Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Abstract

The geology of Sitia Nature Park is composed by its particular features make it unique and of international value. The abundant Pleistocene mammal fossil sites, the discovery of three Deinotherium giganteum fossils, the extensive cave systems, as well as the palaeo-shorelines of Zakros area are unique for Crete and of national importance. The prevalent rocks are mainly limestone, marble and slate, grouped into three main nappes, covered by more recent sediments. As the majority of rocks are of sedimentary origin, abundant fossils are to be found here. The current geological structure of the region displays vertical changes due to the various groups of rocks, particularly the limestone and marble, which are permeable to water and thus intensely karstified, and the phyllites, schist and clays that are impermeable and affect water movement to a great extent. In addition, over the last 12 million years, the region has been fragmented by numerous faults, many of which have at times created drops that the sea filled depositing new rocks, whereas in other cases, the land rose significantly, leaving visible traces of past shorelines (terraces).

1. Introduction

The western Alpine Mountain Chain

Crete consists of a mosaic of characteristic features which make it unique and special throughout the Mediterranean. It is very well known for its antiquities, its civilization and its biodiversity; it also has however a hidden treasure, its outstanding geological wealth. It was formed as a part of the Hellenic mountain chain, the southern continuation of the Alpine chain system.

The geological structure of Crete is characterized by the existence of rocks formed before, during and after the Alpine orogenesis. Most of these are the remains of the sediments which

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

fell into the Tethys Ocean, a most ancient sea which is now limited to the present day Mediterranean. Some others were islands in the ocean or submarine volcanoes which were frozen at the great depths.

The closure and the catastrophe of Tethys, which in the eastern Mediterranean began about 100 million years ago, forged the sediments into hard rocks, it smashed them and cracked them to such an extent that one began to go up and to climb on top of the other. Great groups of rocks, where each one is also a piece of the sunken Tethys Ocean, were found to cover each over like successive blankets. Tectonostratigraphically, Greece is subdivided into several isotopic zones that are merged into two groups the internal and external ones. The internal are arranged around the Rhodope massif occurring at the northeastern Greece and Bulgaria, and from east to west are the Perirhodopic unit, the Servo-Macedonian unit, the Vardar-Axios Ophiolitic belt and Pelagonian massif. Pindos Oceanic basin resulted into the so called unit, the first to form the external zones, then westwards occur the Tripolitsa unit, the Phyllite-quartzite unit (or Arna Unit), the Ionian and Plattenkalk unit and finally the pre-Apulia zone cropping out at the Ionian islands to the west. Generally, the external units are the result of the most recent, late Tertiary orogenesis that formed the Pindos mountain chain and its southern continuation in Peloponnese, Crete and Dodecanese islands.

The Cretan nappes: 1. Plattenkalk series (Φ. Fodele, Σ. Sisses, Σδ. Stromatolithic dolomite, Gg. Gigilos, Pk platy marble, Μφλ. Metaflysch); 2. Trypali unit; 3. Phyllites-quartzite nappe; 4. Tripolitsa nappe (Rd. Ravdoucha beds, A. Carbonates, Φλ. Flysch); 5. Pindos nappe (R. Radiolirites, Πφλ. First flysch, Pk. Platy limestone, Φλ. Flysch); 6. Tektonic mélange (Π. Preveli, Σπ. Spili and Β. Vatos groups); 7. Asteroussia nappe (Μ. Marble, Γν. Gneiss, X. Quartzite); 8. Ophiolites (from Fassoulas 1999)

In Crete, those nappes, as geologists call them, created the mountain ranges which came up from the sea, about 23 million years ago and which made the first dry land that was covering all the Aegean, joining with Europe and Asia, and which was called Aegais. A polymorphic relief has thus been formed on Crete as a result of the physical processes which have been bringing Europe and Africa closer together for millions of years. Natural processes, often violent and extreme such as the catastrophic earthquakes, have shaped the mountains and the seas, shaping the land of the Aegean and of Crete.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Geographical distribution of the nappes of Crete (From Rahl et al. 2004). Sitia area in box.

Just like the whole Aegean, Crete has undergone various stages of evolution and change. At the initial stages of its formation, during the Middle Miocene and up to about five million years ago, Crete was either part of the major land area called Aegis, which covered present day Aegean Sea, or was joined to Asia Minor and the Peloponnese. During the last 12 million years, the territory has been fragmented by faults, many of which created depressions at times, which were filled by sea water dragging and depositing new rocks, called meta-alpine, such as clays, marls, sand and white-yellow limestone. In other cases, the land was significantly elevated and left apparent traces of the old coastlines (terraces), as is the case in the broader area of Kato Zakros.

Formation of Cretan landscape

The pile of the rocks which the mountain building process (orogenesis), and the convergence of the two plates created in the area of Crete (the accretionary prism) was not destined to last for long. The Earth’s crust, as stable as it may seem (since it is made up of solid rocks), becomes so sensitive and changeable in the scale of geological time.

The more the mountain ranges of Crete went up, the more unstable it became. The rocks of the “Plattenkalk” and of “Phyllite-quartzite” groups which were covered by all the other groups reached a depth of greater than 30 km in the Earth, and there were metamorphosed under low temperature and high pressure conditions. Their small density however did not allow them to remain at that depth for long and just like a ball in the sea they bounced up towards the surface, and thus these too, approximately 16 million years ago, began their upwards path towards the surface. By such processes and through detachment faults the high pressure metamorphosed rocks were exhumed in surface conditions. The studies of the recent sediments of the island have shown however, that the high mountains of Crete, such as Psiloritis or Lefka Ori, began to be raised, most rapidly and for about 1,5 km, just over the last 3,5 million years. Only for the last two million years has all of Crete been whole, raised up, and Crete attained the shape which it roughly has today.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Palaeogeography of Greece in Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene times (from Dermitzakis and Papanikolaou 1981)

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Palaeogeographically, approximately, 12 ma ago the unified dry land at the south of Aegais began to break up into smaller pieces, and great faults began to move up and across the surface rocks, making space for the deepest rocks of the “Plattenkalk” and “Phyllites- quartzites” to reach the surface. Today these faults mark out the limits of the mountain ranges. Thus, the continuous landmass in the area of Crete became a mass of large islands which continually varied in extent and height for about 10 million years. The sea covered great areas of present day Crete and new, soft sediments were laid out at the depths. Those are the fertile rocks which we meet in the basins of the island and are constituted by marls, sandstone and hard yellow-white limestone, all with an abundance of fossils.

