Chapter 1 International Organizations and Internal Conditionality

Notes

1 Interviews over various points with embassy staff of existing EU member- states involved in assisting the accession process, in Prague, when the Czech Republic was a frontrunner is the accession process. 2 The literature on EU and also NATO conditionality is very considerable, if also divided on its terms and especially on determining how conditionality worked. Some leading works are referred to in the present discussion and sources are given in the bibliography. 3 See the literature on conditionality in the bibliography. 4 Fraser Cameron, An Introduction to European Foreign Policy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007), p. 184. 5 The OSCE arose from the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), formally taking that name on 1 January 1995. Chapter 2 examines the evolution of the CSCE in terms of “internal conditionality”. For reasons of international legal status, states are not members of but participate in the OSCE. When referring only to the OSCE, states will be called “participating States”. OSCE literature tends to abbreviate that to pS. When reference is made to states in both, or more, organizations “member” and “membership” will be used. 6 The temporarily suspension of Russia’s voting rights by the Parliamentary Assembly of the CoE is included in the analysis of internal conditionality in Chapter 3. 7 Among the considerable literature is the strong indication of how international pressure has improved domestic human rights given in Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). A supplementary study has appeared as Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink (eds) The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). 8 Thomas Risse and Stephen C. Ropp, “International Human Rights Norms and Domestic Change: Conclusions”, in Risse, Ropp and Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights, p. 260. 9 An attempt at a review of the expansive literature on regions, and then of regions in practice in world politics, is offered in Rick Fawn (ed.) Globalising the Regional, Regionalising the Global (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 10 Bruce Russett, “Bushwhacking the Democratic Peace”, International Studies Perspectives (Vol. 6, No. 4, November 2005), p. 402. 11 Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

250 Notes 251

12 This will be discussed in a later chapter and in the context of IO responses. 13 A specific section in the concept of internal conditionality details such resistance; consequently, each case study identifies strategies of resistance, so these will not be outlined here. 14 See the conclusion of Sonia Cardenas, “Norm Collision: Explaining the Effects of International Human Rights Pressure on State Behavior”, International Studies Review (Vol. 6, No. 2, June 2004), pp. 213–32. 15 Sarah E. Mendelson, “Russians’ Rights Imperiled: Has Anybody Noticed?”, International Security (Vol. 26, No. 4, 2002), p. 40. 16 For example, Beth A. Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 12. 17 As one example, see Edward C. Luck, “Gaps, Commitments, and the Compliance Challenge”, in Edward C. Luck and Michael W. Doyle (eds) International Law and Organization: Closing the Compliance Gap (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004). 18 Among the most prominent is Bruce Russett and John Oneal, Triangulating Peace: Democracy, Interdependence, and International Organizations (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001); and Jon C. Pevehouse, Democracy from Above: Regional Organizations and Democratization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 19 Cited examples are given throughout the book. 20 Such Western expectations have been extensively documented. A strong summation of them and a critique of the Russian case are given in Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post Communist Russia (Updated Edition) (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001). A summary of American expectations of total Russian transformation is similarly given in Fogelsong, and also as the culmination of a missionary zeal: “American journalists, politicians, and religious leaders hailed a miraculous popular revolution which they predicted would lead rapidly to the consolidation of a liberal democracy, creation of a flourishing market economy, and [also] a widespread revival of Christianity”. David S. Fogelsong, The American Mission and the ‘Evil Empire’: The Crusade for a ‘Free Russia’ since 1881 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 196. 21 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change”, International Organization (Vol. 52, No. 4, Autumn 1998), p. 915. 22 Where the CoE and OSCE have had scholarly attention concerns minority rights provisions, and then in terms of specific policy changes, and routinely in relation also to policies of the EU and NATO. This literature is addressed at points in this book, but this work presents that topic through a different approach. Checkel has used the CoE as a case study of norms, but this was similarly regarding the specific case of national identity and citi- zenship, referring particularly to Germany. Jeffrey T. Checkel, “Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe”, International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 43, No. 1, March 1999), pp. 83–114. Russet and Oneal’s Triangulating Peace makes no reference to the CoE and only three brief mentions of the CSCE/OSCE. 252 Notes

23 Dennis J.D. Sandole, Peace and Security in the Postmodern World: The OSCE and Conflict Resolution (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007), p. xiv. 24 See Emanuel Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change: The OSCE’s Security Community-Building Model”, in Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds) Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 119–60. 25 Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction”, in Risse, Ropp and Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights, p. 5. 26 See particularly the idea of the “boomerang effect” in high linkages cases, in Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, “Linkage versus Leverage: Rethinking the International Dimension of Regime Change”, Comparative Politics (Vol. 38, No. 4, July 2006), esp. p. 387, and more widely in Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 27 Details are provided in specific discussions later; briefly here: Freedom House, for example, has found that Russian, Belarusian and Central Asian democracy and human rights indicators have either remained negative or deteriorated. 28 See Fiona Hill and Clifford G. Gaddy, “Putin and the Uses of History”, The National Interest (January–February 2012). 29 Among recent literature is Emilie M. Hafner-Burton, Forced to be Good: Why Trade Agreements Boost Human Rights (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009). 30 See Paul Cornish, The Arms Trade and Europe (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995). 31 Specialized literature on these organizations do so, and these are used in relevant chapters, especially for the OSCE the Helsinki Monitor and its suc- cessor Security and Human Rights, and the OSCE Yearbook. This literature tends to be written by those inside or connected to the organization. Furthermore, IR literature could benefit from greater empirical knowledge of the practices of these organizations. 32 Hafner-Burton, Forced to be Good, pp. 23 and 118. 33 The literature on the Central European and Baltic “return to Europe” is considerable and will be used selectively to illustrate the examples mentioned here. The main focus of the book, however, remains on the internal conditionality exercised by the CoE and the OSCE. 34 Frank Schimmelfennig, “The EU: Promoting Liberal-Democracy through Membership Conditionality”, in Trine Flockhart (ed.) Socializing Democratic Norms: The Role of International Organizations for the Construction of Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2005), p. 117. 35 Michael Merlingen and Rasa Ostrauskaité, “The OSCE: The Somewhat Different Socializing Agency”, in Flockhart (ed.) Socializing Democratic Norms. 36 A note on language sources here is germane. The author has knowledge of several European languages and in particular instances where national reactions to IO requirements are found in indigenous language sources. However, as the book pertains overwhelmingly to international forums, English sources which are immediately cross-checkable have been used. Notes 253

37 A commentary on the risks of preconceived notions being a “far great danger … than either a deficiency of evidence or error of detail” is given in G.R. Elton, The Practice of History (London: Fontana, 1979), p. 36. 38 Robin Guthrie, “Europe? – What Europe? – The Future”, in John Coleman (ed.) The Conscience of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999), p. 81. 39 On the OSCE and national minorities especially see Walter Kemp (ed.) Quiet Diplomacy in Action: The OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (The Hague: Brill, 2001). 40 See Luck, “Gaps, Commitments, and the Compliance Challenge”, p. 309. 41 The unqualified term of appeasement, as associated with Anglo-French concessions to Nazi Germany, is specific in time and of a stature incomparable to other events. Political appeasement here denotes serious concessions by the institutions, including even practical threats to their core values, but does not convey, for example, any territorial or weaponized threats. 42 See Jutta Joachim, Bob Reinalda and Bertjan Verbeek, “International Organizations and Implementation: Pieces of the Puzzle”, in Jutta Joachim, Bob Reinalda and Bertjan Verbeek (eds) International Organizations and Implementation: Enforcers, Managers, Authorities? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007).

Chapter 2 The Birth of Internal Conditionality: The Conception and Evolution of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

1 Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, “The OSCE in Perspective: Six Years of Service, Six Questions and a Few Answers”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 23, No. 1, 2012), p. 32. 2 Concise overviews of each organization are available in David J. Galbreath, The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007), and Martyn Bond, The Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011). 3 His speech is reproduced on the CoE website at: http://assembly.coe.int/ Main.asp?link=/AboutUs/zurich_e.htm 4 See Cosmo Russell, who was present with Churchill for the founding, “The First European Institution – (Post-war)”, in John Coleman (ed.) The Conscience of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999), p. 37. 5 Statute of the Council of Europe, London, 5 May 1949, available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/001.htm 6 See Statute of the Council of Europe, Chapter II, Articles 8 and 9. 7 Hans Christian Krüger, “Protocol no. 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights”, in Council of Europe, Death Penalty Abolition in Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1999), p. 69. 8 Jean Petaux, Democracy and Human Rights for Europe: The Council of Europe’s Contribution (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2009), p. 52. 254 Notes

9 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51 (Abingdon: Routledge, 1987), p. 494. 10 See Florence Benoit-Rohmer and Heinrich Klebes, Council of Europe Law: Towards a Pan-European Legal Area (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005), p. 69. 11 Ed Bates, The Evolution of the European Convention on Human Rights: From Its Inception to the Creation of a Permanent Court of Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 5. 12 Aline Royer, The Council of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010), p. 38. 13 See Bruno Haller, An Assembly for Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2007), p. 116. 14 For such a conclusion, see Jon C. Pevehouse, Democracy from Above, p. 13. 15 See, for example speeches cited in Petaux, Democracy and Human Rights, p. 72. 16 Bond, Council, p. 9. 17 See Petaux, Democracy and Human Rights, pp. 89–90. 18 Stuart Croft, John Redmond, G. Wyn Rees and Mark Webber, The Enlargement of Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), p. 150. 19 Bronislaw Geremek, “The Challenges to European Security: A Polish View”, in Samuel F. Wells (ed.) Helsinki. Geremek did ask also of the other Central European states but Hungary gained entry already in 1990 and Czechoslovakia followed in early 1991. Poland, despite having led in democratization, had to wait for CoE accession. 20 Quoted in “Czechoslovakia Becomes 25th Member of Council of Europe”, Associated Press, 21 February 1991. 21 Opinion on the application by Moldova for membership of the Council of Europe, Doc. 7331, 19 June 1995, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=6979&Language=EN 22 Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993), p. 82. 23 Cited by Catherine LaLumière, “The Council of Europe’s Place in the New European Architecture”, NATO Review (Vol. 40, 1992), p. 12. 24 Hans Winkler, “Democracy and Human Rights in Europe: A Survey of the Admission Practice of the Council of Europe”, Austrian Journal of Public and International Law (Vol. 47, 1995), p. 171. 25 Opinion on the honouring of obligations and commitments by member- states of the Council of Europe, Doc. 7294, 25 April 1995, available at: http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=6864 &Language=EN 26 Order No. 488 (1993) on the honouring of commitments entered into by new member-states, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ documents/adoptedtext/ta93/edir488.htm 27 Order 508 (1995) Honouring of obligations and commitments by member- states of the Council of Europe, available at: http://www. assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewPDF.asp?FileID=13711&Language=EN Notes 255

28 Tanja E.J. Kleinsorge, “The Parliamentary Assembly: Europe’s Motor and Conscience”, in Tanja E.J. Kleinsorge (ed.) The Council of Europe (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2010), p. 86. 29 On Romania see Sabrina P. Ramet and F. Peter Wagner, “Post-socialist Models of Rule in Central and Southeastern Europe”, in Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.), Central and Southeastern Europe since 1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 29–30. 30 See specifically, Jean Manas, “The Council of Europe’s Democracy Ideal and the Challenge of Ethno-National Strife”, in Abraham Chayes and Antonia Chayes (eds) Preventing Conflict in the Post-communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1996), p. 111. 31 Milada Anna Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage & Integration After Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 153. 32 Paul Ames, “Croatia’s Entry to Council Delayed”, The Independent, 15 May 1996. 33 Robert Stallaerts, Historical Dictionary of Croatia (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2010), p. 55. 34 ECRI Report on Croatia (fourth monitoring cycle), 12 September 2012, available at: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by- country/Croatia/HRV-CbC-IV-2012-045-ENG.pdf 35 One political monitoring official at the CoE suggested that in the 1990s the government of Belarus had no significant interest in membership and was also thus largely indifferent to these measures. Interview, Strasbourg July 2009. 36 See Situation in Belarus, Resolution 1671 (2009), available at: http://assembly.coe.int/mainf.asp?Link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta09/er es1671.htm 37 See Opinion No. 193 (1996) on Russia’s request for membership of the Council of Europe, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/documents/adoptedtext/ ta96/eopi193.htm 38 Sinikukka Saari, Promoting Democracy and Human Rights in Russia (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 40. 39 Tony Wood, Chechnya: The Case for Independence (London: Verso, 2007), p. 79. 40 Terry Davis, “Russia Deserves to Lead the Council of Europe”, The New York Times, 24 May 2006. 41 Richard Sakwa, “Russia and Europe: Whose Society?”, European Integration (Vol. 33, No. 2, March 2011), p. 198. 42 Huber, Decade, p. 102. 43 See paragraph 6 of Opinion No. 221 (2000) Armenia’s application for membership of the Council of Europe, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta00/EOPI221.htm; and paragraph 6 of Opinion No. 222 (2000) Azerbaijan’s application for membership of the Council of Europe, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ main.asp?Link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta00/eopi222.htm 256 Notes

44 Cited in Jean-Christophe Peuch, “Caucasus: Armenia and Azerbaijan Join Council of Europe”, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 25 January 2001, available at: http://www.rferl.org/articleprintview/1095594.html 45 Bill Bowring, “Russia and Human Rights: Incompatible Opposites?”, Göttingen Journal of International Law (Vol. 1, No. 2, 2009), p. 267. 46 See The Report to the Russian Government on the visit to the North Caucasian region of the Russian Federation carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) from 27 April to 6 May 2011, available at: http://www.cpt.coe.int/ documents/rus/2013-01-inf-eng.htm 47 Günter Winkler, The Council of Europe: Monitoring Procedures and the Constitutional Autonomy of the Member States (Vienna: Springer Verlag, 2006), p. 437. 48 Judith G. Kelley, Ethnic Politics in Europe: The Power of Norms and Incentives (revised edition) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 17. 49 Denis Huber, A Decade Which Made History: The Council of Europe, 1989–1999 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999), pp. 152–3. 50 The CoE website provides these on the country page of every member- state. 51 “Azerbaijan: Heed Council of Europe’s Call for Rights Reform: Political Prisoners a Key Concern Requiring Urgent Attention”, 23 January 2013, available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/01/23/azerbaijan-heed- council-europe-s-call-rights-reform, last accessed 12 February 2013. 52 “Azerbaijan”, in Freedom House, Nations in Transition 2012: Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012), p. 90. 53 Examples are given also in the book’s chapter on Chechnya and the CoE. 54 Bowring, “Russia and Human Rights”, p. 271. 55 Rudolf Bindig, “Russia’s Accession to the Council of Europe and the Fulfilment of its Obligations and Commitments”, in Katlijn Malfliet and Stephan Parmentier (eds) Russia and the Council of Europe: 10 Years After (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010), p. 39. 56 See Vladimir Socor, “Will PACE Elevate the Main Offender to its Presidency?” Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 4, No. 195, 22 October 2007). 57 A comprehensive study of CoE monitoring is provided in Gauthier De Beco (ed.) Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms of the Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012). 58 Examples of such thinking are given in Petaux, Democracy and Human Rights. 59 See Petaux, Democracy and Human Rights, p. 324. 60 Statement of the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation Alexander Alekseev to the Council of Europe at the 1124bis meeting of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (Strasbourg, 7 November 2011), available at: http://www.coe.mid.ru/doc/vistup_Posla_KMCE_en.htm 61 See Luc Van den Brande, “Democratic Reforms in Russia: The Role of the Monitoring Process of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe”, in Malfliet and Parmentier (eds) Russia and the Council of Europe, p. 45. Notes 257

62 P. Terrence, Hopmann, “The OSCE Role in Eurasian Security”, in James Sperling, Sean Kay and S. Victor Papacosma (eds) Limiting Institutions? The Challenge of Eurasian Security Governance (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p. 148. 63 A useful overview is Galbreath, The Organization, esp. p. 26. 64 These are succinctly explained in Galbreath, The Organization, esp. pp. 29–37. 65 These and other potent examples of US fears are given in Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), esp. p. 97. 66 For such a view, see Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 89. 67 John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin, 2011), p. 623. 68 For Soviet accounts, see Svetlana Savranskaya, “Unintended Consequences: Soviet Interests, Expectations and Reactions to the Helsinki Final Act”, in Oliver Bange and Gottfried Niedhart (eds) Helsinki 1975 and the Transformation of Europe, p. 180. 69 Snyder, Human Rights Activism, pp. 2–3 and as a central part of her book. 70 Frederick C. Barghoorn, Détente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: The Free Press, 1976), p. 131. 71 Cited in Joshua Rubenstein, Soviet Dissidents: Their Struggle for Human Rights (London: Wildwood House, 1981), pp. 249–50. 72 Dante B. Fascell, “Did Human Rights Survive Belgrade?”, Foreign Policy (Summer 1978), pp. 104–18. 73 William E. Griffith, “Foreword”, in John J. Maresca, To Helsinki: Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1973–75 (Durham, North Caucasus: Duke University Press, 1987), p. ix. 74 Bennett Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges: United States and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1991), p. 169. 75 George R. Urban, Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 135. 76 For such a view see Diana Chigas, with Elizabeth McClintock and Christophe Kamp, “Preventive Diplomacy and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe: Creating Incentives for Dialogue and Cooperation”, in Chayes and Chayes (eds) Preventing Conflict, p. 34. 77 Viktor Shein, “Implications of German Unification for European Security”, in Wells (ed.) p. 100. 78 Gates, From the Shadows, p. 89. 79 Erika B. Schlager, “A Hard Look at Compliance with ‘Soft’ Law: The Case of the CSCE”, in Dinah Shelton (ed.) Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Non-binding Norms in the International Legal System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 359. Emphasis in original. 80 Document of the Bonn Conference on Economic Co-operation in Europe Convened in accordance with the Relevant Provisions of the Concluding Document of the Vienna Meeting of the Conference of Security and Co- operation in Europe, available at: http://www.osce.org/eea/14081 258 Notes

81 Charter of Paris, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/39516 82 Speech by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev to the Second Summit of CSCE Heads of State or Government, Paris, 19–21 November 1990, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/16155 83 This language was used in the MC decision to admit Mongolia. See Decision No. 2/12Accession of Mongolia to the OSCE, MC.DEC/2/12, 21 November 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/97439 84 Statement by H.E. Mr. Rakhat Aliyev, First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs – Special Representative of the Republic of Kazakhstan on cooperation with the OSCE at the Conference “Challenges of Kazakhstan: regional and global inﬂuence” (US Chamber of Commerce, Washington D.C., 25 October 2005), SEC.DEL/257/05 31 October 2005. The Kazakhstan Permanent Representation to the OSCE requested that the document be distributed to all participating States. The statement was made in the context of Kazakhstan’s campaign for the OSCE Chairmanship, which is developed in Chapter 7. 85 Quoted in Michael Ochs, “Turkmenistan: The Quest for Stability and Control”, in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott (eds) Conﬂict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 346. 86 See Valery Perry, “The OSCE Suspension of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 9, 1998), pp. 44–54. 87 See Hopmann, “The OSCE Role”, p. 156. 88 Russian Statement by Mr. Sergey Lavrov Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, at the Nineteenth Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council Dublin, 6 December 2012, MC.DEL/21/12, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/97943 89 CSCE: The Conscience of the Continent: Remarks by Secretary of State James A. Baker III at the CSCE Conference on the Human Dimension, Copenhagen, Denmark, 6 June 1990. 90 Zelikow, in Wells (ed.) p. 116; emphasis added. For an analysis of US views on CSCE, see Alexis Heraclides, Helsinki-II Negotiations: The Making of the Pan-European Intergovernmental Organisation (London: Continuum, 1993), esp. p. 175. 91 Philip Zelikow, “The Masque of Institutions”, Survival (Vol. 38, No. 1, 1996), p. 11. 92 See Andrei Z. Kozyrev, “Russia and Human Rights”, Slavic Review (Vol. 51, No. 2, Summer, 1992), pp. 287–93, esp. p. 290. 93 Emanuel Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change: The OSCE’s Security Community-building Model”, in Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds) Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 119–60. 94 Marianne Hanson, “Democratization and Norm Creation in Europe”, in Adelphi Paper No. 284 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1994), p. 31. 95 See Mary Elise Sarotte, “Enlarging NATO, Expanding Confusion”, New York Times, 29 November 2009, who concludes that the US did not betray Moscow. Mark Kramer also, for example, insists that no pledge of NATO enlargement beyond Germany was made at that time. “The Myth Notes 259

of a No-NATO-Enlargement Pledge to Russia”, The Washington Quarterly (Vol. 32, No. 2, April 2009), pp. 39–61. 96 Piotr Switalski, “An Ally for the Central and Eastern European States”, Transition (30 June 1995), p. 29. 97 Heather Hurlburt, “Russia, the OSCE and European Security Architecture”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995), p. 5. 98 Vladislav Chernov, “View from Russia: The Expansion of NATO and the Future of the CFE Treaty”, Comparative Strategy (Vol. 14, No. 1, January–March 1995), p. 88. 99 Very useful compact analysis of the growing Russian disillusion with the OSCE are: Victor-Yves Ghebali, “Growing Pains at the OSCE: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Pan-European Expectations”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs (Vol. 18, No. 3, October 2005), pp. 375–88 and Wolfgang Zellner, “Russia and the OSCE: From High Hopes to Disillusionment”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs (Vol. 18, No. 3, October 2005), pp. 389–402. 100 Stephen F. Cohen, “Russia, Transition or Tragedy?”, in Michael Cox (ed.) Rethinking the Soviet Collapse: Sovietology, the Death of Communism and the New Russia (London and New York: Pinter, 1998), p. 242. 101 Heather F. Hurlburt, “The Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights: OSCE’s Response to the Challenges of Democratization”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 1995/96 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1996), p. 370. 102 Gregory Flynn and Henry Farrell, “Piecing Together the Democratic Peace: The CSCE, Norms, and the ‘Construction’ of Security in Post-Cold War Europe”, International Organization (Vol. 53, No. 3, June 1999), p. 507. 103 Interview conducted for and cited in David J. Galbreath and Joanne McEvoy, The European Minority Rights Regime: Towards a Theory of Regime Effectiveness (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011), pp. 136–7. 104 See Dov Lynch, What Russia Sees, p. 41. 105 See P. Terrence Hopmann, “The Future Impact of the OSCE: Business as Usual or Revitalization?”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2008 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009), p. 76. 106 Christer Pursiainen, “Impact of International Security Regimes of Russia’s Behavior: The Case of the OSCE and Chechnya”, in Ted Hopf (ed.) Understandings of Russian Foreign Policy (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), p. 136. 107 The 2013 OSCE Factsheet, available at: http://www.osce.org/ secretariat/35775, last accessed 20 February 2013. 108 Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, “The OSCE in Perspective: Six Years of Service, Six Questions and a Few Answers”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 23, No. 1, 2012), p. 37. 109 For the OSCE’s early years in the Balkans see Victor-Yves Ghebali and Daniel Warner (eds) The Operational Role of the OSCE in Southeastern Europe: Contributing to Regional Stability in the Balkans (Andover: Ashgate, 2001). 110 Olivier Roy, The New Central Asia (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007), p. viii. 260 Notes

111 Mark Palmer, Breaking the Real Axis of Evil: How to Oust the World’s Last Dictators by 2025 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littleﬁeld, 2005), p. 274. 112 As the book reiterated, not all post-Soviet states adopt the same contrarian positions to CoE and OSCE norms, but a core of some eight have. Early detections of regional pluralization of the post-Soviet space are given in Flemming Splidsboel Hansen, “GUUAM and the Future of CIS Military Cooperation”, European Security (Vol. 9, No. 4, 2000), pp. 92–110, and Taras Kuzio, “Promoting Geopolitical Pluralism in the CIS”, Problems of Post-Communism (Vol. 47, No. 3, May/June 2000), pp. 25–35. 113 An Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry ofﬁcial made clear that Azerbaijan chose not to sign documents with other post-Soviet states that called for OSCE “reform”. Interview, Baku, March 2008. Post-Soviet resistance to OSCE democratization is discussed in the next chapter. 114 Andrey Kelin, “Russia and the OSCE”, International Affairs (Moscow) (No. 1, 2013), pp. 89–99. 115 Compiled from the individual country reports in 2003 and 2012, available at: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/nations-transit/ 116 Compiled from http://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/cps/rde/xchg/ SID-3FCB03FA-AC2DA9C5/bst_engl/hs.xsl/307.htm 117 Andres Wenger and Vojtech Mastny, “New Perspectives on the Origins of the CSCE Process”, in Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny and Christian Nuenlist (eds) Origins of the European Security System: The Helsinki Process Revisited, 1965–75 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), p. 2. 118 For the revolutions, see Donnacha Ó Beacháin and Abel Polese (eds) The Colour Revolutions in the Former Soviet Republics: Successes and Failures (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010); for among the sources on the OSCE and the revolutions, see David J. Galbreath, “Putting the Colour into Revolutions? The OSCE and Civil Society in the Post-Soviet Region”, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics (Vol. 25, No. 2&3, 2009), pp. 161–80.

