Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19Th Century Literature

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Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 6 (2014 7) 992-1004 ~ ~ ~

УДК 82

Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature

Elena V. Barnashova* Tomsk State University 36 Lenin, Tomsk, 634050, Russia

Received 29.10.2012, received in revised form 13.11.2013, accepted 21.01.2014 Modern science of literature recognizes the need for update of the theory of realism and review of its specific development in different historical eras. It is important to take into account the modern discourse of realism, which can give impulses for further study of the realist literature. It is possible to have a new look at the classical heritage – realism of the 19th century, go beyond the traditional theoretical formulas and stereotypes in its perception. The heyday of realism in literature and art of the 19th century was prepared by development of the mimetic trends in the preceding epochs. Formation of the classical model of realism was accompanied by the intense search for ways of artistic reflection of life. Different interpretations of the main aesthetic principle of «the truth of life in art» produced a variety of mimesis forms. This experience proved to be productive for the future of realism, determined its flexibility and resilience in the struggle with modernism. Keywords: mimesis, realism, artistic processes, the 19th century.

The modern science of literature is conscious between art and reality are becoming especially of the need to review the issue of realism. The acute. Transforming and offering various issue is inextricably connected with the problem modifications, realism showed its resilience of mimesis and inevitably becomes actual in the struggle against modernism of the 20th when art, being in the existential situation and century and continues to progress in the modern experiencing the crisis of tradition once again, literature. The study of the phenomenon of provides a rapid breakthrough to the new forms contemporary realism is impossible without of artistic merit. This issue is certainly relevant reference to its history; in this context it is today, when new artistic practices, related to important to hold a closer examination of its the development of modern technology, virtual classic incarnation – the realistic literature of art, etc. appear. In this situation, the problems the 19th century. This, seemingly well-studied of identification of the special features of art material, today requires a detailed study and (including verbal), its epistemological and a more nuanced development, taking into aesthetic nature, finding the boundary separating consideration the experience of modern art it from non-art, and, of course, solving the “core practice and scientific discourse of realism problem of aesthetics” – about the relationship development.

Polar concepts of realism its ideas were anticipated by the Russian formal in modern science school of the 1910-20s), argue that literature is Searches and thinking about realism, its only literature, it has no projection of reality, nature, and the fact of its existence are carried that is, mimesis is not possible. Even if a literary out for many decades. The modern discourse text is able to offer connotations, according to of realism represents a wide range of ideas and R. Barthes, it refers not to the natural reality, concepts. Its extreme ranges are represented, on but only to the texts of culture. Analyzing a text the one hand, by the classical, traditional theory Barthes plunges it into “triumphant multiplicity” of realism, on the other – by the modernist and and depthlessness of the cultural codes. “To postmodernist position. The traditional theory, interpret a text does not mean to endow it with which goes back to antiquity, was actively some specific meaning (relatively proper or formed in realistic and naturalistic aesthetics of relatively arbitrary), but, on the contrary, to the 19th century and developed mainly in Marxist understand it as embodied multiplicity” (Barthes, or cultural and historical criticism of the 20th p. 48). In this interpretation mimesis is substituted century. It was developed in details in Russian by semiosis, and realism turns out to be pseudo literary studies and incorporated the well-known realism. formulas of “faithful reflection of reality”, Barthes’ follower Antoine Compagnon “typical characters in typical circumstances”, removes this antithesis, developing more “social determinism”, etc. In foreign science the dialectical conception. In his book “The Demon most consistent and demonstrative example is the of Theory. Literature and Common Sense” concept of E. Auerbach, presented in his famous (1998), he suggests overcoming the immanent work “Mimesis” (1946). This theory is based on restraint of literature and bringing it back to the familiar postulate of reflection of the truth of reality: “if literature refers to literature, this fact life in literature and recognition of literature’s does not prevent it from referring to the outer indisputable capability to represent reality. The world” (Compagnon, p. 148). Compagnon reveals modernist (R. Barth, T. Todorov, M. Blanchot) as contradiction in the thesis about impossibility of well as postmodernist interpretations (J. Derrida) presentation of reality in literature, emphasizing completely deny this possibility, focusing on that it is built on direct interpretation of linguistic intratextual problems and self-sufficiency of the studies by F. de Saussure and R. Jacobson. immanent being of literature. Controversy reveals Conventionality of the relationship between the chain of problems following