Crete however is a place which is always on the move and continually changing. Many of the faults which shattered its rocks in the past are today still active resulting in sometimes moving parts of the dry land upwards and other times horizontally. In many coastal areas of south Crete are to be seen the traces of the movements of the earth with old coast lines having been raised several hundreds of meters in relation to the present sea level, like the area of Zakros in Sitia.

The most impressive phenomenon, however, is related with its continuous “journey” towards the south and which explains also the intense seismicity of the island. Present day technology allows us, by using satellites, to measure the slightest movements of every area on the surface of our planet. It has subsequently been found that Crete, just like the whole of the south Aegean, is pushed southwards by the Anatolia plate extrusion, and thus is moving approximately 3 centimeters every year towards the south and likewise is distancing itself from north Greece. Africa on the other side is coming further north by about one centimeter a year with the result that the two areas, Crete and Africa are coming closer together by about 4 centimeters every year. All of these movements are happening on the faults which appear because of the relative movement of the African plate below the European one with all that it entails. These movements are often accompanied by strong earthquakes which are not infrequent for the island.

Present day plate kinematics, stress regime and GPS velocities in respect to stable Europe (after Flerit et al 2004)

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

2. The rocks of Sitia Nature Park

The rocks prevailing in the territory of the Sitia Nature Park are mainly of alpine age, limestone, marble and shale (see geological map). There are three basic rock zones, namely, the inferior one, which is the Plattenkalk nappe (J?-Ek) and appears at Cavo Sidero area and north of Mouliana village in the form of platy marble, the intermediate, comprising purple phyllite and quartzites, of the Phyllites-quartzites nappe (Phq, a, b, c, π, G), and the superior, made up of limestone, dolomite, flysch, sandstone, clay and conglomerate rocks of the Tripolitsa nappe (Ts?-E, f). In the Zakros mountain zone and above the other rocks there occur remnants of the Magassa rock (J-E), comprising mainly white limestone, which are parts of the Pindos nappe. Over a more limited area, mainly in the northern and central part, there are more recent post-alpine rocks.

The neogene basin of Zakros and the alpine rocks of Tripolitsa and Phyllites-quartzites on the back ground. Zakros detachment separates the two units, while a normal fault at the hill side is responsible for basin development.

Alpine rocks

The Plattenkalk unit, also known also as the ‘Crete-Mani’, is the backbone of Crete, along which all other rock zones of the island are placed. A variety of different geological formations constitute the unit, such as white marble, dolomite, shale and others. Sitia region is best represented by typical platy marble (Plattenkalk). This is a metamorphic limestone (marble), which appears in thin layers, similar to plates. Between them, there are thin, white strips or lenses of white silicon material and sponge remnants, which, in many parts of the island, were used to sharpen metal (grindstone). These rocks were formed from 140 to 30 million years ago, during the Jurassic period. They are encountered in the northeast part of the Nature Park, namely in the Cavo Sidero cape, as well as in the northwest part near Kalavros village, where the so called, Kalavros beds, the youngest of Plattenkalk crop out.

The Phyllites-Quartzites zone includes very old metamorphic shale and schist, which goes back until 380 million years in the area of Chamezi and which was dragged by faults and

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

et al. (1977). Explanation of rock labels in in text labels of rock Explanation (1977). al. et

General geological map of Sitia Nature Park based on on Creutzburg based Park Nature of Sitia map geological General

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

The platy marble in Cavo Sidero Silica in the platy marble

The purple phyllites of Zakros Red marbles of PQ in Erimoupolis

Multi-colored schist of PQ near Vai Quartzite walls near Karydi

Garnet bearing schist near Chamezi The basal rocks of Tripolitsa in M. Toplou area

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

dropped onto the previous nappe. Within these rocks, besides the shale, there are also marble, volcanic rock and quartzite. Likewise however, we also meet older volcanic rocks such as andesites and rhyolites which have now also been changed into green schist. Within the park territory, the most characteristic rocks are purple phyllites, reddish marble, shale and quartzite, with impressive sites above the village of Karydi and on the coast south of Vai up to Maridati. There are also impressive rocks in the Zakros and Karydi areas, the most typical of which are purple phyllites, as well as at the villages of Chamezi where nice garnet crystals can be found.

Due to being subjected to re-heating and high pressure 23 million years ago, when they were found buried 40 km deep, the Plattenkalk and Phyllites–quartzite rocks appear strongly metamorphosed. Today apart from the garnets, quartz crystals can be found within phyllite- quartzite rocks and near the faults, iron ores, such limonite.

The rocks prevailing in the region, however, are of the Tripolitsa zone, covering the Phyllites- Quartzites. Tripolitsa was formed during Alpine orogeny and then transported to its present site by faults. It makes up two main zones, namely, limestone/dolomite and flysch.

The Tripolitsa limestone Karstified Magassa limestone

The Magassa nappe in Vrysidi area The flysch of Magassa

Limestone/Dolomite was formed in the Triassic and up to the upper Eocene epochs (i.e. 200- 50 million years ago) in the surrounding shallow marine waters. This is why it contains numerous characteristic fossils. Due to its content (made of carbonated calcium, or magnesium, in the case of dolomite) it has undergone intense karstic erosion and includes almost all karstic geoformations, such as caves and gorges, while it creates the aquifers of

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

the region. At its base the rock tapers into thin dolomite and is mixed with clay sediments and clay. Such rocks are typically seen in the territory around Toplou Monastery, where several folds are created. Flysch is more recent (around 50 million years) comprising clay, sand, shale and conglomerate. Typical sites where it is found are around Kato Zakros, Karoumes, Mavros Kambos, Skalia, Agia Eirini and along the Xerokambos-Kato Zakros road.

