USD $0.67/ procurement of the initial nets to section ha), organic and inorganic fertilizers off the area for operation, added fi ngerlings (USD $164.32/ha and USD $149.58/ha (wild native varieties are widely available respectively), fi ngerlings (USD $133.33/ in Mali), and costs of labor to build the ha), rice seeds (USD $22.11/ha), fi sh physical infrastructure, run the operation feed (USD $54.77/ha) and hired labor and harvest products. Feed materials (USD $267.83/ha). Fixed costs included for fi sh may also be considered. These depreciation of materials (USD $235.85/ typically consist of agricultural by- ha) and a land tax (USD $10.72). After products, such as rice bran, cotton waste accounting for all costs, profi ts amounted and fi shmeal—all widely available to USD $572.41/ha with rice-fi sh in Mali. Additionally, as spoilage is a cultivation (Brugere 2006). These prices concern for fi sh harvests, the minimal should be comparable to operating similar costs of smoking should be considered. operations in Mali with similar inputs. Currently, in Mali, most fi shing nets are purchased from Korea, Japan and There are many commercial fi sh available India. Local fi shing net production from in Mali. Recent aquaculture operations materials such as bamboo will reduce have focused on tilapia, which sell for these costs, and natural vegetation can CFAF 100/kg, Clarias spp. and Heterotis also be used to secure aquaculture areas spp., which both sell for CFAF 600/kg. (Peterson and Kalende 2006). Catfi sh, however, may be of interest in To consider the operation costs of some areas. Two African species, Lates aquaculture, there may be some benefi t spp., which sells for CFAF 2,000/kg, and in turning to other African case studies Hydrocynus spp., which sells for CFAF for examples. In a cost and returns 1,500/kg, are among the species being analysis conducted in Madagascar, for considered. Additionally, dried catfi sh

82 Applied Study on Flooding can be sold for as much as CFAF 3-4,000/ kg (Peterson and Kalende 2006; Brugere 2006). In Mali local producers are often subject to a fi sh quality certifi cation tax of CFAF 7.50/kg (Peterson and Kalende 2006). .

Challenges

The main challenges to aquaculture programs include start-up costs and lack of credit to obtain start-up inputs, maintaining live fi sh populations should fl oodwaters recede prematurely, and spoilage of fi sh catches. To overcome these barriers, communal management structures may be employed to share the costs. Structural mitigation projects can be established to create refuge for fi sh during times of drought or reduced water levels. Smoking fi sh can be incorporated into harvesting to better preserve catches. Though rice-fi sh production is practiced traditionally in some areas of Mali, education and training programs in these areas may be needed to ensure successful project execution.

83 Applied Study on Drought & Desertifi cation

Applied Study on Drought & Desertifi cation: Weather Index Insurance in Mali

Overview Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, and nine West African countries as an organization to address Mali suffers from high levels of poverty food security, desertifi cation control, and and undernourishment. As of 2002, water management through training and approximately 64% of the population delivering agrometeorological information lived below the poverty line and 28% (meteorological information that relates were undernourished (Hellmuth 2007). to agriculture) to rural farmers (Hellmuth A large portion of Mali is classifi ed as 2007). Many of the elements that support desert or semi-desert, rain-fed agriculture the agrometeorology program of Mali is predominant, and there are frequent can be utilized in an index insurance drought events (Hellmuth 2007). Index program, including: meteorological insurance can be a means to provide entities, rainfall and crop yield data, fi nancial support for farmers when crops and organizations that provide fi nancial fail from low rainfall. Index insurance support. An index insurance program programs require several inputs, will further decrease drought-related risk including meteorological entities, a crop for farmers by insuring an income source and precipitation index, national or local in seasons of drought (Hellmuth 2007). fi nancial institutions, privately owned Index insurance policies with bundle loans lands with potential for rain-fed crops, and provides credit for farmers to invest in new some subsidy support. Considering these technologies (World Development Report requirements, Mali is an ideal country 2008: Agriculture for Development). for an index insurance program since it Therefore, an index insurance program for has a high level of undernourishment, Mali which reduces risk for farmers and large amounts of rain-fed agriculture, a encourages investment in technologies national meteorological service (Direction such as fertilizer and quality seeds Nationale de la Meteorolgie), and Centre (Hellmuth 2007), can ultimately increase Régional de Formation et d’Application overall food production and thus enhance en Agrométéorologie et Hydrologie livelihoods. Opérationnelle (AGRHYMET).

