(Ulwa) of Southeastern Nicaragua and Comparisons with Miskitu Plant Lore 1

ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU (ULWA) OF SOUTHEASTERN NICARAGUA AND COMPARISONS WITH MISKITU PLANT LORE 1

FELIX G. COE AND GREGORY J. ANDERSON

Felix G. Coe (Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, P.O. Box 5063, CookeviUe, TN 38505) and Gregory J. Anderson (Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Box U-43, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3043).ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU (ULWA) OF SOUTHEASTERN NICARAGUA AND COMPARISONS WITH MISKITU PLANT LORE. Economic Botany 53(4):363-386, 1999. The Sumu (Ulwa) are one of three Amerindian groups of eastern Nicaragua. Their uses of 225 species of plants in 174 genera and 72families were documented in two years of fieldwork. Included are I87 medicinals, 69 food plants, and 84 for other uses. Ulwa medicinals treat more than 25 human ailments, and most (80%) are native to eastern Nicaragua. Over 70% of the medicinals have a recognized bioactive principle, most are herbs (48%) or trees (33%). Leaves are the most frequently utilized plant part. Most medicinals are prepared as decoctions and are administered orally. Almost half of Ulwa food plants are domesticates, but only six are native to the New World tropics. Comparison of plant use between the Ulwa and southern Miskitu indicated that most of the species used for food (98%), medicinals (90%), and medicinal applications (80%) are the same. The Miskitu use more species, have a wider range of medicinal applications, and more unique plant uses than the Ulwa, presumably due to their larger territory. Differences in ethnobotanical usage between these groups seem to be more a reflection of scale than of remnants of cultural differences.

LA ETNOBOT,63ffICA DE LOS SOMU (ULwA) DEL SUDESTE DE NICARAGUA Y COMPARACIONES CON EL SABER BOT,6_NICODE LOS MISKrrus. Los Sumu (Ulwa) constituyen uno de los tres grupos Ame- rindios del oriente Nicaragiiense. Durante dos aaos de estudios se documentaron los usos por dste grupo de 225 especies vegetales en 174 gdneros y 72 familias. Incluyendo I87 especies medicinales, 69 especies alimenticias y 84 especies para usos auxiliares. Las plantas medicinales de los Ulwa tratan rods de 25 enfermedades y la mayorla (80%) son especies nativas del oriente Nicaragiiense. Mds del 70% de las especies medicinales poseen algtln principio bioac- tivo; la mayorfa son hierbas (48%) o drboles (33%). Las hojas son las partes nuis frecuente- mente utilizadas en remedios y son preparados en forma de decocci6nes y administradas oral- mente. I_as plantas comestibles en su mayor{a son domesticadas, solamente seis son nativas del neotr6pico. Comparaciones de las plantas usadas por los Ulwa y Miskitu demuestran que la mayoda de las especies usadas como alimentos (98%), medicinas (90%) y aplicaciones medicinales (80%) son iguales. Los Miskitu usan un mayor nt~mero de especies, con un mayor rango de aplicaciones medicinales y mas usos singulares de plantas que los Ulwa, presumi- blemente debido a su territorio mas extenso. Diferencias etnobot6nicas parecen ser mas bien consecuencia de escala y no vestigios de diferencias culturales. We dedicate this paper to Charles B. Heiser who has inspired so many to study the relationships between plants and people.

Key Words: ethnobotany; Sumu; Ulwa; southeastern Nicaragua; medicinal plants.

The Sumu, or Mayangna (the original name McLean 1993). Historically, the Sumu of eastern of the Sumu people before European contact), Nicaragua consisted of five subgroups: the Pa- are an Amerindian group of southeastern Hon- namahka, Twahka, Ulwa, Bawihka, and Kukra duras and northwestern and southeastern Nica- (group names derived from local language). The ragua (Conzemius 1932; Hale and Gordon 1987; latter two are extinct (Conzemius 1932; Romero Nietschmann 1969; Williamson, Avil6s, and et al. 1992). Today, the remaining three Sumu sub-groups are identified primarily by linguistic t Received 28 September 1998; accepted 11 May characteristics (Hale 1991; McLean 1996; Nor- 1999. wood 1997). The northern Sumu speak Pana-

Economic Botany 53(4) pp. 363-386. 1999 1999 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 364 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

Fig. 1. Map of Nicaragua showing Ulwa settlements in eastern Nicaragua and field study sites (in rectangle). mahka and Twahka, and the southern Sumu Zelaya (Hale and Gordon 1987; Williamson, speak Ulwa, but 62% percent of the basic vo- Avil6s, and McLean 1993) (Fig. 1). The Sumu cabulary is shared among the three Sumu lan- population in eastern Nicaragua is estimated at guages (CIDCA 1989; Hale 1991). The Sumu 7000 to 11 000 inhabitants: 73% are Panamahka, languages are historically related to the Miskitu 16% are Twahka, and only 11% are Ulwa (CID- languages, and belong to the Misumalpan lan- CA 1982; Hale and Gordon 1987; Williamson, guage group and are now structurally identical Avil6s, and McLean 1993). Ulwa enclaves con- (CIDCA 1985; Hale 1991; McLean 1996; Nor- sist of small settlements in the lowland swamp wood 1997). The Panamahka and the Twahka forest along the lower margins of the Rio live in what is today the Regi6n Aut6noma At- Grande de Matagalpa, Rio Kurinwas, and Rio l~intico Norte (RAAN), and the Ulwa live in the Wawashang. Regi6n Aut6noma Atl,~mtico Sur (RAAS), a po- The Ulwa are the most highly acculturated of litical subdivision of the former department of the three Sumu sub-groups in eastern Nicaragua. 1999] COE & ANDERSON: ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 365