Only in the area of Nature Park the Magassa rocks a typical group of Pindos nappe, can be found lying over the Tripolitsa zone. The group contains deep-sea, light-coloured limestone (micro-breccias and oval-shaped limestone), formed around 100 million years ago. Such rock appear within the territory of the Nature Park around Magassa village (Vrysidi), where they take their name from, while there are also typical sites along Agia Eirini coast, in the region between Ziros and Sitanos, as well as on the Platyvolo plateau. Limestone of the Magassa zone lies over Tripoli rocks, because it was dropped onto this site by thrust faults; these formations are called nappes and can be found along the Ziros-Xerokambos road and in the area surrounding the village of Magassa.

Post-Alpine rocks

The more recent rocks of the territory, i.e. the post-Alpine ones, were created when land already existed in the location of Crete, either in areas that were temporarily covered by the sea or on dry land. In the region of Sitia these rocks were formed in the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene (See geological map).

The older Miocene rocks (Mm-s) are known as Scopi formation and include clastic, shallow- marine, sedimentary rocks, namely fossil-bearing sandstone, micro-breccias and clay formed some 12-10 million years ago. Within the Nature Park grounds, the most characteristic sites lie in its north part, mainly near the village of Skopi, around Toplou Monastery and around the Marvro Mouri hill.

The next younger rocks were formed 10-8 million years ago on dry land and they belong to the Kastri formation. They include layers of reddish conglomerate, sandstone and clay, typically appearing on Kastri Hill, in the district of Chiona and on Bodalaki beach.

The most recent Miocene rocks (Ms-Pli) are those of the Palekastro formation (7-6 million years old), comprising more lightly coloured white-yellow limestone and marl, which contain numerous coral and sea urchin (clypeaster) fossils. Typical sites of such limestone lie north of Karoumes beach, within Kato Zakros gorge, northwest of Toplou Monastery gorge, along the central tectonic basin and east of the city of Sitia in the areas near Pantanassa beach and bay.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Skopi formation in Toplou area Kastri hill formation

Palekastro formation in Pantanassa area Pliocene sediments in Agia Fotia

Quaternary red soils at Rousso Spasma Quaternary sand dunes on top of Miocene seds

Pliocene rocks (Pl) of the Nature Park (5-3 million years old) appear on the Argilos beach in Xerokambos, while smaller sites are found along the Katsounaki-Kato Zakros footpath. They mainly include white to green marls, which contain fragments of fossilized shells. It is worth noting that the Argilos beach marls present some particular features, namely their high clay grain content and very dense fissures that create small fragments, easily broken off manually without any mechanical means. This is what has made the beach famous, because visitors break off marl clay-rich fragments to smear their bodies.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

The neogene rocks of Sitia area (Modified from Meulenkamp et al. 1979 and Fassoulas 2001)

Finally, the Pleistocene rocks (Pt) of the area appear along the coastal zone and they are 1.5 million – 50.000 years old). These were formed in the most recent geological periods, usually at sites covered by the sea. They are mainly made up of sandstone and conglomerate with calcite connective matter and ample fragments with fossilized organisms, such as echinoderms, gastropods and bivalves. Among them mammal fossils have been found (hippopotami and deer). These are mainly encountered in the shores of the park, specifically at Xerokambos, Ambelos, Kato Zakros, the coast of Traostalos and Karoumes Bay.

Besides marine Pleistocene sedimentary rocks, in particular on Katsounaki beach, Agia Fotia beach and Tenta bay, there is a special type of aeolian rocks, the famous aeolian sandstone or aeolianite. This is lithified marine dune sand held together by limestone. Due to the glacier and inter-glacier periods of the Pleistocene, these rocks are found today above sea level; in antiquity they were often used as building materials and this is confirmed by numerous ancient quarries found in such locations.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

3. Geodiversity

The area of the Sitia Nature Park is home to a significant geological heritage, representative of the natural characteristics and the formation of Crete. A total of approximately 100 geosites have been recorded within the limits of the Park, most of which were evaluated on the basis of their importance to education, tourism and their need to be protected and preserved. The geosites of the Natural Park have been categorized based on their natural and scientific characteristic features in various categories.

Landforms

Chandras plateau Kato Peristeras’ cave entrance

Tafoni in Moni Toplou gorge Tafoni near Moni Toplou

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

The impressive territorial relief is due to the particularity of its rocks, its geological evolution and, mainly, the changes that occurred to dry land and the sea. Rock fragmentation due to faulting is reflected on the steep banks and imposing cliffs. The prevailing limestone, albeit hard and rough, is literally dissolved by rainwater through karstic erosion and it leads to gradual limestone removal.

The outcome of this process is the presence of smaller or bigger cavities scattered on the mountain massif; there are potholes, dolines and large plateaus, within which erosion debris is collected. This is rich in clay, sand and various iron and manganese containing metals; their rich colouring creates the fertile terra rosa. Typical of this area are the plateaus of Chandras, Ziros, Zakanthos, Platyvolo, Sitanos, Mavros Kambos and numerous smaller ones. Most of them were used for various agricultural activities, some of which are still continued in the larger ones among them.

In a similar manner the wind erodes the loose conglomerate rock of the coastal zone; these aging formations are known as tafoni. Tafoni are small, mainly irregular cavities created by the erosive action of the wind on coastal zones. The term comes either from the Greek word ‘taphos’ meaning ‘tomb’ or, more likely, from the Sicilian and Corsican word ‘taffoni’ meaning ‘window’. These formations are usually created on volcanic rock or sandstone; because they keep evolving they may soon be destroyed.

Tafoni vary in dimensions from a few centimetres to tens of metres and may appear as single cavities or in cellular arrays. In effect, the humidity drifts in along the coastal zone, due to the wind from the sea, and dissolves – similar to karstic erosion - the connective substance of the rocks, i.e. calcium carbonate. This results in continuous removal of harder materials and enlargement of the cavity.

Such formations are quite rare and the diversity of their shapes and transient appearance render them particularly important. Within the Nature Park they dominate the Toplou Monastery gorge and the surrounding area, where Miocene sandstone, as well as foci of volcanic rocks are encountered around Vai.