AGRHYMET was established in 1975 by Infrastructure the United Nations Development Program, World Meteorological Organization, Meteorological Entities

84 Applied Study on Drought & Desertifi cation

In the early 1980s an agrometeorology (FAO 2008). project was created in Mali. Over the Financial Institutions years the agrometeorology program has utilized climate information from Mali’s National, regional, or local fi nancial national meteorological service (DNM), institutions of Mali can provide loans World Meteorological Organization to support this insurance program. (WMO), International Research Institute Participation by multiple institutions is for Climate and Society (IRI), the African ideal because it encourages competition Centre of Meteorological Application between each institution, prompting for Development (ACMAD), rural competitive rates. Some potential lending development and agricultural extension banks of Mali include: Development Bank agents, and farmers (Hellmuth 2007). of Mali, Central Bank of African States, This climate-based farming advice is International Bank for Mali, Malian Bank delivered via seasonal forecasts, daily for Credit and Deposits, and National to 3-day weather forecasts, and 10-day Bank of Agriculture Development (Banks bulletins (Hellmuth 2007). Forecasts and 2008). bulletins are circulated to farmers over radio, television, and through printed media (Hellmuth 2007). Cost Considerations

Climate information for Mali is also Index insurance contracts with bundled collected from various other sources, loans are an attractive option, as the loans including Satellite-based precipitation cover the insurance policies and allow estimates can be combined with local farmers to purchase agricultural inputs monitoring stations for better predictability (e.g. seeds and fertilizer) with credit of seasonal rainfall. The predictability (Syroka 2007). Index insurance programs of the El Niño Southern Oscillation may need fi nancial support initially, (ENSO) up to a year in advance enables but will become more self-sustaining in consideration of the weather effects of the long-run, as farmers pay for the full this phenomenon in the development of fi nancial cost of the program (Osgood). insurance contracts (Vicarelli, unpub.). For this reason, banks also benefi t from index insurance by expanding their Required Data lending portfolios (Syroka 2007). The World Bank’s 2008 World Indices are based on historical and spatial Development Report recommends subsidy records of rainfall and crop yields. Since support for index insurance to cover the its formation in 1982, AGRHYMET has start-up costs for farmers (World Bank compiled information on both climate 2007). Cooperative fi nancial support and agricultural yields from various from international aid agencies like the organizations (Hellmuth 2007). This World Food Programme, the World Bank, climate and agricultural yield data can or the Inter American Development serve as the basis for establishment of Bank is necessary for the initiation of indices for various regions of Mali. index insurance programs in developing Another resource for crop/weather nations (Syroka 2007). Subsidies are also index information is the FAO’s Water recommended for the continued costs Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI) of meteorological data collection and

85 Applied Study on Drought & Desertifi cation

contract design (Osgood). One possible source of this subsidy assistance is Mali’s Federal Government, specifi cally the Ministry of Agriculture. In 2005-2006 the Mali government allocated about USD $1.2 million for new weather stations and equipment (Hellmuth 2007).

Challenges

One of the biggest potential challenges of index insurance in Mali is the fact that 65% of the country is desert or semi- arid, less than 4% of land is farmed, and farmlands are subject to frequent droughts (Hellmuth 2007). The aridity of the land and frequent droughts make farming a high-risk endeavor (Hellmuth 2007). Frequent droughts may deter local banks from providing loans and insurance companies from insuring weather risks.

Mali’s climate information-based farming program has driven better farming management decisions and has ultimately resulted in higher yields and incomes (Hellmuth 2007). Index insurance will complement this agrometeorological program and protect farmers from losses associated with drought.

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86 Applied Study on Deforestation

Applied Study on Deforestation: Solar Cookers and Carbon Credits in Burkina Faso Overview Implementation This applied study suggests the implementation of a program that Through implementation of this type would utilize solar cookers in Burkina of project, the WFP would provide Faso to take advantage of carbon credit parabolic solar cookers to 1000 families opportunities. A similar approach was in Burkina Faso. This country is one used in the Lesotho biomass cooker of the least urbanized in West Africa, program described earlier (see section though rapid urban population growth has 3.3). been occurring in the two main cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso. The Burkina Faso is ranked 176 out of the latter is situated in a mountainous region 177 countries on the 2007 UN Human in the southwest of the country, consisting Development Report (UNDP 2007), of a collection of 30 or more villages making this one of the poorest countries where urban agriculture is practiced. in the world. 70% of the population Bobo Dioulasso has been selected for survives on less than USD $2 per day. A this applied study based on previous rapidly increasing population, combined solar cooker successes there (Hermann- with advancing desertifi cation, is putting Sanou 2006). However, similar success an ever-increasing strain on the country’s has been documented in the north of existing natural resources. According to the country as well, and a wide spread the FAO, 90-98% of household energy application to multiple cities is a worthy consumption in Africa is generated by consideration. The “Papillon” parabolic fuelwood, which is predominantly used style solar cooker has been previously for cooking (Amous 1999). Alternatives tested on a small scale in this and other to wood fueled cooking, such as solar areas of Burkina Faso with some success cookers, can have a positive impact (Hermann-Sanou 2006). This solar cooker on reducing deforestation and carbon is recommended for this project because emissions. A 2004 study in Burkina Faso it is locally manufactured in the capital looked at how much a family would use of Ouagadougou and has been proven solar cookers if one were made available successful. A similar solar cooker is being to them. It was determined that the cookers used in an approved CDM project in Ache, would have a positive impact on reducing Indonesia (CDM 2005). Information a family’s use of wood, charcoal and gas is not currently available with detailed (Hermann-Sanou 2006). emissions reduction calculations for the “Papillon”. So, this applied study will