The acculturation of the Ulwa is due to more two largest Ulwa settlements of southeastern than a century of continuous contact with out- Nicaragua, both of which are shared with the siders--mostly missionaries and traders (Bell Miskitu. Karawala is the larger of the two with 1989; Conzemius 1932; Dozier 1985; Nietsch- about 1200 inhabitants; Kara has only about 30 mann 1979; Roberts 1827; Romero 1995; Smut- Ulwa speakers (Coe pers. obs. 1992, 1993, ko 1985). The study of Ulwa plant lore is made 1997; Hale 1991; Williamson, Avil6s, and Mc- more urgent by the threat of it becoming com- Lean 1993). The climate is tropical with a rainy pletely obscured by Miskitu and/or mestizo season of 6 to 8 months and no well-defined dry (people of European and Amerindian ancestry) season. The average annual rainfall is 2000 to culture. An ancillary manifestation of accultur- 4000 mm (increasing from north to south), and ation is the irreplaceable loss of ethnobotanical the average annual temperature is 25 to 30~ information gathered over centuries of plant- (Incer 1975). The predominant ecosystems in people interactions. Fortunately, ethnobotanical the area are broadleaf evergreen forest (consist- lore is generally one of the last elements of cul- ing of the terra firma moist tropical forest and ture to be lost (Boom 1987; Schultes 1990). the swamp forest) and occasional patches of Even so, without prompt documentation, this too pine savannas. Some dominant species of the will be gone. broadleaf evergreen forest are Spanish cedar Ethnobotanical studies among the Sumu have (113 Cedrela odorata [The numbers are a guide been limited to reports of a select group of me- to finding species in the Appendix, which also dicinal plants by Barrett (1994) and Fey and Sin- includes the Ulwa names, authorities and fami- del (1993). Other botanical studies that include lies.]), mahogany (114 Swietenia macrophyIla), material on eastern Nicaragua are Dennis sambogum (48 Symphonia globulifera), sam- (1988), Salter (1950), Seymour (1980), and Tay- wood (36 Cordia alliodora), and Santa Maria lor (1962, 1963). However, these include only (46 Calophyllum brasiliense). The dominant general descriptions of plant use in the area. Ex- species of the pine savanna are saw cabbage haustive ethnobotanical studies that focus on the palm (184 Acoelorraphe wrightii) and Caribbe- overall use of plants by the indigenous groups an pine (4 Pinus caribaea). It is estimated that of eastern Nicaragua include Coe (1994) and 8000 species of vascular plants occur in Nica- Coe and Anderson (1996a, 1997). ragua (Stevens pers. obs. as part of the flora of Our study was restricted to the ethnobotany Nicaragua project). Coe and Stevens (pers. of the Ulwa of southeastern Nicaragua, the comm.) project that about 3500 of these species smallest of the three Sumu subgroups. Political grow in eastern Nicaragua, 2000 species in the unrest and the serious risks involved with field northeast (RAAN) and 3000 species in the work restricted visits to the northern parts of the southeast (RAAS). country where the other Sumu groups were con- centrated (see Fig. 1). Because of their geo- METHODS graphic proximity and long history of abundant Data and specimens were collected during cultural interactions (Conzemius 1932; Nietsch- field studies (May to July 1992, December and mann 1969; Roberts 1827), comparisons were January 1992/1993, May to July 1993, Decem- made between the Sumu and the Miskitu (Coe ber 1997). Field trips were scheduled to ensure and Anderson 1997). Medicinals were the focus representative collection of plant material to of these comparisons. Native species were the avoid temporal bias. Field work consisted of primary focus of comparisons because their use plant collecting trips and interviews with prac- is less influenced by acculturation, and therefore titioners (herbalists, midwives, and shamans) is more likely to be informative regarding cul- ranging from 40 to 65 years old. Interview tech- tural history and contacts. niques used are those employed by Coe (1994) and Coe and Anderson (1996a, 1997). Inter- STUDY AREA views were conducted in Creole, Spanish, and Ulwa enclaves in southeastern Nicaragua are Ulwa. An interpreter was employed to help with located at 12050 ' to 13~ latitude and 83000 ' interviews conducted in Ulwa. Field work was to 84~ longitude (Fig. 1). Elevations in this divided into two phases: 1) information gather- area range from sea level to 200 m. The focus ing using data sheets, field notes, and audio cas- of field studies was in Kara and Karawala, the sette recordings to document plant use and to 366 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

TABLE 1. PLANTSUSED BY THE ULWA ARRANGED TABLE 2. ORIG~S OF ALL THE SPECIES USED BY BY TAXONOMIC RANK AND USE CATEGORY. THE ULWA.