Tectonic structures

Being on top of the Hellenic subduction zone and the result of the most recent in Europe, orogenic process the island of Crete exposes all kind of tectonic structures at all its extend. In the area of Sitia Nature mark these structures comprise mainly of big thrusts, normal faults and small scale folding.

The characteristic nappe structure of Crete is obvious in many areas especially at the Sitia Mountains where compressional tectonics have emplaced rock units over others. The most impressive nappes are those of Magassa group over Tripolitsa at Adravastoi and Xirolimni, and of Tripolitsa over Phyllite-quartzites in the areas of Katsounaki, Katsidoni and Karydi. In the broader area of Erimoupolis the contact between Tripolitsa and Phyllites-quartzites is an impressive detachment fault.

The normal faults are bounding the Neogene basins forming the steep cliffs at the mountain foothills. Their impact on landscape development as well as on underground water

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Magassa thrust on top of Tripolitsa flysch in Chametoulo Tripolitsa thrust in Karydi

Chametoulo normal fault Mouliana active fault

Large scale folding and thrust in Phyllite-quartzites Small scale folding in Phyllite-quartzites

The Kato Zakros coastal fault-fountain The Kato Zakros coastal fault-fountain(detail)

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

circulation is fundamental. Such faults can be seen all around the mountainous areas, while nice fault scarps occur at the areas of Chametoulo and Agrilia. A big fault scarp on the mountainous area of Mouliana is considered as possible active.

A spectacular structure however, can be seen on the northern end of Kato Zakros bay. There, a normal fault margining the Tripolitsa limestone of Traostallos Mountain with flysch deposits of the basin penetrates in the sea. Fresh water rises up from the limestone just at the sea level, from a small hole on the fault scarp creating, depending upon tide and waves, a small fountain.

Foldings can be also found mainly within the Phyllite-quartzite rocks and at the base of Tripolitsa nappe. These are due to the Alpine orogenessis and occur in all scales. A large syncline is formed in the area of Erimoupolis from the bending of the red marble horizons, while much smaller occur within Phyllitic and calcareous rocks of the nappe.

Caves

Caves are of the most spectacular features of Sita Nature Park. Most of the caves in the area are found in “Tripolitsa” limestone. Due to the great extent of these rocks and the existence at their base of impermeable slate and phyllitic rocks, the caves are not very deep; yet, they are very long. To date, exploration of the caves just in the broader area of Karydi has revealed subterranean courses longer than 10 kilometers, a feature unique to Crete. They appear as an effect of karstic erosion on carbonate rocks. This process creates a plethora of surface and subterranean cavities within carbonate rocks, resulting in water penetrating them and being lost from the surface of the Earth. Thus, caves are nothing more than subterranean rivers in the position where surface rivers are absent, which lead the water either to springs or to the sea. When a cave ceases to function as a subterranean river, either because it runs out of water or because the water finds a different, deeper route, the cave decoration is formed. In many of the caves in the area, the water dripping from the small cracks in its walls, leaves behind part of the dissolved calcium carbonate that it carries, in the form of multicoloured and multiform stalactites, stalagmites, curtains and other distinctive forms of speleodecoration.

Many of the caves of the area have wonderful decorations and characteristic lithomatic formations which are living monuments of the geological heritage of the region. These are accessible to ordinary travelers – visitors to the Nature Park, with or without a cave guide escort. These caves have not been touristically developed, and, therefore, have no safe access infrastructure. This means that visitors must at least be equipped with a speleological helmet and torch (which they can borrow from the Visitor Information Center in Karydi) and appropriate footwear. Some of the easiest caves to access in the area are:

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Pelekita cave Vorino Cave

Ano Peristeras cave Chonos Sitanou cave

Karydi area

A markedly large cave number has been noted in the area of Karydi, throughout the entire limestone formation. The caves of the area have the distinctive feature of a small surface opening and steep slopes, and in many cases they are very long, heading deep into the bowels of the Earth. Due to these dimensions, only specialized and experienced speleologists can enter and explore the interior in most of them. In some of the caves, mainly those at the edges of plateaus, the entrance is no more than a sinkhole or chasm, which requires climbing or use of special equipment so as to gain access, and, thus, only a few meters from the cave’s entrance is visible, some examples being the caves of Oxo Latsidi, Chonos and Ano Peristera, while the rest of their length remains a secret.

In the broader region more than 170 caves have been recorded to date, with a total of more than 10 kilometers of charted tunnels. This unique speleological park is a real paradise for speleologists, biospeleologists and other researchers of the subterranean world. Speleogocial teams from Greece, France and other countries have been active in the area since 1997 and have turned Karydi into a center for research and study of caves and other karst geoforms.

Speleological research and records in the area started in 1997 by French speleologist Jean Luc Carron, of the French L.U.C. (Lille Universitaire Club) speleological team. Alongside him on his annual missions are members of the Speleological Society of Crete. Other associations are also involved exploratory and recording activity in the area, such as the Cretan Branch of

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Plane map of Karydi area caves the Greek Speleological Society, and others. Information and infrastructure for the speleological research of the area is available at the Information Center in Karydi.

Pelekita (meaning ‘hewn’)

It has been named after the broader area where there is an ancient quarry. With a length of approximately 310 meters, it lies to the north east of the hamlet of Kato Zakros, at an altitude of 100 meters. Apart from its great aesthetic value, thanks to the rich decoration that covers almost all its halls, it is one of the most important archaeological caves in the region, as traces of habitation dating back to the Neolithic era were discovered inside. One can access it by following European hiking trail E4 that starts in Kato Zakros and follows almost the entire coastline.

Kato Peristera

It is one of the most important caves in what was formerly known as the province of Sitia. It lies approximately two and a half kilometers to the east of the hamlet of Karydi, at Platyvola position, at an altitude of 540 meters. It is rich in stone decoration and has a total explored length of 170 meters of corridors. In Kato Peristera traces of a Neolithic settlement were found, as well as human bones contained within stalagmites at the lowest point of the cave.

Petsofas

At an altitude of 80 meters, approximately 500 meters to the south west of the sanctuary of Rousolakkos, the mouth of the cave of Petsofas is clearly visible. It received its name from the hill of the same name. It is a very small cave (approximately 5 x 3 meters) of great archaeological value. This is because of the broken amphoras and a carved “libation table” found in it that echo of the hypothesis also made about Anemospilia and Hosto Nero caves in Giouchtas, that ceremonies performed here included human sacrifices (Paule Faure, 2004:159).