87 Applied Study on Deforestation

use the Indonesian cooker methodology Certifi ed Emissions Reductions (CERs) to provide a hypothetical estimate of the is around USD $8, totaling an estimated emissions reductions and carbon credit USD $336,000 of gross revenue. The potential for a similar solar cooker project amount of net revenue that could be made implemented in Burkina Faso. available to the community is highly dependent on the expenses, details of the project and prices that are negotiated Cost Considerations with the carbon credit partner. WFP implementation of such a project could In 2004 the unit cost of the “Papillon” occur through a voluntary market project cooker was FCFA 50,000 (78 Euros). The like the Lesotho project (see section 3.3), WFP or the carbon credit partner could or it could be a CDM project like the Aceh subsidize a portion, or all, of the cooker project. As discussed prior in this report, costs. There would be administrative and CDM projects have a higher standard travel costs associated with the initial of methodological rigor, making the training and dissemination of the solar transaction costs and the price of CERs cookers. WFP may provide training or higher. The market for voluntary credits partner with a local NGO help cover the (VERs) is small but growing, and the cost of training families on the proper use projects can often get implemented faster of the cookers. The costs associated with than occurs through the CDM (Kollmuss certifying, monitoring, and verifying the 2008). project for carbon credits would be borne by the carbon credit specialist partner who would own the credits. Challenges

As described in the solar cooker Potential Emissions recommendation section (see section Reductions 3.2), there are some technical and cultural issues that can impede the adoption To get an estimate of the emissions of alternative cooking stoves in West reductions and carbon credit potential of Africa. As a fuel source, solar cookers a solar cooker project in Burkina Faso, a are a much more sustainable alternative similar project will be used as an example. to the traditional fuelwood and charcoal In Aceh, Indonesia a comparable parabolic cooking stoves. However, there have been refl ector solar cooker is being used for an design advances that provide improved approved CDM project. Each individual fuel effi ciency and reduce emissions of cooker generates 600 watts of power and fuelwood cooking stoves. The sale of its use as a substitute for fuelwood avoids higher effi ciency wood fueled stoves, like the generation of 3.5 tons of carbon those used in the Lesotho project (section dioxide (CO2) emissions per year. The 3.3), has been successful in Burkina Aceh project also distributed 1000 cookers Faso (Feldmann 2007a). These more for an annual abatement of CO2 by 3500 traditional stoves could compete with the tons. With a project life of 12 years the adoption of alternate technologies like Aceh program can generate a total of solar stoves. 42,000 CERs over the credit period. The performance of the solar stove and The average price of the project-based reduced fuel costs can help to overcome

88 Applied Study on Deforestation some of the cultural challenges. Studies have shown that when properly trained, 76% of families will use the solar cooker daily depending on weather, and 55% of families continue to use it in the rainy season (Hermann-Sanou 2006). Another challenge is that a cooker does not supplant all use of existing wood, charcoal or gas cooking methods. Studies show that it will be used to make rice and sauces, but is still not favored for making corn or millet mush due to heating capacity. However, the cooker can be used for heating water to cook mush. Because mush is a principal meal in Burkina Faso, this may be a particular challenge for the project.

.

89 Applied Study on Food Security

Applied Study on Food Security: Cereal and Legume Rotations in the West African Sahel

Overview and increase available nitrogen in the soil When identifying appropriate cropping (Bagayoko, Buerkert et al. 2000; Bationo, techniques to increase agrobiodiversity, Traore et al. 2003; Bado, Bationo et al. it is important to thoroughly consider 2006). Traditionally, periods of fallow issues such as culture, climate, nutrition, are used to replenish soil fertility for soil health, and pests. The combination of growing these cereals. However, with the existing diffi culties in growing conditions increasing need for food, fallow periods in the semi-arid Sahelian areas of West have become shorter and less frequent. Africa, together with future climate Rotating cereals with legumes is a viable uncertainties, may require an intensifi ed and environmentally sustainable method use of acclimatized traditional crops, of alleviating the growing impacts of as well as technological improvements continual land use. of these varieties. In this section, we consider the cultural, environmental, Cultural Appropriateness and nutritional benefi ts of cereal-legume crop rotations as a possible method of Millet, cowpeas, sorghum, and adapting to and mitigating the effects of groundnuts have been grown in West global climate change. We have found Africa for centuries. Sorghum is believed that the benefi ts of using crop rotation of to have derived from Ethiopia and spread a cereal and legume are extensive, from to West Africa, starting with the Mande signifi cantly decreasing the amount of people in northern Niger. Millet has West inputs required to obtain higher yields, African origins as well, with varieties to an enhancement of soil fertility, to from tropical West Africa, Uganda, and numerous nutritional advantages achieved the highlands (FAO Nutrition 1995). through these combinations. In general, these crops are grown for household subsistence rather than for There are several possible crop rotation sale at market (Dixon and Gulliver et al. combinations appropriate for use in 2001). Those who do participate in the the Sahel. These include traditional market often revert to planting traditional cereals such as millet and sorghum, varieties when new varieties, subsidies, or as well as legumes like groundnut and other agricultural inputs are unavailable cowpea. Many studies have shown that (Dixon and Gulliver et al. 2001). combinations of these cereals and legumes in rotation are benefi cial to cereal yields