Food Medicinal Other Total Status Total % Families 38 69 36 72 Wild 174 77 Genera 57 146 71 174 Domesticated 30 14 Species 69 187 84 225 Semi-domesticated 9 4 Purchased 12 5 Total 225 compile a species list and 2) field trips with practitioners to collect voucher specimens. Eth- tenance, medicinal treatments, and even some nobotanical data and/or voucher specimens were cash income. collected in the villages of Kara, Karawala, in hamlets along Rio Grande de Matagalpa, Rio AGRICULTURAL FIELDS Kurinwas, and Rio Wawashang in southeastern Agricultural fields, known in Ulwa as "yfi- Nicaragua (Fig. 1). To facilitate the comparative mak," are the main source of staple foods for analysis of plant use between the Ulwa and the the Ulwa. Food crops are grown in fields of 1 Miskitu, the latter group was divided into north- to 2 ha. using slash-and-burn techniques. Se- ern Miskitu and southern Miskitu. Miskitu living lected forest sites are cleared at the beginning of in Regi6n Aut6noma Atl~intico Norte (RAAN) the dry season (March to April). During clearing constitute the northern, and those in Regi6n Au- of the forest, useful tree species (e.g., banak t6noma Atlfintico Sur (RAAS), the southern [121 Virola koschnyi], bittawood [155 Quassia group (Fig. 1). Vouchers were collected in trip- amara], hog plum [9 Spondias mombin], sam- licate; one set was deposited at the Herbarium wood [36], Spanish cedar [113]) are spared and of the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, with dupli- protected from fires. The selection of protected cate sets sent to the Missouri Botanical Garden species is determined by their value as a source (MO) and the University of Connecticut of food, medicine, timber, fodder, forage, or oth- (CONN). Specimens were identified by the au- er uses. Religious beliefs also play a role in the thors and by specialists from several major her- selection and protection of tree species, as is the baria listed in the acknowledgments. Methodol- case of kapok (34 Ceiba pentandra). The kapok ogy used to verify names of localities, common tree is protected because of the belief that spirits names of plants, names of organic compounds, inhabit it. Once slash vegetation is dry, fields are and to perform phytochemical screenings of burned (usually in late April to early May) to plants, are found in Coe (1994), Coe and An- allow planting before the onset of the rains in derson (1996a,b, 1997), Green (1997), Guerrero late May. Planting is done with a planting staff and Soriano de Guerrero (1985), and Incer (1.5 to 2.0 m long) or a hoe (makana). All fam- (1985). ily members participate in the cultivation, up- keep, and harvesting of crops. Most Ulwa food PLANT SOURCES plants are annual crops (e.g., beans [94 Phaseo- The Ulwa use a taxonomically diverse group lus vulgaris], maize [222 Zea mays], rice [216 of plants distributed among 225 species, 174 Oryza sativa]) intercropped with perennial crops genera, and 72 families (Appendix and Table 1). (e.g., banana [204 Musa paradisiaca var. sa- Species used include wild plants, semi-domes- pientum], cacao [165 Theobroma cacao], cas- ticates, and domesticates (Table 2). The Ulwa sava [71 Manihot esculenta]). Most Ulwa food obtain plant products from agricultural fields, crops are exotics from both the New World markets ("purchased plants" in Table 2), door- (NW) and Old World (OW) tropics (Table 3). yard gardens, and the forest. Some 187 species The Ulwa cultivate a total of 30 domesticates are medicinals, 69 are food plants, and 84 are primarily for local consumption (Table 3). The for ancillary uses such as clothing, construction, five most important Ulwa field crops are banana and crafts (Table 1). The plants in these various (204), beans (94), cassava (71), maize (222), and plant use categories play a significant role in rice (216). The Sumu rely much more on maize providing the Ulwa with the materials for sus- (222) than do the Miskitu, Rama, and Garifuna. 1999] COE & ANDERSON: ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 367

TABLE 3. FOOD PLANTS OF THE ULWA, ARRANGED BY ORIGIN AND STATUS. NUMBERS IN THIS AND OTHER TABLES REFLECT THE NUMBER OF SPECIES SO USED.

Status Semi- Origin Domesticated Purchased domesticated Wild Total % Native to Nicaragua 6 0 3 20 29 42 Introduced 24 9 6 0 39 57 Naturalized 0 0 0 1 1 1 Total 30 9 9 21 69 % 43 13 13 31

However, the Ulwa are the least dependent of HOMEGARDENS the three Sumu sub-groups on maize (222) as a Most Ulwa households maintain a kitchen staple food. This greater role of maize (222) in garden where staple foods and a few medicinals the diet of the other two Sumu subgroups is part- are grown. Some of the important staple food ly due to historical factors (both had a more ex- plants grown in these gardens include banana tended contact with the mestizo population) as (204), breadfruit (115 Artocarpus altilis), coco well as more land suitable for cultivation of yam (183 Xanthosoma sagittifolium), dasheen maize (222). Most of the land available to the (182 Colocasia esculenta), guineo cuadrado Ulwa is wet and thus more suitable for growing (202), peppers ([156 Capsicum annuum var. gla- cassava (71) and rice (216). These crops are also briusculium], [157 C. chinensis], [158 C. frutes- successful because cassava (71) can grow in cens]), plantain (203), and yampee (198 Dios- poor soils, and rice (216) along the wet river corea trifida). Other popular kitchen garden spe- banks. Other less important field crops are pine- cies include avocado (101 Persea americana), apple (191 Ananas comosus), plantain (203 cashew (7 Anacardium occidentale), drap (125 Musa paradisiaca), sugarcane (221 Sacharum Passiflora quandragularis), guava (122 Psidium officinarum), and guineo cuadrado (202 Musa guajava), hog plum (9), kinep (147 Melicoccus sp.). bijugatus), mango (8 Mangifera indica), soursop MARKETS (12 Annona muricata), and star apple (149 The Ulwa purchase only 12 of the 225 species Chrysophyllum cainito). Some medicinal species are grown in kitchen of plants they use (Table 2). Purchased plants gardens as well, and are used mostly to treat are of both NW and OW origin, including aza- frS_ri (224 Curcuma longa [OW]), cinnamon common illnesses such as cough, fever, and (100 Cinnamomum zeylanicum [OW]), cloves pain. Some of the most frequently cultivated me- (123 Syzygium aromaticum [OWl), ginger (225 dicinals in kitchen gardens are barsley (99 Oci- Zingiber oj~cinale [OW]), garlic (201 Allium sa- mum micranthum), Christmas blossom (75 Cas- tivum [OW]), nutmeg (120 Myristica fragrans sia alata), culantro (14 Eryngium foetidum), [OWl), onion (200 Allium cepa [OWl), peanut drap (125), fever grass (210 Cymbopogon citra- (74 Arachis hypogaea [NW]), potato (162 So- tus), ghost bush (5 Blechum brownei), guinea lanum tuberosum [NW]), and tobacco (159 Ni- hen (126 Petiveria alliacea), kiskita (65 Acalyp- cotiana tabacum [NW]). There are no plants ha arvensis), ram goat dash along (168 Turnera sold in the market that are native to the Ulwa ulmifolia), tree of life (61 Kalanchoe pinnata), territory. Most species purchased from markets wild rice (154 Scoparia dulcis), w~ w~ (172 Lan- are spices and condiments (7 of 12 species). tana trifolia), and worm bush (102 Spigelia ant- When and how these spices and condiments helmia). were introduced among the Ulwa is unknown. FOREST We suspect that over time these species were passed on to the Ulwa by their Miskitu neigh- The forest is the most important source of bors who acquired them from contact with the plant materials to the Ulwa, providing all the British and other Europeans (Coe and Anderson wild species in Table 2. Wild plants are used as 1997). supplementary foods, medicinals, and for ancil- 368 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

TABLE 4. MEDICINALS OF THE ULWA, ARRANGED BY ORIGIN AND STATUS.