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Impressive stalagmite at Platyvolo cave Platyvolo cave

Galliko Kefali

One of the most beautiful caves is the area of Sitanos. It can be reached by approximately half an hour’s walk through intensely karstic scenery. The cave has a small opening in the ground and it is no longer than 100 meters. It is, however, steep and requires some mild up and down climbing in order for one to go from one chamber to the next. Visitors must be particularly careful to avoid spoiling any of the rare speleodecorations that cover the entirety of the walls.

Distinctive caves that are, however, open only to experienced speleologists, are Oxo Latsidi, Chonos in Sitanos, Platyvolo, Latsida in Chonos, Dadoulas and Ano Peristeras, which compose a system of underground ducts that are very dangerous during the winter.

The value of the area’s caves for life is enormous. Through them water returns to the surface, forming the springs of Zakros, Flega, Zou and many others, smaller in supply, but not small in ecological value. Many animals, such as bats, invertebrates and insects find refuge or live only in caves, while people used many of the caves as places of refuge, of worship, such as Pelekita, or for the burial of their dead, as in Farangi ton Nekron (Gorge of the Dead).

The caves of the region have not been touristically developed, and access to them is forbidden by Archaeological legislature. This fact does not take away from the enjoyment of taking a tour of them; on the contrary, it increases the fun of touring, as visitors entering such a ‘virgin’ environment, experience the magic and awe of exploring and discovering. In

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

any case, entrance to the area’s cave requires prior notification of and permission from the Local Antiquities Authority.

Gorges – Old coastlines

Sitia, more than anywhere else on Crete, is where vertical land shifts are so apparent. In particular along the coastal zone, from Xerokambos to Karoumes, the old coastlines appear as flat zones parallel to the shoreline or terraces, in the form of successive steps. In the lowest terraces of the Zakros-Xerokambos area, hippopotamus and deer fossils have been found. The bones of these animals drifted along the water after the organisms died and were dropped onto the coastline of that time, where they were buried in the sand and fossilised.

Xerokampos coastal area Kato Zakros palaeo-teracces

Kato Zakros or Dead’s gorge Agia Eirini gorge

Where vertical land elevations are combined with the presence of limestone, gorges are created. The higher the rocks elevate above sea level, the more intense the dissolution of limestone and marble becomes. This means that the water digs the rocks more deeply and gorges are formed. Gorges start at the feet of mountains, where the old faults that elevated the rocks are, and penetrate inwards. In older times gorges were the only gates through which humans had access into the hinterland mountain zone. Even today, there are cobblestone stretches left along the old footpaths. The most impressive gorges are those of Ano and Kato Zakros, Chochlakies, Maza and Toplou.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Coastal gorges can also be created following the collapse of sea cave roofs: the process starts with an elongated inlet, which is gradually widened further by surface and marine water. This is how Agia Eirini, Katsounaki and Vathis Potamos gorges were formed.

Fossils

The oldest fossils have been found in the phyllites of Palekastro district and are plant residues (ferns) of the carboniferous period (~380 million years). Typical and fairly common for this territory are also rudist fossils, around 70 million years old, located at several sites within the Tripolitsa limestone; the most typical site is the gorge above the Epano Zakros spring.

The Miocene era is represented within the park by one of the most impressive and significant fossils, that of the Deinotherium giganteum, an animal related to the elephant. Parts of the deinotherium’s skeleton have been found at three sites within the park, near the hamlets of Agia Fotia, Epano Zakros and Maronia. These are the only places in Crete where such fossils have been found. Today, the deinotherium findings from the Kato Zakros excavation are on display at the Natural History Museum of Crete, in Heraklion, and some of their copies are exhibited at the Natural History Museum of Zakros.

The Cretan Deinotherium belongs to the gigantic species, 4,5 meters high and 6 meters long, that lived on the island 9 million years ago. On the basis of the bones collected to date from Agia Fotia excavation site, which include 20 of the 22 teeth of the animal, it is estimated that it was 4.5-5 m tall and 6 m long. All findings and excavation data indicate that the bones come from the same individual. The Deinotherium of Sitia is a rare find, since only few whole skeletons have been found around the globe. According to related international literature, the Deinotherium of Sitia is one of the largest animals that have ever lived. It was third largest terrestrial mammal ever lived on the Earth and definitely the largest animal that ever lived on the island and the whole of Greece!

Besides the Deinotherium, a swine ancestor and a mastodon also lived here in the Miocene period, as indicated by findings of fossilised teeth discovered near Agia Fotia and in the Kato Zakros gorge, respectively. Just recently tourists found a tooth from Gomphotherium, an ancestor of Elephants in Kato Zakros gorge, indicating how important scientifically is the particular area of eastern Crete.

Marine organism fossils of this period have been found at various sites and include:

• Fishes, found within Palekastro limestone in the area of Pantanassa;

• Corals, typically found within reef limestone, mainly on Karoumes beach, within the Kato Zakros gorge and north-west of the Toplou Monastery gorge;

• Sea-urchins (Clypeaster) and bivalves (Chlamys) within marl and marlstone, typical specimens found north of Karoumes beach;

• Various foraminifera.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Roudists in Epano Zakros gorge The Deinotherium findings in Agia Fotia

Miocene corals in Moni Toplou gorge Clypeasters in Karoumes bay

Fish fossil in Palekastro limestone Late Miocene Bi-valves from Tenda bay

Hippo jaw from Kato Zakros Pleistocene mollusks in Rousso Spasma

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

The Pleistocene era is represented within the park territory with significant mammal fossils that used to live in the region; today are encountered in many sites, mainly on coastal locations; these mammals include the following:

• Deer (Candiacervus cretensis),

• Hippopotami (Hippopotamus creutzburgi),

• Elephants (Elephas antiquus),

• Mice (Kritimys catreus, Kritimys, Clemmys)

Bone fragments of such animals have been found mainly on coastal caves and karstic cavities created within limestone rocks of the region, and, particularly, within the thin red clay sediments of their floors. Such sites have been identified in the area surrounding Mt. Traostalos, around Karoumes Bay, on Fangromouro Hill and at Xerokambos. Exceptionally, similar fossils have been found on surface locations (benches) of these red clay sediments, as in the cases of Kato Zakros and Fangromouro.