each other. What a signifier and a signified in a language was is reality? Is literature its referent? If a literary transferred to the relationship between literature text has access to intratextual reality or it exists (art of words) and reality. As a result, linguistic only as an immanent entity? Is image represented illusion became universal and expanded to in writing only an illusion of reality that borders literature. But linguistic conventionality does on hallucination? not necessarily mean conventionality of a The main stumbling block which separates literary text. In a literary text words generally traditional and contemporary concepts is the live a special life; combined in different problem of mimesis. Rejecting the traditional combinations they escape from direct nominative concept of “imitation of life” in art, structuralists, meaning and acquire a new meaning, which is and especially French “literary theory” of the displayed when they combine with each other. second half of the 20th century (although some of In addition, following N. Fray and P. Ricoeur, – 993 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature

Compagnon emphasizes the Aristotelian concept breakthrough to the truth of life and realistic of anagnorisis – “recognition”, which is an school, which, after the sunset of romanticism important component of mimesis. In this case represented the main line of artistic development recognition is understood as knowledge, creative of the century, was formed. comprehension of interrelations, relationships and The history of the concept of mimesis consistent patterns that are revealed through the offers a wide variety of interpretations, which story (especially organized sequence of events, a do not reduce but multiply in modern science – legend and a myth – Mythos). Thus, recognition both in western, which is clearly demonstrated brings art into the sphere of the real relations by the collection of scientific papers “Mimesis of a human with the world. Existence of such in Contemporary Theory: An Interdisciplinary dialectical concepts (that refer to common sense) Approach” (Philadelphia. Amsterdam, 1984) which are capable to find a solution to conflicting and in Russian (researches by O.B. Dubova, views, broadens methodological possibilities V.A. Podoroga). Eventually, all the discussions of literature researches, and, in particular, can are centered on the major question, which is be used whenever necessary as experience of considered at the levels of intra-and extra-textual text-oriented studies with their attention to the relations of literature: is mimesis a copy or a specifics of immanent existence of literary text model of reality? This dichotomy was outlined as a sign system and method of cultural and in ancient times and dates back to Plato’s and historical studies, with their access to broad Aristotle’s concepts. The first dichotomy is expanse of culture, and consider its relationship imitation of life in its finished forms, copying with nature. them. The second is imitation of life in its ability to create, i.e. an artist’s ability to adopt the Formation and evolution creative method of nature. Accordingly, in the of the concept of mimesis. first case it is a passive form of mimesis and in Man and nature the second – active. Different modalities in the Recognition of mimesis also provokes a position “a human – nature” are behind them, as wide range of questions. What can be considered well as different ideas about the relationship of a as imitation – copying static external forms of man with God (gods), about the role of creative reality or actions and movements? Reflection of artist and purpose of art in general related to it. the external forms of life or its deep logic? Passive Between the two extreme edge positions reproduction of forms and actions or creation of there is a wide range of interpretations of a new reality according to the method of nature? mimesis. After all, the so-called passive imitation, What we should emulate – nature or culture? for example, can be not only a static copy of rigid The problem of mimesis (Greek mimesis, Lat. life forms, but also dynamic – imitation of an imitatio – imitation of life in art) is defined since action. Both of these alternatives still present in antiquity. As a rule it is actualized in those times the ritual practices of primitive cultures, which when materialistic tendencies are deepen in world syncretically merged religious, educational and outlook, and, accordingly, realistic tendencies – aesthetic aspects. In the process of the megaliths in artwork. This is Greco-Roman antiquity, the (dolmens, menhirs, cromlechs) or man-made Renaissance, the age of Enlightenment, but this earth mounds creation primitive man echoed question became especially important in the 19th nature that created mountains, caves and hills. century, when art made a massive and dramatic But imitation of nature was also mimetic dancing, – 994 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature singing and skits reproducing the behavior of etc. (55e, 56b,) (Plato, p. 72). Specific features animals, birds, predators’ attacks on their victims of art just started to perceive and conceptualize. and fight scenes. Primitive people, who created The range of phenomena related to actual artistic them, did not perceive themselves as subjects of creativity was outlined due to the definition art separated from nature. They as if continued of “muse classes” – the classes which were its work and the boundaries between culture and patronized by muses. The goddess of history Clio nature were not clearly defined. Mimesis was and the goddess of astronomy Urania were among unconscious. Actually, there was no mimesis as the muses, there