Semi- Origin Domesticated Purchased domesticated Wild Total % Native to Nicaragua 6 0 3 138 147 79 Introduced 21 11 7 1 40 21 Naturalized 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 27 11 10 139 187 % 15 6 5 74 lary purposes such as construction, crafts, dyes, late 1970s. Thus, it is mainly native hardwoods and tannins. Food plants obtained from the for- (mahogany [114], nancit6n [68 Hyeronima al- est account for 31% of the species of Ulwa food chorneoides], saba [112 Carapa guianensis], plants (Table 3). In contrast with the domesti- sambogum [48], samwood [36], Santa Maria cates, most Ulwa wild food plants are native to [46], Spanish cedar [113]) that are harvested. Nicaragua (20 of 21 species) (Table 3). How- ever, though only a source of supplementary PLANT USE food plants to the Ulwa, the forest is far more Plants used by the Ulwa represent a wide important as a source of medicinals. The bulk of range of genera and families. As with the Ga- plants used in the Ulwa pharmacopoeia are wild rffuna (Coe 1994; Coe and Anderson 1996a) and species (139 of 187 species)(Table 4). Forest Miskitu (Coe and Anderson 1997), the largest plants used for ancillary purposes (84 of 225 plant-use category by the Ulwa is medicinals. species; see Table 1) are also important to the Two previous studies have addressed medicinal Ulwa because they provide timber (14 of 84 spe- plant uses among the Sumu (Barrett 1994 and cies) for local use and for sale. Timber sales are Fey and Sindel 1993). The best early account of still a major source of income to the Ulwa. Only Sumu plant use was written by Conzemius small stands of softwood (Caribbean pine [4]) (1932). However, since Conzemius' work, many remain as a result of over-harvesting that started changes have occurred in the Sumu culture. at the turn of the century and continued until the Ulwa plant lore has been greatly affected by acculturation, particularly in regard to plant species used for clothing, construction and crafts, food, and medicine, the categories discussed in the following sections.

CLOTHING Before the arrival of missionary workers into eastern Nicaragua in the late 1800s, Ulwa clothing consisted of a bark cloth tunic (kahlau) with a hole cut out for the head and a strap tied around the waist (Conzemius 1932). The "kahlau" was made from fibers of the retted inner bark of a wild fig (118 Ficus sp.), and tunu (119 Poulsenia armata) (Conzemius 1932). While contemporary Ulwa wear Western clothing purchased from traders or markets, they still use natural fibers for making cloth and crafts (Fig. 2, 3). The most widely used natural fibers are obtained from the bark of mahoe (109 Hibiscus tiliaceus), sulduih (166 Heliocarpus donnell- smithii), tunu (119), wild fig (118), and wild Fig. 2. Ulwa bark cloth vest obtained from tunu pine (192 Bromelia pinguin). The fibers of these (Poulsenia armata, Moraceae). species are treated with lime juice (144 Citrus 1999] COE & ANDERSON: ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 369

Fig. 4. Ulwa home made from a combination of traditional and Western building materials.

purchased from traders and rural stores. Tradi- tional materials used for construction and crafts are obtained from 84 species. Most homes consist of independent sleeping and cooking quar- ters, a grain storage bin, and an animal shed. Construction materials used for home building are obtained from about 35 species. The six most preferred species used in general construction are Caribbean pine (4), mahogany (114), Fig. 3. Ulwa bag made from fibers of sulduih (He- sambogum (48), samwood (36), Santa Maria liocarpus donnell-smithii, Tiliaceae) and dyed with ex- tracts of pan lalahka (Chlorophora tinctoria, Mora- (46), and Spanish cedar (113). Some species ceae), limnah (Terminalia oblonga, Combretaceae), have specific applications. Framing, sidewalls, and azafr~n (Curcuma longa, Zingiberaceae). and roofing are held together with vines of gua- cu (18 Aristolochia trilobata), mahoe (109), and withes (31). Pilings are made from rot resistant aurantifolia) to reduce oxidation and lighten species such as ebo (89 Dipteryx oleifera), oaka their color. Subsequently, they are immersed in (150 Manilkara zapota), and sipul (151 Pouteria a bath or painted with one or a combination of sapota). Roofs are made from palm leaves, for the following natural dyes: black from sambo- example hone (188 Elaeis guineensis), saw cab- gum (48); brown from mahogany (114); gray bage palm (184), and sconfra (186 Calyptrogene from kerosfn (53 Terminalia oblonga); orange, ghiesbreghtiana), and from galvanized metal red, and yellow from annatto (33 Bixa orellana); sheet stock. Sidewalls are made from bamboo red from withes (31 Arrabidaea chica); and yel- (208 Bambusa vulgaris), banak (121), Caribbean low and pink from azafr~in (224). Clothing is pine (4), saba (112), saw cabbage pall (184), very simple, and personal ornaments are few. and wild cane (212 Gynerium sagittatum). The latter consist mostly of necklaces and am- Household furnishings (e.g., beds, benches, ta- ulets made from Jobs' tears (209 Coix lacryma- bles) are scarce and are made from whatever jobi), maklala (88 Dioclea megacarpa), wabala material is available. Crafts are made for both (92 Mucuna urens), and sea shells. Footwear is household use and sale to tourists. Common in generally only used when attending church ser- most households are hammocks made from tunu vices or visiting mestizo settlements. (119) fibers or purchased from markets or visiting mestizo merchants. Popular craft items in- CONSTRUCTION AND CRAFTS clude vests made from tunu (119) fiber (Fig. 2), The Ulwa use both Western and traditional and bowls, figurines, forks, model boats and ca- materials for construction (Fig. 4) and crafts. noes, made from mahogany (114), Spanish cedar Western materials (e.g., dyes, fibers, nails, metal (113), and rosewood ([81 Dalbergia brownei], sheet stock) used for construction and crafts are [82 D. hypoleuca], [83 D. tucurensis]). 370 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

TABLE 5. I~DICINAL PLANT SPECIES USED BY THE TABLE 7. MODE OF PREPARATION OF ULWA ME- ULWA, ARRANGED BY ORIGIN AND LIFE FORM. DICINAL PLANTS.