Besides mammals, on marine Pleistocene terraces there are marine organism fossils, such as bivalves (Glycimeris) in the Ambelos Bay region at Xerokambos, on Katsounaki beach and over the entire coastal front from Xerokambos to Karoumes Bay.

Fossilized coral reef at Karoumes bay

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

4. Geosite Assessment

The area of Sitia Nature Park is the host for several important and peculiar geosites, some of them unique not only for Crete but also for Greece, whereas some can also be considered as of international scientific value. The most complete study for the identification and evaluation of geosites of Crete (Fassoulas et al 2007) has identified four geosites of National and possible International importance, that of Vai beach and palm forest, the Hercynian rocks at Chamezi, Kalavros beds and the Zakros palaeo-shorelines. In addition, Itanos (Erimoupoli) detachment, Epano Zakros spring, and Pelekita cave and have been evaluated as of regional importance.

During the implementation of an INTERREG IIIC project called GEOTOPIA a detailed inventory of geosites haves en undertaken focused on the central and eastern part of the Sitia Nature Park. A total number of about 96 geosites have been finally recorded within the limits of the Park, most of which (83, as caves were not included) were then evaluated on the basis of their importance to education, tourism and their need to be protected and preserved, following international methodologies like the one proposed by Fassoulas et al. (2012).

Various criteria, like scientific, aesthetic, ecological, cultural, economic etc., have been used to assess the touristic and educational values, as well as the conservation needs for each of the afore mentioned geosites. The detailed results are to be found in the following table. The geosites of the Park are characterized by a specific reference code and most of them are presented on the website of the park and the geotrail leaflets and maps. The most important geosites from each category will be presented in brief below.

Vai beach and Palm Forest

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Sitia Nature Park geosite assessment based on the formula proposed by Fassoulas et al. (2012). Vedu

refers to the educational value; Vtour to the touristic value; and Vprot, to the conservation needs; 10 is the top score; not applied for caves.

Geosite Code Geosite Name Vedu Vtour Vprot 1. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL 1.1. ROCK FORMS 1.1.1 Mavro Mouri 2,88 2,44 2,44 1.1.2 Toplou Tafoni 5,23 5,61 3,38 1.1.3 Limestone sculptures 4,15 4,31 3,17 1.1.4 Quartzite walls in Karydi 4,26 5,64 2,63 1.1.5 Small meteora 3,68 4,37 2,90 1.1.6 Kastri hill 5,05 6,63 2,88 1.2. COASTAL LANDFORMS 1.2.1 Katsounaki sand dunes 4,89 3,02 3,41 1.2.2 Psili Ammos sand dunes 4,41 2,68 3,24 1.2.3 Xerokampos Salt Marsh 5,63 3,78 4,42 1.2.4 Chiona salt marsh 4,05 3,93 3,56 1.2.5 Agia Anna bay 3,70 3,20 4,83 1.2.6 Vai palm forest and bay 5,98 6,97 3,17 1.2.7 Vathis Potamos bay 2,96 3,28 2,57 1.3. KARSTIC LANDFORMS 1.3.1 Mavros Kampos plateau 2,73 3,38 4,17 1.3.2 Zakanthos plateau 3,53 3,48 4,00 1.3.3 Chandras plateau 2,90 4,62 4,50 1.3.4 Ziros plateau 2,90 4,62 4,50 1.3.5 Karrens 3,31 2,94 1,91 1.3.6. Sitanos doline 1.3.7. Lamnoni doline 1.3.8 Limnes plateau, Mouliana 2,98 3,58 3,90 1.4. GORGES 1.4.1 Katsounaki gorge 6,00 4,80 3,83 1.4.2 Kato Zakros gorge 7,58 6,48 4,17 1.4.3 Epano Zakros 1 gorge 3,38 3,11 4,33 1.4.4 Epano Zakros 2 gorge 4,80 5,17 3,00 1.4.5 Chochlakies gorge 3,88 3,77 3,83 1.4.6 Xerokampos gorge 4,25 4,14 2,06 1.4.7 Maza gorge 3,73 3,55 2,83 1.4.8 Moni Toplou gorge 6,95 5,68 4,33 1.4.9 Richtis gorge and waterfalls 6,30 7,10 4,17 1.5. CAVES 1.5.1. Pelekita 1.5.2. Kato Zakros gorge 1.5.3. Kato Peristeras 1.5.4. Ano Peristeras 1.5.5. Charalampi Latsida

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

1.5.6. Plativolo 1.5.7. Chonos Chonou 1.5.8. Oxo Latsidi 1.5.9. Chonos Sitanou 1.5.10. Galiko Kefali 1.5.11. Dadoula latsida 1.5.12 Mikro Katofygi 1.5.13 Megalo Katofygi 2. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS 2.1 PETROLOGICAL 2.1.1 Kavo Sidero platy marble 4,60 3,64 2,71 2.1.2 Megali Kefala schists 4,60 2,94 2,78 2.1.3 Erimoupoli Red marbles 4,16 3,70 2,34 2.1.4 Adravasti purple phyllites 3,41 5,17 3,80 2.1.5 Maridati multicolored metamorphics 5,78 6,28 4,00 2.1.6 Tripolitsa flysch 4,45 5,30 3,83 2.1.7 Clay at Argilos beach 4,95 3,83 3,44 2.1.8 Kalavros beds 4,18 4,24 3,50 2.2. STRATIGRAPHIC 2.2.1 Karoumes unconformity 3,43 4,12 2,50 2.2.2 Rousso Spasma 5,45 3,94 3,28 2.2.3 Agia Fotia unconformity 3,80 4,77 3,50 3. TEKTONIC 3.1. TECTONIC CONTACTS 3.1.1 Erimoupolis thrust 4,00 3,40 3,04 3.1.2 Katsidoni thrust 2,90 3,40 3,17 3.1.3 Kato Zakros thrust 4,10 4,17 3,04 3.1.4 Xirolimni thrust 6,10 5,83 3,83 3.1.5 Adravastoi thrust 4,25 5,20 3,67 3.1.6 Skalia thrust 2,68 3,22 2,33 3.1.7 Katsounaki thrust 3,85 4,17 2,71 3.2. FAULTS 3.2.1 Xerokampos scarp 4,85 4,00 4,38 3.2.2 Chametoulo scarp 3,80 4,07 3,73 3.2.3 Mouliana fault 3,30 3,95 3,17 3.3. FOLDS 3.3.1 Phyllites-quartzites fold 4,80 3,47 2,88 3.3.2 Magassa fold 4,20 3,87 3,21 3.4 MICROTECTONIC STRUCTURES 3.4.1 Magasa microtectonic structures 4,80 4,94 3,67 3.4.2 Magassa Tectonic conglomerate 3,50 3,50 3,67 4. HYDROGEOLOGIC 4.1. SPRINGS 4.1.1 Karydi 4,58 5,52 4,67