90 Applied Study on Food Security

A connection with traditional crops does land for millet and sorghum cultivation not detract from farmers’ innate interest in today is in the Sudan-Guinean area (FAO and commitment to technological advances Nutrition 1995). in agriculture. In 1994, for instance, the international development organization Another advantage of each of these crops CARE facilitated an aid program called is that they all have a wide variety of uses. the Livingston Food Security Project Sorghum, for instance, can be used for in Zambia to increase food security of fl at bread, porridge, beer, and sweeteners. small-scale farmers. Their strategy for Parts of the plant can also supply fuel, accomplishing this goal was to supply dye for leather, and fi ber for baskets or early-maturing and drought-resistant fi sh traps. seeds of traditional crops in concert with agricultural extension services. Within two seasons, participation in the Nutritional program expanded from 330 farmers to Appropriateness 6,800 farmers. This result illustrates the signifi cant potential that introducing new In addition to the cultural advantages of technologies married with traditional the aforementioned crops, they each have crop varieties can have on food security considerable nutritional value. Cowpea, in West Africa. (FAO Community 2001). for instance, contains signifi cant levels of vitamin B and important minerals (CGIAR 2005). Cowpea also complements dairy Climate Appropriateness protein because it contains the amino acids lysine and tryptophan, while lacking Sorghum, groundnut, cowpea, and millet methionin and cystine (Bressani 1985). are all well adapted to a variety of climate conditions, especially in locations where Groundnuts provide a number of maize is harder to cultivate. In general, important macro and micro nutrients, Sorghum requires 400-600mm rainfall including vitamins E, K, and B, especially per season. Dakar is an example of an B1 or thiamine. The niacin content of area that receives approximately 500mm groundnuts balances cereals, which are rainfall annually (FAO 1983). Millet has often lacking in this nutrient (CGIAR been known to grow in very drought- 2005). prone areas with depleted soils, needing between 200-600mm of rainfall (FAO Sorghum and millet have similar amounts Nutrition 1995). As an example of this of protein to those found in wheat and type of climate, Agades in Niger is an maize, are high in iron, phosphorous, and area that receives 175mm average annual B complex vitamins, and (depending on rainfall (FAO 1983). The Spanish variety the variety of millet) contain signifi cant of groundnut is best suited for West African levels of calcium (FAO Nutrition 1995). regions that receive less than 500mm of rainfall annually. In areas with more than 500mm of rainfall per year, the Virginia Applicability and variety of groundnut is more suitable (Shankarappa 1997). Cowpea can tolerate Experimental Examples of drought better than many common beans. Success Some data suggests that the most viable

91 Applied Study on Food Security

The benefi ts of cereal rotation with a supplement the nutrients made available legume are well accepted, and reach through the rotation (Bagayoko, Buerkert beyond human nutritional and cultural et al. 2000). In 2000, Bationo et al. value. This cropping system has proved to suggested, that a legume-millet rotation enhance the resiliency of crops to weather with 30 kg of nitrogen added per hectare fl uctuations, pest infestations, and other would be the most viable option for millet threats to food security. This section will in the Sahel. With cereal-legume crop address the environmental advantages rotation, chemical fertilizers may be used of cereal-legume crop rotations, and as supplements. illustrate successful cases with examples from West Africa. Two experimental studies in Sahelian West Africa examined Yields millet-cowpea rotations and sorghum- In a region of primarily rain-fed groundnut rotations for their effects on agriculture, any improvements to soil soil fertility and crop yields. health can signifi cantly improve yields. Crop rotation may enhance yields by Soil fertility altering the physical and microbial properties of the soil, as well as reducing One of the major gains from cereal-legume pest problems (Bagayoko, Mason et al. rotation the fi xation of nitrogen in the soil. 1996). These results were quantifi ed Studies show that there are higher levels in a study conducted in Nigeria and of available nitrogen for cereals which are Burkina Faso in 1996 using crop rotation planted after legumes than after fertilizer of an improved millet variety and a local application alone (Bagayoko, Buerkert et cowpea variety. When millet was planted al. 2000). Legumes fi x nitrogen by taking where cowpea had been planted the it from the atmosphere and transforming previous year, yields increased by17% to it into a plant-available form in the soil. 30% (Bagayoko, Mason et al. 1996). In The process has the subsequent potential this study, with limited fertilizer inputs, to reduce amounts of fertilizer needed for soil nutrients and nitrogen levels also soils, thus reducing costs for the farmer. increased. Hand weeding in conjunction Because many farmers in West Africa with a mild application of pesticides to struggle to afford the purchase of suffi cient control thrips (an insect that may transmit inputs for production, this decrease in microbial pathogens) mitigated the threats costs could be immensely benefi cial to of pests. the food security of these communities. Fertilizer application alone may provide This same study intercropped pearl millet similar increases in yield, costs can be with cowpea and found that seasonal crop prohibitive for many farmers. rotation systems had higher yields overall than intercropping systems (Bagayoko, All cropping techniques in this study Mason et al. 1996). Yields of cereal were found to mine the soil of nutrients following cultivation of legumes were (Bagayoko, Mason et al. 1996). as much as 24% higher for millet, but Fertilizer application of superphosphate, varied by year and location, possibly due rockphosphate, cereal crop residues, and to rainfall variations. Again, there was no calcium ammonium nitrate were applied signifi cant increase in the legume yields. at various stages of growth aiming to This may be due to rain variability. The study also found that rotations increased