was no a clear distinction of art the objective of art (within the meaning of modern from other areas of activity. aesthetics), as in syncretic unity of primitive Since Socrates, and then Plato and Aristotle, culture there were no autonomously identified the development of the concept of mimesis came spheres, including art. to a new level, as there was a breakthrough in the Perception of mimesis occurred in antiquity, field of aesthetic and mimesis started to be studied but even then not all regarded it as a purely artistic in correlation with art. For Plato, art, imitating problem. The idea of a man as the subject of art was the outward forms of the world and visible formed under conditions of explicit recognition of things, seemed pointless and unproductive. Such overwhelming superiority of nature and the gods- art (realistic art) is just an imitation of imitation, creators over man. A man must learn from nature, copying material world, which was secondary that is why the aesthetic aspect of imitation is not to the world of ideas. Aristotle recognized the always identified and sometimes absorbed by a aesthetic value of the real material world, found practical purpose. For example, people learn sense in art imitating them, besides, he considered agriculture by watching wild plants (as Lucretius imitation in a more complex manner, including described in details in his poetic treatise “On great creative activity of an artist and variety of the Nature of Things”), building techniques are forms of mimesis in his concept. This may be learnt by imitating animals and birds, singing imitation of the real, potential and proper life – is learnt from cicadas and birds (for example, “just as it was and as it is; or how they say and Greek “teretisma” – singing which imitates the think; or how it should be” (1460b10) (Aristotle, chirping of cicadas), etc. Polish philosopher p. 676). An artist (a sculptor, a poet, etc.) is not Vladislav Tatarkevich, emphasizing Democritus’ limited by passive copying, he/she can emphasize and Lucretius’ studies, draws attention to the fact their beauty or ugliness, highlight the typical, that such “practical” interpretation of mimesis most essential traits, discarding the random. is typical of ancient materialist philosophers Therefore, “poetry is more philosophical and (Tatarkevich, p. 284). Aristotle in “Physics” more serious than history, for poetry says more and “Poetics” describes imitation of nature in about the general and history – about individual” details. At that, it is not always referred to art. (1451b-5) (Aristotle, p. 655). In ancient Greece, the concept of “art” did not Mimesis in the artistic practice of antiquity have a clear definition of terminology, it was was expressed in readily apparent realistic named with the word “techne” that meant skill, tendencies, desire of painters, sculptors and handicraft and skillful technique in any sphere. poets to represent tangible world. The materialist Plato, enumerating different kinds of art, refered views, a sense of corporality of the world were to them arithmetic, music, agriculture, metric, outlined in intensive developing plastic art, which medicine, construction, military art, seamanship, could skillfully imitate the outer forms of life, – 995 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature especially man, man’s appearance, the proportions Discoursing a lot on “imitation” and apparently of body and postures. Feelings and relationships, following the ancient doctrines, the authors of a variety of movements, behavioral patterns and the classical “poetics” (N. Boileau, C. Batteux) conditions were reflected in the mimetic dances, put art above the “virgin” nature; it must be drama and poetry. Even literature, beginning treated selectively, imitating only beautiful with Homer, gravitated towards the plastic nature or perfect samples of such imitations, expression, the illusion of visible corporality of which were represented in the art of antiquity. In images (recognition of the outer world). classicism tutorial tone seems to be present in the Comprehending the problem of mimesis in approach to the irrational nature, it is deprived ancient philosophy, and then in aesthetics of the of representationalism, it can be referred to by following epochs, contributed to identification of selecting the desired, or not to be referred at nature of aesthetic perception and specificity of all, shifting to cultural patterns. Culture, which art. Later, during the Renaissance, it is a person’s is formed and polished by man as a reasonable ability to reconsider reality aesthetically and, being is above nature. It is this modality that therefore, perceive and create harmony, that will makes the classical arguments of imitating nature develop the theory of mimesis and focus it on the the exception in the history of the development idea of active creative role of an artist competing of the problem of mimesis and bears evidence of with nature, and, to a certain extent, is compared weakening mimetic intentions in art. to the Supreme Creator (Leonardo Da Vinci, Realistic tendencies, nourished by awakening L.B. Alberti, T. Tasso) (Dubova, p. 44). Art of the of the materialist interest to real life, always Renaissance which clearly showed the realistic imply its recognition as being more ontologically tendency learned to create harmony from Nature; important than art. This happened during the it was not only imitation of the outer forms of life, Enlightenment, when the axiom about necessity but desire to master its creative method. Imitation to follow nature became important again, and developed into reproduction and creation (the the conversation drifted into the mainstream of Demiurge). However, this