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

4.1.2 Epano Zakros 6,43 5,49 5,00 4.1.3 Flega 5,43 3,14 3,67 4.1.4 Skalia 3,95 3,08 4,00 4.1.5 Moni Toplou gorge 5,95 3,11 3,61 4.1.6 Zou 3,55 3,05 4,17 4.1.7 Zakros fault-fountain 4,58 4,53 4,33 5. FOSSILIFEROUS SITES 5.1. UPPER CRETACEOUS 5.1.1 Roudists 3,11 2,33 3,27 5.2. MIOCENE 5.2.1 Zakros deinotherium 1,91 1,96 4,63 5.2.2 Gela deinotherium 3,23 2,22 5,73 5.2.3 Kato Zakros corals 2,83 2,81 3,03 5.2.4 Karoumes corals 3,95 3,01 4,17 5.2.5 Moni Toplou corals 3,25 2,34 2,04 5.2.6 Tenda echinoids and bivalves 2,88 2,12 3,40 5.2.7 Trapeza echinoids and bivalves 3,08 2,32 2,73 5.2.8 Agia Fotia echinoids and bivalves 2,55 2,90 3,00 5.2.9 Faneromeni echinoids and bivalves 3,53 5,44 3,50 5.3. PLEISTOCENE 5.3.1. Fangromouro cave 5.3.2. Vorino cave 6. GEOCULTURAL 6.1. GEOARCHAEOLOGIC 6.1.1 Petrokopio ancient quarry 3,83 3,94 3,57 6.1.2 Katsounaki ancient quarry 3,73 3,27 2,04 6.1.3 Molivokamino ancient quarry 3,73 3,27 2,04 6.1.4 Pelekita ancient quarry 4,33 3,87 2,28 6.1.5 Petsofas peak Sanctuary 3,83 3,94 3,57 6.1.6 Voila Venetian castle 6,11 5,81 3,32 6.1.7 Voila spring 2,58 3,18 4,17 6.2. GEO FOLKLORE 6.2.1 Chonos abandoned stone buildings 3,51 4,10 3,97 6.2.2 Lydia abandoned stone buildings 3,31 4,10 3,80 6.2.3 Kamares abandoned stone buildings 3,31 4,10 3,80 6.2.4 Skalia abandoned stone buildings 2,55 2,90 3,67 6.2.5 Cobble trails Magasa-Mitato 4,34 5,23 5,13 6.2.6 Lamnoni cobble path 3,44 5,08 3,97 6.2.7 Karydi – Agios Ioannis cobble trail 3,51 4,30 3,80

4.4.1 Geomorphological

The most characteristic terrestrial geosites of the area are the Tafoni in the canyon of Toplou Monastery (1.1.2). It consists of impressive sepulcher type erosion born geoforms,

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Tafoni at Moni Toplou gorge Sand dunes at Katsounaki beach

Alatsolimni at Xerokampos area Zakanthos plateau

Waterfalls at Richtis gorge Chochlakies gorge

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

which are created in the conglomerates and sandstones of the Miocene, and which form cavities of various dimensions and forms.

Of the coastal geosites, particularly important, mainly for the ecosystems they are home to, are the various forms of sand dunes on Katsounaki beach in Xerokambos (1.2.1) and in Psili Ammos, next to Vai (1.2.2), as well as the salt marshes of Xerokambos (Alatsolimni, 1.2.3) and in Chiona (1.2.4).

The karstic geosites appear in the limestone formation, which mainly concern plateaus, such as those of Zakanthos (1.3.2), Chandras (1.3.3) and Ziros (1.3.5).

The canyons, however are the most important and most numerous geosites of the Nature Park. Most of them are of special aesthetic beauty, crossed by streams for the greatest part of the year (Katsounaki 1.4.1, Kato Zakros 1.4.2, Chochlakia 1.4.5, Toplou Monastery 1.4.8 and Richtis 1.4.9), and are home to rare and indigenous species of local flora; some, like those of Kato Zakros (1.4.2) and Chochlakies (1.4.5), are also of archaeological importance. Most canyons in the territory are crossed by paths and routes easily accessed by visitors.

4.4.2 Geological positions

Positions of special geological interest concern unique sights of typical rocks of the Nature Park. The district of Plakoures in Cavo Sidero cape (2.1.1) is the only place in the region where visitors can observe the lower rocks of the platy marbles of the Plattenkalk group, as well as the Kalavros (2.1.8) is the only area where the youngest rocks of the group are to be found.

On the beach of Megali Kefala (2.1.2), south of Vai, as well as on the beach of Maridati (2.1.5), there are multicoloured metamorphic Phyllite – quartzite rocks, which create a unique seaside landscape. A similar position of special aesthetic beauty can be found in Adravasti (2.1.4), where characteristic purple phyllites of the Phyllite – Quartzite group are visible and dominant in the entire area of Zakros.

Megali Kefala Bay

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Another position of geotourism interest is the southern edge of Xerokambos, on the well- known beach of Argilos (2.1.7) where Pliocene marl is found. This marl has two special features: a high content of clay and intense fragmentation. Thus, it can be easily broken off by hand and used by bathers who want to apply natural clay to their body!