92 Applied Study on Food Security soil levels of mineral nitrogen at all sites (Bagayoko, Buerkert et al. 2000). The use of rotation was observed to increase early mycorrhizal establishment, providing a benefi cial symbiotic fungi that enables extended nutrient uptake for plant growth. .

In the studies cited here, Sorghum-cowpea, sorghum-groundnut, and millet-cowpea rotations all proved to be successful combinations (Bagayoko, Buerkert et al. 2000). The use of sorghum-groundnut and millet-cowpea rotations in semi- arid regions could increase crop yields, increase the availability of nitrogen in the soil, lower spending on fertilizer and improve plant interactions with soil biota.

.

93 Conclusion

Conclusion

West Africa is very diverse, both change on food security. The latter focal geographically and culturally. In area is impacted by many factors, but we delivering food aid to these 18 countries, have addressed it separately to highlight the West African Bureau of the WFP a few specifi c agricultural approaches maintains a broad range of programs in to improving food security. Most this logistically and politically challenging populations in West Africa are dependent terrain. To meet designated aid targets, on rain-fed agricultural production or which include supporting local livelihoods external food aid. Local food production and responding to emergency situations is a key element in enhancing food involving displaced populations, the security to serve both communities and WFP is susceptible to fl uctuations in the WFP distribution of aid. Each program international food commodity market, as recommendation may differ depending well as in the viability of local agricultural on the locale of implementation. For production. The recent trends in rising instance, in the northern parts of the West food prices highlight these poignant Africa region there are concerns over challenges as substantial concerns. water availability, while the southern Climate change will likely exacerbate coast may be concerned with rising sea losses caused by drought or extreme levels that have the potential to displace weather fl uctuations, which will impact populations or lead to salt-water intrusion both local and international markets. in highly productive agricultural areas. Though all nations are at risk of the impacts of climate change, West Africa is Flooding is common during the rainy particularly vulnerable to such fl uctuations season in West Africa. Climate predictions both biophysically and economically. This suggest increases in storm severity and sea- region currently lacks the institutional, level rise in some regions, leaving coastal, resource and infrastructural adaptive fl ood plain or deltaic communities at risk. capacity which enables more developed Our recommendations include proactive countries to better manage these impacts. solutions such as structural management, Periodic droughts and fl oods are sea level preparedness and management obstacles to reducing poverty and hunger plans, and aquaculture production in in developing counties; current climate fl ood plains. The latter applied study change predictions may infl ate these is a means to locally produce a high- obstacles. protein food that can be cultivated along with rice production. This technique can In this report, we have presented be used to reclaim lands that may be recommendations to address four major typically unusable for other agricultural vulnerabilities in West Africa, including production during the rainy season. These fl ooding, drought and desertifi cation, recommendations may lead to higher area deforestation and direct impacts of climate nutrition, increased local incomes and