rise of the man-creator methodological and formal searches, i.e. drifted to did not mean abandoning the priority of nature. the question of how to imitate this or that nature in Removing the categoricalness of medieval different forms of art. Lessing in his “Laocoon”, antithesis of the divine and the earthly, the studying the problem of distance between art and Renaissance offers the pantheistic conception reality, concludes that it can be mostly reduced of nature. Nature, which contains the Divine, is in literature, rather than in the plastic arts with full of harmony; it is superior to man with all his/ their clarity, making detailed, naturalistic images her abilities. It is necessary to learn from nature, of the darker sides of life (ugliness, horror and it was studied and examined with avid interest, suffering) unpleasant for the audience. endowing art with cognitive functions. Leonardo da Vinci called his creative work “the science of References to reality in aesthetics painting” and taught young artists to scrutinize and literature of the 19th century natural shapes, lines and colors in all their shades. Artistic culture of the 19th century in the “Mimesis beats the Demiurge” (Dubova, p. 43). period of formation and heyday of realistic trend With the rise of the artist-creator, culture could base on this centuries-old experience of the Renaissance did not know of such conceit of mimesis in art and its interpretation. It was of an artist to Nature, as the era of classicism. formed in the 1830s-40s and announced of its – 996 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature concepts in the middle of the century, especially experience. It was like a powerful stream that in France, where in the 50s Courbet organized captured creativity in post romantic period, in the exhibition “Realism”, Duranty published which various mimetic motivations of literature the magazine “Realism” and Champfleury – a and art were combined. collection of scientific papers under the same We should not forget that the 19th century name. However, the artistic practice, as usually, romanticism made its breakthrough to the outrun theory. Before validation of the term, the truth of life by destroying the normative and new direction in art and literature was defined in rhetorical restraint of classicism. Proclaiming different ways: “the real poetry”, “the school of creative freedom, triumph of individual style naturalism”, “naturalism”, “Flemish painting” over tradition and norm, confusion of aesthetic and even “the daguerreotype literature”. This criteria, genres and styles, romanticism achieved variability of definitions reflected incompleteness the most important – more naturality, especially of the aesthetic concepts and undevelopment of the in the depiction of emotions. Aiming for artistic principles. Even when the term “realism” vitality and truthfulness that was also typical was accepted, its meaning for the contemporaries of the Romanticists was obvious in the aesthetic was ambiguous, because “neither the concept of postulates of the Romantic era. This, as well as consistency with reality, nor the concept of reality reflections of F. Schlegel about “the new limitless itself were monosemantic” (Tatarkevich, p.306). realism”, that “harmoniously combines the ideal The priority of objective reality, as pre- and the real” and F. Schelling’s reflections about existent to man objective given, was evident. The “the poetic realism”. V. Hugo writes about the deepening materialism in the worldview, “clear- reflection of life in art, and, anticipating the realist headedness” of the bourgeois epoch, development aesthetics, introduces the metaphor of a mirror, of the scientific thinking encouraged an artist to however, as a true romanticist, he gravitates follow nature, study it and reflect it in art and towards “the convex mirror” (which admits literature. References to reality were regular and hyperbole and emphasized bright colors). It was natural for the post romantic literature of the a revolution in art. The freedom of art in Hugo’s 19th century; they are reflected in the majority perception was associated with political freedom, of literary manifestos of the era (in the works by “we are free of the old social form, why not to get Stendhal, Balzac, Flaubert, Goncourt brouthers, rid of the old poetic form?” (Hugo, p. 368). Zola, Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Mohnatsky, etc.) In the era of formation and establishment and in artistic practice. For Belinsky “poetry is of realism, the problem of reflection of life in art predominantly life, it is the essence, so to say became very important to the artistic culture of thin air, a triple-extract, the quintessence of life” the 19th century. Gradually, in comprehension (Belinsky, 493). Stendhal believed that what we of reality, art became focused on the scientific should imitate Shakespeare in – “is a way to study worldview. Aesthetics of realism actualized the world we live in” (Stendhal, p. 242). Balzac in and brought the cognitive function of art to the “The Human Comedy” promises “to portray man forefront. It was under the strong influence of and life” (Balzac, p.4). Orientation to the truth science, carried away by the common desire of life in arts was often understood generally, to discover the laws of nature. Materialistic without clear ideas and nuances, especially in worldview of the era and scientific progress the early realism. Clarification and specifications made the word “nature”, which was often the were made in the process of gaining artistic synonym of “life”, central. Mimesis was often – 997 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature conceptualized in synonymous formulas of its own characteristics, not