Life Form Mode Number of Species Origin Tree Shrub Vine Herb Total % Decoction 161 Native to Nic- Poultice 36 aragua 49 5 22 71 147 79 Juice 21 Introduced 10 3 2 8 23 12 Infusion 16 Naturalized 3 1 2 11 17 9 None 9 Total 62 9 26 90 187 Bath 4 % 33 5 14 48 Syrup 1

have some bioactive principle including alka- FOOD loids (87% of the species with bioactive com- The 69 species the Ulwa use for food include pounds) and glycosides (13%) (see Appendix). domesticates, semi-domesticates, and wild Materials used in medicinal preparations include plants (Table 3). As do the Miskitu (Coe and leaves, bark, roots, fruits, sap, stem (wood), Anderson 1997), the Ulwa rely on domesticates flowers, and seeds. In some instances the whole as their major food source: species grown in ag- plant is utilized, root included. The most fre- ricultural fields account for 43% of the staple quently utilized plant part is the leaf (123 spe- foods consumed by the Ulwa (Table 3). The re- cies), followed by the bark (40 species) (Table maining 57% of the staple food species are 6). Herbal remedies are prepared as decoctions, semi-domesticates, wild plants, and purchased poultices, juice, infusions, baths, and syrups. plants obtained from kitchen gardens, forest, and The majority of medicinals are prepared as de- markets. The most important food plants in coctions (161 species) (Table 7) and are admin- kitchen gardens were given previously under istered orally (167 species) (Table 8). These "Homegardens." findings are similar to those documented for the Miskitu by Coe and Anderson (1997). MEDICINE The 15 most preferred Ulwa medicinal spe- To deal with the many health hazards (e.g., cies (i.e., those with five or more medicinal ap- dysentery, malaria, snakebites) associated with plications) are: aguacate* (* = species shared living in the lowland tropical habitat, the Ulwa by the Ulwa and southern Miskitu) (101), bal- have developed a relatively large pharmacopoeia sam pear* (63 Momordica charantia), bird bush of both wild and cultivated plants (187 medici- (137 Borreria laevis), burbur (84 Desmodiun nal species Table 1). The majority of Ulwa adscendens), Christmas blossom* (75 Cassia medicinal plants are obtained from the wild alata), flor de muerto (28 Tagetes erecta), frai- (74%) (Table 4), and most are herbs (48%) or lecillo (70 Jatropha gossypiifolia), guava* trees (33%) (Table 5). Most medicinals (75%) (122), jackass bitters* (27 Neurolaena lobata), John Charles (98 Hyptis verticitlata), lime (144), red scholars* (140 Hamelia patens), sorocontil TABLE 6. MEDICINALSI PLANT PARTS USED BY THE (78 Cassia reticulata), wild sage (37 Cordia cu- ULWA. rassavica), and wild thyme* (174 Lippia micromera). Parts used Number of Species Leaf 123 Bark 40 TABLE 8. MODE OF ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICI- Root 32 NAL PREPARATION BY THE ULWA. Whole plant 28 Mode Number of Species Fruit 24 Sap 15 Oral 167 Stem 11 Topical 73 Flower 2 Bath 9 Seed 2 Inhalation 1 1999] COE & ANDERSON: ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 371

For these 15 medicinals, the Ulwa have 82 and clothing. In the discussion following, we medicinal applications, 11 of which are unique. rely on information from the Appendix, and In comparison, the southern Miskitu have 22 published studies of the Garffuna (Coe 1994; such medicinals (with five or more applications) Coe and Anderson 1996a,b), and Miskitu (Coe with 124 medicinal applications, 23 of which are and Anderson 1997) to make comparisons with unique. Seven of the most popular medicinals plants used by the Ulwa. We chose these two are shared by the two groups. The Ulwa have groups because they share the same ecosystem 41 medicinal applications for these shared spe- and have been in contact with the same group cies (three unique), whereas the southern Mis- of outsiders. kitu have 47 medicinal applications (nine The vast majority of species used by the Ulwa unique). Thus, as one would expect, the most are the same as those used by the Miskitu (93% common medicinals are used, for the most part, overlap in species used). This is not surprising, in the same way by these two sympatric groups. given the nearly complete overlap in territories. The Ulwa treat their illnesses and injuries The Ulwa and the southern Miskitu share more with both traditional and Western medicine. Tra- species (91% overlap) and have a greater ex- ditional medicine consists of rituals performed change of ethnobotanical knowledge than the by the shamans (watyu) to treat supernatural ill- Ulwa and the northern Miskitu (51% overlap). nesses and herbal medicine practiced by the Thus, presumably the greater similarity in spe- herbalists (d$ basta talingka) to treat illnesses cies use between the Ulwa and southern Miskitu deemed to be caused by natural causes. The lat- derives in part from their proximity to each oth- ter provides the bulk of primary health care er. Consequently, both groups interact with the among the Ulwa. Western medicine, on the other same plants,-those that makeup the lowland hand, is accessed mostly when traditional meth- swamp forest communities of the central east ods of healing are ineffective. However, Western coast of Nicaragua. They also share a number of medicine is often too costly or inaccessible (de- cultural beliefs and practices (based on extended spite transportation improvements from the contact and cultural exchange) particularly 1980s--made partly to improve access to West- among the inhabitants of the villages of Kara ern medicine). Travel is still sufficiently difficult and Karawala. This extends to ethnobotanical that, in many instances, a patient reaches a clinic information and rituals where Ulwa and Miskitu or hospital too late for efficacious treatment. healers sometimes work together in treating es- Ulwa medicinal plant use is similar to that of pecially serious problems. the Miskitu in being generally controlled by The majority of species used and the bulk of practitioners (herbalists and shamans). Practi- the diet for both the Ulwa and Miskitu are do- tioners guard their herbal knowledge with great mesticates, most of which were introduced by secrecy, probably to enhance their reputation Europeans (as in Coe and Anderson 1997). and prestige. However, a general pool of knowl- However, the Miskitu utilize more wild species edge exists that is shared by most people (prac- (37 species) than the Ulwa (21 species), a dif- titioners and the general populace). In most in- ference that presumably reflects the larger Mis- stances, the general populace uses the same kitu population (which is more than 60 times plant materials as the shamans and herbalists, that of the Ulwa), the greater area they occupy, but the modes of preparation and administration and the isolation of some Miskitu settlements. are different. Some 94% of Ulwa medicinals are also used by the northern and southern Miskitu; in con- DISCUSSION trast, only 61% of the medicinal species of the The Ulwa have kept many aspects of their southern Miskitu are also used by the Ulwa. The culture, including much of their ethnobotanical Ulwa obtain most of their botanical resources lore, and still rely on the plants for medicine. from a relatively small area of the lowland Acculturation is evidenced among the Ulwa by swamp forest (essentially around the delta of the the cultural changes that have occurred, espe- Rio Grande de Matagalpa vs. the southern Mis- cially during the 1980s. Some of the most no- ldtu whose territory extends from the delta of ticeable changes observed in Ulwa plant use the Rio Grande de Matagalpa all the way to the practices (from least change to most) include: south of Bluefields; see Fig. 1). healing and curing, crafts, construction, food, About three-fourths of the medicinal species 372 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