94 Conclusion community-managed control systems for particularly vulnerable. Other associated improving livelihoods. recommendations include supporting tree nurseries and use and/or distribution of Drought and desertifi cation is a major solar cookers. Both provide a means to concern within West Africa. The Sahel increase availability of tree stocks. Solar has been a primary region of concern cookers encourage alternative cooking over roughly the past 30 years because of methods that do not involve fuelwood long periods of drought. Desertifi cation is collection, also reducing the effort spent closely linked with periods of drought. In on wood collection. this report, we highlight recommendations including weather-based index insurance, The program recommendations that rain-gauge and sowing chart introduction we examined in this report describe the and improved water usage through such links between particular vulnerabilities means as rainwater storage and micro- and food security. We also explored the irrigation. Weather-based index insurance direct impacts of climate change on food was the focus of our applied study, which security. Our recommendations included has great potential in West Africa for cropping methods that can be employed to improving farmer livelihoods by reducing directly improve agricultural biodiversity risk in seasons of low precipitation. As and increase yields. Our applied study climate change leads to greater regional focused on cereal and legume rotations, variability in rainfall, reducing risk for which improves soil fertility and crop farmers in low rain seasons is central in production. Culturally appropriate crop encouraging local food production. Such choices will need to be considered in these plans should be considered on a national programs, and education about other crops or international scale to disperse risk, may be needed as temperatures increase rather than implementation through local and climate change shifts growing regions fi nancial institutions. and seasons. Additionally, in this report we examined homestead gardening as a Deforestation is often the result of viable way to reduce food aid dependency unsustainable land practices. Our and improve community nutrition through recommendations focus on reduced participatory education. deforestation, as well as encouraging reforestation and afforestation. Our As weather-related shocks increase applied study focused on carbon credit demands on food aid, including access programs. These types of programs to food as well as transportation costs, are gaining international acceptance the WFP should be aware of alternative and support and can be successful in actions that may help specifi c regions protecting existing forest resources in adapt to a changing climate. The program West Africa, in addition to supplementing recommendations outlined in this report local incomes through forest stewardship may fi t into existing WFP program and plantings. We developed this areas or may be new areas of focus. In recommendation out of concern that either case, incorporating environmental deforestation in West Africa often results education for WFP staff, community from fuelwood collection, as well as members and other stakeholders will the important links between forests and improve the effectiveness of WFP in food production. Forests and woodlands achieving their mission. The appendices around refugee camp operations may be of this report also provide additional ideas

95 Conclusion

and resources for further investigation, as well as potential partnerships on the local, national and international level. These recommendations, combined with anticipated incorporation of climate change factors into the WFP’s Vulnerability Assessment Mapping (VAM), should help to alleviate concerns over the inherently unpredictable elements of climate change. Increased monitoring and vulnerability modeling should be considered as a means to further develop response mechanisms to climate change in West Africa.

While the WFP has the logistical infrastructure to provide short-term critical food needs and humanitarian relief, long-term community-based food assistance and training programs will be necessary for adaptation and mitigation efforts to manage climate change in West Africa. Though our program recommendations specifi cally address the four vulnerabilities that we identifi ed, a combination of programs and approaches will likely be the best solution. Many of these activities are already in practice in West Africa, but implementation of such recommendations on multiple fronts will improve the effectiveness of strategies for adapting to climate change. In addition, knowledge sharing between institutions, governments and local communities presents a vital channel for climate change preparedness.

It has been a great honor to prepare this report for the WFP and we very much appreciate the opportunity to work with an organization that has such a direct and lasting impact on communities in need.

96 References

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105 Appendix I: Additional Program Ideas

Appendix I: Additional Program Ideas

This appendix contains information that using cow manure as the source of heat, the WFP may want to explore further without the need for a kiln. The fi lters in order to develop additional programs have been tested and shown to remove related to climate change mitigation and common pathogens such as e-coli. The adaptation. Because of time constraints production of these fi lters is quite simple. we were not able to provide a more The working principle is based on pores detailed analysis of these ideas. However, in the fi lter that are wide enough for water we hope this information will be a useful droplets to pass through, but too narrow starting point for the WFP. for pathogens. http://info.anu.edu.au/ovc/Media/_pdf/ Flooding ClayPotFilter_fi nal_web.pdf Micro Dams Weather Index Insurance Micro dams are simple earth fi lled Typical weather index insurance programs dams that store rainwater and surface insure farmers against drought, but it may water underground without evaporative be considered for fl ood-prone areas as well. losses. They are constructed with low- Precipitation beyond a certain threshold, permeability rock that traps water behind and subsequent runoff, can damage crops the structure (IFAP, 2005). Large-scale at different stages in maturation, as can underwater mining may not be feasible in too little rain. The primary limitation West Africa, but small yield, near surface of weather index insurance for fl ood groundwater is present. Ttraditional protection is that additional weather allocation techniques can be very useful, monitoring stations would be required to and if properly maintained, micro dams ensure accuracy. There would need to be could sustain a small community’s water a greater density of stations to apply this needs for both agricultural and domestic idea to fl ooding, or satellite imaging (e.g. uses (IFAP, 2005). One of these alternatives the Normalized Difference Vegetation to more costly irrigation techonolgy is the Index, NDVI), could supplement local foggara system, a complex network of monitoring data. vertical shafts dug into a sloping plateau above an oasis (IFAP 2005). Drought Groundwater Lifting Boreholes Clay pot water fi ltration Water-lifting technologies in West Africa This is a new technology that allows are limited due to technical, economic water fi lters to be made from commonly and social constraints. However, digging available materials and locally produced a low cost, small-scale borehole that lifts