reducible to the “imitation of nature” or “imitation of life”, mechanical laws. which were quite broad and vague in meaning, In the 19th century, when the mechanistic and in this ambiguity they were applied to materialism was overcame and the organic level realism and naturalism. However, it should be of nature was discovered, life in fact, begins. The noted, that realist aesthetics that was formed in discovery made strong impression and greatly the 19th century preferred other definitions to influenced the culture of the era. It generated a the word “imitation” – “reflection of reality”, new view of nature and gave a powerful impetus “knowledge of life”, “artistic reproduction of to the development of the natural sciences. In nature” (the Greek word “mimesis” was not 1802, Lamarck introduced the word “biology” used at all). This distrust to the word “imitation” into scientific use (from the Greek “bios” – life), was determined by two factors. First of all, which combined the complex of life sciences, opposition towards outdated classicism, in G. Saint-Hilaire studied the entity of organism, which aesthetics defined its principles by the J. Cuvier introduced the concept of animal type, term “imitation”. The second reason is rejection J.B. Lamarck laid the foundations of the theory of realism from coming naturalism, which of evolution, C. Darwin discovered the internal had methodological character – the desire to mechanisms of evolution and the emergence of distance itself from mere copying of reality and new species (variability, heredity and natural establish the method for its creative rethinking selection), L. Pasteur studied bacteria, G. Mendel and recreation. The two main directions in the developed the theory of heredity, anticipating mimetic literature of the 19th century – realistic future genetics. Perceiving the specificity and naturalistic – co-existed and developed of the organic level of matter existence, the in parallel and dialectics of their relationship culture of the 19th century came to grips with clarifies a lot in the artistic processes of the understanding the specifics of even more century. The controversy with naturalism complicated levels – social and mental, painfully contributed self-identification of realism and making its way to the mysteries of human being, awareness of its special features. unpredictable in its creative possibilities, and The concept of “nature-life” combined both society, which is beyond the laws of rigid bio biological and social. The word “life” in the determinism, typical to the animal world. culture of the 19th century had several semantic Since the mid-century, the social sciences were interpretations. Life is the opposite of death. It brought into focus, and in the end of the century is also the earthly journey of a person, person’s psychology was rapidly developing. The path to destiny (Napoleon’s life, the life of Lord Byron). the knowledge of the more complex forms of life Besides, life is objective reality given to us in was not easy, which gave rise to the inevitable sensations, which are opposed to fantasy. Life reductionism in the interpretation of man and is a synonym of truth opposed to the romantic society and attempts to extrapolate to them the illusions (for example, in this meaning it is laws of the organic world. Specificity of the referred in the novel by G. Maupassant “Life”). social level in relation to the biological level was Finally, there is another meaning – that is crucial not clear enough. Everything was perceived in to the culture of the 19th century: life is a higher terms of biological categories, living organism level of organization of matter in relation to the was everywhere. It was typical of the positivist mineral level. It has its own special features, philosophy (O. Comte), sociology (H. Spencer), – 998 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature aesthetics (H. Taine), realistic and naturalistic environment; the characters of the graphic and art in particular. artistic paintings by Daumier, Courbet and Millet In art we can see the tendency to bring are plunged in the social context. But aside from together the goals of an artist and a scientist- the social typification, the epoch offered a lot of naturalist, see a living organism in society and interpretations of mimesis and a wide range of emphasize the biological nature and heredity of its manifestations in arts and crafts. The main a man (the concept of “experimental novel” by aesthetic principle of the epoch – the demand for Emile Zola and his series of novels “Les Rougon- “the truth of life” in art – despite its obviousness Macquart”). “We are both physiologists and and simplicity interpreted quite differently, “the poets” – we can read in “Journal” by Goncourt truth” was interpreted in different ways, and that brothers (Goncourt, p. 614). Balzac speaks of an caused the variability of mimesis. idea of “La Comédie humaine”: “The idea of this From our period of time the realistic text work came from a comparison of humanity to the the 19th century is perceived as a whole entity, animal kingdom” (Balzac, p. 1). Social typification represented in a stable model of the classical was formed on the analogy of animals’ types, as heritage. But, from our point of view, it would well as social determinism was formed on the be more productive to see it in its formation analogy of natural determinism: “Society is like and dynamics and consider the literature of the Nature. After all, from the social environment 19th century to be a kind of large experimental society creates as many different kinds of man, laboratory, in which art as if was aimed to try as animals, which exist in the animal world”. different forms of mimesis. It