Chapter 3 International Election Observation Missions: The Deepest Objections and Greatest Resilience of Internal Conditionality?

1 The former is repeated by representatives of established democracies. The latter, which in various forms has also been reiterated, was made by Bruce George at the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly Annual Session in Astana, Kazakhstan, 29 June–3 July 2008. 2 Many Southeastern European states formally align themselves with EU statements in the OSCE supporting existing OSCE values and practices regarding election observation. The chapter makes a distinction later, with speciﬁc evidence, of differences among post-Soviet states on this issue. Election observation has also been recognized more widely as essential to successful democratization. See Eric C. Bjornlund, Beyond Free and Fair: Monitoring Elections and Building Democracy (Washington: Woodrow Notes 261

Wilson Center Press, 2004); Susan B. Hyde, The Pseudo-Democrat’s Dilemma: Why Election Monitoring Became an International Norm (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011); and Judith G. Kelley, Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012). 3 CSCE: The Conscience of the Continent: Remarks by Secretary of State James A. Baker III at the CSCE Conference on the Human Dimension (Copenhagen, Denmark, 6 June 1990). 4 Steny Hoyer, “The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Future of Europe: Speech Delivered at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars by Representative. Steny Hoyer, Co- Chairman, U.S. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, April 23, 1990”, in Samuel F. Wells (ed.) The Helsinki Process and the Future of Europe (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1992), p. 178. 5 See Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference of the Human Dimension of the CSCE (5–29 June 1990), at: http:// www.osce.org/documents/odihr/1990/06/13992_en.pdf 6 Charter of Paris for a New Europe, Paris 1990, available at: http://www. osce.org/mc/39516 7 Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, 3 October 1991, available at: http://www.osce.org/ odihr/elections/14310. See also the adamancy Russia’s ﬁrst post-Soviet Foreign Minister, Andrei Kozyrev, regarding the importance of the Moscow Declaration in, for example, “Russia and Human Rights”, Slavic Review (Vol. 51, No. 2, Summer 1992), pp. 287–93, esp. p. 290. 8 OSCE/ODIHR had not observed elections in Poland or Slovenia before they joined the EU. The ODIHR report for Poland’s elections in 2007 noted that domestic legislation made no provision for international observers. See OSCE/ODIHR, Republic of Poland. Pre-term Parliamentary Elections 21 October 2007. OSCE/ODIHR Needs Assessment Mission Report 4–5 October 2007, p. 1, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/poland/27919. Other cases of how ODIHR has dealt with certain post-Soviet countries is addressed at thematic points in the chapter. 9 Istanbul Declaration, 1999, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/ 39569?download=true 10 The political competition and the internal conditionality that resulted in Astana Summit under the Kazakhstan Chairmanship of the OSCE is evaluated in Chapter 8. 11 James E. Goodby, “The Diplomacy of Europe Whole and Free”, in Samuel F. Wells (ed.) The Helsinki Process and the Future of Europe (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1992), p. 59. 12 See Thomas Carothers, “The Observers Observed: The Rise of Election Monitors”, Journal of Democracy (Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997), p. 22. 13 An early analysis of the concept in Russia is featured in Timothy J. Colton and Michael McFaul, Popular Choice and Managed Democracy: The Russian Elections of 1999 and 2000 (Washington: Brookings Institution, 2003). 14 See Gerald Mitchell, “Election Observation is More than just a One Day Event”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the 262 Notes

University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 1995/96 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1996), p. 199. 15 Ambassador Audrey Glover, quoted in RFE/RL, “ODIHR On Azerbaijan Vote: Not Up to Us to Say Whether Election was Democratic”, 9 November 2010, http://www.rferl.org/content/ODIHR_On_Azerbaijan_ Vote_It_Is_Not_Part_Of_Our_Mandate_To_Say_There_Is_Fraud/2215406. html 16 Jean-Christophe Peuch, “Russia and Kazakhstan Strive to Put OSCE Democratization Arm in a Sling”, Eurasianet.org, 13 July 2008, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav071408.shtml 17 While not stating the sources of disagreement, he declared: “I have insisted on an orthodox implementation of the 1997 Co-operation Agreement. Genuine cooperation with the ODIHR adds value for OSCE election observations. But this cooperation must be based on an honest implementation of the Agreement. The Parliamentary Assembly has adhered to this agreement in letter and spirit for ﬁfteen years. Unfortunately, the ODIHR has not. Our opinion, therefore, is that this agreement is no longer valid and is no longer operative”. President Riccardo Migliori, “Remarks to the Ministerial Council”, 6 December 2012, Dublin. 18 EU statement in response to the report by the Director of ODIHR, H.E. ∨ ∨ Ambassador Janez Lenarcic, PC.DEL/996/12, 8 November 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/97151 19 Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, “The OSCE in Perspective: Six Years of Service, Six Questions and a Few Answers”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 23, No. 1, 2012), p. 39. 20 “Committee Given Mandate to Negotiate Election Observation Co-operation” (press release), 22 February 2013, available at: http:// www.oscepa.org/news-a-media/press-releases/1216-eom-mandate 21 Frank Evers, “OSCE Election Observation: Commitments, Methodology, Criticism”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2009 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2010), p. 246. 22 Quoted in RFE/RL Newsline, 7:174, Part I, 12 September 2003. 23 See RFE/RL Caucasus Report, 3:26, 29 June 2000, and 3:29, 20 July 2000. 24 Personal observations in Azerbaijan, November 2005. The day after the elections an Azerbaijani newspaper boldly ran a headline that quoted Council of Europe ofﬁcials who were part of the IEOM: “In several electoral districts the election results should be annulled”, Zerkalo, 8 November 2005. 25 See Vladimir D. Shkolnikov, “Russia and the OSCE Human Dimension: A Critical Assessment”, The EU-Russia Centre Review (No. 12, November 2009). 26 See the assessment in Sarah E. Mendelson, “Democracy Assistance and Political Transition in Russia: Between Success and Failure”, International Security (Vol. 25, No. 4, Spring 2001), p. 104. 27 “Challenges to OSCE Election Commitments”, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr-elections/13765.html Notes 263

28 The US State Department annual Human Rights reports, for example, routinely cited ODIHR reports. 29 Food-for-Thought Paper by Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia, on the Issue of Reform of the OSCE Field Activities, 4 September 2003, PC.DEL/986/03. The document is not publicly available. 30 Evers accords considerable importance to the Russian reaction to the 2003 ODIHR report. See Evers, “OSCE Election Observation”. 31 Statement by Mr. Alexander Yu. Alekseyev, Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation at the Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 29 January 2004, PC.DEL/63/04, 2 February 2004, available at: http://www.osce. org/pc/20761 32 See Walter Siegl, “The Issue of the Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights”, in Daniel Warner (ed.) The OSCE at a Turning Point (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 2007), p. 143. 33 An English translation of the statement is available at: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Information and Press Department, Statement by CIS Member Countries on the State of Affairs in the OSCE, Moscow, 3 July 2004, at: http://www.ln.mid.ru/ brp_4.nsf/0/3be4758c05585a09c3256ecc00255a52?OpenDocument. For contemporary reaction, see Eugen Tomiuc, “OSCE: Several CIS States Rebuke Democracy Watchdog”, RFE/RL, 9 July 2004 at: http://www. rferl.org/featuresarticle/2004/07/7335a25f-6b7c-41aa-bc8f- 94d973103166.html 34 Arie Bloed, with a supplement by Erika Schlager, “CIS Presidents Attack the Functioning of the OSCE”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 15, 2004), p. 220. 35 Appeal of the CIS Members States to the OSCE Partners, Astana, September 15 2004, text in English available at: http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/ brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/70f610ccd5b876ccc325 6f100043db72!OpenDocument 36 See Pál Dunay, “Appendix 1A. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: Constant Adaptation but Enduring Problems”, in SIPRI Yearbook 2005 (Stockholm: SIPRI, 2005), p. 78. 37 Sergei Lavrov, “Reform Will Enhance the OSCE’s Relevance”, Financial Times (29 November 2004), p. 19. 38 Statement by the Delegation of the Russian Federation, MC(12).JOUR/2, Ministerial Council Annex 9, 7 December 2004, available at: http:// www.osce.org/mc/38830 39 Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the OSCE Statement by Mr. Alexey N. Borodavkin, Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation, at the Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council, 13 January 2005. In response to the statement by the OSCE Chairman-in-Ofﬁce and Minister for Foreign Affairs of Slovenia, Mr. Dimitrij Rupel, at http://www.osce.org/documents/pc/ 2005/01/4086_en.pdf 40 Roland Eggleston, “OSCE: Election Experts Debate Russian Criticism”, RFE/RL, 22 April 2005. 41 Quoted in Jeffrey Donovan, “Russia: OSCE Faces Crisis Over Budget – and Values – with Moscow”, RFE/RL, 29 March 2005. 42 Cited in Russia & CIS Business and Financial Newswire, 23 January 2006. 264 Notes

43 Cited at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ hi/europe/4129547.stm, 28 December 2004. 44 See Peter Burnell, ‘Political Strategies of External Support for Democratization”, Foreign Policy Analysis (Vol. 1, No. 3, 2005), pp. 361–84. For commentary on hostile recent reactions to US democracy promotion, see Thomas Carothers, “The Backlash Against Democracy Promotion”, Foreign Affairs (Vol. 85, No. 2, March/April 2006), pp. 55–65. 45 Vladimir Socor, “Moscow Criticizes EU and OSCE over Kyrgyz Election”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 2, No. 59, 25 March 2005). 46 Dunay, OSCE in Crisis, p. 58. 47 “Putin Aide Sees ‘Color Revolutions’ as Threat to Russian Sovereignty”, RFE/RL Newsline (Vol. 10, No. 41, Part I, 6 March 2006). 48 Charles H. Fairbanks, Jr., “Georgia’s Rose Revolution”, Journal of Democracy (Vol. 15, No. 2, April 2004), p. 115. 49 Stephen F. Jones, “The Rose Revolution: A Revolution Without Revolutionaries?”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs (Vol. 19, No. 1, March 2006), p. 36. 50 See Han van Zon, “Why the Orange Revolution Succeeded”, Perspectives on European Politics and Society (Vol. 6, No. 3, 2005), pp. 373–402. 51 Paul D’Anieri, “What Has Changed in Ukrainian Politics?: Assessing the Implications of the Orange Revolution”, Problems of Post-Communism (Vol. 52, No. 5, September–October 2005), p. 87. 52 US Agency for International Development, Rising Democracy, September 2005, p. 9. 53 Paul Kubicek, “The European Union and Democratization in Ukraine”, Communist and Post-Communist Studies (Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2005), p. 286. 54 Address by OSCE Chairman-in-Ofﬁce Dimitrij Rupel at the 540th Plenary Meeting of the Permanent Council, p. 4. 55 Jeff Goldstein “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship of the OSCE: Challenges and Opportunities in the Human Dimension”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), p. 63. 56 Christopher H. Smith, “Democracy in the CIS”, Washington Times, 12 January 2005. 57 See for example, “OSCE Should Give Up Subjectivity”, RIA Novosti, 15 February 2005. 58 ITAR-TASS, 25 March 2005. 59 ITAR-TASS, 30 March 2005. 60 Interfax, 21 July 2005. 61 Fred Weir, “Revolution Echoes Around Russia: Kyrgyzstan’s People-Power Revolt Spurs Others Protests Against Corruption Throughout the Region”, Christian Science Monitor, 30 March 2005. 62 Thomas Carothers, “The Backlash Against Democracy Promotion”, Foreign Affairs (Vol. 85, No. 2, March–April 2006), pp. 55–68. 63 “Russian General Talks NATO, Nuclear, Missile Proliferation”, RIA Novosti, 1 December 2005, http://en.rian.ru/russia/20051201/42284792. html 64 See “Belarus KGB Head Warns of Foreign-Backed Coup”, RFE/RL Newsline (Vol. 10, No. 49, Part II), 16 March 2006. Notes 265

65 Christian Strohal, “Consolidation and New Challenge: The ODIHR in the OSCE’s 30th Anniversary Year”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2005 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006), p. 304. 66 Richard Sakwa, The Crisis of Russian Democracy: The Dual State, Factionalism and the Medvedev Succession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 216. 67 Cited for example in Clifford J. Levy, “Putin Says U.S. is Meddling in Russian Election”, New York Times, 26 November 2007. 68 Portuguese Presidency of the Council of the European Union 689th Meeting of the Permanent Council 22nd November 2007, EU Presidency Statement on the OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission to the Russian Duma Elections 2 December 2007, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/29072 69 A summation is provided in Looking Forward to the Medvedev Administration in Russia. Daniel Fried, Assistant Secretary for European and Eurasian Affairs. Testimony Before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Washington, DC, 8 May 2008, available at: http://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/104496.htm 70 See, for example, “ODIHR Accepts Russian Rules”, Russia Today, 12 October, 2011, available at: http://rt.com/politics/odihr-accepts- russian-rules-651/ 71 Cited in Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1 February 2008, in Sakwa, Crisis of Russian, p. 291. 72 Van den Brande, “Democratic Reforms in Russia”, p. 49. 73 Vladimir Socor, “Kazakhstan Poised to Step into the OSCE’s Chairmanship”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 117, 18 June 2009). 74 “OSCE/ODIHR Regrets that Restrictions Force Cancellation of Election Observation Mission to Russian Federation” (press release), Warsaw, 7 February 2008, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/49438 75 Personal discussions during the 2011 elections in Kyrgyzstan. 76 Eltje Alderhold, “Kazakhstan’s Upcoming OSCE Chairmanship: Election Related Issues”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, 2009), p. 33. 77 “Mikhail Kamynin, the Spokesman of Russia’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Answers Questions from RIA Novosti Regarding the Assessments of the March 19, 2006 Belarusian Presidential Election by the Observation Mission of the OSCE Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)”, 21 March 2006. 78 “Russian MFA Information and Press Department Commentary Regarding the ‘Revoking the Accreditation’ of a Russian Member of the OSCE/ODIHR Mission of International Observers of the Presidential Elections in Belarus”, 26 March 2006. 79 “CEC: ODIHR OSCE Election Evaluation Biased”, on 19 March 2006. 80 Ukrayinska pravda, 22 November 2004, cited in Taras Kuzio, “International Community Denounces Mass Election Fraud in Ukraine as CIS Upholds Ofﬁcial Results”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 1, No. 134, 24 November 2004). 81 “CIS Observers Find Violations in Nomination of Belarussian Candidates”, Interfax, 20 March 2006. 266 Notes

82 Cited in Interfax, 4 September 2011. 83 “CIS Observer: Belarusian Presidential Election Well-Arranged”, Belarus Telegraph Agency, 20 March 2006. 84 Quoted in “Minsk Recommends Reform of OSCE Election Monitoring Practices”, Interfax 23 March 2006. 85 Statement by Mr. Valery Voronetsky, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Belarus to the OSCE, at the Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 8 March 2012 Regarding the presidential elections in the Russian Federation, PC.DEL/178/12, 8 March 2012, available at: http://www. osce.org/pc/88892 86 Quoted in, for example, Roman Kupchinsky, “CIS: Monitoring the Election Monitors”, RFE/RL, 2 April 2005. 87 See, for example, Daniel Dombey, “Russia-US Clash Highlights Tensions”, Financial Times, 7 December 2005. 88 See RFE/RL Newsline, 15 March 2005 and Kupchinsky, “CIS: Monitoring the Election Monitors”. 89 See for example, ITAR-TASS, “CIS to Send 271 Observers to Monitor Parliamentary Elections in Ukraine”, 26 October 2012, available at: http://www.itar-tass.com/en/c32/556425.html; “CIS Observation Mission for Elections in Ukraine to Consist of 250 Experts”, Kyiv Post, 11 October 2012, available at: http://www.kyivpost.com/content/politics/cis-observation-mission-for-elections-in-ukraine-to-consist-of-250-experts- 314227.html 90 “CIS Observers Outraged by Deportation of Colleagues”, Moldova Azi, 7 March 2005, at http://www.azi.md/news?ID=33324 91 Statement by H.E. Borys Tarasyuk, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Ukraine on behalf of Georgia, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine at the 13-th Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council (Ljubljana, 6 December 2005), MC.DEL/62/05, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/17313 92 Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia on the Invitation of International Observers for the October 2012 Parliamentary Elections, last accessed 26 April 2012, printed copy retained. 93 Shkolnikov, “Russia and the OSCE Human Dimension”, p. 21. 94 “OSCE/ODIHR Will Not Deploy Observation Mission to Turkmenistan Elections”, OSCE/ODIHR press release, 9 December 1999, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/52274 95 Dunay, OSCE in Crisis, p. 56. 96 “OSCE/ODIHR Limited Election Assessment Mission. Republic of Uzbekistan. Election of Deputies to the Oliy Majlis (Parliament). 5 December 1999. Preliminary Statement”, 6 December 1999. 97 Hrair Balian, “Ten Years of International Election Assistance and Observation”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 12, No. 3, 2001), p. 203. 98 See, for example, Richard Rose and Neil Munro, Elections Without Order: Russia’s Challenge to Vladimir Putin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 58. 99 See Report of the ODIHR, MC.DEL/19/06, 5 December 2006, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/23209 100 De Brichambaut, “OSCE in Perspective”, p. 38. Notes 267

101 Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting “Electoral Standards and Commitments” Final Report, 15–16 July 2004, PC.SHDM.GAL/11/04, 28 October 2004, p. 44, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/33988 102 Victor-Yves Ghebali, “Debating Election and Election Monitoring Standards at the OSCE: Between Technical Needs and Politicization”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2005 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006), p. 229. 103 See Max Bader, “Trends and Patterns in Electoral Malpractice in Post- Soviet Eurasia”, Journal of Eurasian Studies (Vol. 3, No. 1, 2012), p. 56. A former senior OSCE official posted in Central Asia was also adamant that future ODIHR IEOMs be made conditional on adoption of the Office’s recommendations (Communications to the author). 104 Republic of Uzbekistan Parliamentary Elections 27 December 2009. OSCE/ODIHR Needs Assessment Mission Report, esp. p. 2, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/uzbekistan/40136 105 Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting “Electoral Standards and Commitments” Final Report, 15–16 July 2004, PC.SHDM.GAL/11/04, 28 October 2004 available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/33988 106 Wolfgang Zellner, “Back to Reality: The 2011 Vilnius Ministerial Council Meeting”, Human Rights and Security (Vol. 23, No. 1, 2012), p. 7. 107 Interviews 2008, 2011 and 2012. 108 Quote in C.J. Chivers, “Letter From Moscow: Post-Soviet Voting, and Dogging the Watchdogs”, New York Times, 14 December 2005. 109 Interview, June 2012. 110 This has been stressed in meetings at ODIHR in 2009 and 2012. 111 As reported in Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting “Electoral Standards and Commitments” Final Report (Vienna, 15–16 July 2004), p. 5, available at: www.osce.org/odihr/elections/33988 112 Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Election Observation Handbook (sixth edition) (Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR, 2010), p. 8. 113 As but one of many examples, see “we and other countries have vigor- ously supported [ODIHR] as the international ‘gold standard’ in election observation”. Sean McCormack, Spokesman, US State Department, Washington, DC, “Russia: Cancellation of ODIHR Russian Election Observation Mission” (press statement), 16 November 2007. 114 See OSCE/ODIHR election assessment mission report on the implementation of election reforms during general elections in the United States of America, 5 November 2002, released 15 January 2003. 115 In reporting the international observation of British postal voting, The Times made direct reference to the ODIHR’s observation of the Ukrainian re-run elections and entitled the article (somewhat selectively) as “Observers from Ukraine Will Fly to Scrutinise Postal Voting”, The Times, 16 April 2005, p. 33. 116 “Statement by Press Secretary of the Belarusian Foreign Ministry Andrei Popov with Regard to the Statements by European Commissioner Benita Ferrero-Waldner and President of the European Parliament Josef Borrel Fontelles of 16 March 2006”, 17 March 2006. 268 Notes

∨ ∨ 117 Address by Ambassador Janez Lenarcic, Director of the OSCE Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) at the 944th Meeting of the Permanent Council Vienna, 14 March 2013, p. 2, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/100092 118 Jens-Hagen Eschenbächer and Bernhard Knoll, “Observing Elections in ‘Long-Standing Democracies’: Added Value or Waste of Money?”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2010 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2011), p. 263. 119 For such a view, see Vladimir D. Shkolnikov, “Russia and the OSCE Human Dimension: A Critical Assessment”, The EU-Russia Centre Review (No. 12, November 2009), p. 28. 120 The 2011 Russian Parliamentary elections were observed and the OSCE/ODIHR thanked the Russian CEC and MFA for their cooperation. A total 325 OSCE-related observers, including parliamentarians, came to the Russian Federation. See OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission, Russian Federation Elections to the State Duma 4 December 2011 Final Report (Warsaw: ODIHR, 12 January 2012), esp. p. 3, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/86959 121 See ODIHR press release, “ODIHR Sends Assessment Team for Canadian Elections”, at: http://www.osce.org/odihr-elections/item_1_17731.html 122 Interviews at ODIHR in 2009 and 2012. 123 Cited in Alexander Gabuyev, “Russia Withdraws from Observation: Russia Wants the OSCE to Change Its Election Monitoring Procedures”, in What the Papers Say, citing the original as Kommersant, 27 October 2007, in LexisNexis, loaded 30 October 2007. 124 Lavrov said: “Their [Russian STO] participation in that monitoring mission has shown that the ODIHR is non-transparent and secretive, working in isolation from the OSCE’s collective administrative agencies – i.e., its member states. This leads to biased, politically motivated evalua- tions that are made purportedly on behalf of the OSCE but are not coordinated with the organization’s participants”, meaning the participating States. Quoted in “Russian Foreign Minister Slams OSCE’s Double Standards”, RIA Novosti, 3 December 2005. 125 See Shkolnikov, “Russia and the OSCE Human Dimension”, p. 27. 126 Of the 44 LTOs for the 2012 US general elections, three were from Kazakhstan and none from the Russian Federation. 127 See Chapter 7. 128 Limited Election Observation Mission. United States of America – General Elections, 6 November 2012. Statement of Preliminary Findings and Conclusions (7 November 2012), p. 2, available at: http:// www.osce.org/odihr/elections/96960. The report did note that domestic observers were active, providing “an important layer of transparency and conﬁdence”. 129 “After Texas, Iowa Warns International Vote Monitors”, RIA Novosti, 1 November 2012. 130 Richard Solash, “OSCE Press Conference Turns Feisty as Russia Criticizes U.S. Election Observation”, RFE/RL, 8 November 2012. 131 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus, Human Rights Violations in Certain Countries in 2012 (Minsk, 2012), p. 48, available at: Notes 269

http://www.mfa.gov.by/upload/Report2012_eng.pdf. No CIS member- state was reviewed in the report. 132 See comments by Andrey Savinykh in “Foreign Ministry Defends Closure of OSCE Ofﬁce in Minsk”, Belarus News, 4 October 2012, available at: http://naviny.by/rubrics/english/2012/10/04/ic_articles_259_179443/, last accessed 10 March 2013. 133 James Goodby, “Mandate for Change: The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe”, Helsingin Sanomat, 2 August 2005.