TABLE 9. COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF SPE- coside, suggesting they may be biomedically ef- CIES AND FAMILIES OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ME- fective. DICINAL FAMILIES TO THE ULWA AND SOUTHERN In summary, the southern Miskitu use more MtsraTO. species, and have more medical applications than the Ulwa. In addition, only nine species of Number of species medicinals are unique to the Ulwa. There are, Family name Ulwa Miskitu however, some differences; there are more than Asteraceae 1! 16 30 unique medicinal applications among the Euphorbiaceae 7 13 Ulwa (Table 10). For example, though both the Fabaceae 20 41 Ulwa and Miskitu use Christmas blossom (75) Rubiaceae 8 20 and jackass bitters (27) to treat various illnesses, Solanaceae 7 11 only the Ulwa use these species as a febrifuge Verbenaceae 10 13 and diuretic respectively. Given the broad overlap in territory of the Ulwa and Miskitu, perhaps the question is, why are there any differences at all? By far the majority of differences in plant used by the Ulwa and Miskitu are native to east- use practices are in the medicinal applications ern Nicaragua, and are obtained from the wild. for particular species. Species may or may not The most frequently used medicinal plant fam- be selected by a group based on: 1) the per- ilies by the Ulwa and Miskitu (Coe and Ander- ceived effectiveness of the species, 2) perceived son 1997) are Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fa- undesirable effects (differences that could be baceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, and Verbena- culturally based), 3) local availability (patchi- ceae (Table 9). These two groups share a pref- ness in distribution), and 4) methods of prepa- erence for plant part used (leaf), method of ration or application that may not be culturally preparation (decoction), and mode of adminis- acceptable. One example is provided by wild fig tration (oral). However, they differ in the prep- (118): this species is not used by the Ulwa be- aration of herbal remedies. For example, the cause they believe that any contact with the Miskitu prepare most of their topical remedies plant will make the spirits angry. In contrast, this by soaking plant material in a mixture of water species is a highly regarded Miskitu medicinal. and alcohol; the Ulwa, on the other hand, boil In some cases, species are not used, or used with plant material in water. The Miskitu (Coe and extreme care, to avoid undesirable effects such Anderson 1997) use more Western pharmaceu- as nightmares, hair loss, poisoning, and other ticals in their pharmacopoeia than the Ulwa. general "illnesses." This could be due to greater access by the Mis- Clearly, there is a high overall similarity of kitu to Western medicine for a longer time in the Ulwa to the Miskitu ethnobotanical lore, par- fact, more so than any other indigenous group ticularly to the southern Miskitu, partly because in eastern Nicaragua (Coe and Anderson 1997). of long, continuous contact between the two For both the Ulwa and southern Miskitu, the ill- groups. Contact between these groups increased nesses with the largest number of species used greatly during the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- in treatment are: fever (66 Ulwa = u, 86 south- turies, first encouraged by British traders and lat- ern Miskitu = sm), aches and pains (60 u, 77 er by missionaries (Conzemius 1932; Romero sm), skin rashes and sores (57 u, 100 sm), di- 1995; Smutko 1985). However, during the past arrhea (55 u, 70 sm), infections (32 u, 48 sm), 50 years there has been a dramatic increase in bites and stings (31 u, 39 sm), and digestive dis- access to the area (e.g., construction of roads orders (30 u, 42 sm). The large number of spe- and an inter-coastal waterway or canal) and con- cies used to treat these particular illnesses can sequent interaction among the Ulwa and other be attributed to the ubiquity of the illnesses and groups as well. Thus, ethnobotanical studies like the fact that they occur year-round. Most herbal this are important for documenting traditional remedies are prepared as mixtures of several plant use for science, but also can serve as ref- species. The majority of medicinals used by the erence for indigenous cultures. Ulwa, like the Garffuna (Coe 1994; Coe and An- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS derson 1996a) and Miskitu (Coe and Anderson 'I~is study was partially supported by grants from the National Science 1997) contain either an alkaloid and/or a gly- Foundation and The University of Connecticut Research Foundation. We 1999] COL & ANDERSON: ETI-[NOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 373