106 Appendix I: Additional Program Ideas groundwater in relatively low volumes means of providing food without reliance (often tens of meters) can provide on large inputs of fresh water or energy” communities with greater water access (“Dr. Philip Davies - Turning the Desert (Snell 2004). Green”). The Seawater Greenhouse is in prototype stages, but is a promising Greenhouse Technologies for Arid option. Farming A success story of greenhouse agriculture Greenhouse technologies allow for is found in one of West Africa’s driest the control of evapotranspiration from regions—Cape Verde, which averages less vegetation and climate conditions such than 75mm of rain per year (Hamilton). as moisture, temperature, and solar Farmer Emilio Lobo has built a greenhouse energy. These conditions are controlled to grow hydroponic produce (Hamilton). by greenhouse materials, energy inputs, With this technology he uses half of the and water inputs, allowing greenhouses water of traditional agricultural farming to provide optimum growing conditions methods (Hamilton). in the semi-arid and arid regions of West Africa. The different input technologies The Zai System in Mali: for greenhouse materials, energy, and Micro-catchment technique called water come in a range of costs. “pitting”

Information on useful greenhouse Practiced mainly in Mali, Burkina Faso technologies, such as the desert and Niger, where it is known as “tassa”, zai greenhouse, can be found at www. is a traditional technique for conserving desertgreenhouse.com. This company water and rehabilitating degraded land. offers two technologies for greenhouses, The Zai system consists of a series of the plastic/glass greenhouse and the closed man-made pits or holes dug on abandoned desert greenhouse (“Desert Greenhouse”). or unused land, dug approximately 80cm For comparison, the average open fi eld apart to a depth of 5-15cm and with a farming operation produces 5 kg/m3 diameter of 15-50cm. The holes capture and has water demands 100 liter/kg of runoff precipitation, because the land is production (“Desert Greenhouse”). The typically less permeable to water. The zai farming production with a plastic/glass pits are fi lled with organic matter so that greenhouse is 20-30 kg/m3 and a has a moisture can be trapped and stored more water demand of 30 liter/kg (“Desert easily, and are then planted with annual Greenhouse”). Farming production with crops such as millet or sorghum. The zai the closed desert greenhouse produces pits extend the favorable conditions for 60-90 kg/m3 and has a water demand of 5 soil infi ltration after runoff events, and liter/kg (“Desert Greenhouse”). they are benefi cial during storms when there is too much water. A second example is the Seawater Greenhouses of The Royal Society The compost and organic matter in the pits at: http://royalsociety.org/page. absorbs excess water and acts as a form asp?id=1496&printer=1. of water storage for the planted crops. “The Seawater Greenhouse offers a However, this can also be a disadvantage possible affordable and sustainable of the system if they become waterlogged

107 Appendix I: Additional Program Ideas

during extremely wet years. No special equipment or knowledge is needed to adopt the technology, and the cost of implementation is mainly calculated according to the farmer’s opportunity cost of time. The maintenance of the pits does require the farmer to invest additional time for activities such as deepening and refi lling the pits. However, the economic return to the investment is close 100% because the land brought under production had been abandoned or unused. The success of zai planting pits has been documented in many parts of the Sahel region. In 1989-1990, a project implemented by the Djenné Agricultural Systems Project (SAD) showed that agricultural yields increased by over 1000 kg/hectare compared to traditionally plowed control plots (IFAP 2005).

Climate Change Mitigation

Beluga SkySails

Large towing kites that cut fuel use on cargo ships. WFP may want to consider this technology for reducing the emissions for transportation of food aid. http://www. skysails.info/

.

108 Appendix II: Potential Partnerships

Appendix II: Potential Partnerships

Many of the recommendations made Africa (ProBEC) partnered with Climate throughout the report would benefi t Care Trust Ltd to assist with the carbon through cooperation with other entities. credit generation and trading aspect of the Some important organizations are effi cient cooking stove project. mentioned in the body of the report, but the additional partners listed below 3. WFP has now engaged EcoSecurities may be considered by the WFP in order to assess its opportunities to for carbon to increase effectiveness and effi ciency credits, and this might be an excellent when implementing programs. opportunity to fully utilize the alliance.

4. The nonprofi t organization RIPPLE Flooding Africa has been conducting a tree nursery and planting project in the Nkhata Bay 1. Direction Nationale de l’Aménagement District of Malawi. They have worked et de l’Equipement Rural (DNAER) closely with the District Forestry Offi ce (Mali) and roughly 400 village headmen. www. rippleafrica.org 2. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations’ Special Program for Food Security

3. United States Agency for International Development’s (USAID) Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET)

4. Worldfi sh Center

5. Kenya Red Cross Society

Deforestation

1. The Burkina Faso solar cooker study was done in conjunction with a project organized and funded by ACCEDES (Christian Alliance for Economic Assistance and Social Development).