Chapter 4 The Council of Europe and the Abolition of the Death Penalty: From External to Internal Conditionality and the Success of Norms over Interests

1 See “Explanatory memorandum by Mrs Wohlwend, Rapporteur”, in Doc. 9316, 15 January 2002, Draft Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights concerning the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances, Report, Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp? FileID=9595&Language=EN 2 See, for example, PACE President calls on President Kaczy_ski to retract his proposal concerning reintroduction of the death penalty (press release), Strasbourg, 3 August 2006, available at: https://wcd.coe.int/ ViewDoc.jsp?id=1025909 3 Resolution 1807 (2011), The death penalty in Council of Europe member and observer states: a violation of human rights, 14 April 2011, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/XRef/X2H-DW-XSL.asp?fileid=17986&lang=EN 4 See, for example, ATA, 3 March 1999, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service [hereafter FBIS], 5 March 1999. 5 PACE Resolution 1187 (1999) “Europe: A Death Penalty-Free Continent”, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/ AdoptedText/ta99/ERES1187.htm 6 Recommendation 1760 (2006): Position of the Parliamentary Assembly as regards the Council of Europe member and observer states which have not abolished the death penalty, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/ XrefViewHTML.asp?FileId=17462&Language=EN 7 Terance D. Miethe, Hong Lu and Gini R. Deibert, “Cross-National Variability in Capital Punishment: Exploring the Sociopolitical Sources of Its Differential Legal Status”, International Criminal Justice Review (Vol. 15, No. 2, November 2005), pp. 115–30. 8 Beth A. Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 191. 9 See Second Summit of Heads of State and Government (Strasbourg, 10–11 October 1997), Final Declaration and Action Plan, available at: https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=593437&Site=CM 10 The Council of Europe’s definition of abolitionist is defined by the terms of Protocol No. 6. For an alternative source, which conforms to the definitions used here, see Amnesty International at: http://www. amnesty.organization/ailib/intcam/dp/abrelist.htm#2 270 Notes

11 See section 17 of the Document of the 1990 Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE. 12 Bruno Haller, An Assembly for Europe: The Council of Europe’s Parliamentary Assembly 1949–1989 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2007), p. 97. 13 EU Policy on the Death penalty, available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/ human_rights/adp/index_en.htm 14 Robert Fico, “The Death penalty in Slovakia”, in Council of Europe, The Death Penalty: Abolition in Europe, p. 121. 15 ITAR-TASS, 31 March 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 1 April 1997. 16 Bakinsky Rabochiy, 7 May 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 29 May 1998. 17 Bakinsky Rabochiy, 3 March 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 7 March 1998. 18 Radiostantsyia Ekho Moskvy, 1 February 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 1 February 1997. 19 Interfax, 11 November 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 12 November 1997. 20 Radiostantsyia Ekho Moskvy, 1 February 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 1 February 1997. 21 Reuters, 4 February 1998. 22 ITAR-TASS, 11 August 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 13 August 1997. 23 ITAR-TASS, 8 April 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 23 April 1997. 24 RFE/RL Newsline No. 77, 21 July 1997. 25 Reuters, 31 January 2000. 26 Reuters, 1 June 1999. 27 Statement by Ambassador Erkin Kasimov, Head of the Delegation of the Republic of Tajikistan, at the 510th Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council, 8 June 2004, PC/DEL/470/04, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/32496 28 Reuters, 5 March 1999. 29 As an example of major international news reporting, see for example, Ibraim Nurakun-uulu, “Kyrgyzstan Mulls Return to Death Penalty”, BBC, 16 October 2009, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia- paciﬁc/8275345.stm 30 James Q. Whitman, Harsh Justice: Criminal Punishment and the Widening Divide between America and Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 120. 31 Jon Yorke, “Sovereignty and the Unnecessary Penalty of Death: European and United States Perspectives”, in Austin Sarat and Jürgen Martschukat (eds) Is the Death Penalty Dying?: European and American Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 267. 32 William A. Schabas, The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 3. 33 This is discussed below, see pp. 121–2. 34 Eurasia.net, “President of Georgia Regrets Abolition of Death Penalty”, Eurasia.net, 30 August 2003, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/ departments/rights/articles/eav083103.shtml 35 ITAR-TASS, 11 April 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 12 April 1998. 36 See his comments at: http://telegraf.by/en/2012/05/lukashenko-sam-ya- nikogda-ne-otmenyu-smertnuyu-kazn, last accessed 12 January 2013. Notes 271

37 See, for example, ITAR-TASS, 27 January and 3 February 1999, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 28 January and 4 February 1999. 38 Interfax, 16 September 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 17 September 1997. 39 ATA, 15 April 1998, in FBIS, East Europe, 17 April 1998. 40 On the jury and the death penalty, see Austin Sarat, When the State Kills: Capital Punishment and the American Condition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), ch. 5. 41 James Q. Whitman, Harsh Justice: Criminal Punishment and the Widening Divide between America and Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). 42 Bakinsky Rabochiy, 7 May 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 29 May 1998. 43 Narodnoye Slovo, 23 July 1996, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 23 September 1996. 44 ITAR-TASS, 11 April 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 12 April 1998. 45 Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 29 March 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 8 April 1997. 46 See Stephen White, Understanding Russian Politics (2nd revised edition) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 193. 47 RFE/RL Newsline Vol. 2, No. 238, 11 December 1997. 48 TASR, 24 April 1998, in FBIS, East Europe, 27 April 1998. 49 Reuters, 4 February 1998. 50 Interfax, 5 February 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 7 February 1997. 51 ITAR-TASS, 8 April 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 23 April 1997. 52 The Ukrainian Weekly, 14 December 1997. 53 ATA, 20 August 18 March 1998, in FBIS, East Europe, 20 March 1998. 54 Kitty McKinsey, “Russia Says It’s Too Early to Abolish Death Penalty”, RFE/RL, 27 June 1996. 55 Holos Ukryiny, 9 August 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 20 August 1997. 56 Interfax, 11 June 1998, in FBIS, 12 June 1998. 57 Donbass (Donetsk), 25 September 1996, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 31 October 1996. 58 Ukrayina Moloda, 23 May 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 5 June 1997. 59 Radiostantsyia Ekho Moskvy, 3 June 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 3 June 1998. 60 Mark Franchetti, “Living Hell of Russia’s Death Row”, The Sunday Times, 6 August 2000. 61 Renate Wohlwend, “The Role of the Council of Europe’s Parliamentary Assembly”, in Council of Europe, Death Penalty: Beyond Abolition (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2004), p. 69. 62 See Resolution 1179 (1999), Honouring of obligations and commitments by Ukraine, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/documents/adoptedtext/ ta99/eres1179.htm 63 Holos Ukryiny, 8 May 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 19 May 1997. 64 Stuart Parrott, “Ukraine: Amnesty International Condemns Secret Executions”, RFE/RL, 3 December 1996. 65 AFP, 30 April 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 1 May 1997. 66 Ukrayina Moloda, 26 December 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 13 January 1998. 67 Seen statements in the annual OSCE review of the death penalty which declares: “In violation of paragraph 17.8 of the Copenhagen Document, 272 Notes

Kazakhstan does not disclose statistics on capital punishment”. The Death Penalty in the OSCE Area: A Survey, January 1998–June 1999, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Review Conference, September 1999 ODIHR Background Paper 1999/1, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/16649 68 The Ukrainian Weekly, 14 December 1997. 69 See Anatoly Pristavkin, “A Vast Place of Execution – The Death Penalty in Russia”, in Tanja Kleinsorge and Barbara Zatlokal (eds) Death Penalty: Abolition in Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1999), pp. 129–30. 70 See for example, Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs, Death is Not Justice: The Council of Europe and the Death Penalty (3rd edition) (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2010), p. 17. 71 Holos Ukryiny, 8 May 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 19 May 1997. 72 Holos Ukryiny, 9 August 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 20 August 1997. 73 Rossiyskiye Vesti, 29 April 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 31 May 1997. 74 ITAR-TASS, 11 April 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 12 April 1998. 75 Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus No. 21 “On Urgent Measures to Combat Terrorism and Other Especially Dangerous Violent Crimes”, Zvyazda, 29 October 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 30 October 1997. The reference is to Section 2. 76 “Belarus has no Intention of Abolishing Death Penalty – Prosecutor General’s Ofﬁce”, as summarized in Russia & CIS Business and Financial Newswire, 15 February 2013. 77 ATA, 12 December 1997, in FBIS, East Europe, 16 December 1997. 78 ATA, 20 August 1998, in FBIS, East Europe, 24 August 1998. 79 Bakinsky Rabochiy, 7 May 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 29 May 1998. 80 ITAR-TASS, 31 March 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 1 April 1997. 81 Interfax, 11 November 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 12 November 1997. 82 Moskovskiy Komsomolets, 5 September 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 10 September 1997. 83 Discussion with the chairman of the National Commission for Human Rights, Abkhazia, September 1999. 84 See Position of the Parliamentary Assembly as regards the Council of Europe member and observer states which have not abolished the death penalty Recommendation 1760 (2006), available at: http://www.coe.al/index.php? faqe=content/detail&id=201&mnu=139&lng=en: The Assembly also notes with concern that the separatist territories, not recognised internationally, of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and the Dnestr Moldavian Republic do not observe the abolition of the death penalty by Georgia and Moldova respectively. The Assembly believes that the death penalty should be abolished in these territories and that the sentences of all prisoners currently on death row in Abkhazia and the Dnestr Moldavian Republic should be immediately commuted to terms of imprisonment in order to put an end to the cruel and inhuman treatment of those who have been kept on death row for years in a state of uncertainty as to their ultimate fate. 85 Eurasia.net, “President of Georgia Regrets Abolition of Death Penalty”. Notes 273

86 See Points 14 and 15 of Resolution 1179 (1999), Honouring of obligations and commitments by Ukraine, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ documents/adoptedtext/ta99/eres1179.htm, and Resolution 1194 (1999), Honouring of obligations and commitments by Ukraine, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta99/ ERES1194.htm 87 Doc. 8945, Freedom of expression and the functioning of parliamentary democracy in Ukraine (23 January 2001), available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=9166&Language=EN 88 Bill Bowring, “Russia and the Death Penalty”, in Yorke (ed.) The Right to Life and the Value of Life, p. 281. 89 Robert Sharlet, “In Search of the Rule of Law”, in Stephen White, Zvi Gitelman and Richard Sakwa (eds) Developments in Russian Politics, p. 137. This assessment can certainly be challenged but it provides an example of thinking that Russia’s complied with international human rights norms on the death penalty. 90 Radio Tallinn, in FBIS 6 February 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 10 February 1997. 91 Report on the honouring of obligations and commitments by Estonia (Doc. 7715), 20 December 1996, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=7651&Language=EN 92 Reuters, 18 March 1998. 93 ATA, 3 March 1999, in FBIS, 5 March 1999. 94 See, for example the reporting by the BBC, “Albania Abolishes Death Penalty”, 10 December 1999. 95 See The Death Penalty in the OSCE Area 2009 (Warsaw: ODIHR, 2009), p. 8. 96 The Death Penalty in the OSCE Area 2012 (Warsaw: ODIHR, 2012), p. 8. 97 Directorate General of Human Rights, Death is Not Justice: The Council of Europe and the Death Penalty (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2001), p. 10. 98 TASR, 24 April 1998, in FBIS, East Europe, 27 April 1998. 99 See the account in the PACE report, Abolition of the Death Penalty in Europe (Report), Doc. 7589, 25 June 1996, available at: http:// assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=7571&Language= EN#Footnote1 100 See the calculations made in Stanislaw Frankowski, “Post-Communist Europe”, in Peter Hodgkinson and Andrew Rutherford (eds) Capital Punishment: Global Issues and Prospects (London: Waterside Press, 1996), pp. 215–42. 101 Agata Fijalkowski, “The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Central and Eastern Europe”, Tilburg Law Review (Vol. 9, No. 1, January 2001), p. 76. 102 Central Europe Online, Daily Brief, 17 April 2000. 103 Obituaries following the plane crash near Smolensk that killed him and other leading Poles chose to make reference to his death penalty restora- tionism. See, for example, “Lech Kaczynski: Polish President and Co- founder of the Law and Justice Party”, The Independent (online), 13 April 2010, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/lech-kaczynski- polish-president-and-cofounder-of-the-law-and-justice-party- 1942939.html 274 Notes

104 See Aleksandra Gliszczyńska, Katarzyna Se,kowska and Roman Wieruszewski, “The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Poland”, The Death Penalty in OSCE Area 2006 (Warsaw: ODIHR, 2006), pp. 23–4. 105 PACE President calls on President Kaczyński to retract his proposal concerning reintroduction of the death penalty (press release), Strasbourg, 3 August 2006, available at: https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1025909 106 “Polish Prime Minister Overviews Domestic Scene, Reforms, Foreign Ties”, Interview with Polish Prime Minister Jaroslaw Kaczyński, by Janina Paradowska: “This Is and Will Be a Constant Battle”, Polityka, 31 August 2006, in Lexis. 107 Council of Europe, Abolition of the Death Penalty (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2004), p. 106. 108 “Council of Europe Responds to Threats to Resume Executions”, Death Penalty News (March 1999), available at: http://www.amnesty.org/ fr/library/asset/ACT53/002/1999/fr/0c263882-e282-11dd-abce- 695d390cceae/act530021999en.html 109 Albania warned not to use the death penalty (press release), Council of Europe, 20 January 1999. 110 Balkan Insight, “Albania PM Excludes Return of Death Penalty”, 21 March 2013. 111 The account is given by the abolitionist Serhiy Holovatiy, in an abolitionist book published by the CoE. See his “Abolishing the Death Penalty in Ukraine – Difficulties Real or Imagined?”, Council of Europe, The Death Penalty: Abolition in Europe, p. 141. 112 Holovatiy, “Abolishing the Death Penalty in Ukraine”, p. 144. 113 Interfax, 5 February 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 7 February 1997. 114 RFE/RL Newsline, 15 May 1997. 115 Interfax, 24 December 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 29 December 1997. 116 Ukrayina Moloda, 26 December 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 13 January 1998. 117 Prague Post, 6 November 1995. 118 Intelnews, 4 February 1998, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 5 February 1998. 119 James Meek, “‘Terminator’ Faces Death Sentence”, The Guardian, 1 April 1999. 120 ITV Nightly News (London), 2 February 1999. 121 “Killer Unmoved By Call for Execution”, The Herald, 1 April 1999. 122 See the statement of 5 January 2000 at: http://www.coe.fr/cp/2000/ 2a%282000%29.htm 123 Ben Partridge, “Amnesty Criticizes Kuchma Over Death Penalty”, RFE/RL Newsline, 27 November 1998. 124 “Should Ukraine Reinstate Death Penalty for Murder?”, Kyivpost, 30 March 2013, http://www.kyivpost.com/opinion/op-ed/should-ukraine- reinstate-death-penalty-for-murder-125174.html 125 “Ukraine has Abolished the Death Penalty in Line with Council of Europe Requirements”. BBC News, “Death Penalty Abolished in Ukraine”, 22 March 2000, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ world/europe/686986.stm 126 Anatoly Pristavkin, “A Vast Place of Execution – The Death Penalty in Russia”, in Tanja Kleinsorge and Barbara Zatlokal (eds) Death Penalty: Abolition in Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1999), p. 137. Notes 275

127 See, for example, Frances Nethercott, Russian Legal Culture Before and After Communism: Criminal Justice, Politics and the Public (London: Routledge, 2007), esp. p. 137. 128 Interfax, 16 September 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 17 September 1997. 129 “Yeltsin to Scrap Death Penalty”, The Guardian, 24 April 1999. 130 ITAR-TASS, 11 August 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 13 August 1997. 131 Interfax, 11 September 1999, in FBIS, 11 September 1999. 132 Interfax-AVN, 19 November 2009. 133 “Russia and the Death Penalty: Declaration by the Parliamentary Assembly President” (press release), Strasbourg, 31 May 2001, available at: http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Press/StopPressView.asp?ID=1208 134 Bill Bowring, “Russia’s Relations with the Council of Europe Under Increasing Strain”, EU-Russia Centre. 135 As commented in a PACE report, Position of the Parliamentary Assembly as regards the Council of Europe member and observer states which have not abolished the death penalty, Doc. 10911, 21 April 2006, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileId=11376&Lang uage=EN 136 Anatoly Pristavkin, “The Russian Federation and the Death Penalty”, in Council of Europe, Death Penalty: Beyond Abolition (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2004), p. 202. 137 Cited in UPI, “Death Penalty Debate Revived in Russia”, 12 February 2013. 138 See Bill Bowring, “The Death Penalty and Russia”, in Yorke, p. 285. 139 Cited in “Drug Service Chief Supports Moratorium of Death Penalty in Russia”, Russia & CIS Business and Financial Newswire, 18 March 2013. 140 ITAR-TASS, 11 April 1998, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Central Eurasia, 12 April 1998, hereafter cited as FBIS, Central Eurasia. See also the Council of Europe statement of 26 January 2000 at: http://www.coe.fr/cp/2000/63a%282000%29.htm 141 See, for example, Michael Schwirtz, “Belarus Censured for Executing 2 in Subway Bombing”, The New York Times, 18 March 2012. 142 As an example, see Pamela A. Jordan, “Does Membership Have Its Privileges?: Entrance into the Council of Europe and Compliance with Human Rights Norms”, Human Rights Quarterly (Vol. 25, No. 3, 2003), pp. 660–88. 143 See specifically Resolution 1807 (2011) The death penalty in Council of Europe member and observer states: a violation of human rights, available at: http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/XRef/X2H-DW- XSL.asp?fileid=17986&lang=EN 144 Belapan, 16 December 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 19 December 1997. 145 Belorusskya Delovaya Gazeta, 27 October 1997, in FBIS, Central Eurasia, 6 November 1997. 146 Belarus Telegraph Agency, “Grigory Vasilevich: Possible Abolition of Capital Punishment as Belarus Joins Council of Europe”, 21 January 2009, available at: http://news.belta.by/en/news/politics/?id=324457 147 Thus, the Protocol was ratified by Estonia on 1 May 1998, Latvia, 1 June 1999, Lithuania on 1 August 1999, Bulgaria on 1 October 1999, and Georgia and Ukraine on 1 May 2000. The Protocol was signed by Albania on 4 April 2000. 276 Notes

148 Terry Davis, “Russia Deserves to Lead the Council of Europe”, The New York Times, 24 May 2006. 149 “Bosnian Majorities Should Not Infringe on Individual Rights – Europe Mission Head”, BBC Monitoring, 8 January 2013, in Lexis. 150 Franklin E. Zimring, The Contradictions of American Capital Punishment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 40.

Chapter 5 Success in the Toughest of Cases: The Normative Surprise over Chechnya from Internal Conditionality

1 Masha Gessen, The Man Without a Face: The Unlikely Rise of Vladimir Putin (London: Granta Books, 2012), p. 229. 2 Among such accounts, see Carlotta Gall and Tom de Waal, Chechnya: A Small Victorious War (London: Picador, 1997), p. 161. 3 Michael McFaul, “Russian Politics after Chechnya”, Foreign Policy (No. 99, Summer 1995), p. 151. 4 Emma Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), p. 205. 5 Sarah E. Mendelson, “Anatomy of Ambivalence: The International Community and Human Rights Abuse in the North Caucasus”, Problems of Post-Communism (Vol. 53, No. 6, November/December 2006), pp. 4–5. 6 Ortwin Henning, “The Code of Conduct on Politico-Military Aspects of Security”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 1995/96 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1996), p. 285. 7 Wilhelm Höynck, “What can the OSCE do to Manage Crises in Europe”. Speech at Urho Kalevi Kekkonen-Seminar “OSCE and Crisis Management”, Pielavesi, 3 September 1995, available at: http:// www.osce.org/sg/36958 8 “OSCE to Reopen Ofﬁce for Assistance Group to Chechnya” (press release), 15 April 2000, available at: http://www.osce.org/cio/52051; “OSCE back in Chechnya: A Major Breakthrough” (press release), 15 June 2001, available at: http://www.osce.org/cio/53640 9 Wolfgang Ischinger, “The OSCE in the European Concert”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2000 (Baden- Baden: Nomos, 2001), p. 37. 10 Human Rights Watch, “Welcome to Hell”: Arbitrary Detention, Torture, and Extortion in Chechnya (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2000), p. 95. 11 Interview, July 2009. 12 Åsne Seierstad, The Angel of Grozny: Life Inside Chechnya (London: Virago, 2009), p. 53. 13 See Michael R. Lucas, “The War in Chechnya and the OSCE Code of Conduct”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995), pp. 32–42. 14 Human rights violations in the Chechen Republic: the Committee of Ministers’ responsibility vis-à-vis the Assembly’s concerns Doc. 10774, 21 December 2005; Report of the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights avail- Notes 277

able at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID= 11178&Language=EN 15 See “Who Will Tell Me What Happened to My Son?” Russia’s Implementation of European Court of Human Rights Judgments on Chechnya (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009); and Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya. 16 Kirill Koroteev, “Legal Remedies for Human Rights Violations in the Armed Conflict in Chechnya: The Approach of the European Court of Human Rights in Context”, Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies (Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2010), p. 302. 17 Human rights violations in the Chechen Republic: the Committee of Ministers’ responsibility vis-à-vis the Assembly’s concerns (Report) Doc. 10774, 21 December 2005, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/ XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11178&Language=EN 18 The analogy obviously includes: the Beslan school siege in September 2004; the Moscow subway bombing that killed ten commuters on 31 August; the bombing, a week earlier, of two planes from Moscow to Sochi and Volgograd, killing a total of 90 people; the three-day Moscow theatre siege on October 2002; four bombings of apartment blocks in Moscow and Volgodonsk in September 1999, killing over 300 residents; the 1995 hostage-taking of 300 people in a hospital in Budennovsk, Dagestan; a similar event at a hospital in Kizylar, Dagestan in January 1996, in which 2,000 people were taken hostage. 19 Andrew Meier, Chechnya: To the Heart of a Conflict (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), p. 3. 20 Interview with RFE/RL on 21 October 2005. See http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/ 2005/10/C7CF10AC-261F-4F8C-BA2D-2A0CC1F65FD6.html 21 Among overviews, see Richard Sakwa, “Chechnya: A Just War Fought Unjustly?”, in Bruno Coppieters and Richard Sakwa (eds) Contextualizing Secession: Normative Studies in Comparative Perspectives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 156–86. 22 Anna Politkovskaya, A Dirty War: A Russian Reporter in Chechnya (London: Harvill, 2001), p. 183. 23 Steve LeVine, Putin’s Labyrinth: Spies, Murder, and the Dark Heart of the New Russia (New York: Random House, 2009), p. xix. 24 Rachel Denber, “Glad to be Deceived”: The International Community and Chechnya, available at: www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/ 402ba65c4.pdf 25 See particularly Human Rights Watch, “Welcome to Hell”: Arbitrary Detention, Torture, and Extortion in Chechnya (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2000); and Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya, p. 95. 26 Anatol Lieven, “Chechnya and the Laws of War”, in Dmitri V. Trenin and Aleksei V. Malashenko with Anatol Lieven, Russia’s Restless Frontier: The Chechnya Factor in Post-Soviet Russia (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004), p. 212. 27 Nye writes, for example, “damaging to American attractiveness is the perception that the United States has not lived up to its own profession of values in its response to terrorism” and “it remains to be seen how lasting such damage will be to America’s ability to obtain the outcomes it 278 Notes