studied different However, unlike naturalists, the realist writers distances of proximity to reality, the types of still overcome direct analogies of biological and thoroughness and details of its reflection, different social, recognizing that social life is more diverse attitudes of an author, the problem of selection of and complex in its manifestations than the natural life material (nature), its rethinking, evaluation world, and it is more unpredictable, “Social health and fraction by an artist “temperament” (Zola), is marked by accidents, which never happen the possibility to achieve actuality and illusion of in the natural world” (Balzac, p. 2-3). Realism reality. emphasized the social. The change from the social Obviously, writers of the realist epoch to the biological, passing central border which wanted to create this illusion. So, they were went beyond a certain standard, contributed to trying to find different ways to do it. One of them the shift from realism to naturalism. was the method of detailed descriptions that were actively included into a text and complemented Variations of mimesis the narrative. Literature, which, according to th the 19 century literature Aristotle uses only “bare words”, can not have the The 19th century is traditionally associated clarity of the plastic art, it is mostly determined with the classical model of realism. Its by the references of language, the connection traditional formulas – “the typical characters of a signifier and a signified, signification and in typical circumstances” and the concept of denotation. Direct imitation is possible only in social determinism (a man is a product of the the form of onomatopoeia. Written language social environment) were still important. The is generally distanced from reality and has characters of the novels by Balzac, Flaubert, complicated relationship with it, even if it Dickens and Thackeray vividly represent their includes only simple nominatives. And literary – 999 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature text – in particular. By description literature tries realists, p. 92). Sketches and scenes from nature to get closer to pictorialism. Creating the illusion were especially widely represented in the small of visual images that were possible to see, i.e. prose genres – short stories and essays, in which perceived by the sense organs, it confirmed their such a “narrative” goal determined the main reality by visibility. This technique was used in content. the ancient literature, artistry, in fact, originated However, realism also studied these lessons. from visual images-descriptions. The famous The experience in detalization and detailed expert of the ancient culture S. Averincev paid reproduction of the external forms of social and attention to this fact, “It is necessary to determine natural being were also widely used in realistic plastic and objectifying description or “ekphrasis” works, which generally set more ambitious as the essential part of literary art”. From the three goals, offering a succinct artistic breadth of life main categories, which describe everything that material. Scrupulous detailed descriptions of a was written –moral, narration and description – character’s appearance (facial features, figure, only description is typical to “fiction” and characteristic poses), fragments of conversation, S. Averincev noted that even “Homer is very the subject and material environment, urban and generous in descriptions, which are not provoked natural landscapes in which a character stays by the plot” (Averincev, p.60). Auerbach in his were typical for the empirical environment of work analyzes this feature of the Homeric epos literature in the era of realism establishment. It is (chapter “The Scar on Odysseus’ Leg”). Verbal this environment of descriptions that sometimes plastics – descriptiveness is widely represented in makes realistic text of the 19th century soggy (too the realistic and naturalistic literature of the 19th illustrative) for the modern sophisticated reader, century, though not in equal measure. who is ready for rapid associations. In the literary texts of that epoch we can often True reflection of life in art could be also the forms of mimesis which are associated with interpreted as inherited from the Romantics the Platonic idea of imitation the external forms of real feelings. But this reflection came to a new life. This kind of “imitation” is mainly associated level, it was developed and settled in social with the vivid naturalistic tendency in the 19th determinism. The portrayed feelings were century literature. And still, different variations real, in case an author took into account their are possible here. Mimesis could be regarded as dependence on social environment that formed a simple naturalistic imitation of life. And this their bearer. At that, this environment, with imitation, in turn, might be represented in various irresistible objective laws, determines not only forms depending on the distance set between art the content of these feelings, but also the forms and reality. Imitation could be simple description they take and in which they are expressed. of everyday life (often represented by moral Agitated vanity and ambitions of Julien Sorel essays) – naturalism as “superficial realism”. It are extremely hypertrophied, reach the intensity could also study the details and give their detailed of emotions, as it should be with a descendant of description. In both cases, an author perceives a an ordinary family, who got a provocative chance work, and even a document, as a snapshot from to “go up”, which representatives of the lower nature (“a daguerreotype”). Goncourt brothers classes of society got in the bourgeois epoch. At