TABLE |0. COMMON AND UNIQUE MEDICINAL APPLICATIONS AMONG THE ULWA AND SOUTHERN MISKITIJ. MEDICINAL APPLICATIONS: A = ACHES AND PAINS; B = BITES AND STINGS (SNAKE, SCORPION, INSECTS); C = CHILDBIRTH AND PREGNANCY; D = DIARRHEA; E = EMETIC; F = FEVER; G = DIGESTIVE; (STOMACH ACHE, ULCERS, ETC.); H = HYPERTENSION; I = INFECTIONS; J = DIABETES; K = DIURETIC; L = RESPIRATORY & PULMONARY DISORDERS (COLD, COUGHS, ETC.); M = MALARIA; N = BURNS; O = ABORTIFAC1ENT; P = WORMS AND INTESTINAL PARASITES; Q = ASTRINGENT; R = RrruALs; S = SKIN RASHES AND SORES; T -- TONIC AND ANEMIA (BLOOD FORTIFIER); U = CUTS AND HEMORRHAGE; V = VENEREAL DISEASES; W = FEMALE DISORDERS (MENSTRUATION, HEMORRHAGE); X = PURGATIVE AND LAXATIVE; Y = CONSTIPATION; Z = TOOTH EXTRACTION.

Miskitu Ulwa Species Common applications Unique applications Uniqueapplications Acrostichum aureum E Y A -- Aloe vera B, N, S X -- Anacardium occidentale A, D, S -- F Annona glabra A, C L -- Annona muricata C, D F -- Aristolochia trilobata B, G, L, T H -- Artocarpus altilis A H -- Avicennia germinans D -- Q Bambusa vulgaris D, F S -- Bixa orellana D, L, N S -- Borreria laevis B, L, S, U W -- Carapa guianensis F D A Cassia alata I, S, T, X D, H, P F Cassia reticulata A, B, I, S -- W, X Cedrela odorata A, F, T -- Q Ceiba pentandra E, K, Q -- A Cinchona pubescens E M D -- Citrus aurantium D, E G, H, I, L K -- Connarus lambertii D Q -- Cordia curassavica A, D, F, H -- C Desmodium adscendens A, G, I, S -- D Desmodium canum A, F, I, S, V E V -- Desmodium triflorum A, I -- F Dipteryx oleifera A, Q Z F Elaeis guineensis X G X Elaeis oleifera X G X Elephantopus spicatus D, P A -- Eryngium foetidum D, G, P, R L -- Gynerium sagittamm B, I, S K, V -- Hamelia patens B, F, I, M, S, U W -- Hibiscus tiliaceus F Y C Hyptis verticillata H, I, L, S -- A Jatropha curcas D, F, P, X V -- Jatropha gossypiifolia D, I, S, X -- Y Lippia alba C, E I, W G -- Lippia micromera C, G, I, L, W K -- Melochia villosa A, G, L L -- Momordica charantia A, C, H, J, M, T I, L, S -- Mucuna urens A, B, S G -- Neurolaena lobata F, H, M, P, S -- K Ocimum micranthum A, F G, I, R H, L Odontadenia puncticulosa B -- F Pachira aquatica D, S, T S I Passiflora quadrangularis A, F J, P M, S Pentaclethra macroloba B, F, S -- L Peperomia pellucida B, I, V -- W 374 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

TABLE 10. CONTINUED.

Miskitu Ulwa Species Common applications Unique applications Unique applications

Peperomia peltata B, I, V W -- Persea americana D, L, O, W -- J Petiveria alliacea A, D R L, O Piper auritum A, C, E G L -- Piper peltatum A, E G -- C Psidium guajava D, G, H, I, S P F Saccharum officinarum D, I, L -- S Sida acuta A, C, W L -- Spondias purpurea D, F S -- Stachytarpheta cayennensis G, P, X -- F Stachytarpheta jamaicensis E P, X -- G Struthanthus cassythoides A, B, S L -- Tagetes erecta A, L, W -- G Wedelia trilobata B, E L, W I -- Zingiber officinale G, L -- F are most grateful to the Sumu people, in particular to Martin Crimmins, 1989. Diccionario elemental del Sumu: Sumu Modesta Galagarza (midwife), Grincilla Gamboa (midwife), Dragas Lo- Meridional. Centro de Ciencia Cognitiva, Instituto pez, Juslin Lopez Salazar, Santiago Paiba (shaman), Geronimo Palmiatan (herbalist), Beatriz Salazar (midwife), and Murphy Salazar (shaman), for Tecnol6gico de Massachusetts, Cambridge, MA. welcoming one of us (Coe) into their homes and sharing their ethnobo- Coe, F. G. 1994. Ethnobotany of the Garffuna of east- tanical knowledge. The field assistance of Redney Martin is deeply ap- ern Nicaragua. Ph.D. dissertation, University of preciated. We thank the staffs of CIDCA (Centro de Investigaci6n y Do- Connecticut, Storrs, CT. cumentaci6n de la Costa Athintica) and FADCANIC (Fundaci6n Para la Autononda y Desarrollo de la Costa Athintica de Nicaragua), in particular , and G. J. Anderson. 1996a. Ethnobotany of Ray Hooker of FADCANIC. Numerous specialists provided assistance in the Garffuna of eastern Nicaragua. Economic Bot- the identification of vouchers: William D'Arcy (MO), Rupert Barneby any 50:71-107. (NY), Gerrit Davidse (MO), James Grimes (NY), Helen Kennedy (UBC), , and --.. 1996b. Screening of medicinal Rona]d Leisner (MO), Michael Nee (NY), Amy Pool (MO), Velva Rudd (SFV), George Schatz (MO), Warren D. Stevens (MO), Charlotte M. plants used by the Garffuna of eastern Nicaragua. Taylor (MO), and Iv(m Valdespino (NY). We thank Ellie DeCarli, Edward Journal of Ethnopharmacology 53:29-50. Graves, and Mary Jane Spring for help with illustrations, tables, and , and --. 1997. Ethnobotany of the Mis- appendix, and Maryke Schlehofcr for tabulation of data and for numerous kitu of eastern Nicaragua. Journal of Ethnobiology comments on drafts of the rnanuscdpt. We also appreciate the comments of three anonymous reviewers and the always thoughtful comments of 17:171-214. Lawrence Kaplan. Cnnzemius, E. 1932. Ethnographical survey of the Miskito and Sumu Indians of Honduras and Nica- LITERATURE CITED ragua. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. Barrett, B. 1994. Medicinal plants of Nicaragua's At- 106. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, lantic Coast. Economic Botany 48:8-20. DC. Bell, C. N. 1989. Tangweera: life and adventures Crnnquist, A. 1981. An integrated system of classifi- among gentle savages. University of Texas Press, cation of flowering plants. Columbia University Austin, TX. (Originally published in 1899). Press, New York, NY. Boom, B. M. 1987. Ethnobotany of the Ch~icobo In- Dennis, P. A. 1988. Herbal medicine among the Mi- dians, Beni, Bolivia. Advances in Economic Bot- skito of eastern Nicaragua. Economic Botany 42: any 4:t-68. 16-28. Cambie, R. C., and J. E. Ash. 1994. Fijian medicinal Dozier, C. L. 1985. Nicaragua's Moskito shore: the plants. CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and In- years of British and American presence. The Uni- dustrial Research Organisation), Australia. versity of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. CIDCA (Centro de Investigaci6n y Documentaci6n Duke, J. A. 1994. Chemical composition of Belizean de la Costa Atldntica). 1982. Demografla Costefia. plants discussed in rainforest remedies: one hun- CIDCA, Managua, Nicaragua. dred healing herbs of Belize. New York Botanical --. 1985. Gramfitica Miskita. MIDNIRA, Mana- Garden, Bronx, NY. gua, Nicaragua. Fey, U., and M. SindeL 1993. Plantas medicinales de --. 1986. Diccionario Elemental: Miskito-Espa- los Sumus. Imprenta Universidad Centroamericana fiol/Espafiol-Miskito. Editado e impreso en MID- (UCA), Managua, Nicaragua. NIRA, Managua, Nicaragua. Garcia-Barriga, H. 1992. Flora medicinal de Colom- 1999] COE & ANDERSON: ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SUMU 375