wants from other countries”. Joseph S. Nye, Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003), pp. 59 and 60. 28 Yeltsin considered these “objective” features of Russian powers as reason in themselves for Russia to be immune from Western criticism in its conduct of the first war in Chechnya. He replied to criticisms from Clinton in 1999 with: “It seems he has for a minute, for a second, for a half-minute, forgotten that Russia has a full arsenal of nuclear weapons”. Cited in Financial Times, 10 December 1999. 29 The EU receives 20 percent of all its natural gas from Russia. The Economist, 15 November 2003, p. 48. Some countries are much more dependent. 30 Fiona Hill, “Beyond Co-Dependency: European Reliance on Russian Energy”, US-Europe Analysis Series (Washington: The Brookings Institution, July 2005). 31 Rossiyskay gazeta, 28 January 1995, in Pursiainen, “The Impact of International Security Regimes”. 32 See Gail W. Lapidus, “Contested Sovereignty: The Tragedy of Chechnya”, International Security (Vol. 23, No. 1, Summer 1998). 33 Alfred B. Evans, Jr, “A Russian Civil Society?” in Stephen White, Zvi Gitelman and Richard Sakwa (eds) Developments in Russian Politics 6 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2005), p. 112. 34 Jacob W. Kipp, “Putin and Russia’s Wars in Chechnya”, in Dale R. Hespring (ed.) Putin’s Russia: Past Imperfect, Future Uncertain (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), p. 205. 35 Among the contemporary critiques of Russian rationalizations, see McFaul, “Russian Politics after Chechnya”, pp. 149–65. 36 Vladimir Putin, First Person: An Astonishingly Frank Self-portrait by Russia’s President Vladimir Putin (New York: PublicAffairs, 2000), p. 140. 37 Valery Tishkov, Chechnya: Life in a War-Torn Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), p. 74. Evangelista’s Chechen Wars particularly serves to challenge claims of state fragmentation. 38 Anatol Lieven, Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 86. 39 Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya, see esp. p. 5 and then passim. Among non- academic accounts that give particular and compelling anecdotal accounts of the racist dimension is Venora Bennett, Crying Wolf: The Return of War in Chechnya (London: Pan Macmillan, 2001). 40 Bennett, Crying Wolf, pp. 398–9. She adds that these practices contra- vened the human rights agreements to which Russia had signed. 41 John Russell, “Obstacles to Peace in Chechnya: What Scope for International Involvement?”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 58, No. 6, September 2006), p. 943. 42 Quotation and assessment from Gail W. Lapidus, “Contested Sovereignty: The Tragedy of Chechnya”, International Security (Vol. 23, No. 1, Summer 1998), p. 27. 43 See Chapter 3. Although Russian officials threatened cuts to Russia’s financial contributions to the CoE they have never been comparable to Notes 279

the paralysis intended against the OSCE. The Russian Federation remains a leading monetary contributor to the CoE. 44 Rudolf Bindig, “Russia’s Accession to the Council of Europe and the Fulfilment of Obligations and Commitments”, in Katlijn Malfliet and Stephan Parmentier (eds) Russia and the Council of Europe: 10 Years After (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010), p. 38. 45 The European Parliament passed a resolution which included “… condemns in the strongest terms the murder of Anna Politkovskaya and calls on the Russian authorities to conduct an independent and efficient inves- tigation to find and punish those responsible for this cowardly crime; calls on the EU and the Council of Europe to monitor these investigations closely”. Murder of the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya European Parliament resolution on EU-Russia relations following the murder of the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya (25 October 2006), available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2006:313E:0271: 0273:EN:PDF 46 See the Bank’s Charter. Its current website states: “The mandate of the EBRD stipulates that it must only work in countries that are committed to democratic principles”. Political conditionality, however, does not seem to be a major consideration in loans. The EBRD does seem sensitive to environmental lobbying but that is not comparable to political norms, and does not relate back to the CoE or the OSCE. The lack of connection between political criticism and financial sanc- tion against Russia is a problem in achieving any change in policy. Even though PACE heavily criticized Russian actions in Chechnya in early 2000, Stanley Fischer made clear that the International Monetary Fund would not punish Russia. See Evangelista, Chechen Wars, p. 148. 47 “Seal of Disapproval: Russia’s Need to Belong”, The Economist (15 November 2003), p. 48. 48 Igor S. Ivanov, The New Russian Diplomacy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2002), p. 99. 49 Reported in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 22 May 1998. 50 ITAR-TASS, 28 January 1999. 51 Paragraph 2 of Resolution 1055 (1995) “Russia’s Request for Membership in the Light of the Situation in Chechnya”, 2 February 1995, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta95/ ERES1055.htm 52 See Doc. 7231 Opinion on Russia’s request for membership in the light of the situation in Chechnya, 2 February 1995, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=6804& Language=EN 53 Cited in “Russia Joins Council of Europe …”, Jamestown Monitor (Vol. 2, No. 43, 29 February 1996). 54 See commentary in Rossiiskie vesti, 3 September 1997. 55 As quoted in “Foreign Minister Vows No Anti-Western Path for Russia”, RFE/RL Newsline (Vol. 9, No. 167, Part I, 2 September 2005). 56 Ortwin Hennig, “The Code of Conduct on Politico-Military Aspects of Security”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the 280 Notes

University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 1995/96 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1996), p. 285. 57 See Jeffrey T. Checkel, Compliance and Conditionality (Arena Working Paper No. 18, 2000), at www.arena.iuo.no.publications/wp00_18.htm 58 Human Rights Watch, A Review of the Compliance of the Russian Federation with Council of Europe Commitments and Other Human Rights Obligations on the First Anniversary of its Accession to the Council of Europe (February 1997), available at: http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/rusfed/Russia.htm 59 See Opinion No. 193 (1996) on Russia’s request for membership of the Council of Europe, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/documents/ adoptedtext/ta96/eopi193.htm 60 See PACE’s Opinion No. 193 (1996) on Russia’s request for membership of the Council of Europe, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/ AdoptedText/ta96/EOPI193.htm 61 For such a view from international human right advocacy, see Leo Zwaak, “The Council of Europe and the Conﬂict in Chechnya”, Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights (Vol. 18, 2000), p. 181. 62 The Jamestown Foundation Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 70, 7 April 2000). 63 Quoted on Interfax, 26 January 2001. 64 See Vladimir Socor, “Will PACE Elevate the Main Offender to its Presidency?”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 4, No. 195, 22 October 2007). 65 Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), p. 141. 66 ITAR-TASS, 3 May 1997. 67 ITAR-TASS, 2 May 1997. 68 Interfax, 8 April 1998. 69 Rossiyskaya Gazeta (29 March 1997), p. 3. 70 See speciﬁcally Statement by Konstantin Dolgov, Russian Foreign Ministry’s Special Representative for Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law, at PACE International Conference “Human Rights and Foreign Policy” (Turin, December 13, 2012), available at: http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/ e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/9c5be98ca1c5c9bc44257ad7002459 52!OpenDocument Instrumental uses of “minority rights” and “human rights” in the CoE and OSCE is discussed in Rick Fawn, “‘Bashing About Rights’: Russia and the ‘New’ EU States on Human Rights and Democracy Promotion”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 61, No. 10, December 2009), pp. 1777–803. 71 As for example noted in Paul Murphy, The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror (Washington: Potomac, 2004), pp. 70–1. 72 Likhachev further said that anti-Russian feelings in the Council were heightened by the efforts of Yabloko to block his election as PACE vice president. Yabloko members supported Russian human rights cam- paigner Sergey Kovalev. Likhachev called Yabloko’s stand “a shallow ambitious trick” and blamed it for delaying the election of the PACE vice president until June 1997. Interfax, 25 April 1997. 73 Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 29 March 1997. 74 “Chechen President Outlines Acceptable Topics for PACE Meeting”, Interfax, 18 March 2005. 75 Cornell, “Reactions to Human Rights Violations”, p. 97. Notes 281

76 Resolution 1201 (1999) Conflict in Chechnya: 1. The Parliamentary Assembly deplores the fact that the 1996 cease-fire has not led to a peaceful settlement of the crisis in Chechnya and that an armed conflict has been launched again. … 3. It launches an appeal to the Russian authorities to avoid military raids against the civil population and to introduce a cease-fire. 77 ITAR-TASS, 25 Sept. 1998. 78 ITAR-TASS, 28 Jan. 1999. 79 A.I. Vladychenko, “Rossiya-Sovet Evropy: Opyt dvukh let sotrudnich- estva”, Mezhdunarodnaya zhizn (4, 1998) blhttp:www.coe.ru.koi/ 05zagl.htmbg cited in Jordan, p. 286. 80 For a non-European case, see Alison Brysk, “From Above and Below: Social Movements, the International System and Human Rights in Argentina”, Comparative Political Studies (Vol. 26, 1993), pp. 259–85. 81 William D. Jackson, “Russia and the Council of Europe: The Perils of Premature Admission”, Problems of Post-Communism (Vol. 51, No. 5, September/October 2004), p. 24. 82 Checkel, Compliance and Conditionality, at printed page 18. 83 ITAR-TASS, 27 June 2005. 84 “Chechen President Outlines Acceptable Topics for PACE Meeting”, Interfax, 18 March 2005. 85 See Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction”, in Risse, Ropp and Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 1–38. 86 Svante E. Cornell, “International Reactions to Massive Human Rights Violations: The Case of Chechnya”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 51, No. 1, 1999), p. 97. 87 Sebastian Smith, Allah’s Mountain’s: The Battle for Chechnya (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001), p. 226. 88 Members of Memorial wrote in English: “… the UN Commission on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination asked that all those who had violated human rights or humanitarian norms during the conflict in Chechnya, be held responsible. Unfortunately, these demands were not backed by the Council of Europe, which in January 1996 invited Russia to become a member of that organization. In the opinion of the authors, the decision of the Council of Europe does not bear relationship to the real situation prevailing in the Russian Federation”. See O.P. Orlov, A.V. Cherkasov and A.V. Sokolov, “The Violation of Human Rights and Norms of Humanitarian Law in the Course of the Armed Conflict in the Chechen Republic: A Report of the Human Rights Center Memorial”, at http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/chechen/checheng/fin_rep.htm 89 Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya, p. 4. 90 “[V]iolation of a particular rule usually takes place against background of conformity to other rules of international law, and indeed of conformity even to the rule that is being violated, in instances other than the present one. … [W]here a violation takes place an offending state usually goes out of its way to demonstrate that it still considers itself (and other 282 Notes

states) bound by the rule in question”. See Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 137 and p. 138. 91 Christer Pursiainen, “The Impact of International Security Regimes on Russia’s Behavior: The Case of the OSCE and Chechnya”, in Ted Hopf (ed.) Understanding Russian Foreign Policy (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), pp. 111–12. 92 John J. Mearsheimer, “The False Promise of International Institutions”, International Security (Vol. 19, No. 3, Winter 1994/95), p. 7. 93 For a non-European case, see Alison Brysk, “From Above and Below: Social Movements, the International System and Human Rights in Argentina”, Comparative Political Studies (Vol. 26, 1993), pp. 259–85. 94 Among others see, Sarah E. Mendelson and John K. Glenn (eds) The Power and Limits of NGOs: A Critical Look at Building Democracy in Eastern Europe and Eurasia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); and Sarah E. Mendelson, “Russians’ Rights Imperiled: Has Anybody Noticed?” International Security (Vol. 26, No. 4, 2002), pp. 39–69. 95 Quoted in Financial Times, 18 March 1995. 96 RIA Novosti, 29 July 2005. 97 RIA Novosti, 8 July 2005. 98 ITAR/TASS, 15 February 2002. 99 Observation made to me by a leading Russian political scientist, Moscow 2005. 100 Pursiainen, “Impact of International Security Regimes on Russia’s Behavior”, p. 110. 101 Conﬂict in Chechnya, Doc. 8707 (5 April 2000), available at: http://assembly. coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=8912&Language=EN 102 Summary of experience and observations given by former Dutch parliamentarian Hanneke Gelderblom-Lankhout, who was part of several PACE delegations to the Russian Federation and who in that capacity visited Chechnya several times during the 1994–96 conﬂict; interview 4 November 2005. 103 ITAR/TASS, 24 July 2000. 104 Reported on Interfax, 5 April 2000. 105 “Report by Mr Alvaro Gil-Robles, Commissioner for Human Rights, on his Visits to the Russian Federation 15 to 30 July 2004 19 to 29 September 2004. For the Attention of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly”, section 323 and 324, p. 68, available at: http://www.coe.int/T/E/Commissioner_H.R/Communication_Unit/Docu ments/pdf.CommDH%282005%292_E.pdf 106 Bindig, “Russia’s Accession”, p. 38. 107 Hughes, Chechnya, pp. 133–4. 108 See Dmitri V. Trenin and Aleksei V. Malashenko with Anatol Lieven, Russia’s Restless Frontier: The Chechnya Factor in Post-Soviet Russia (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004), pp. 142–3. 109 Fiona Hill, Anatol Lieven and Thomas de Waal, A Spreading Danger: Time for a New Policy Towards Chechnya (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Policy Brief No. 35, March 2005), p. 5. Notes 283

110 Pamela A. Jordan, “Russia’s Accession to the Council of Europe and Compliance with European Human Rights Norms”, Demokratizatsiya (Vol. 11, 2003), p. 289. 111 Asbjørn Eide, “Chechnya: In Search of Constructive Accommodation”, Leiden Journal of International Law (Vol. 14, 2001), p. 441. 112 ITAR-TASS, 16 August 2005. 113 Agence France Presse, “Russia Cuts Contribution to Pan-Europe Human Rights Body”, 27 June 2003; Agence France Presse, “Council of Europe Faces Funds Shortage After Russia Cuts Payment”, 5 September 2003. 114 For the significance, see William Abresch, “A Human Rights Law of Internal Armed Conflict: The European Court of Human Rights in Chechnya”, European Journal of International Law (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2005), pp. 741–67. 115 This is not to say that bringing such a case is easy; human rights groups noted that death threats and violence can occur against those who do so or so intend. Nevertheless, at the time of this first settlement, more than 100 other such cases against the Russian state were pending. 116 Bindig, “Russia’s Accession”, pp. 39–40. 117 On such dilemmas, see, for example, Freek van der Vet, “Seeking Life, Finding Justice: Russian NGO Litigation and Chechen Disappearances before the European Court of Human Rights”, Human Rights Review (Vol. 13, No. 3, 2012), pp. 303–25. See also Lisa McIntosh Sundstrom, “Advocacy Beyond Litigation: Examining Russian NGO Efforts on Implementation of European Court of Human Rights Judgments”, Communist and Post-Communist Studies (Vol. 45, Nos 3–4, September–December 2012), pp. 255–68. 118 Koroteev, “Legal Remedies”, esp. p. 302. 119 Ole Solvang, “Chechnya and the European Court of Human Rights: The Merits of Strategic Litigation”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 19, No. 3, September 2008), pp. 208–19. 120 Hughes, Chechnya, p. 135. 121 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009. Events of 2008 (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009), p. 398. 122 Cited in Harding, Mafia State, p. 93. The son, Umar Israilov, himself put a claim to the ECHR for being tortured in Chechnya before being killed. 123 Roemer Lemaître, “Can the European Court of Human Rights Provide Justice for Victims of Human Rights Abuses in Chechnya?”, in Malfliet and Parmentier (eds) Russia and the Council of Europe, p. 166. 124 Bill Bowring, “Russia’s Relations with the Council of Europe Under Increasing Strain”, available at: http://old.khodorkovsky.info/docs/ 134870__15_Feb_Bowring_article_EU-RC.pdf 125 Lawrence Heifer and Anne-Marie Slaughter, “Toward a Theory of Effective Supranational Adjudication”, Yale Law Journal (Vol. 107, No. 2, 1997), p. 283. 126 Human Rights Watch, “Who Will Tell Me What Happened to My Son?”: Russia’s Implementation of European Court of Human Rights Judgments on Chechnya (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009), pp. 1–2. 284 Notes

127 Philip Leach, “The Chechen Conﬂict: Analysing the Oversight of the European Court of Human Rights”, European Human Rights Law Review (No. 6, 2008), p. 760. 128 Nicola Jägers and Leo Zwaak “Russian Federation and Human Rights: How Should the Council of Europe Deal with the Problems Posed by Its Largest Member State”, Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights (Vol. 26, 2008), p. 7. 129 See European Court of Human Rights, Annual Report 2011 (Strasbourg, 2012). 130 Anton Burkov, Russia and the European Court of Human Rights: Reform of the Court and of Russian Judicial Practice? (Brussels: CEPS, 10 May 2010). 131 Wolfram Karl, “The Innovative Court”, in Renate Kicker (ed.) The Council of Europe: Pioneer and Guarantor for Human Rights and Democracy (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010). 132 Martyn Bond, The Council of Europe and Human Rights: An Introduction to the European Convention on Human Rights (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010), p. 64. 133 Philip Leach, “Redress and Implementation in the Chechen Cases – The Strasbourg Court Increases the Pressure”, EHRAC Bulletin (No. 15, 2011), pp. 1–3. 134 Matthew Evangelista, The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union? (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2002), pp. 150 and 181. 135 Summary of experience and observations of Dutch parliamentarian Hanneke Gelderblom-Lankhout; interview 4 November 2005. 136 Comments at a Washington meeting of the Kennan Institute. 137 Comments at a Moscow meeting of the Kennan Institute. 138 “Report by Mr Alvaro Gil-Robles”, section 374, p. 78. 139 See Viatcheslav Morozov, “Resisting Entropy, Discarding Human Rights: Romantic Realism and Securitization of Identity in Russia”, Cooperation and Conﬂict (Vol. 37, 2002), pp. 409–29.

Chapter 6 Tajikistan and the OSCE: The Subtlest Victory of Internal Conditionality

1 The title is borrowed and adapted from Muriel Atkin, The Subtlest Victory: Islam in Soviet Tajikistan (Philadelphia: Foreign Policy Research Institute, 1990). Enormous thanks are due to nearly three dozen OSCE officials and foreign diplomats, as well domestic analysts and activists, who agreed to be interviewed in Tajikistan and in neighboring countries. Records of the interviews have been retained. Requests were made in person, by phone, by fax, and including some through the OSCE, for interviews with Tajik government officials, both in Tajikistan and at the Permanent Delegation to the OSCE in Vienna. Official statements by the Tajik government have been consulted and are quoted throughout. Notes 285

2 A staff member of the OSCE who served for several years in Central Asia questioned the premise that the OSCE has any influence in Tajikistan. This contrarian view is included for balance. Correspondence with the author. 3 Tim Epkenhans, “The OSCE’s Dilemma in Central Asia”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2006 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007), p. 212. 4 These are detailed elsewhere in the book. 5 Payam Foroughi, “Politics and Human Rights in Tajikistan: Squandered Opportunities, Uncertain Future”, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2011 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2012), pp. 107–8. 6 Cited in Gerry J. Gilmore, “Rumsfeld Calls Tajikistan ‘Solid Partner’ in Terror War”, American Forces Press Service, 26 July 2005, available on the US Defence Department official website, at: http://www. defense.gov/News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=16562 Such perception of Tajikistan’s value in the GWOT, however did not mean that the Tajik leadership itself was successful or secure. The International Crisis Group wrote in 2009 “Far from being a bulwark against the spread of extremism and violence from Afghanistan, Tajikistan is looking increasingly like its southern neighbour – a weak state that is suffering from a failure of leadership”. International Crisis Group: Tajikistan: On the Road to Failure (Dushanbe/Brussels: Asia Report N°162 – 12 February 2009), p. i. 7 Edward Lucas, The New Cold War (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), p. 174. 8 International Labor Organization, Migrant Remittances to Tajikistan: The Potential for Savings, Economic Investment and Existing Financial Products to Attract Remittances (Moscow: ILO, 2010), p. 1. 9 Interview with OSCE official, Dushanbe, October 2007. 10 For the former view, see especially Thomas Ambrosio, “Catching the ‘Shanghai Spirit’: How the Shanghai Cooperation Organization Promotes Authoritarian Norms in Central Asia”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 60, No. 8, October 2008), pp. 1321–44; and Thomas Ambrosio, Authoritarian Backlash: Russian Resistance to Democratization in the Former Soviet Union (Andover: Ashgate, 2010). Marcel de Haas offers a comparative perspective between the SCO and OSCE, suggesting that they both under- take, inter alia, democracy promotion. Marcel de Haas, “The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the OSCE: Two of a Kind?”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 18, No. 3, 2007), pp. 246–59. A range of views are provided in Alexander Cooley, Great Games, Local Rules: The New Great Power Contest in Central Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). 11 Alyson J.K. Bailes, Pál Dunay, Pan Guang and Mikhail Troitskiy, The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SIPRI Policy Paper No. 17) (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2007), p. 8. 12 Alexander Cooley, “The League of Authoritarian Gentlemen”, Foreign Policy (30 January 2013) (online). 13 See Stephen Blank, “Iran and the SCO: A Match Made in Dushanbe or Moscow?”, Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, 30 April 2008, p. 10. 286 Notes

14 Frank Evers, “OSCE Field Activities: Verbal Encouragement, Factual Cutback”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 22, No. 4, 2011), quoted at p. 342, and see further at pp. 342–3. 15 In keeping with the written requirements for use of the non-public and the non-citable records of OSCE proceedings, these are the author’s paraphrasing from the original records. 16 Russia & CIS General Newswire, “OSCE is key partner for Tajikistan – president”, 5 April 2011. 17 Edward Lucas, The New Cold War (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), p. 136. 18 Statement by Mr. Erkin Kasimov, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Tajikistan to the OSCE, at the Meeting of the Permanent Council 11 May 2006 (PC.DEL/434/06). 19 Statement by Mr. Erkin Kasimov, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Tajikistan to the OSCE, at the Meeting of the Permanent Council 11 May 2006 (PC.DEL/434/06). 20 Victor-Yves Ghebali, “OSCE Regional Policy in Central Asia: Rationale and Limits”, in Farian Sabahi and Daniel Warner (eds) The OSCE and the Multiple Challenges of Transition: The Caucasus and Central Asia (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), p. 110. 21 Kathleen Samuel, “Fostering Relations with a Host Country: A Case Study of the OSCE and Tajikistan”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 4, 2009), pp. 339–40. 22 Lena Jonson, “The OSCE Long-term Mission to Tajikistan”, p. 237. 23 See Vitali Silitski, “‘Survival of the Fittest:’ Domestic and International Dimensions of the Authoritarian Reaction in the former Soviet Union Following the Colored Revolutions”, Communist and Post-communist Studies (Vol. 43, No. 4, December 2010), p. 348, pp. 335–454. 24 Samuel, “Fostering Relations”. 25 Interview with OSCE ofﬁcial, Dushanbe, June 2008. 26 Janne Taalas and Kari Möttölä, “The Spirit of Helsinki 2.0 – The Finnish OSCE Chairmanship 2008”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2009 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009), p. 324. 27 Samuel, “Fostering Relations”, p. 340; emphasis added. 28 Interviews in Tajikistan in October 2007 and June 2008. 29 Tajik government statements acknowledge that citizens tend to have two hours of electricity per day. 30 Interview, Dushanbe, June 2008. 31 See Lena Jonson, Tajikistan in the New Central Asia: Geopolitics, Great Power Rivalry and Radical Islam (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009), pp. 141 & 157, regarding the 2004 elections; and John Heathershaw, Post-Conﬂict Tajikistan: The Politics of Peacebuilding and the Emergence of Legitimate Order (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007), pp. 92–3. 32 OSCE/ODIHR, Interim Report No. 1, 12 October 2006, p. 6. 33 Delegation of the Russian Federation to the OSCE Permanent Council, Statement by Ambassador Alexey Borodavkin, Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the OSCE at the Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council Regarding the Report of the Head of the OSCE Centre in Dushanbe, PC.DEL/436/06, 12 May 2006 OSCE+. As a document marked “OSCE+” the document is used here in accordance with OSCE Secretariat require- Notes 287

ments, including citation of the document title but only the author’s paraphrasing of the content. Unabated Russian objections to ODIHR’s politicization continues. In 2012 to the Permanent Council the Russian Federation delivered a blis- tering attack. 34 Interview, October 2007. 35 “Statement by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan Hamrokhon Zarifi at the 15th OSCE Ministerial Council Meeting”, available at: http://tajikembassy.at/_ld/0/10_mcdel0042tajiki.pdf 36 Minister for Foreign Affairs of Ukraine at the 15th meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council (Madrid, November 29, 2007), at: http://www.mfa. gov.ua/mfa/en/publication/content/15436.htm?lightWords=odihr. Emphasis added. 37 As elsewhere for this chapter, access was gained through the Prague OSCE Secretariat and in compliance with the terms of such use. 38 Samuel, “Fostering Relations”, p. 341. 39 See, again, the 11 May 2006 statement by Tajikistan to the Permanent Council. 40 The Tajik representative “commended” the Task Force as “a unique model of cooperation”. “Statement of the Head of Delegation of Tajikistan Ambassador Nuriddin Shamsov at the 761th [sic] OSCE Permanent Council Meeting (Vienna, 14 May, 2009)”, PC.DEL/365/09 15 May 2009. See also Samuel, “Fostering Relations”, p. 342. 41 Quoted in “Border security, economic development and human rights focus of OSCE-Tajikistan Task Force meeting” (press release), 20 February 2009, available at: http://www.osce.org/tajikistan/50629 42 Tajikistan and the OSCE: Longstanding Cooperation and Dialogue, available at: www.tajikembassy.org/tajikistanandtheosce.html, last accessed 15 July 2011, with printed version retained. 43 Correspondence on record with the author. 44 “OSCE Chairman and Tajik leaders agree on mandate for OSCE office” (press statement), 3 June 2008, available at: http://www.osce. org/cio/49771. The new mandate was formally agreed at the Permanent Council on 19 June 2008, and is available at: http://www.osce. org/pc/32467 45 Interview, Dushanbe, June 2008. 46 Decision No. 852 Mandate of the OSCE Office in Tajikistan, 19 June 2008, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/32467 47 Interview, Dushanbe, June 2008. 48 NEWS Press, “OSCE Office in Tajikistan Supports De-mining Efforts”, 19 April 2012. 49 Interviews with OSCE officials in Dushanbe in October 2007 and June 2008. 50 “Statement by the Head of Delegation of Tajikistan, Ambassador Ambassador [sic] Nuriddin Shamsov at the 822nd OSCE Permanent Council Meeting (Vienna, 10 July, 2010) on the Report of the Head of the OSCE Office in Tajikistan, Ambassador Ivar Vikki”, PC.DEL/761/10, 12 July 2010. 51 “OSCE Office in Tajikistan helps destroy more than 600 small arms and light weapons”, available at: http://www.osce.org/tajikistan/93721 288 Notes