mentioned “human documents”, accumulation the same time, the feelings may be complicated of observations and “studying with the help of and sophisticated (which are emphasized by the eyeglass” (literary manifestos by the French detailed and nuanced analysis), typical for well- – 1000 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature educated person who belong to “high society”. to the prosaic narration. Prose follows the This complex symbiosis of Sorel’s emotions, flexible flow of life, it is not constrained by the determined by the dynamics of social status, is meter and rhythm of a verse. Stendhal insisted not acceptable either for his family, or for the that modern tragedy should be written in prose, members of aristocratic society, part of which he as brief moments of reality illusion that emerge became. Neither family nor society understands in the theater, can destroy “admiration of a him. Social reality penetrates into the human beautiful verse” (Stendhal, p. 226). The prosaic inner world. In this penetration E. Auerbach texts are mostly significant for the realistic recognized innovative principles of artistic literature. Flaubert insisted the style was plain reflection in the novel by Stendhal “The Red and and translucent. Work on the style should lead The Black”: “tempers, actions and relationships to its self-destruction. Aiming for objectivity of the main characters are very closely connected and impartiality of narration, typical mostly for with historical circumstances; political and social the naturalists, led to dissolution of style as a factors are realistically included into the plot, as mediator between literature and life. As style is in no other novel and no other literary work of the an author’s individuality, an author it this case past” (Auerbach, p. 453). also disappears, not passing impressions from Moreover, the real feelings were understood reality through his/her perceptions and, therefore, as sincerity and truthfulness of an author, who not distorting it. This viewpoint of naturalism led does not want to distort anything in a represented art to a dangerous point, blurred its artistic and object. “In art I recognize only sincerity”, wrote aesthetic nature. one of the first theorists of realism Champfleury Realism quickly started to distance itself (Literary manifestos of the French realists, p. from naturalism, rebelling against frivolous 69). Actualization of the sensory perception, as imitation. Belinsky compares such imitation the main and the most reliable source of “truth” with a deadening wax figure. Demanding from took place. Sensationalism, as one of the typical an artist to address to life, he considered it trends in the 19th century culture, was represented necessary “to extract, so to speak, its essence, in the scientific-philosophical and artistic and to combine different parts into a living and comprehension of reality. It is represented in the organic entity...” (Belinsky, Vol. IV, p. 479). positivist epistemology, especially in the second What is meant here is artistic synthesis. The half of the century (Max, Avenarius). The peculiar problem of artistry was one of the key problems kind of deflection is also represented in the for the realistic aesthetics of the 19th century. artistic practice of the epoch and it is differently It was artistry that made it possible for realism displayed in naturalism and impressionism. The to perceive the nature of art in general and its intention of an artist (writer) to represent exactly specificity in relation to naturalism. Plausible what he/she sees, feels and touches, although images are not life itself, but reinterpreted in a motivations and forms of embodiment may vary, special way and synthesized life material. They is manifested. have a conventionality that makes the illusion Approximation to reality was performed of reality in literature perceived, and, therefore, by the proper linguistic techniques, the use of incomplete. This relativity of a poet’s visions, it more natural, democratic manner of expression, doesn’t matter how vividly they were represented similar to the colloquial language. It was possible to him, was perceived even by the representatives to achieve naturality and harmony by appealing of late Romanticism. In “Serapion Brothers” by – 1001 – Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature

Hoffmann the conversing friends sympathize to the latest achievements of science in literature. madman Serapion, who, like the poet, believes in References to science, the use of scientific his fantasies, but, unlike the latter, doesn’t realize methods in literature (observation, classification their conventionality” (Hoffman, p.242). Stendhal and experiment) were other means to achieve directly says that illusion in art “is not a complete a convincing truth. Naturalism, driving this illusion” that the audience, for example, in the tendency to extremes, result in the obvious and theater, perceives it and this fact is confirmed by sometimes labeled academese. the abnormal, exceptional case when a soldiers- Different interpretations of “the art of truth” guard fired at the actor playing Othello, who that generate a variety of mimetic reflections strangled Desdemona (Stendhal, p. 224-225). in artistic practice, in fact, were connected One of the most important questions in with the key question of aesthetics, represented the artistic culture of the 19th century was the by Chernyshevsky in his thesis “about the question of an extent and depth of penetration relation of art to reality”. Only as a result of the into an imitated object. Should reality present longtime and dramatic search for the answer in art only in its external, sensually perceived to this question, crystallization