2. In Lesotho, the Programme for Basic Energy and Conservation in Southern

109 Appendix III: Supplemental Resources

Appendix III: Supplemental Resources

This appendix contains references and 5. West Africa Rice Development resources to further develop program Association, “Consortium formed recommendations and provide the WFP to rapidly disseminate New Rice for with information that will be useful for Africa”: addressing climate change. www.warda.org/warda1/main/ newsrelease/newsrel-consortiumapr01. Internet Resources htm

1. World Agroforestry Centre’s Website: Journal Articles www.worldagroforestry.org P.J.M. Cooper, J. Dimes, K.P.C. Rao, B. 2. Winrock International: www.Winrock. Shapiro, B. Shiferaw, and S. Twomlow. org “Coping better with current climatic Winrock International is a nonprofi t that variability in the rain-fed farming systems seeks to increase economic opportunity, of sub-Saharan Africa: An essential sustain natural resources, and protect fi rst step in adapting to future climate the environment. They provide access to change?” Agriculture, Ecosystems and new technologies for local individuals Environment 2008. vol. 126 pp. 24–35. and communities, promoting long-term doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.007 productivity, equity, and responsible resource management that assists those • Discusses challenges associated with living in poverty around the world. improved agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa in light of uncertainties related 3. Iroko Foundation, www. to global climate change. Relates the Irokofoundation.org, an NGO which importance of increasing the coping supports community forestry and abilities of farmers to manage predicted community conservation initiatives that constraints. Describes the availability of protect Africa’s forests, wildlife and forest new tools which link climate variability based livelihoods. to agricultural impact and discusses risk management strategies. 4. Vegetative Barriers: Vegetative Barriers for Erosion Control, Mark W. Rosegrant, Sarah A. Cline. USDA-NRCS Kika de la Garza Plant “Global Food Security: Challenges and Materials Center, 1999. USDA-NRCS Policies.”Science 12 December 2003: Kika de la Garza Plant Materials Center, Vol. 302. no. 5652, pp. 1917 – 1919. Kingsville, Texas. 20p. (ID#1452) www. DOI: 10.1126/science.1092958 plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/ http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/ stpmcbr1452.pdf reprint/302/5652/1917.pdf

110 Appendix III: Supplemental Resources

• General review of the many factors • Discussion of institutional cooperation which combine to infl uence food to promote agricultural success, case security, such as: climate change, study of cassava in W. Africa involving HIV/AIDS, water scarcity and International Institute of Tropical declining investment in agriculture, Agriculture, and others. Key issues crop varieties and biotech in Africa. are good governance (appropriate Includes projections of food supply/ budgeting and support of farmers in demand, importance of education, policy) and funding for agricultural water harvesting projects in Africa, and research and extension. agroecological approaches. Also has links to other resources. More resources: Jules Pretty.“Can Sustainable Agriculture Feed Africa? New Evidence on Progress, Luuk Zonneveld. “Shopping for a better Processes and Impacts.” Environment, life in Africa – Fairtrade helps African Development and Sustainability. Volume farmers beat poverty”. Sustainable 1, Numbers 3-4 / September, 1999. Development International. Sustainability Link: http://www.springerlink.com/ and Agriculture Issue. content/x262607675472631/fulltext.pdf Link: http://www.sustdev.org/index. php?Itemid=66§ion=6§ion_na • This article is a good resource for ap- me=Agriculture+%26+Biodiversity plying sustainable agriculture in Africa. Lists typology of eight improvements • UN FAO is promoting establishment for agriculture from economic, to of fairtrade practices in West Africa, scientifi c, to social spheres. Analysis of which could help reach Millenium 45 programs, in 17 African countries. Goals. Fairtrade helps farmers adapt Shows productivity increases with to globalization. Cooperative farmers the accumulation of a combination of unions that are involved and invested natural, social and human capital and support greater community and notes the importance of participatory social interests. Fairtrade Labeling processes. “A 50–100% increase in Organizations International (FLO) is basic grain yields is clearly possible the umbrella for worldwide and national with sustainable agriculture.” Threats: organizations. lack of ownership/security, civil confl ict, institutional inertia, backlash, M. N. Tchamba. “History and present economic declines, climate change. status of the human/elephant confl ict in the Waza-Logone region, Cameroon, West Africa.” Biological Conservation. Steven Haggblade. “Building successful 75:1; 35-41. 1996. Link: http:// partnerships for African agriculture”. www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ Sustainable Development International. ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V5X- Sustainability and Agriculture Issue. 3WBY0DS-4-1&_cdi=5798&_ www.sustdev.org user=18704&_orig=search&_ Link:www.ifpri.org/events/ coverDate=12%2F31%2F1996&_ conferences/2003/120103/papers/papers. htm.

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