52 Quoted in “Afghanistan stability cannot be achieved ‘through military means alone’ – Tajik minister”, Interfax, 1 April 2011. 53 Samuel, “Fostering Relations”, p. 241. 54 Quoted in “Afghanistan stability cannot be achieved ‘through military means alone’ – Tajik minister”, Interfax, 1 April 2011. 55 “OSCE Secretary General in meeting with Tajikistan President says strategic partnership must be further developed, discusses OSCE engagement with Afghanistan”, OSCE press release, 27 March 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/sg/89204. For the Ministerial Council decision, see “Decision No. 4/11 Strengthening OSCE Engagement with Afghanistan”, MC.DEC/4/11, 7 December 2011. 56 Vladimir F. Pryakhin, “Tajikistan and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: Global Problems through the Prism of a Single Country” in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2008 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2008), p. 241; emphasis added. 57 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, “OSCE Chairman and Tajik leaders agree on mandate for OSCE office” (press release), 6 March 2008, available at: http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=132017 &nodeid=17533&contentlan=2&culture=en-US 58 See the front page of the BMSC webpage, available at: http:// www.osce.org/tajikistan/bmsc, last accessed 10 January 2013. 59 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, “OSCE Chairman and Tajik leaders agree on mandate for OSCE office” (press release), 6 March 2008, available at: http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=132017 &nodeid=17533&contentlan=2&culture=en-US 60 Julia Klaus, Director of the Border Management Staff College, cited in “Fifth staff course for senior border officials from 12 states starts at OSCE Border Management Staff College” (press release), 4 June 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/tajikistan/91041 61 This was recounted by several observers in Tajikistan. 62 See the comments in “U.S. Response to Ambassador’s Report on Tajikistan” (10 May 2012) (official US State Department record) available at: http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/texttrans/2012/05/ 201205105412.html#ixzz1wpd38HNo 63 David Lewis, “Who’s Socialising Whom? Regional Organisations and Contested Norms in Central Asia”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 64, No. 7, 2012), p. 1232. 64 For the Tajik government’s positive assessment of these cooperation alternatives, see Stephen Aris, Eurasian Regionalism: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011), esp. pp. 70–1. 65 ICG, Tajikistan: On the Road to Failure (Brussels: International Crisis Group Asia Report N°162 – 12 February 2009), p. 3. 66 Stuart Croft et al. The Enlargement of Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), p. 133. 67 See the previous discussion on post-Soviet objections to field missions. 68 “Statement of the Head of Delegation of Tajikistan Ambassador Nuriddin Shamsov at the 761th [sic] OSCE Permanent Council Meeting (Vienna, 14 May, 2009)”, PC.DEL/365/09 15 May 2009. The statement was recorded only in English; the quotation is direct. Emphasis added. Notes 289

69 “Statement by Mr. Hamrokhon Zarifi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan, at the 856th Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council”, PC.DEL/287/11, 31 March 2011. 70 Statement by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan Hamrokhon Zarifi at the 15th OSCE Ministerial Council Meeting, available at http://www.tajikembassy.org/images/mcdel0042tajikistan.pdf, last accessed 4 May 2012. 71 Comments on record with the author. 72 While it contained one mention of the development of civil society, the Russian statement contained no reference to the human dimension or to ODIHR. See PC.DEL/750/10 (2010). 73 Statement by His Excellency Hamrokhon Zarifi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan, at the Nineteenth Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council, Dublin, 6 December 2012, MC.DEL/35/12, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/98171 74 Statement of the Head of the OSCE Office in Tajikistan Ambassador Ivar Vikki, quoted in “OSCE and Tajikistan outline priorities for co-operation in 2013” (press release), 22 February 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/tajikistan/88308 75 Statement by the Head of Delegation of Tajikistan, Ambassador Nuriddin Shamsov at the 822nd OSCE Permanent Council Meeting (Vienna, 10 July, 2010) on the Report of the Head of the OSCE Office in Tajikistan, Ambassador Ivar Vikki, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/ 70827 76 Statement by Mr. Hamrokhon Zarifi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan, at the 856th Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council, PC.DEL/287/11, 31 March 2011, available at: https://www.osce.org/ pc/76318 77 See Chapter 7, esp. pp. 204–5. 78 “OSCE Trains Tajikistan’s Electoral Body on Election Management”, States News Service (Dushanbe) [A Statement released by the OSCE], 1 June 2012. 79 Interview June 2008. 80 Republic of Tajikistan Parliamentary Elections 28 February 2010 OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report (Warsaw: ODIHR, 2010), p. 3. 81 “Despite the recommendations made in the OSCE/ODIHR Final Report on the parliamentary elections held in Tajikistan in 2005, many issues remain unaddressed”. International Election Observation Mission Republic of Tajikistan, Parliamentary Elections – 28 February 2010. Statement of Preliminary Findings and Conclusions (Warsaw: ODIHR), p. 1. 82 “Head of Centre Report to the Permanent Council”, PC-FR/21/07, 15 October 2007, OSCE+ – author’s paraphrase of the original document, as required by the OSCE Archives. 83 See Payam Foroughi, “Tajikistan”, Nations in Transit 2011: The Authoritarian Dead End in the Former Soviet Union (New York: Freedom House, 2011), esp. pp. 543–4; and Payam Foroughi, “Tajikistan”, Nations in Transit 2012: Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia (New York: Freedom House, 2012), pp. 533–51. 290 Notes

84 Namely: no journalists or media assistants killed; no journalists, media assistants or netizens imprisoned. Results for 2012 available at: http://en.rsf.org/report-tajikistan,138.html, last accessed 10 March 2013. 85 PC.DEL/26/06, 2006; “European Envoys”, 2007. 86 Reuters, “OSCE urges Tajikistan to stop attacks on free media”, 18 October 2010, online version at: http://af.reuters.com/article/ worldNews/idAFTRE69H2FD20101018?sp=true 87 See, for example, “Statement of the Blocking of Facebook and Website in Tajikistan”, PC.DEL/181/12, 12 March 2012, available at: http:// www.osce.org/pc/88904 88 Quoted in “OSCE media freedom representative on visit to Tajikistan welcomes co-operation, offers assistance to strengthen pluralism, reform legislation”, 4 November 2011, available at: http://www.osce.org/ fom/84770, last accessed 4 June 2012. 89 See Regular Report to the Permanent Council (29 March 2012), FOM.GAL/2/12/Rev.1 30 March 2012 available at: http://www.osce.org/ fom/89295, pp. 14–15; and “OSCE media freedom representative welcomes Tajikistan’s steps to decriminalize defamation, calls for remaining provisions to be abolished” (press release), 31 May 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/fom/90958 90 “OSCE media freedom representative concerned by new Internet restrictions in Tajikistan”, 23 July 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/ fom/92368 91 “OSCE media representative asks Tajikistan to unblock YouTube and to ensure free flow of information” (press release), 27 July 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/fom/92477 92 “Massive Internet censorship could add Tajikistan to ‘countries under surveillance’”, 2 August 2012, available at: http://en.rsf.org/tadjikistan- access-to-one-of-tajikistan-s-main-25-07-2012,43109.html, last accessed 10 March 2013. 93 Compiled from Raissa Muhutdinova, “Tajikistan”, Nations in Transition 2007: Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia (New York: Freedom House, 2007); and Foroughi Payam, “Tajikistan”, Nations in Transit 2012: Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia (New York: Freedom House, 2012). 94 Human Rights Watch, Country Summary: Tajikistan (January 2012), p. 2. 95 Civil society takes many forms, and with the term broadly construed, Tajik civil society is diverse and robust. The focus here is on political activism. 96 Maria Raquel Freire, “The OSCE in the New Central Asia”, in Emilian Kavalski (ed.) The New Central Asia: The Regional Impact of International Actors (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2010), p. 56. 97 Trend Daily News (Azerbaijan), “OSCE Secretary General: Tajikistan plays key role in Central Asia’s stability”, 26 March 2012. Zannier made the comments in Azerbaijan before leaving for Tajikistan. See the final section of “OSCE Secretary General in meeting with Tajikistan President says strategic partnership must be further developed, discusses OSCE engagement with Afghanistan”, 27 March 2012 [OSCE press release], available at: http://www.osce.org/sg/89204 Notes 291

98 “Statement by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan Hamrokhon Zarifi at the 15th OSCE Ministerial Council Meeting”, available at: http://www.tajikembassy.org/images/ mcdel0042tajikistan.pdf, last accessed 4 May 2012. 99 Statement by His Excellency Hamrokhon Zarifi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan, at the Nineteenth Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council, Dublin, 6 December 2012, MC.DEL/35/12, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/98171 100 Statement by the Head of Delegation of Tajikistan Amb. Nuriddin Shamsov at the 787th OSCE Permanent Council Meeting (Vienna, 14 January, 2010). In response to Opening Address by H.E the OSCE Chairman in Office, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan Mr. Kanat Saudabaev, PC.DEL/14/10, 15 January 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/41150 101 Statement by His Excellency Hamrokhon Zarifi, MC.DEL/35/12. 102 Russia & CIS General Newswire, “OSCE is key partner for Tajikistan – president”, 5 April 2011. 103 “OSCE Secretary General in meeting with Tajikistan President says strategic partnership must be further developed, discusses OSCE engagement with Afghanistan” 27 March 2012 [OSCE press release], available at: http://www.osce.org/sg/89204 104 For a contemporary account of the connection between Helsinki and especially dissent in communist Czechoslovakia, see H. Gordon Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981). For a retrospective historical analysis of the essential role of Helsinki in supporting dissidents, see Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011); and Sarah B. Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Network (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). 105 Indeed, interviews in Tajikistan with both OSCE official and activists indicated in these areas a picture that would be far worse without OSCE initiatives. 106 Additionally, at that time Finland had no embassies in Central Asia; its first embassy was opened, in Kazakhstan, in 2009. 107 See such commentary in Arie Bloed, with a supplement by Erika Schlager, “CIS Presidents Attack the Functioning of the OSCE”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 15, 2004), pp. 221–2.

Chapter 7 The Kazakhstan Chairmanship of the OSCE: Internal Conditionality and the Risks of Political Appeasement

1 Bhavna Dave, “Kazakhstan”, Nations in Transition 2007, p. 332, writes that Aliyev’s “rapid political rise” led to “exile”. For a Russian media commentary, see Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 29 November 2004. For Kazakhstan’s elite generally see Sally N. Cummings, Kazakhstan: Power and the Elite (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005) and Edward Schatz, Modern Clan 292 Notes

Politics and Beyond: The Power of “Blood” in Kazakhstan (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2005). 2 Martha Brill Olcott, “Kazakhstan: Will “BRIC” be spelled with a K?”, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly (Vol. 6, No. 2, 2008), p. 47. An Ambassador to the OSCE during this time confirmed that the idea of Kazakhstan seeking the Chairmanship arose specifically from Aliyev. Interview, Vienna, August 2011. 3 Arkady Dubnow, “OSCE Battlefield: Kazakhstan’s Road to the Top of Europe’s Largest Organization”, Russia in Global Affairs (Vol. 6, No. 3, July–September 2008), p. 33. 4 A summation was carried from Interfax-Kazakhstan in Russian on 5 May 2003, in English as “Kazakhstan aims to chair OSCE in 2009”, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 5 May 2003. 5 Statement by Mr. Kanat Saudabayev, Secretary of State of the Republic of Kazakhstan, at the 680th Plenary Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 20 September 2007, PC.DEL/912/07, available at: http://www.osce.org/ pc/26849 6 The Irish Chairmanship that succeeded Kazakhstan had not applied for the position and was, to its surprise, approached. See “Report of David Donoghue to the Oireachtas Committee on Foreign Affairs”, 13 December 2011, cited in Donnacha Ó Beacháin, “Ireland’s Chairmanship of the OSCE: A Mid-Term Review”, Irish Studies in International Affairs (Vol. 23, 2012), pp. 89–90. 7 Kazakhstan’s Foreign Ministerial address to the Madrid Ministerial Council which became known as the “Madrid Commitments” stated: “It is com- monly recognized that one of the most important achievements of Kazakhstan in the humanitarian sphere is securing the inter-ethnic and inter-religious accord”. Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, at the OSCE Ministerial Meeting (Madrid, November 29, 2007), MC.DEL/38/07, available at: http://www.osce.org/ documents/mcs/2007/11/28529_en.pdf, p. 3. Hereafter referred to as Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, and using page numbers when the document is printed. 8 Cited in Christopher Pala, “Ex-Soviet republics chafe at West’s call for rights. Seven nations seek to relax guidelines of OSCE”, The Washington Times, 31 May 2004, p. A19. 9 Human Rights Watch, “Kazakhstan: OSCE Chairmanship Undeserved”, 30 November 2007, quoting Holly Cartner, Europe and Central Asia Director at Human Rights Watch, available at: http://www.hrw. org/news/2007/11/29/kazakhstan-osce-chairmanship-undeserved 10 Citing Christopher Walker in “NGO Says Kazakhstan Not Ready to Head OSCE”, RFE/RL, 28 November 2006, http://www.rferl.org/content/ article/1073029.html 11 Catherine A. Fitzpatrick, “The OSCE’s Failure of Magical Thinking”, RFE/RL, 11 April 2011, available at: http://www.rferl.org/content/com- mentary_osce_failure_magical_thinking/3553618.html 12 Richard Weitz, Kazakhstan and the New International Politics of Eurasia (Washington: Central Asia-Caucasus Institute, 2008). 13 Interviews with former and then-current Ambassadors to the OSCE. Notes 293

14 Kimmo Kiljunen, Special Representative of the Chairmanship of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly for Central Asia, as summarized in “Kazakhstan’s Scorecard – Did Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship Strengthen or Weaken the OSCE?”, STETE: The Finnish Committee for European Security, 10 May 2011, available at: http://eng.stete.org/kazakhstans- scorecard—did-kazakhstans-chairmanship-strengthen-or-weaken-the- osce.html, last accessed 10 January 2014. 15 Margit Hellwig-Bötte, “Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship – The Road to Europe?” Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2008 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009), p. 177. 16 See, Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, p. 4; and also Kairat Abdrakhmanov, “Potential Kazakh Chairmanship and Agenda”, in Daniel Warner (ed.) The OSCE at a Turning Point (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 2007), p. 126. 17 Andrew Rettman, “EU States Unsure How to Handle Kazakhstan”, EU Observer, 5 December 2006. 18 David J. Kramer, Executive Director, Freedom House, in Kazakhstan – OSCE 2010: Progress or Regress? On Completion of Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship, p. 3. 19 Rachel Denber, Deputy Director of the Europe and Central Asia Division for Human Rights Watch, cited in Bruce Pannier, “Doubts Rise As Kazakhstan Prepares for OSCE Chairmanship”, RFE/RL, 5 December 2009, available at: http://www.rferl.org/content/feature/1895964.html 20 Delegation of Canada to the OSCE Response to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan, H.E. Marat Tazhin As delivered by Chargée d’affaires a.i. Karine Asselin, to the 663rd (Special) Plenary Meeting of the Permanent Council 30 April 2007, PC.DEL/369/07, available at: http://www. osce.org/pc/24934, emphasis added. 21 For the former view see H. Knox Thames, “The OSCE Chairman-in-Office and the Republic of Kazakhstan”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 18, No. 2, July 2007); for the latter view, see Walter Kemp, “Keep the Chairmanship in Perspective”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 18, No. 2, 2007), pp. 119–20. 22 Freedom House’s Jeffrey Goldstein wrote that the matter is “not an academic debate” and is one of those who pointed out how proactively the Finnish Chairmanship reacted to the Russian-Georgian war. Jeff Goldstein, “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship of the OSCE: Challenges and Opportunities in the Human Dimension”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), esp. p. 63. 23 Bulat Sultanov, “Kazakhstan and Its Preparations for the OSCE Chairmanship in 2010”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2009 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009), p. 334. At time of writing “extended triumvirate” did not generate any responses on the OSCE website. 24 The five-way Chairmanship structure was not specifically referred to in official pronouncements. Having concluded the Chairmanship in 2009 and speaking at the Permanent Council at which the Kazakhstan CiO was launched, the Greek Representative referred to the “Troika”. See Statement of the Permanent Representative of Greece, Ambassador Mara Marinaki, in response to the address by the Chairman-in-Office, Secretary of 294 Notes

State and Minister for Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan, H.E. Kanat Saudabayev, PC.DEL/14/10, 15 January 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/ pc/41151 25 Victor-Yves Ghebali, “The 2007 Madrid Ministerial Council Meeting: A Mixed Bag of on-Decisions and a Discrete Set of Measures”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008), p. 91. 26 Paul Kubicek, “Applying the Democratization Literature to Post-Soviet Central Asian Statehood”, in Emilian Kavalski (ed.) Stable Outside, Fragile Inside? Post-Soviet Statehood in Central Asia (Andover: Ashgate, 2010), p. 40. 27 A summary of such is given, albeit in this case after Kazakhstan was awarded the Chairmanship, in the brochure Inter-ethnic Dialogue: The Kazakhstan Model of Peaceful Coexistence and Preservation of Inter-ethnic Stability. This was entered as an OSCE document, and it contains numer- ous quotations from foreign dignitaries who praise Kazakhstan’s inter- ethnic and religious harmony. PC.SHDM.DEL/5/09, 9 July 2009, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/38008 28 Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, The Republic of Kazakhstan Presidential Election 10 January 1999 Assessment Mission, p. 3, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/14771 29 Martha Brill Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulﬁlled Promise (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), p. 88. 30 See generally Alexander Cooley, “Principles in the Pipeline”, International Affairs (Vol. 84, No. 6, 2008), pp. 1173–88. 31 These statistics were used by Nazarbayev in Brussels in 2010. See Georgiy Voloshin, “Kazakh President Makes Historic Visit to European Union”, Central Asia and Caucasus Analyst, 20 October 2010, http://www.cacian- alyst.org/?q=node/5446/print 32 Farkhad Sharip, “Astana Drifts Away From EU-Favored Energy Projects”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 99, 22 May 2009). 33 Cited in Ahto Lobjakas, “Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev in Brussels for Energy, OSCE”, RFE/RL 4 December 2006, available at: http://www.rferl.org/ content/article/1073209.html 34 Cited in Bruce Pannier, “U.S. Lawmakers Question Kazakhstan’s Fitness to Chair OSCE”, 1 July 2008, available at: http://www.rferl.org/ content/US_Lawmakers_Question_Astanas_Fitness_To_Chair_OSCE/ 1181044.html 35 Christopher Pala, “Kazakhs sink campaign to lead democracy group; West sees intolerance, corruption”, The Washington Times, 3 March 2006, in Lexis. 36 See again Chapter 1. 37 Reported in Interfax-Kazakhstan, 5 November 1999. 38 Cited in “Kazakh President Again Criticizes OSCE”, Interfax Central Asia News, 11 November 1999. 39 Sultanov, “Kazakhstan and Its Preparations”, p. 333. 40 Human Rights Watch, “Kazakhstan: OSCE Chairmanship Undeserved”, 30 November 2007, available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2007/11/ 29/kazakhstan-osce-chairmanship-undeserved 41 Pala, “Kazakhs Sink Campaign”. Notes 295

42 Nina Ognianova, “Disdaining press freedom, Kazakhstan undermines OSCE”, Committee to Protect Journalists, 14 September 2010 (no page number), available at: http://cpj.org/reports/2010/09/disdaining-press- freedom-kazakhstan-undermines-osc.php 43 Eu.observer, “EU states unsure how to handle Kazakhstan”, 5 December 2006, available at: http://euobserver.com/foreign/23030 44 An example of such thinking is given in Eric Marotte, “Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship: A Halfway State of Affairs”, Human Rights and Security (Vol. 21, No. 3 2010), p. 187. Hellwig-Bötte wrote of “the concern of a number of EU states that the Kazakh Chairmanship could threaten the human dimension acquis, take the OSCE – entirely in the Russian interest – down the path of an organization entirely dominated by its governments, and if not endanger the very existence of its flexible, independent institutions, above all … ODIHR, certainly reduce their effectiveness”. Hellwig-Bötte, “Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship”, p. 178. For an additional summation of the existence of such views, see Margarita Assenova and Janusz Bugajski, Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship: Challenges and Opportunities. A Policy Paper of the U.S.-Kazakhstan OSCE Task Force (Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2009), p. 32. Considering the following view “understandable but exces- sive”, William Courtney wrote “Others worry that Kazakhstan will be used by Russia, which has undermined the O.S.C.E. in the past, to advance Russian initiatives”. “Kazakhstan and the O.S.C.E.”, New York Times, 21 January 2010. 45 Hellwig-Bötte, “Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship”, p. 179, citing Address of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Tajikistan and the Republic of Uzbekistan to the OSCE Ministerial Council in Brussels, MC.DEL/5/06, Brussels, 3 December 2006. The statement was not available on the OSCE website, suggesting that it was classified for an internal distribution only. 46 Vladimir Socor, “Kazakhstan Poised to Step into the OSCE’s Chairmanship”, Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 117, 18 June 2009). 47 Delegation of Belarus, Statement by Mr. Alyaksandr Sychov, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Belarus to the OSCE, at the Special Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 14 January 2010 In response to the address by Mr. Kanat Saudabayev, Chairman-in-Office of the OSCE and Secretary of State and Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, PC.DEL/8/10, 14 January 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/search/apachesolr_ search/PC.DEL/8/10 48 Delegation of Belarus, Statement by Mr. Alyaksandr Sychov … 14 January 2010. 49 An initial ODIHR report, based on on-site surveys, considered “as realistic estimates that a total of 300–500 people were killed”. Preliminary Findings on the Events in Andijan, Uzbekistan, 13 May 2005 (Warsaw, 20 June 2005), available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/15653 50 H. Knox Thames, “The OSCE Chairman-in-Office and the Republic of Kazakhstan”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 18, No. 2, July 2007), p. 116. 296 Notes