of the classical forms or in the deep logic of development? formula of realism, which suggests some found This dichotomy traditionally determines the balance – the dialectical unity of typing and border between naturalism and realism. It individualization, external credibility and deep would seem obvious to correlate naturalistic logic of life, objective reality and subjective direction of art with Plato’s interpretation of author’s perception, authority of a real nature and mimesis, and realistic direction with Aristotle’s necessary rethinking of the life material from a interpretation. In fact, the relationships are perspective of the aesthetic ideal, takes place. more complex and attitudes – more diverse. The These artistic practices, measurement of most representative naturalistic aesthetics, the capabilities, forms and limits of mimesis, that theoretical programme of Emile Zola, which he were carried out in the 19th century, the epoch of tried to implement in his artistic creativity, is formation of the classical models of realism, are built on the idea of comprehension and research important to take into account in the study of its of internal objective laws of social life, mind and further development. The experience turned out human behavior. This is not about superficiality, to be productive for the modern artistic processes. but thoroughness. Only a tendency to scientific Flexibility and multiplicity of mimesis caused character is manifested more clearly and vividly viability of realism and allowed it to stand in the than in realism. Positivist fear of subjective 20th century, in the keen struggle with modernism, refraction and, thus, possible distortion of reality to detect its ability to change, mimicrate, renovate in art is traditionally associated with naturalism. and generate new variants. It managed, avoiding But the tendency to scientific character and accusations of useless imitation, mask and impartiality emerges in the realists’ works. alter mimesis, enriching its classical forms, for Flaubert insisted, “Great art must be scientific example, by inclusion of mythology, parable and and impersonal” (Literary manifestos of the associativity. This experience is also interesting French realists, p.16). Balzac, whom Zola in the light of modern art strategies for creating considered as his mentor, wrote about the use of new, experimental forms. Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature

References 1. Averintsev S.S. Obraz Antichnosti. SPb.: Azbuka Klassiki, 2004. 480 p. 2. Aristotel. Sochineniia v 4 tomah. AN SSSR. Institut filosofii. T. 4. M.: Misl, 1983. P. 645- 680. 3. Auerbah E. Mimesis. Izobrazhenie deistvitel’nosti v zapadnoevropeiskoi literature. М.: Progress, 1976. 558 p. 4. Balzak O. Sobranie sochinenii v 15 tomah. Vol. 1. M.: Gosudarstvennoe izdatelstvo hudozhestvennoi literaturi. 1951. 680 p. 5. Bart R. S/Z. 3-e izd. М.: Akademicheskii Proekt, 2009. 373 p. 6. Belinskii V.G. Polnoe sobranie sichinenii v 13 tomah. T. IV. М.: Izdanie AN SSSR, 1954. 675 p. 7. Goncourt E. Dnevnik. Zapiski o literaturnoi zhizni. Izbrannye stranitsy. V 2 tomah. T. 1. М.: Hudozhestvennaya literatura, 1964. 711 p. 8. Hoffmann E.T.A. Novelli. L.: Lenizdat, 1990. 607 p. 9. Hugo V. Ernani. Devianosto tretii god. Stihotvoreniia. М.: Hudozhestvennaya literatura, 1973. P. 367-370. 10. Dubova O. Mimesis I poiesis: Antichnaia kontseptsiia “podrazhaniia” I zarozhdenie evropeiskoi teorii hudozhestvennogo tvorchestva. М.: Pamyatniki istoricheskoi misly, 2001. 271 p. 11. Compagnon A. Demon istorii. Literatura I zdravyi smysl. М.: Izdatelstvo im. Sabashnikovih, 2001. 336 p. 12. Literaturnyie manifesty frantsuzskih realistov. Pod redactiei I so vstupitelnoi statiei M.K. Klemana. Л.: Izdatelstvo pisatelei v Leningrade, 1935. 203 p. 13. Mimesis in contemporary theory: An interdisciplinary approach. Ed. By Mihai Spariosu.- Philadelphia; Amsterdam; Benjamins, 1984. (Culture ludens; Imitation a play in western culture). Vol. 1. The literary and philosophical debate. Ed. By Mihai Spariosu, 1984. 287 p. 14. Plato. Sochineniia v 3 tomah. Izd. AN SSSR. Institut filisofii. Filosofskoye nasledie. T.3. Ch.1. М.: Misl, 1971. P. 89-464. 15. Podoroga V.A. Mimesis. Materialy po analiticheskoi antropologii literatury. V 2 tomah. T.1. N. Gogol, F. Dostoyevsky. М: Kulturnaya revolutsia, 2008. 688 p. 16. Stendhal. Sobranie sochinenii v 12 tomah. Т. VII. М.: Pravda, 1978. P. 217-362). 17. Tatarkevich V. Istoriia shesti poniatii. М.: Dom intellectualnoi knigi, 2002. 376 p. Elena V. Barnashova. Multivariance of Mimesis in the 19th Century Literature

Многовариантность мимесиса в литературе XIX века

Е.В. Барнашова Томский государственный университет Россия, 634050, Томск, пр. Ленина, 36

Современная наука о литературе осознает необходимость обновления теории реализма и пересмотра его конкретного развития в разные исторические эпохи. Для этого важно учитывать современный дискурс о реализме, который может дать импульсы для дальнейшего изучения реалистической литературы. Возможно по-новому посмотреть на классическое наследие – реализм XIX века, выйти за рамки традиционных теоретических формул и стереотипов в представлении о нем. Расцвет реализма в литературе и искусстве XIX века был подготовлен развитием миметических тенденций в предшествующие эпохи. Формирование классической модели реализма сопровождалось напряженными поисками способов художественного отражения жизни. Разные интерпретации в понимании главного эстетического постулата о «правде жизни в искусстве» порождали разнообразие форм мимесиса. Этот опыт оказался продуктивным для дальнейшей судьбы реализма, определил его гибкость и жизнестойкость в борьбе с модернизмом. Ключевые слова: мимесис, реализм, художественные процессы, XIX век.