bia. Tomo I-III. Tercer Mundo Editores, Bogota, Roberts, O. W. 1827. Narrative of voyages and ex- Colombia. cursions on the East Coast and the Interior of Cen- Green, T. 1997. Neologismos en el idioma Sumu tral America. 1965 reprint, a facsimile of the 1827 (Sumu Meridional). Wani 21:41-43. edition. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Guerrero, J. N., and L. Soriano de Guerrero. 1985. FL. Diccionario Nicaragiaense: geogr~ifico e hist6rico. Romero, G. 1995. Las sociedades del atl~ntico de Nic- Editorial Somarriba, Masaya, Nicaragua. aragua en los siglos XVII y XVIII. Banco Nicara- Hale, K. 1991. E1 Ulwa (Sumu Meridional): un idioma giiense, Managua, Nicaragua. distinto? Wani 11:27-50. , F. de Oro Sol6rzano, M Rizo, M. Mem- Hale, C., and E. T. Gordon 1987. Costefio demog- brefio, A. Castegnaro de Foletti, J. Avil6s, and raphy: historical and contemporary demography of B. Mufioz. 1992. Persistencia indigena en Nicara- Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast. Pages 7-31 in CIDCA, gua. CIDCA, Managua, Nicaragua. ed., Ethnic groups and the nation state: the case of Salter, E. A. 1950. Plantas econ6micas y ornamentales the Atlantic Coast in Nicaragua. University of de Nicaragua. Imprenta La Salle, Bluefields, Nic- Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. aragua. Hegnauer, R. 1962-1994. Chemotaxonomie der Sehultes, R. E., and F. Raffauf. 1990. The healing Pflanzen. Vol. 1-11a. Birkh~iuser Verlag, Basel, forest medicinal and toxic plants of the Northwest Switzerland. Amazonia. Dioscorides Press, Portland, OR. Inter, J. 1975. Geografta ilustrada de Nicaragua. Edi- Seymour, F. C. 1980. A checklist of the vascular tora y Distribuidora, Nicaragtiense, S. A., Mana- plants of Nicaragua. Phytologia Memoirs l:iii-x, gua, Nicaragua. 1-314. Smutko, G. 1985. La Mosquitia: historia y cultura de 1985. Toponomfas indigenas de Nicaragua. la Costa Atlfmtica. Editorial La Ocarina, Managua, Libro Libre, San Jos6, Costa Rica. Nicaragua. McLean, M. E. 1996. Diccionario Panamahka. CID- Taylor, B. W. 1962. The status and development of CA, Managua, Nicaragua. the Nicaraguan pine savannas. Caribbean Forester Morton, J. F. 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of Mid- 23:21-26. dle America. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Spring- 1963. An outline of the vegetation of Nica- field, IL. ragua. Journal of Ecology 51:27-54. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Media Incor- Tyler, V. E., L. R. Brady, and J. E. Robbers. 1985. porated, Greensboro, NC. Pharmacognosy. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Nietschmann, B. Q. 1969. The distribution of Miskito, Willaman, J. J., and Hui-Lin Li. 1970. Alkaloid- Sumu, and Rama Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Bul- bearing plants and their contained alkaloids. Lloy- letin of the International Comittee on Urgent An- dia 33:1-286. thropological and Ethnological Research 11:91- , and B. G. Schubert. 1961. Alkaloid-bearing 102. plants and their contained alkaloids. U.S. Depart- 1979. Caribbean edge: the coming of modern ment of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1234, times to isolated people and wildlife. Bobbs-Me- Washington, DC. rrill, New York. Williamson, D., J. Avil6s, and M. McLean. 1993. Norwood, S. 1997. Gram~tica de la lengua Sumu. Aspectos Generales de las Comunidades Sumus de CIDCA-UCA, Managua, Nicaragua. la RAAN. Wani 14:18-27. 376 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53

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