51 Neil J. Melvin, “The European Union, Kazakhstan and the 2010 OSCE Chairmanship”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), p. 379. 52 Decision No. 20/06 Future OSCE Chairmanship (MC.DEC/20/06 of 5 December 2006), p. 63 of the full Ministerial Council documentation, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/23215 53 See the Interpretative Statement Under Paragraph IV.1(A)6 of the OSCE Rules of Procedure, MC.DEC/20/06, 5 December 2006, Attachment 1 and Attachment 2, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/23215 54 The delegation of Kazakhstan, the Interpretative Statement Under Paragraph IV.1(A)6 of the OSCE Rules of Procedure, MC.DEC/20/06, 5 December 2006, Attachment 2, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/23215 55 Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin. 56 Statement by H.E. Mr. Rakhat Aliyev, First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs – Special Representative of the Republic of Kazakhstan on cooperation with the OSCE at the Conference “Challenges of Kazakhstan: regional and global influence” (US Chamber of Commerce, Washington DC, 25 October 2005), SEC.DEL/257/05, 31 October 2005. 57 Cited in Pala, “Kazakhs Sink Campaign”. 58 Andrei Zagorski, “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship Bid: A Balance Sheet of Pros and Cons”, in Daniel Warner (ed.) The OSCE at a Turning Point (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, 2007), p. 93. See also his further comment on p. 93, that “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship is supposed to bridge the gap between the OSCE and the Central Asian states, particularly, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, that have become increasingly sceptical about the OSCE and have significantly decreased their cooperation with the Organization over the past years”. 59 “Kazakhstan focused on 2009 OSCE Chairmanship, on course with democratic reforms, says Foreign Minister”, OSCE press release, 30 April 2007, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/48484 60 Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, p. 1. 61 “Kazakhstan and so-called ‘Madrid Commitments’”, 1 October 2010, RC.GAL/6/10 1 October 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/ home/71600 62 Interpretative Statement under Paragraph IV.1(A)6 of the Rules of Procedure of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe MC.DEC/11/07, 30 November 2007, available at: http://www.osce.org/ mc/29488 63 “Kazakhstan and so-called ‘Madrid Commitments’”, 1 October 2010, RC.GAL/6/10 1 October 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/ home/71600. Unlike in the OSCE official record, the relevant section of the speech referred to here is bolded on the version posted on the Kazakhstani Embassy in Washington, available at: http://www.kazakhembus.com/ archived_article/news-bulletin-no-25-0, last accessed 10 January 2013. 64 “German Presidency of the Council of the European Union 663rd Meeting of the Permanent Council 30 April 2007 Statement of the European Union in response to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan, H.E. Marat Tazhin”, PC.DEL/367/07/Rev.1, 30 April 2007, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/24933 Notes 297

65 “Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 16th OSCE Ministerial Council Helsinki, December 4, 2008”, MC.DEL/53/08, 5 December 2008, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/35397 66 Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, p. 3. 67 Address of H.E. Dr. Marat Tazhin, p. 3. 68 Assenova and Bugajski, Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship, p. 29. 69 “Interview With Navbahor Imamova of Voice of America. Evan Feigenbaum, Deputy Assistant Secretary for South and Central Asian Affairs. Washington, DC. December 17, 2007”, on the US State Department website, available at: http://2001-2009.state.gov/p/sca/ rls/rm/2007/97961.htm 70 Joshua Kucera, “Kazakhstan: US Helsinki Commission Holds Astana Love Fest”, Eurasianet, 1 February 2010, available at: http://www. eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav020210.shtml 71 Quoted in Joshua Kucera, “Kazakhstan: US Helsinki Commission Holds Astana Love Fest”, Eurasianet, 1 February 2010, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav020210.shtml 72 Murat Laumulin, “Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship: History and Challenges”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2010 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2011), p. 317. 73 “Statement by Mr. Kanat Saudabayev, Secretary of State of the Republic of Kazakhstan, at the 680th Plenary Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 20 September 2007”, PC.DEL/912/07, available at: http://www.osce.org/ pc/26849 74 The OSCE Chairmanship and Kazakhstan: Reform Commitments Remain Unfulﬁlled, p. 40. 75 Martha Brill Olcott, Central Asian’s Second Chance (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005), p. 145. 76 Article 19, Memorandum on Kazakhstan’s Law on Mass Media (London: August 2006), available at: http://www.osce.org/fom/20732 77 “Blockage of RFE/RL Kazakh Website Ends”, RFE/RL, 6 June 2008, available at: http://www.rferl.org/content/pressrelease/1144721.html 78 United States State Department, Human Rights Report for 2006, published 6 March 2007, available at: http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/ 2006/78820.htm 79 Republic of Kazakhstan Presidential Election 4 December 2005 OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission. Final Report, p. 2, available at: http:// www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/18153 80 Thames, “OSCE Chairmanship”, p. 118. 81 Olcott, “Kazakhstan: Will “BRIC” be spelled with a K?”, p. 48. 82 Olcott, “Kazakhstan: Will “BRIC” be spelled with a K?”, p. 49. 83 Yevgeniy Zhovtis, “Human Rights: An International Context and Internal Developments. A View from Kazakhstan – The Future OSCE Chairmanship Country (2010)”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), p. 41. 84 See the US statement in January 2009: Kazakhstan publicly committed to protect the OSCE’s core human dimension mandate, including the autonomy and current mandate of 298 Notes

the Ofﬁce of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, and also to advance speciﬁc democratic political reforms in Kazakhstan before the end of 2008. Kazakhstan also pledged to work closely with the OSCE, with ODIHR, and its Representative on Freedom of the Media on these reforms. United States Mission to the OSCE Statement on New Legislation in Kazakhstan As delivered by Chargé d’Affaires Kyle Scott to the Permanent Council, Vienna February 12, 2009, available at: http://kazakhstan.usembassy.gov/st-02-12-09.html. Emphasis added. This is perhaps a particularly important statement as Kazakhstani documents subsequently cited the positive aspects of it. 85 Goldstein, “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship”, p. 62. 86 Pannier, “U.S. Lawmakers Question Kazakhstan’s Fitness”. 87 Regular Report to the Permanent Council, 3 July 2008, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/32708 88 Permanent Council No. 760 EU Statement on Kazakhstan, PC.DEL/305/09, 7 May 2009, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/37123. Emphasis added. 89 See Kazakhstan and So-called «Madrid Commitments, 1 October 2010. 90 Cited in Katya Kumkova, “Kazakhstan: Rights Groups Disappointed by Progress Ahead of OSCE Chairmanship”, Eurasia.net, 24 November 2009, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/ articles/eav112509.shtml 91 “IRI President Speaks on Kazakhstan’s Upcoming OSCE Chairmanship”, Remarks at the Center for Strategic and International Studies-Institute for New Democracies Conference, 11 June 2009. 92 Kazakhstan and the so-called “Madrid Commitments”, RC.GAL/6/10, 1 October 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/home/71600 93 See Amnesty International, “Kazakhstan: Human Rights”, http:// www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/europe/kazakhstan, last accessed 10 January 2013. 94 “Kazakhstan keen to enhance democracy, introducing media reforms, minister tells OSCE”, OSCE press release, 26 July 1997, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/48826 95 Kazakhstan and so-called “Madrid Commitments”. 96 OSCE Chief Dismisses Criticism, Says “We’re Working On The Long Haul”, RFE/RL, May 13, 2009, available at: http://www.rferl.org/ content/OSCE_Chief_Dismisses_Criticism_Says_Were_Working_On_The_ Long_Haul/1730609.html 97 Melvin, “European Union”, p. 379. 98 Cited in Joanna Lillis, “Kazakhstan: Experts Give Astana Mixed Review on OSCE Chairmanship”, Eurasianet.org, 13 January 2011, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62707 99 Edward Schatz and Elena Maltseva, “Kazakhstan’s Authoritarian ‘Persuasion’”, Post-Soviet Affairs (Vol. 28, No. 1, January–March 2012), pp. 45–65. 100 Delegation of Canada to the OSCE Statement by Ambassador Fredericka Gregory on the Possible Referendum in Kazakhstan. 847th Meeting of the Permanent Council 20 January 2011, PC.DEL/54/11, 26 January 2011, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/93509. Notes 299

101 Republic of Kazakhstan Early Presidential Election 3 April 2011 OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report, p. 1, available at: http://www. osce.org/odihr/elections/78714 102 Bhavna Dave, “Kazakhstan”, Nations in Transition 2011 (New York: Freedom House, 2012), p. 267. 103 Republic of Kazakhstan Early Parliamentary Elections. 15 January 2012. OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report, p. 6, available at: www.osce.org/odihr/elections/89401 104 Cited, among elsewhere, in “Elections in Kazakhstan: Multi-party Pooper”, The Economist, 20 January 2012. 105 Kazakhstan in the Freedom House Index, available at: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2011/kazakhstan, last accessed 2 August 2012. 106 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011, Kazakhstan, available at: http://www. state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186466 107 Irina Mednikova, “OSCE Needs Stricter Criteria for Members “, Institute of War and Peace Reporting, 25 November 2010, available at: http://iwpr.net/report-news/osce-needs-stricter-criteria-members 108 “Press release issued by the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly” (Vienna, 13 May 2010), available at: http://www.osce.org/pa/69269 109 That comment and other details of the case as provided by the Kazakhstani Delegation are available as Statement by H.E. Ambassador Kairat Abdrakhmanov, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the OSCE with information on the examination of the appeal submitted by the lawyer Mr. V. Voronov to the Supreme Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan on relieving Mr. Yevgeny Zhovtis of criminal Responsibility, CIO.GAL/61/10 3 May 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/68497 110 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2013: Events of 2012 (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2013), p. 448 111 David J. Kramer, Executive Director, Freedom House, in Kazakhstan – OSCE 2010: Progress or Regress? On Completion of Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship (Freedom House and OSCE 2010 Kazakhstan NGOs Coalition, 2011), p. 3, available at: http://www.nhc.no/filestore/ Publikasjoner/Rapporter/2011/CoalitionYearbookOSCE2010.pdf 112 Vladimir D. Shkolnikov, The 2010 OSCE Kazakhstan Chairmanship: Carrot Devoured, Results Missing (EUCAM, No. 15, 2011), p. 3. 113 “OSCE rights chief welcomes decision to release Zhovtis, but expresses concern about clampdown on Kazakh opposition” (press release), 1 February 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/87500 114 Comments on the Laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Activity of International or Foreign Non-Profit Organizations in the Territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan” and “On Amendments to Several Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan Concerning Non-Profit Organizations” (Warsaw: ODIHR, 20 June 2005), Opinion-Nr.: NGO – KAZ/031/2005 (DP/IU), available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/19179 115 Lene Wettland (Programme Coordinator for Central Asia, Norwegian Helsinki Committee), “Kazakhstan OSCE Chairmanship – a Hollow Diplomatic Victory”, in Kazakhstan – OSCE 2010, p. 28. 300 Notes

116 Walter Kemp, “The Astana Summit: A Triumph of Common Sense”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 21, No. 4, December 2010), p. 259. 117 OSCE Centres in Astana, Human rights and civil society, available at: http://www.osce.org/astana/44351, last accessed 9 January 2012. 118 See Alexandre Keltchewsky, “The OSCE Centre in Astana at Ten: Activities and New Directions”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2009 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2010), pp. 213–22. 119 “Statement by H.E. Usen Suleimen, Ambassador-at-Large of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan at the opening of OSCE Human Dimension Implementation Meeting Warsaw, 24 September 2012”, HDIM.DEL/0028/12, an OSCE document, also available at: http://www.kazakhembus.com/document/statement-by-h-e-usen- suleimen-ambassador-at-large-of-the-ministry-of-foreign-affairs-of-th 120 Compiled from Dave, “Kazakhstan”, Nations in Transition 2011. 121 See Kazakhstan’s Implementation of its OSCE Obligations to Observe the Human Right to a Healthy Environment, HDIM.NGO/0080/12, 25 September 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/94158 122 Marcel De Haas, “The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the OSCE: Two of a Kind?”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 18, No. 3, 2007), p. 258. 123 Dov Lynch, “ESDP and the OSCE”, in Giovanni Grevi, Damien Helly and Daniel Keohane (eds) European Security and Defence Policy: The First Ten Years (1999–2009) (Paris: Institute for Security Studies, 2009), p. 145. 124 By William Courtney, “Kazakhstan and the O.S.C.E.”, The New York Times, 21 January 2010. 125 Oskar Lehner, “Respecting Human Rights in Central Asia: Will this Stabilize or Destabilize the Region?”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), p. 55. 126 Rachel Denber, quoted in “The Myth of Stability”, The Times of Central Asia, 16 February 2012. 127 Robert Coalson, “Six Months Into OSCE Chair, Kazakhstan Found Wanting in Kyrgyz Events”, RFE/RL, 30 June 2010, available at: http://www.rferl.org/content/Six_Months_Into_OSCE_Chair_Kazakhstan _Found_Wanting_In_Kyrgyz_Events/2086883.html 128 Comments made at Chatham House, London, 10 December 2010. 129 Permanent Delegation of Norway, Statement in Response to H.E. Kanat Saudabayev, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan, As delivered by Ambassador Guttorm Vik to the Permanent Council, Vienna January 14, 2010, PC.DEL/12/10, 15 January 2010, available at: http://www. osce.org/pc/41149 130 See paragraph 5 of the Astana Commemorative Declaration: Towards a Security Community, 3 December 2010. 131 See, for example, Janusz Bugajski, Margarita Assenova and Richard Weitz, Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship: A Final Report (Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2011), p. v. 132 Zellner, p. 25. 133 Arie Bloed, “Kyrgyz Crisis, a Headache for the OSCE”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2010), p. 246. Notes 301

134 Eltje Aderhold, “Kazakhstan’s Upcoming OSCE Chairmanship: Election Related Issues”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2009), p. 36. 135 See this conclusion in Bugajski, Assenova and Weitz, Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship, p. vii. 136 See Chapter 7 in this book. 137 Shkolnikov, 2010 OSCE, p. 2. 138 “United States Mission to the OSCE Statement on New Legislation in Kazakhstan as delivered by Chargé d’Affaires Kyle Scott to the Permanent Council”, Vienna February 12, 2009, available at: http://kazakhstan. usembassy.gov/st-02-12-09.html. Emphasis added. 139 “Address by President Nazarbayev before the diplomatic corps, March 2, 2012, Astana”, available at: http://www.kazakhembus.com/document/ address-by-president-nazarbayev-before-the-diplomatic-corps-march-2- 2012-astana 140 “Working Session 15: Democratic institutions, including: Democratic elections”, in Human Dimension Implementation Meeting. Consolidated Summary (Warsaw, 24 September–5 October 2012), p. 37, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/96916 141 Statement by Norway to the 2012 Human Dimension implementation meeting, 2 October 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/94885 142 The statement is clear; but, additionally, leading international democracy and human rights promoters read the commitment accordingly. For example see, Goldstein, “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship”, p. 62. 143 Statement by Norway to the 2012 Human Dimension implementation meeting, 2 October 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/94885 144 Vladimir D. Shkolnikov, “Missing the Big Picture? Retrospective on OSCE strategic thinking on Central Asia”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 4, November 2009), p. 294. 145 Bugajski, Assenova and Weitz, Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship, p. vii. 146 Andrei Zagorski, “Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship: Challenges and Opportunities from the Moscow Perspective”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 1, 2009), pp. 25–9, quotation from the abstract. 147 “Kazakhstan and the OSCE”, The Economist, 6 December 2007. 148 “… for the ﬁrst time in recent memory led to our having a budget at the start of a new Chairmanship, a feat due in no small part to Kazakhstan’s leadership”. United States Mission to the OSCE, Response to Kazakhstani Foreign Minister Kanat Saudabayev as delivered by Chargé d’Affaires Carol Fuller to the Permanent Council, Vienna, January 14, 2010, PC.DEL/3/10, 14 January 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/41129 149 In addition to other addresses cited in this context, see also that of Kyrgyzstan: Delegation of Kyrgyzstan Statement by Ms. Lydia Imanalieva, Permanent Representative of the Kyrgyz Republic to the OSCE, at the Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 14 January 2010, PC.DEL/10/10, 14 January 2010, available at: www.osce.org/pc/41146 150 “Kazakhstan’s President welcomes decision to hold OSCE Summit in December in Astana”, OSCE press release, 5 August 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/cio/72133 302 Notes

151 “Statement by Mr. Kanat Saudabayev, Secretary of State of the Republic of Kazakhstan, at the 680th Plenary Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 20 September 2007”, PC.DEL/912/07, p. 5, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/26849 152 “Kazakhstan’s President welcomes decision to hold OSCE Summit in December in Astana”, OSCE press release, 5 August 2010, available at: http://www.osce.org/cio/72133 153 Cited in Joanna Lillis, “Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev Bashes OSCE amid Domestic Tension”. 154 Wolfgang Zellner, “From Corfu to Astana: The Way to the 2010 OSCE Summit”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2010), pp. 233–41. 155 Dave, “Kazakhstan”, Nations in Transition 2011, p. 267. 156 Wolfgang Zellner, “The 2010 OSCE Astana Summit: An Initial Assessment”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2010 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2011), p. 23. 157 Zellner, “2010 OSCE Astana Summit”, p. 26. 158 Zhovtis, “Introduction”, Kazakhstan – OSCE 2010: Progress or Regress?, pp. 4–5; Yevgeniy Zhovtis, “The Summit is Over, What’s Next?, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 21, No. 4, December 2010), pp. 255–7. 159 See Statement by Mr. Sergey Lavrov, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, at the Nineteenth Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council, Dublin, 6 December 2012 MC.DEL/21/12, 6 December 2012. 160 Usen Suleimenov, “Kazakhstan and the OSCE in 2010”, 20/20 OSCE and Central Asia Past Visions, Future Perspectives (Vienna: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Press and Public Information Section, 2010). 161 See again, the Interpretative Statement Under Paragraph IV.1(A)6 of the OSCE Rules of Procedure, MC.DEC/20/06,. 5 December 2006, Attachment 1 and Attachment 2, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/23215 162 “Kazhegeldin asks magistrate to start investigations on Rakhat Aliyev”, Kazakhstan Today, 2 November 2012.

Chapter 8 Making Norms Matter: The Theory and Practice of Internal Conditionality

1 Beth A. Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 3. 2 Natan Sharansky with Ron Denmer, The Case for Democracy: The Power of Freedom to Overcome Tyranny & Terror (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004), p. 276. 3 For some CoE initiatives see: http://hub.coe.int/en/council-of-europe-and- arab-spring1/. For the OSCE, for example, see “OSCE/ODIHR ready to support Mediterranean partners on path to democracy”, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/83851 4 This is not to say that some rollback has not occurred, such as with Austria over far-right Jörg Haider’s entry into a coalition government after his 1999 elections success, or the overconcentration of powers introduced by the government of Viktor Orban in Hungary. Notes 303

5 Quoted in “Canada fury at Sri Lanka choice for Commonwealth talks”, BBC News, 27 April 2013, available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia- 22322999 6 To be sure, the EU has a presence in and a strategy for Central Asia; Central Asian states participate in NATO’s Partnership for Peace. Outside Euro- Atlantic structures, the UN and international financial institutions such as the World Bank are present, as indeed are non-European regional, such as the Asian Development Bank. But as a Euro-Atlantic regional IO, on ground the OSCE is alone in Central Asia. 7 Alexander Warkotsch, “The OSCE as an Agent of Socialisation? International Norm Dynamics and Political Change in Central Asia”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 59, No. 5, 2007), p. 841. 8 Official Russian contestations over “double standards” regard minority rights in the Baltic and European institutions is assessed in Rick Fawn, “‘Bashing About Rights’: Russia and the ‘New’ EU States on Human Rights and Democracy Promotion”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 61, No. 10, December 2009), pp. 1777–803. 9 The abuses are detailed through literature on Chechen wars; detailed attention is given in Emma Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya: Russia and the Tragedy of Civilians in War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011). 10 For such an analysis see, again Sinikukka Saari, Promoting Democracy and Human Rights in Russia (London: Routledge, 2011). 11 Mark Entin and Andrei Zagorski, “Can the European Security Dialogue Return Russia the Sense of Ownership of the OSCE?”, The EU-Russia Centre Review (No. 12, November 2009), p. 20. 12 Alyson J.K. Bailes, “Europe’s Security: Attitudes, Achievements, and Unsolved Challenges”, in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds) Rewiring Regional Security in a Fragmented World (Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2011), p. 298. 13 See the conclusion of Elena Kropatcheva, “Russia and the Role of the OSCE in European Security: A ‘Forum’ for Dialog or a ‘Battlefield’ of Interests?”, European Security (Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2012), esp. p. 385. 14 Appeal of the CIS Member States to the OSCE Partners, Astana, September 15, 2004, 15 September 2004, available at: http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/ Brp_4.nsf/arh/70F610CCD5B876CCC3256F100043DB72?OpenDocument 15 See Luc Weber and Sjur Bergan (eds) The Public Responsibility for Higher Education and Research. Council of Europe Higher Education Series No. 2 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005). 16 Discussions at the Kennan Institute meetings in 2005 in Washington and Moscow, including with Russian academics, suggested that Russian membership of the CoE was extremely important precisely because of the “European” higher educational accreditation that Russia received. 17 Statement of the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation Alexander Alekseev to the Council of Europe at the 1124bis meeting of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (Strasbourg, 7 November 2011), available at: http://www.coe.mid.ru/doc/vistup_Posla_KMCE_en.htm. 18 Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, “The OSCE in Perspective: Six Years of Service, Six Questions and a Few Answers”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 23, No. 1, 2012), p. 33. 304 Notes

19 David Lewis, “Who’s Socialising Whom? Regional Organisations and Contested Norms in Central Asia”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 64, No. 7, 2012), pp. 1229–30; emphasis added. 20 To preserve interests of participating States, the OSCE allows certain statements to be excluded from public view. These are, however, generally available for consultation but not direct quotation at the Prague Secretariat. Such use was made particularly for the chapter on Tajikistan. 21 Yevgeniy Zhovtis, “The Summit is Over, What’s Next?”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 21, No. 4, December 2010), p. 256. 22 CoE monitoring is particularly well-documented in Gauthier de Beco (ed.) Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms of the Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012). 23 Olaf Melzer, “Poor Record: The Russian Chairmanship of the Council of Europe 2006”, Russian Analytical Digest (No. 12, 12 December 2006), p. 3. 24 See Richard Sakwa, “The Dual State in Russia”, Post-Soviet Affairs (Vol. 26, No. 3, 2010), pp. 185–206. 25 Robin Guthrie, “Europe? What Europe? The Future”, in John Coleman (ed.) The Conscience of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999), p. 81. 26 As again asserted in the Russian address following the start of the 2013 Ukrainian Chairmanship. See Statement by Mr. Andrey Kelin, Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation, at the 937th Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council 17 January 2013, PC.DEL/12/13, 18 January 2013, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/98837 27 Britain sent its Deputy Prime Minister; the United States its Secretary of State. Post-Soviet states were represented by their presidents. 28 This is how an ambassador to the OSCE, and now a senior member of its Secretariat, put it in June 2009. 29 Ghebali, “Where is the OSCE Going?” in Thierry Tardy (ed.) European Security in a Global Context: Internal and External Dynamics (London: Routledge, 2009), p. 69. 30 Terry Davis, “Russia Deserves to Lead the Council of Europe”, The New York Times, 24 May 2006. 31 Luc Van den Brande, “Democratic Reforms in Russia: The Role of the Monitoring Process of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe”, in Katlijn Malﬂiet and Stephan Parmentier (eds) Russia and the Council of Europe: 10 Years After (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010), p. 45. 32 United States Mission to the OSCE, Response to Russia regarding principles of ODIHR election observation missions. As delivered by Ambassador Ian Kelly to the Permanent Council, Vienna, March 29, 2012, available at: http://photos.state.gov/libraries/osce/242783/mar2012/MAR_ 29-12_responseRussia_reODIHR.pdf 33 See Robert Cooper, The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty- ﬁrst Century (London: Atlantic Books, 2003), esp. pp. 29 and 31. 34 See the section in Chapter 3. 35 See Martyn Bond, The Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), pp. 18–19. 36 President Riccardo Migliori, “Remarks to the Ministerial Council”, 6 December 2012, Dublin, available at: http://www.osce.org/mc/97844 Notes 305

37 United States Mission to the OSCE Response to Commissioner on Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ambassador-at-Large Konstantin Dolgov As delivered by Ambassador Ian Kelly to the Permanent Council, Vienna April 19, 2012, available at: http://www.osce.org/pc/89920 38 See Aaron Rhodes, “Protecting Human Rights Defenders: A Priority for the OSCE Participating States”, Helsinki Monitor (No. 4, 2006), pp. 295–301; and “Aspects of the Decline of Human Rights Defenders in the OSCE Region”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2009 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2010), pp. 257–65. 39 See the impassioned comments of Zhovtis, “The Summit is Over”. 40 Quotation from Aaron Rhodes and Paula Tsherne-Lempiäinen, “Human Rights and Terrorism in Central Asian OSCE States”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 13, No. 1, 2002), p. 51. See also Vladimir D. Shkolnikov, “Missing the Big Picture? Retrospective on OSCE Strategic Thinking on Central Asia”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 20, No. 4, November 2009), pp. 294–306. A similar concern for Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan was given in Tim Epkenhans, “The OSCE’s Dilemma in Central Asia”, in Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (ed.) OSCE Yearbook 2006 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007), pp. 211–22. 41 Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting “Electoral Standards and Commitments” Final Report, 15–16 July 2004, PC.SHDM.GAL/11/04, 28 October 2004, p. 3, available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/ elections/33988 42 For examples of such complaints being made, in this case in Azerbaijan to the OSCE Ofﬁce in Baku, see Zardusht Alizadeh, “The OSCE and Elections in Azerbaijan”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2005), pp. 127–31. It is of course possible that disgruntled regime candidates can make use of the OSCE to contest outcomes. 43 An authoritative indictment of OSCE “projects” in Central Asia is given in Shkolnikov, “Missing the Big Picture?”. 44 Different interpretations of the Andijan events are brieﬂy provided in the chapter on Kazakhstan’s OSCE Chairmanship. 45 Among the considerable literature, see Jekaterina Dorodnova, Challenging Ethnic Democracy: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Latvia, 1993–2001 (CORE Working Paper 10, 2003); David J. Galbreath, and Joanne McEvoy, The European Minority Rights Regime: Towards a Theory of Regime Effectiveness (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011); Judith G. Kelley, Ethnic Politics in Europe: The Power of Norms and Incentives (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); and Walter Kemp (ed.) Quiet Diplomacy in Action: The OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (The Hague: Brill, 2001). 46 Jeffrey T. Checkel, “Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change”, International Organization (Vol., 55, No. 3, Summer 2001), pp. 553–88. 47 See Par Angstrom and Andrew Hurrell, “Why the Human Rights Regime in the Americas Matters”, in Mónica Serrano and Vesselin Popovski (eds) Human Rights Regimes in the Americas (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2010), esp. p. 10. 306 Notes

48 Encouraging prospects are offered in Hsien-Li Tan, The ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights: Institutionalising Human Rights in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). 49 As for example in the speech of the Commonwealth Secretary General Chief Emeka Anyaoku, “The Commonwealth and Democracy”, 14 December 1999. 50 Steny Hoyer, “The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Future of Europe: Speech delivered at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars by Representative. Steny Hoyer, Co- Chairman, U.S. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, April 23, 1990”, in Samuel F. Wells (ed.) The Helsinki Process and the Future of Europe (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1992), p. 175. 51 Emanuel Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change: The OSCE’s Security Community-Building Model”, in Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 120. He renewed his view of the OSCE as a security community in 2011, also writing “the OSCE is building security by means of inclusion rather than exclusion or conditional future inclusion”. “The OSCE as a Security Community”, OSCE Magazine (Vol. 1, 2011), p. 15. Bibliography

Documents with lengthy titles and/or lengthy web addresses, as well as media reports, are cited in full in the endnotes but are not included in the bibliography. The bibliography is not exhaustive but represents publications that particularly assisted this work.

International Organizations Generally, International Relations and Conditionality

Adler, Emanuel and Michael Barnett (eds) Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Alfredsson, Gudmundur, Jonas Grimheden and Bertrand G. Ramcharan (eds) International Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms: Essays in Honour of Jakob Th. Moller, 2nd edition (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and Brill Academic, 2009). Baik, Tae-Ung, Emerging Regional Human Rights Systems in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). Cardenas, Sonia, “Norm Collision: Explaining the Effects of International Human Rights Pressure on State Behavior”, International Studies Review (Vol. 6, No. 2, June 2004), pp. 213–32. Cardenas, Sonia, Conﬂict and Compliance: State Responses to International Human Rights Pressure (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010). Chayes, Abraham and Antonio Handler Chayes, The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998). Checkel, Jeffrey T., Compliance and Conditionality (Arena Working Paper No. 18, 2000), available at: www.arena.iuo.no.publications/wp00_18.htm. Checkel, Jeffrey T., “Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change”, International Organization (Vol., 55, No. 3, Summer 2001), pp. 553–88. Cirtautas, Arista Maria and Frank Schimmelfennig, “Europeanisation Before and After Accession: Conditionality, Legacies and Compliance”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 62, No. 3, 2010), pp. 421–41. Cooper, Robert, The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty-ﬁrst Century (London: Atlantic Books, 2003). Epstein, Rachel A. and Ulrich Sedelmeier, “Beyond Conditionality: International Institutions in Postcommunist Europe after Enlargement”, Journal of European Public Policy (Vol. 15, No. 6, 2008), pp. 795–805. Flockhart, Trine (ed.) Socializing Democratic Norms: The Role of International Organizations for the Construction of Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2005). Flynn, Gregory and Henry Farrell, “Piecing Together the Democratic Peace: The CSCE, Norms, and the ‘Construction’ of Security in Post–Cold War Europe”, International Organization (Vol. 53, No. 3, June 1999), pp. 505–35.

307 308 Bibliography

Galbreath, David J. and Joanne McEvoy, The European Minority Rights Regime: Towards a Theory of Regime Effectiveness (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011). Hughes, James, Gwendolyn Sasse and Claire Gordon, Europeanization and Regionalization in the EU’s Enlargement to Central and Eastern Europe: The Myth of Conditionality (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004). Jacoby, Wade, The Enlargement of the European Union and NATO: Ordering from the Menu in Central Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Joachim, Jutta, Bob Reinalda and Bertjan Verbeek (eds) International Organizations and Implementation: Enforcers, Managers, Authorities? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007). Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998). Kelley, Judith, “International Actors on the Domestic Scene: Membership Conditionality and Socialization by International Institutions”, International Organization (Vol. 58, No. 3, July 2004), pp. 425–57. Kelley, Judith G., Ethnic Politics in Europe: The Power of Norms and Incentives (revised edition) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006). Kemp, Walter (ed.) Quiet Diplomacy in Action: The OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (The Hague: Brill, 2001). Koeberle, Stefan, Harold Bedoya, Peter Silarszky and Gero Verheyen (eds) Conditionality Revisited: Concepts, Experiences, and Lessons (Washington: World Bank, 2005). Luck, Edward C. and Michael W. Doyle (eds) International Law and Organization: Closing the Compliance Gap (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littleﬁeld Publishers, 2004). McAllister, Richard, From EC to EU: An Historical and Political Survey (Abingdon: Routledge, 1997). Nye, Joseph S. Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003). Pevehouse, Jon C., Democracy from Above: Regional Organizations and Democratization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). Raustiala, Kal and Anne-Marie Slaughter, “International Law, International Relations and Compliance”, in Walter Carlnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth Simmons (eds) The Handbook of International Relations (Sage Publications, Ltd., 2002), pp. 538–58. Risse, Thomas, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Russett, Bruce and John Oneal, Triangulating Peace: Democracy, Interdependence, and International Organizations (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001). Russett, Bruce, “Bushwhacking the Democratic Peace”, International Studies Perspectives (Vol. 6, No. 4, November 2005), pp. 395–408. Serrano, Mónica and Vesselin Popovski (eds) Human Rights Regimes in the Americas (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2010). Shelton, Dinah (ed.) Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Non-binding Norms in the International Legal System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). Simmons, Beth A., Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). Bibliography 309

Tan, Hsien-Li, The ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights: Institutionalising Human Rights in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge: University Press, 2011). Vachudova, Milada Anna, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage & Integration After Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).

General History and Institutional Overviews of the Council of Europe and the CSCE/OSCE

Bange, Oliver and Gottfried Niedhart (eds) Helsinki 1975 and the Transformation of Europe (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008). Barghoorn, Fredrick C., Détente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: The Free Press, 1976). Bates, Ed, The Evolution of the European Convention on Human Rights: From Its Inception to the Creation of a Permanent Court of Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Benoit-Rohmer, Florence and Heinrich Klebes, Council of Europe Law: Towards a Pan-European Legal Area (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005). Bilandzic, Vladimir, Dittmar Dahlmann and Milan Kosanovic (eds) From Helsinki to Belgrade: The First CSCE Follow-up Meeting and the Crisis of Detente: The First CSCE Follow-up Meeting and the Crisis of Détente (Bonn: Bonn University Press, 2012). Bond, Martyn, The Council of Europe and Human Rights: An Introduction to the European Convention on Human Rights (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010). Bond, Martyn, The Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011). Christoffersen, Jonas and Mikael Rask Madsen (eds) The European Court of Human Rights: Between Law and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). Coleman, John (ed.) The Conscience of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999). Croft, Stuart, John Redmond, G. Wyn Rees and Mark Webber, The Enlargement of Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999). De Beco, Gauthier (ed.) Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms of the Council of Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012). Donnelly, Jack, International Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993). Galbreath, David J., The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007). Haller, Bruno, An Assembly for Europe: The Council of Europe’s Parliamentary Assembly 1949–1989 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2007). Heraclides, Alexis, Helsinki-II Negotiations: The Making of the Pan-European Intergovernmental Organisation (London: Continuum, 1993). Heraclides, Alexis, Security and Co-operation in Europe: The Human Dimension 1972–1992: The Human Dimension, 1972–91 (London: Routledge, 1993). Huber, Denis, A Decade Which Made History: The Council of Europe, 1989–1999 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1999). Kicker, Renate (ed.) The Council of Europe: Pioneer and Guarantor for Human Rights and Democracy (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010). 310 Bibliography

Kleinsorge, Tanja E.J. (ed.) The Council of Europe (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2010). Kovrig, Bennett, Of Walls and Bridges: United States and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1991). LaLumière, Catherine, “The Council of Europe’s Place in the New European Architecture”, NATO Review (Vol. 40, 1992). Maresca, John J., To Helsinki: Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1973–75 (Durham, North Caucasus: Duke University Press, 1987). Mastny, Vojtech, Helsinki, Human Rights, and European Security: Analysis and Documentation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986). Milward, Alan, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51 (Abingdon: Routledge, 1987). Perry, Valery, “The OSCE Suspension of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 9, 1998), pp. 44–54. Petaux, Jean, Democracy and Human Rights for Europe: The Council of Europe’s Contribution (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2009). Royer, Aline, The Council of Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2010). Sandole, Dennis J.D., Peace and Security in the Postmodern World: The OSCE and Conﬂict Resolution (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007). Sharansky, Natan, with Ron Denmer, The Case for Democracy: The Power of Freedom to Overcome Tyranny & Terror (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004). Skilling, H. Gordon, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981). Snyder, Sarah B., Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Network (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). Tarschys, Daniel, “The Council of Europe: The Challenge of Enlargement”, The World Today (Vol. 51, No. 4, 1995), pp. 62–4. Thomas, Daniel C., The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). Urban, George R., Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). Weber, Luc and Sjur Bergan (eds) The Public Responsibility for Higher Education and Research. Council of Europe Higher Education Series No. 2 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005). Wells, Samuel F. (ed.) The Helsinki Process and the Future of Europe (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1992). Wenger, Andreas, Vojtech Mastny and Christian Nuenlist (eds) Origins of the European Security System: The Helsinki Process Revisited, 1965–75 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009). Winkler, Günter, The Council of Europe: Monitoring Procedures and the Constitutional Autonomy of the Member States (Vienna: Springer Verlag, 2006).

Post-Soviet Politics, Post-Cold War East-West Relations and International Organizations

Allison, Roy, Margot Light and Stephen White, Putin’s Russia and the Enlarged Europe (London: Blackwell-Wiley, Chatham House Papers, 2006). Bibliography 311

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International Election Observation Missions and Internal Conditionality

Alizadeh, Zardusht, “The OSCE and Elections in Azerbaijan”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2005), pp. 127–31. Bader, Max, “The Challenges of OSCE Electoral Assistance in the Former Soviet Union”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 22, No. 1, March 2011), pp. 9–18. Bader, Max, “Trends and Patterns in Electoral Malpractice in Post-Soviet Eurasia”, Journal of Eurasian Studies (Vol. 3, No. 1, 2012), pp. 49–57. Balian, Hrair, “Ten Years of International Election Assistance and Observation”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 12, No. 3, 2001), pp. 197–209. 316 Bibliography

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The Death Penalty

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The Chechen Wars and Internal Conditionality

Abresch, William, “A Human Rights Law of Internal Armed Conflict: The European Court of Human Rights in Chechnya”, European Journal of International Law (Vol. 16, No. 4, 2005), pp. 741–67. Akhmadov, Ilyas with Miriam Lanskoy, The Chechen Struggle: Independence Won and Lost (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). Bennett, Vanora, Crying Wolf: The Return of War in Chechnya (London: Pan Macmillan, 2001). Cornell, Svante E., “International Reactions to Massive Human Rights Violations: The Case of Chechnya”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 51, No. 1, 1999), pp. 85–100. Dunlop, John B., Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Evangelista, Matthew, The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union? (Washington: Brookings, 2002). Francis, Céline, “‘Selective Affinities’: The Reactions of the Council of Europe and the European Union to the Second Armed Conflict in Chechnya (1999–2006)”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 60, No. 2, 2008), pp. 317–38. Gall, Carlotta and Tom de Waal, Chechnya: A Small Victorious War (London: Picador, 1997). Gammer, Moshe, The Lone Wolf and the Bear: Three Centuries of Chechen Defiance: A History (London: Hurst & Company, 2006). Gilligan, Emma, Terror in Chechnya: Russia and the Tragedy of Civilians in War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). Bibliography 319

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Lucas, Michael R., “The War in Chechnya and the OSCE Code of Conduct”, Helsinki Monitor (Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995), pp. 32–42. Mendelson, Sarah E., “Anatomy of Ambivalence: The International Community and Human Rights Abuse in the North Caucasus”, Problems of Post-communism (Vol. 53, No. 6, November–December 2006), pp. 3–15. Murphy, Paul, The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror (Washington: Potomac, 2004). Politkovskaya, Anna, Putin’s Russia (London: Harvill Press, 2004). Politkovskaya, Anna, A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003). Politkovskaya, Anna, A Dirty War: A Russian Reporter in Chechnya (London: Harvill, 2001). Preclik, Petr, Judging the Chechen War: Assessing the Impact of the European Court for Human Rights on Russia’s Conduct in Chechnya (Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010). Russell, John, “Obstacles to Peace in Chechnya: What Scope for International Involvement?”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 58, No. 6, September 2006), pp. 941–64. Sakwa, “Chechnya: A Just War Fought Unjustly?”, in Bruno Coppieters and Richard Sakwa (eds) Contextualizing Secession: Normative Studies in Comparative Perspectives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 156–86. Sakwa, Richard (ed.) Chechnya: From Past to Future (London: Anthem Press, 2004). Seely, Robert, Russo-Chechen Conﬂict, 1800–2000: A Deadly Embrace (London: Frank Cass, 2001). Seierstad, Åsne, The Angel of Grozny: Life Inside Chechnya (London: Virago, 2009). Smith, Sebastian, Allah’s Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001). Solvang, Ole, “Chechnya and the European Court of Human Rights: The Merits of Strategic Litigation”, Security and Human Rights (Vol. 19, No. 3, September 2008), pp. 208–19. Souleimanov, Emil and Ondrej Ditrych, “The Internationalisation of the Russian-Chechen Conﬂict: Myths and Reality”, Europe-Asia Studies (Vol. 60, No. 7, September 2008), pp. 1199–222. Sundstrom, Lisa McIntosh, “Advocacy Beyond Litigation: Examining Russian NGO Efforts on Implementation of European Court of Human Rights judgments”, Communist and Post-Communist Studies (Vol. 45, Nos 3–4, September–December 2012), pp. 255–68. Tishkov, Valery, Chechnya: Life in a War-Torn Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). Trenin, Dmitri and Aleksei Malashenko with Anatol Lieven, Russia’s Restless Frontier: The Chechnya Factor in Post-Soviet Russia (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004). Trochev, Alexei, “All Appeals Lead to Strasbourg? Unpacking the Impact of the European Court of Human Rights on Russia”, Demokratizatsiya (Vol. 17, No. 2, Spring 2009), pp. 145–78. Van der Vet, Freek, “Seeking Life, Finding Justice: Russian NGO Litigation and Chechen Disappearances before the European Court of Human Rights”, Human Rights Review (Vol. 13, No. 3, 2012), pp. 303–25. Wood, Tony, Chechnya: The Case for Independence (London: Verso, 2007). Bibliography 321

Tajikistan and Internal Conditionality

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Kazakhstan’s Chairmanship of the OSCE

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Abkhazia, 33, 46 Arzumanyan, Alexander, 115 and death penalty, 116, 272n Asia-Plus, 188 Abramov, Vyacheslav, 218 Association Agreements (of the Adler, Emanuel, 248–9 EC/EU), 12, 100 Afghanistan, 139, 191, 192, 208, 227, Association of Southeast Asian 235 Nations (ASEAN), 248 and in relations between the OSCE Astana Appeal, 67, 73, 194, 202, 223, and Tajikistan, 168, 169, 238 178–83, 194 Astana Commemorative Declaration Agenda 2000, 12, 118 (of 2010), 223, 228, 240 Ahtisaari, Marti, 174 Astana Framework for Action, 228 AIDS, 36 Atkin, Muriel, 284n Akayev, Askar, 72, 73 Austria, 196, 230, 302n and the death penalty, 103 and accession to the CoE, 21, 23, 26 Albania and CSCE, 37 abolition of the death penalty, 97, Azerbaijan, 53, 54 101, 107, 108, 109, 114–15, and abolition of the death penalty, 118–19, 121–3, 130, 131, 234 96, 100, 107, 115 accession to the CSCE, 42, 43, 45 and accession to the CoE, 27, 32–3, Aliyev, Heydar, 100 34, 52 Aliyev, Rakhat, 192, 207, 208, 230, and accession to the CSCE, 43, 46 235, 292n and election observation, 64, 88, see also Azerbaijan 305n Alkhanov, Alu, 152, 154 Al-Qaeda, 133 Babitsy, Andrei, 159 American Convention of Human Baglay, Marat, 107 Rights, 242 Bailes, Alyson, 238 Amnesty International, 215, 216, 219 Baird, John, 233–4 and abolition of the death penalty, Baker, James A., 47, 58 98, 112, 122, 125 Bakiev, Kurmanbek, 222 and Kazakhstan Chairmanship of see also Colour revolutions and the OSCE, 215–16, 219 Tulip revolution Andijan (“events” of, in Uzbekistan), Balkans and the CSCE/OSCE, 50–1, 205, 247 239 Arab Spring, 231 see also Western Balkans Aral Sea, 221 Ball, George, 38 Armenia, 46, 62, 63, 66 Baltic Republics, 2, 3, 5, 14, 52, 57, and abolition of the death penalty, 151, 232, 248, 252n, 303n 100, 115 and abolition of the death penalty, and accession to the Council of 101, 105, 131 Europe, 32–3 and (non-)accession to CSCE, 42 and election observation, 62, 63 Baranaw, Vasil, 129 see also South Caucasus Barghoorn, Frederick, 39

325 326 Index

Barroso, José Manuel, 198, 201 Budanov, Yuri, 159 Basayev, Shamil, 110 Budapest Document, 46–7 see also Chechnya Budapest Summit, 47, 136 Belarus, 53, 54, 252n Bulgaria, 87 and the Council of Europe, 30, 31, and abolition of the death penalty, 52, 255n 96, 101, 115, 275n and criticisms of Western and accession to the Council of observation of human rights, Europe, 26 86, 90 and the CSCE/OSCE, 37 and the CSCE/OSCE, 43, 52, 170, Bush, George H.W., 48 175, 184, 191, 192, 204–5, 223, Bush, George W., 133 225, 235, 246 and international election Canada, 33, 37, 113, 233 observation, 66, 73, 76–8, 79, and election observation, 85, 87 86, 90, 205 and Kazakhstan OSCE and retention of the death penalty, Chairmanship, 199 95, 97, 98, 104, 106, 108, 114, Capital punishment see death penalty 119, 120, 128–30 Cardin, Benjamin, 214 Belgium Carter, Jimmy, 38 and the Council of Europe, 21, 22, Ceaus,escu, Nikolae, 100, 243 26 Central Asia, 30, 51, 52, 72, 170, 180, and OSCE Ministerial Council, 201 181, 182, 186, 187, 190, 191, 195, Belgrade Follow-up Meeting (of the 212, 239, 247 CSCE), 39 and the death penalty, 102–4 Bennett, Vanora, 142 and Kazakhstan’s OSCE Berisha, Sali, 101, 123 Chairmanship, 195, 226, 233 Bertelsmann index of political and relations with the OSCE, transformation, 52, 54 including the human Beslan school siege, 128, 138, 277n dimension, 168, 170–1, 173, see also Chechnya 174, 187, 195, 197, 204, 208, Bindig, Rudolf, 118, 137, 144, 158, 161 211, 220, 221–3, 233 Bloed, Arie, 223 Central Commission for Elections and Blue Book (of the CSCE), 37 Referenda (CCER) Bogatyrov, Valentin, 73 Central Electoral Commission (CEC) Border Management Staff College of Belarus, 76 (BMSC) (in Tajikistan), 180–1, of Kyrgyzstan, 75 190–1 of the Russian Federation, 74–5, 268n Borodavkin, Alexei, 87 Chaika, Yuri, 127 Borshchev, Valery, 127 Chairmanship-in-Office (of the Bosnia-Herzegovina, 42, 51, 87 OSCE), 176, 195 and the death penalty, 130 see also Kazakhstan Chairmanship- Boston Marathon bombings, 137 in-Office; see also “Troika” Bowring, Bill, 162 Chechnya, 7, 16, 31, 32, 50, 132–66, Boyko, Vitaliy, 114 207, 233, 234, 236, 245 Brezhnev, Leonid, 39 and CSCE/OSCE, 47, 50, 134–6, Britain see United Kingdom 145, 157, 159 British Broadcasting Corporation and influence on retention of the (BBC), and broadcasting in death penalty in Russia, 27, Tajikistan, 187 110, 116, 127–8 Index 327

and non-governmental Commonwealth of Independent organizations, 140, 141, 144, States Election Observation 148, 155–6, 161 Missions, 77, 175, 226 and Russia and the Council of Conference of INGOs (of the Council Europe, 132–66, 237, 239, 241, of Europe), 246 242, 244, 245 Conference on the Human Checkel, Jeffrey T., 153–4, 164, 251n Dimension (of the CSCE, in Chernokozovo detention centre, 158 Moscow), 41 Chief Election Ofﬁcer of Canada, 85 Conference on Security and China, 51, 169, 171, 181, 193 Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), and retention of the death penalty, 3, 20, 36–51, 55, 57–8, 59–60, 66, 112 85, 98, 135–6, 145, 193, 203, 210, and Tajikistan, 169, 171, 181, 193 232, 238, 248, 250n Churchill, Winston, 21, 22, 253n see also Helsinki Final Act; the Clinton, Bill, 48, 133, 141, 278n Organization for Security and Clinton, Hillary, 246 Cooperation in Europe Code of Conduct (for election Congress of Local and Regional observers of the OSCE/ODIHR), Authorities of the Council of 76, 78, 88 Europe, 35 Code of Conduct on Politico-Military Convention for the Protection of Aspects of Security (of the OSCE), Human Rights and Fundamental 134–6, 146, 148 Freedoms, 92, 97 Cold War, 1, 2, 237, 245 Conventional Forces in Europe, and end of/post-Cold War, 1, 4, 25, Treaty on, 134 48, 49, 59, 145, 150, 231, 237, Convention on the Standards of 245, 248 Democratic Elections, Electoral and the Helsinki process, 37–41, 45 Rights, and Freedoms in the Collective Security Treaty Member States of the Organization (CSTO), 181 Commonwealth of Independent Colour revolutions, 66, 70–1 States, 76–7 see also Orange revolution; Rose Copenhagen Document of the revolution; Tulip revolution Conference on Security and Commissioner for Human Rights (of Cooperation in Europe, 58, 83, the CoE), 29 85, 89, 98, 247, 271–2n Committee of Ministers (of the CoE), Council of Europe, 2, 3, 21 22–3, 29 and accession, 22–45 Committee on Legal Affairs and and Chechnya, 132–66, 237, 239, Human Rights (of PACE), 29, 137 241, 242, 244, 245 Committee on Relations with see also Committee of Ministers; European Non-Member Countries Secretary General; death (of PACE), 34 penalty; Parliamentary Assembly Committee to Protect Journalists, 204 of the Council of Europe Commonwealth, and Council for Mutual Economic Commonwealth Heads of Assistance, 45 Government Meeting, 233–4 Courtney, William, 221, 295n Commonwealth of Independent Craner, Lorne W., 215 States (CIS), 52, 69, 169–70, 181 Croatia and Kazakhstan Chairmanship of and abolition of the death penalty, the OSCE, 204 96, 99 328 Index

Croatia – continued Entin, Mark and Zagorski, Andrei, 238 and the CSCE/OSCE, 43 Essen European Council, 12 and entry into the Council of Estonia, 53, 54 Europe, 27, 28, 30–1, 42 and accession to the Council of Cyprus, 23, 26, 37 Europe and abolition of the Czech Republic, the, 27, 30, 53, 54 death penalty, 96, 101, 105, and property dispute with 110, 115, 117–18 Liechtenstein, 30 and the CSCE/OSCE, 46, 50, 151, Czechoslovakia 152, 236 and abolition of the death penalty, and Slavophone minorities, 151, 96, 99, 121 156, 236 and accession to the CoE, 12, 25, Eurasian Economic Community, 170 26, 29, 30, 44, 254n EurasiaNet, 211, 216 and the CSCE/OSCE, 30, 42, 44, European Bank for Reconstruction 291n and Development, 112, 145, 279n Davis, Terry, 44, 232 European Charter for Regional or Death penalty Minority Languages, 33 see also Protocol No. 6 European Charter of Local De Brichambaut, Marc Perrin, 20, 50, Self-Government, 33 63, 216, 239 European Coal and Steel Community, Decalogue (of the Helsinki Final Act), 23 37–8 European Convention for the Democratization (section of the Prevention of Torture and ODIHR), 59 Inhuman or Degrading Denber, Rachel, 139 Treatment or Punishment, 33, 35 ∨ Dienstbier, Jirí, 25 European Convention on Human Dipoli, Finland, 37 Rights, 22, 102, 121, 148, 160 Djamaldayev, Shaid, 157 European Court of Human Rights, 7, Djindjic,´ Zoran, 122 22, 136, 140, 143–4, 148, 156, Donnelly, Jack, 29 160–3, 215–16, 240, 283n Dublin Ministerial Council, 183, 191, European Cultural Convention, 31 229 European Economic Community Dudayev, Djokar, 135, 142 (EEC), 11 Dzhabrailov, Taus, 156 see also European Union European Movement, 21 Eastern Partnership, 13, 231 European Parliament, 62, 80, 164 Economic Co-operation Conference European Parliamentary elections, 86 (of the CSCE), 41 European Union Economic Forum (of the and abolition of the death penalty, CSCE/OSCE), 41 98–9, 105, 110, 114, 115, 119, Economist, The, 146, 227 122 Election Assessment Mission, 60, 82 and Belarus, 128 Election Expert Team, 60 and Chechnya/Russia, 141, 278n election observation missions see and Kazakhstan’s OSCE international election Chairmanship, 198, 201–2, observation missions 209, 215, 216, 221, 223, 235 Elections Observation Handbook (of and post-communist accession, 12, the ODIHR), 85 49, 86–7, 231, 250n Index 329

and Tajikistan, 187 Global War on Terror, 141, 277n, 285n; see also Eastern Partnership see also 9/11 attacks; terrorism Evangelista, Matthew, 164 Glotov, Sergei, 153 Glover, Audrey, 61 Facebook.com, and media freedoms Goldstein, Jeffrey, 293n in Tajikistan, 187 Goodby, James, 59, 91 Fascell, Dante B., 39 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 40, 41 Finland, 37, 291 Gorno-Badakhshan (in Tajikistan), as OSCE Chairmanship, 176, 180, 179, 188 193, 199, 291n, 293n Government Operated NGO Fischer, Leni, 112, 113, 124 (GONGO), 220 Fischer, Stanley, 279n Greece Fogelsong, Todd, 251n accession to and suspension from Fokina, Ninel, 215 the Council of Europe, 23–4 Ford, Gerald, 38 as OSCE Chairmanship, 180 foreign direct investment in Grifﬁth, William E., 40 Kazakhstan, 201 Gross, Andreas, 138, 158 Framework Convention for the gross domestic product, 160, 169 Protection of National Minorities, Grozny, 139, 154 33, 35 see also Chechnya Freedom House, 52, 53, 186, 188, 189, 198, 212, 217, 218, 219, 252n Haider, Jörg, 302n Haita, 133 Gaddis, John Lewis, 39 Halonen, Tarja, 29 Gates, Robert, 39, 40 Halonen-Order, 29, 34 General Agreement on Tariffs and Haraszti, Miklós (as OSCE Trade, 11 Representative for Freedom of George, Bruce, 62, 69, 78 Media), 214 Georgia, 53, 54, 66, 116, 208, 228, Hastings, Alcee, 201, 211, 214 238 Havel, Václav, 25, 29, 42 and abolition of the death penalty, Hellwig-Bötte, Margit, 295n 96, 100, 106, 115, 116 Helsinki (as city), 37, 210 and accession to the Council of Helsinki Final Act (HFA)/Helsinki Europe, 27, 30, 32, 33, 52 Accords, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42–4, 55, and the CSCE/OSCE, 43, 46 85, 192, 203, 206, 216, 223, 231, and election observation, 63, 71, 237, 240, 243, 248 79, 80 Helsinki Ministerial Council, 209 see also Rose revolution High Commissioner on National Geremek, Bronislaw, 25, 254n Minorities (HCNM) of the OSCE, German uniﬁcation, 48, 99 55, 239, 245 Germany, Federal Republic of, Holovaty, Serhiy, 109, 112 and accession to the Council of Holy See see Vatican, The Europe, 21, 23, 26 Horn, Gyula, 121 and the CSCE, 37; see also Ostpolitik Human dimension/third basket (of and the death penalty, 114 the CSCE/OSCE), 38, 237 Ghebali, Victor-Yves, 82, 202, 203 and Kazahkstan’s OSCE Gil-Robles, Alvaro, 158–9, 164 Chairmanship, chapter 7 passim Gilligan, Emma, 142 and Tajikistan, 167, 168, 177, 181, Gjoka, Myrteza, 108 182, 189–91 330 Index

Human Rights (section of the Judd, Lord, 157 ODIHR), 59 Human Rights Watch (HRW), 148, Kabardino-Balkaria, 138 149, 161, 162 see also North Caucasus Hungarian Chairmanship of the Kaczynski,´ Lech, 105, 121, 122, 273n OSCE, 144 Kadyrov, Ramzan, 161–2 Hungary, 302n Karimov, Islam, 205 and abolition of the death penalty, see also Uzbekistan 99, 121 Kazakhstan and accession to the Council of and the Council of Europe, 102, 170 Europe, 12, 24, 26, 30, 96, 99, and the death penalty, 97, 102, 113, 254n 272n and the CSCE/OSCE, 37, 46 Kazakhstan Chairmanship-in-Ofﬁce (of the OSCE), 59, 195–231 Iliescu, Ion, 30 Kazakhstan Helsinki Committee, 215 Inter-American Court of Human Kazakhstan NGOs Coalition, 212 Rights, 242 KazTelecom, 212 Inter-governmental Commission of KGB (of Belarus), 73 Human Rights (of ASEAN), 248 Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 35 International Covenant on Civil and Kolokoltsev, Vladimir, 128 Political Rights, 11, 98, 105 Kondi, Thimjo, 114 International Covenant on Economic, Kosachev, Konstantin, 154 Social and Cultural Rights, 11 Kovalev, Sergei, 136, 147, 180n International Crisis Group, 181 Kozyrev, Andrei, 48, 141, 143 International election observation Kravchenko, Yuriy, 102 missions, 6, 7, 16, 17, 42, 55, Kuchma, Leonid, 125 56–91, 172, 173, 200, 224, 225, Kupchyshyn, Oleksandr, 124, 125 229, 233, 234, 236, 238, 241, 243, Kuramshin, Vadim, 219 244, 247 Kyrgyzstan, 53, 54, 63, 70,72, 169, International ﬁnancial institutions, 173, 190, 191, 212, 222 181, 242; see also European Bank and abolition of the death penalty, for Reconstruction and 97, 103–4 Development; International and election observation, 66, 73, 75 Monetary Fund; World Bank and ethnic clashes in 2010, 222 International Monetary Fund, 112, see also Tulip revolution 279n International Republican Institute, LaLumière, Catherine, 24–5 215 Latvia, 49, 50, 151, 152, 236 Israel, 33 and abolition of the death penalty, Istanbul Summit/Istanbul Summit 97, 108 Declaration (of the OSCE), 59, Lavrov, Sergei, 45, 67, 72, 147, 165, 134, 135 268n ITAR-TASS, 100 Law and Justice Party (of Poland), 121 ∨ ∨ Ivanov, Igor, 146, 150, 156, 158–9 Lenarcic, Janez, 219 Ivanov, Viktor, 128 LeVine, Steve, 139 Liechtenstein, 20, 26, 37 Jackson, William D., 154 Lieven, Anatol, 142 Jamestown Foundation, 149–50 Likhachev, Vasiliy, 108, 280n Japan, 33 Liter, 217 Index 331

Lithuania (as OSCE Chairmanship), Moscow Mechanism, 41 219 see also Vienna Mechanism long-term [election] observers, 61, 86, Mustafayev, Buritosh, 107 88, 268n Lozva (Russian death row), 110 Nagorno-Karabakh, 33 Lukashenko, Aleksander, 77, 106, NATO see North Atlantic Treaty 114, 128, 129 Organization Lukin, Vladimir, 109 National Human Rights Action Plan Lynch, Dov, 221 (of Kazakhstan), 215 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 191, 195, 196, Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 207, 212, of, 9, 27, 44, 46, 54, 96, 100 213, 216, 217, 219, 224, 226, 227, “Madrid Commitments”, 209, 211, 228, 230, 235, 242 212–15, 216, 221, 225, 229, Nazarbayeva, Dariga, 196 292n needs assessment mission (NAM) (for Madrid Follow-up Meeting (of the elections), 60 CSCE), 39 Nemtsov, Boris, 110 Madrid Ministerial Council, 174, 179, news.tj, 188 190, 208–10, 212–14, 225 9/11 attacks, 133, 138, 140, 169 Malta, 23, 26, 29 and Central Asia, 169, 247 Manas airbase, 169 and Western responses to Russian Matvienko, Valentina, 146 actions in Chechnya, 141, 164 McFaul, Michael, 133 Niyazov, Saparmurat, 44 ∨ Meciar, Vladimír, 108, 121 non-governmental organizations, 65, Medvedev, Dmitrii, 77 71, 98, 170, 190, 229, 236, 240, Memorial, 141, 155, 281n 241, 242, 243, 244, 246–8 Meshketian Turks, 30 and abolition of the death penalty, Mexico, 33 98 Migliori, Riccardo, 63 and Chechnya, 140, 141,144, 148, Mijatovi´c, Dunja, 188 155–6, 161 see also Representative on Freedom and Kazahkstan’s OSCE of the Media Chairmanship, 190, 197–9, Milosevi´c, Slobodan, 28 203–4, 212–13, 214, 215–16, Milward, Alan, 22 217, 219–20, 229 Minsk bombing, 119 and Tajikistan, 170, 178, 189–90 Mitterrand, François, 24 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Moldova, 53, 54, 79, 208, 228, 231 (NATO), 42, 48, 49, 51, 65, 125, and abolition of the death penalty, 169, 178 105, 116, 272n accession to/membership of, ix, 1, and accession to the Council of 2, 5, 10, 12–13, 231, 239, 251n Europe, 27, 28, 52 response to WTO on European and CSCE/OSCE, 43, 46, 79 security talks, 36–7 and election observation, 66, 79 North Atlantic Treaty Organization see also Transdniestria Parliamentary Assembly, 62, 80 Mongolia, 44–5 North Caucasus, 132, 138, 150 Montenegro, Republic of, 28, 33, 42, see also Chechnya 44, 96 Norway, 21, 26, 37, 222, 225–6 and election observation, 87 Nukhazhiyev, Nurdi, 159–60 Moroz, Oleksander, 109 Nye, Joseph S., Jr., 277–8n 332 Index

Office for Democratic Institutions and Poland, 37, 48, 87 Human Rights (ODIHR), 46, 49, and abolition of the death penalty, 50, 55, chapter 3 passim, 172, 96, 100, 101, 104, 105, 121–2 239, 241, 243, 244–5, 247 and accession to the CoE, 12, 24, and Kazakhstan’s OSCE 25, 26, 99, 254n, 269n Chairmanship, 183, 200, Politkovskaya, Anna, 139, 144, 279n 202–5, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, Powell, Colin, 197 215, 217–18, 219, 220, 223–6, Press Freedom Index, 185–6 229, 233, 234 Primakov, Evgenii, 146, 151, 153 and Tajikistan, 172–5, 183–5, 191 Pristavkin, Anatoliy, 114, 126, 128 see also election observation Protocol No. 6, chapter 4 passim, 130, Office for Free Elections, 45, 59 236 see also Office for Democratic Protocol No. 13, 92, 116 Institutions and Human Rights Protocol No. 14, 163 Olcott, Martha Brill, 196, 213 Protocol No. 14–bis, 163 Onopriyenko, Anatoly, 125–6 Pryakhin, Vladimir, 177, 180 Orange Revolution, 70–1, 77, 79 Pursianen, Christer, 157 see also Colour revolutions; Ukraine Putin, Vladimir, 9, 34, 35, 74, 132, Orban, Viktor, 302n 133 Organization of American States, 242 and Chechnya, 133, 141, 142 Orlov, Yuri, 39 and elections in post-Soviet states, OSCE Academy, 190 68–9, 74 OSCE Assistance Group to Chechnya, 135 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 40, OSCE Central Asia Media Conference 159, 212, 222 on Pluralism and Internet Rahmon/Rahmonov, Emomali, 103, Governance, 187 171, 191 OSCE Parliamentary Assembly (OSCE Rasmussen, Klaus, 178 PA), 62, 63, 69, 75, 80, 81, 219, Reporters without Borders, 185–6, 243, 244, 246 188 OSCE Regional Coordinator Representative on Freedom of the Demining Council, 179 Media, 55, 59, 209, 212, 215, 235, Ostpolitik,37 245, 298n Republika Srpska, 130 Pakistan, 179 RIA Novosti, 90 Palmer, Mark, 51 Robinson, Mary, 157 Parliamentary Assembly of the Roma and Sinti Issues (of the ODIHR), Council of Europe (PACE), 116, 59 117, 119, 123, 124, 241, 242, Romania, 243 243, 244, 245, 246, 250n, 279, and abolition of the death penalty, 280n 96, 99–100 and Chechnya, 136, 137, 145, 146, and accession to the CoE, 27, 30 148–50, 152–4, 158–9 Rose revolution, 66 Partnership for Peace, 11, 178 see also Colour revolutions; Georgia Pavlikovska, Lada, 113 Roy, Olivier, 51 Pekhtin, Vladimir, 128 Rumsfeld, Donald, 169 Permanent Council (of the OSCE), 47 Rupel, Dmitrij, 71 Physical Security and Stockpile Russell, John, 142–3 Management, 178–9 Russell-Johnson, Lord, 127 Index 333

Russian Federation, 53, 54, 55 Sharansky, Natan, 231 and abolition of the death penalty, Shevardnadze, Eduard, 71, 100, 115, 97, 101–2, 105, 106–7, 109, 116 113, 115–16, 117, 126–8, 241 Shkolnikov, Vladimir D., 219, 226, 247 and accession to the Council of Shokin, Aleksandr, 151 Europe, 27, 28, 31–2, 34–5, 36, short-term [election] observers (STO), 102, 145–6, 150–1, 160, 162, 237 61–2, 63, 76, 218, 224 and Chechnya, 31, 32, 116, 132–66, Slovakia, 27, 44, 87 234, 237, 239, 241, 242, 244, and abolition of the death penalty, 245 108, 121 and election observation, 35, 64, Slovenia, 27, 43, 71 65, 67–8, 72, 76, 80, 83, 84, 86, and abolition of the death penalty, 87, 88, 143, 174 96, 99 and in the United States, 89–90 Small Arms and Light Weapons and Kazakhstan’s OSCE (SALW)/weapons destruction, in Chairmanship, 204, 206, 207, Tajikistan, 178–9, 183, 192, 194, 224, 226, 227, 229, 230, 232–3 232, 235 and the OSCE, 35, 48–9, 50, 51, 52, Smith, Christopher H., 72 69, 70, 79, 172, 182, 204, 227, Snyder, Sarah B., 39 238 Soares, Joao, 218 and relations with Tajikistan, 168, Socor, Vladimir, 75 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 179, Solvang, Ole, 161 181, 193 South Caucasus, 30, 32, 93, 100, 130, and support for/defence of 131 Slavophone minorities in see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Estonia and Latvia, 151–2, 236 Georgia Russian-Georgian war of 2008, 163, South Ossetia, 33, 46, 272n 238, 293n Spain and accession to the Council of Saudabayev, Kanat, 210–11, 212, 227 Europe, 23, 26 Schalger, Erika B., 40 and election observation, 86 Schuman, Robert, 22 and as OSCE Chairmanship, 176, Schwimmer, Walter, 33, 158 199 Secretary-General (of the CoE), 23, see also Madrid Ministerial Council 120, 160 Spillover Mission to Skopje, 9, 46 see also Davis, Terry; Schwimmer Sri Lanka, 233–4 Walter; Tarschys, Daniel Straesser, Christoph, 34 Secretary-General (of the OSCE), 46, Strohal, Christian, 73, 74, 75 134, 239 Stubb, Alexander, 180 see also de Brichambaum, Marc Stuk, Alexei, 114 Perrin; Zannier, Lamberto Summit of Heads of State and Serbia, 229, 243 Government (of the Council of Serbia and Montenegro, 28, 33, 122 Europe), 94 Shamanov, Vladimir A., 139 Surkov, Vladislav, 70 Shanghai Cooperation Organization Sutalinov, Murat, 104 (SCO), 170, 171, 181, 221 Sweden and election observation, 74, 175, and the Council of Europe, 21, 26 226 and criticism by Russia of ODIHR, Sharandin, Yury, 157 66, 67, 72 334 Index

Tajikistan, ix, 53, 54, 167–94, 212, Ukraine 13, 52, 53, 54, 63, 71, 234, 222, 232, 233, 235, 236, 238 and abolition of the death penalty, and the CSCE/OSCE, 7, 43, 46, 101–2, 106, 109–10, 112–14, 167–94, 242, 243 117, 122, 123–6, 130, 131, 236, and the death penalty, 97, 102, 103 241 and election observation, 66, 185 and accession to the Council of and media freedom, 185–9, 193 Europe, 27, 102, 112 and relations with the ODIHR, 172, and international election 173–4, 183–5 observation, 66, 69, 79, 87, Tarschys, Daniel, 95, 118, 122 174–5 Task Force (of the OSCE, for and OSCE Chairmanship, 229, 243 Tajikistan), 176–7, 180, 186, 188, and OSCE presence, 46, 170 189, 191, 235 see also Orange revolution Tazhin, Marat, 208, 209, 210, 223 UN Committee on Torture, 113 Terrorism, 114, 127–8, 129, 169, 170, UN Development Programme, 178 238 United Kingdom and Chechnya, 110, 132, 137, 138, and abolition of the death penalty, 139, 140, 142, 144, 156–7 95 and Kazahkstan’s original and the Council of Europe, 21 conception of the OSCE, 203, and election observation, 86, 87 227 United Nations, 3, 132, 139, 141, 157, Tishkov, Valery, 142 169, 173, 212 Tolerance and Non-Discrimination Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (section of the ODIHR), 59 3, 12, 24, 37, 39, 40, 42, 47, 55, Transdniestria, 79, 272n 58, 59, 99, 237 Treaty of London, 21 and CSCE norms, 39, 40, 42, 58, 237 Treaty on Open Skies, 46 and special guest status in PACE, “Troika” of the Chairmanship-in- 24, 58 Ofﬁce (of the OSCE), 199, 293n United States of America, 11 see also Kazakhstan Chairmanship- and Chechnya/Russia, 133, 137–8, in-Ofﬁce 140, 141 Tsivilev, Robert, 126–7 and the Council of Europe, 24, 33 Tulip revolution, 72 and CSCE/OSCE, 36, 37, 39, 47, 70, see also Colour revolutions; 245 Kyrgyzstan and the death penalty, 107, 113 Turkey and election observation, 63, 74, and abolition of the death penalty, 86, 87, 88, 90 121 and Kazakhstan Chairmanship of and accession to and suspension the OSCE, 200–1, 208, 210, from the Council of Europe, 212, 219, 220, 221, 227, 242, 21, 24, 26 243, 297n, 301n see also Istanbul Summit UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Turkmenistan, 22, 44 Rights, 11, 40 and abolition of the death penalty, Urban, George, 40 97, 103, 104 US AID, 71 and international election US Helsinki Commission, 40, 72, 211, observation, 66, 67, 81 248 Index 335

Usmanov, Azam, 77–8 World Bank, 51, 112, 303n Usubov, Ramil, 107 Uzbekistan, 43, 51, 53, 54, 170, 175, Yabloko, 280n 192, 205, 212, 222, 235, 247 Yanukovich, Viktor, 69–70, 71, 79 and the death penalty, 97, 102, 107 Yatsenyuk, Arseniy, 174 and election observation, 66, 77, Yavorivsky, Vladimir, 109 81, 82 Yeltsin, Boris, 31, 32, 102, 119, 126, see also Andijan 132, 133, 134, 142, 151, 278n Yertysbayev, Yermukhamet, 216–17 Väänänen, Pentti, 81 YouTube, 188 Vachudova, Milada, 30 Yugoslavia, 28, 46, 48 Van der Linden, René, 122 and abolition of the death penalty, Varul, Paul, 118 98, 99 Vatican, The, 37, 86 and participation in CSCE/OSCE, Veshnyakov, Aleksandr, 68 37, 42, 44, 45 Vienna, as city, 196, 230 and special guest status in PACE, as metaphor for divisions in the 24–5, 26 OSCE, 67, 87, 198, 229 see also Serbia; Serbia and Vienna Follow-up Meeting (of the Montenegro CSCE), 39 Yushchenko, Viktor, 71 Vienna Mechanism see also Moscow Mechanism, 41–2 Vikki, Ivar, 184 Zagorski, Andrei, 208, 227 Vilnius Ministerial Council, 83, 246 Zannier, Lamberto, 180, 190, 192, Vladychenko, A.I., 153 290n see also Secretary General (of the Warsaw Treaty Organization/Warsaw OSCE) Pact, 36, 37 Zariﬁ, Hamrokhon, 179, 184 Western Balkans, 231, 235 Zelikow, Philip, 47 Winkler, Hans, 29 Zellner, Wolfgang, 228 Wohlwend, Renate, 111 Zhovtis, Yevgeny, 198, 213–14, 218, Working Group on Human Rights (in 219, 228, 240 Kazakhstan), 215 Zorkin, Valery, 127