4.4.3 Stratigraphical

In several areas of the Nature Park there are consecutive layer deposits which indicate significant gaps in the geological evolution of the area or crucial turning points in-between the formation of the rocks. Thus, on the beach of Karoumes (2.2.1) and on Agia Fotia (2.2.3), there are strata unconformities, of very different ages and compositions placed one on top of the other.

4.4.4 Tectonic

Tectonic geosites concern breaks in the Earth on which either whole groups of rocks have moved horizontally (thrust), or there is significant vertical repositioning of rocks (faults). The most characteristic ones are the thrust of Erimopoulis (3.1.1), Kato Zakros (3.1.3) and Katsidoni (3.1.2), which are appearances of the Cretan Detachment Fault that places the rock formations of Tripolitsa on the Phyllite – quartzite rocks, and also the thrust in Katsounaki (3.1.7) of the Magasa unit on the Tripolitsa rock formations.

Lastly, the mirrors of the faults in Agrilia (3.2.1) and Chametoulo (3.2.2) are typical of the territory.

4.4.5 Hydrogeological - Springs

The rich springs of the region compose its hydrogeological geosites. Most of them are of vital importance for the hamlets and the town of Sitia, while several more, of smaller water supply, are particularly important, as they sustain small seasonal bogs and sensitive ecosystems. The most important springs, hydrologically speaking, are those of Epano Zakros (4.1.2), Flega (4.1.3), Zou (4.1.6) and Karydi (4.1.1), while particularly important for the ecosystems are Skalia (4.1.4) and the gorge of Toplou Monastery (4.1.5). The Zakros fault- fountain (4.1.7) is a site of combination between tectonic, coastal and hydrologic origin and very rare.

4.4.6 Fossil bearing positions

Overall there are many sites in the area with important or characteristic fossils of the Sitia Nature Park. The most important ones concern the finds of the Deinotherium giganteum, in Gela, Agia Fotia (5.2.2), where the most important fossils were found, and in Agios Efraim (5.2.1) in Zakros. Excavations in both sites have been completed. Equally important positions with Miocene coral and bivalve fossils are located on the beach of Karoumes (5.2.4) and in the gorge of Toplou Monastery (5.2.5), while in the rock formations of Tripolitsa and in many other positions, there are rudist fossils approximately 70 million years old, as, for example, in the gorge of Epano Zakros (5.1.1).

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Small pools and fresh water spring at M. Toplou gorge

4.4.7 Geocultural

Geocultural geosites mainly refer to sites of ancient quarries and traditional constructions using local rocks. The most important quarries are the Petrokopio in Kalamaki, Itanos (6.1.1), which is said to have provided the construction materials for ancient Itanos. In the ancient quarry one can see the characteristic man-made incisions in the rolled limestone, as well as rudimentary pillars. Equally important are the quarries in Pelekita (6.1.4), next to the cave of the same name, and in Molyvokamino (6.1.3) on the Katsounaki – Zakros route, located within Pliocene limestone sandstone.

Lastly, as far as typical constructions and traditional hamlets are concerned, the Venetian castle of Voila in Chandras, with its small springs (6.1.6), is one of the most important sights of the area, along with the traditional hamlets of Chonos (6.2.1), Kamares (6.2.3), and Skalia (6.2.4). It is also worth mentioning the parts of old cobbled roads that connected the hamlets, which have been preserved to this day between the hamlets of Magasas – Mitato (6.2.5), Karydi – Agios Antonios (6.2.7), as well as in Lamnoni location (6.2.6), which compose part of the park’s geopath route.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

5. Selected literature

Antonarakou, A., Dermitzakis, M.D., Drinia, H., Triantaphyllou, M. & Tsaparas, N. (2000). Study of the Late Miocene fauna of Faneromeni section, eastern Crete. Biostratigraphical implications and cyclostratigraphical patterns. Proceedings Interim Colloquium RCMNS, Patras, May 1998, Geological Society of Greece, Special Publications, No 9, 3-8. Baumann, A., Best, G., Gwosdz, W. & Wachendorf, H. (1976). The nappe pile of eastern Crete. Tectonophysics, 30, 33–40. Bonneau, M. (1984). Correlation of the Hellenic Nappes in the south-east Aegean and their tectonic reconstruction. In: The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean (Ed. by J.E. Dixon and A.H.F. Robertson), Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 17, 517–527. Caputo R. Catalano S., Monaco C., Romagnoli G., Tortorici G. & Tortorici L. (2010). Active faulting on the island of Crete, (Greece). Geophys. J. Int. (2010). doi: 10.1111/j.1365- 246X.2010.04749.x Craddock, J.P., Klein, T., Kowalczyk, G. and Zulauf, G., (2009). Calcite twinning strains in Alpine orogen flysch: implications for thrust-nappe mechanics and the geodynamics of Crete. Lithosphere, 1, 174–191, doi:10.1130/L31.1 Creutzburg, N., Drooger, C.W., Meulenkamp, J.E., Papastamatiou, J., Seidel, E. & Tataris A., (1977). Geological map of Crete (1:200.000). IGME, Athens Dermitzakis M. & Papanikolaou D. (1981). Paleogeography and geodynamics of the Aegean region during the Neogene. Ann. Geol. De Pays Hellen., Hors., 3: 246-290. Dermitzakis, M.D., Pomoni-Papaioannou, F. & Drinia, H. (1996). Lithofacial, sedimentological and technical characteristics of the Neogene Building stones extracted from Skopi-Sitia (E.Crete). Eurocare-Euromarble EU 496, Workshop 7, October 21-23. p. 121-127. Dermitzakis M., & de Vos J., (1987). Faunal succession and evolution of mammals in Crete during the Pleistocene. Neues Jahrbuch Geologischer und Palaeontologischer, Abh., 173, 377-408. Dermitzakis, M.D. & H. Drinia, (1998). Sedimentology and paleoenvironmental conditions of origin of concretions in Sitia region, E. Crete. Bull. of the Geological Society of Greece, Proceedings of the 8th International Congress, Patras, May, 1998, vol. XXXII/2, p. 351- 357. Drandaki – Theodosiou I., Nakov R., Wimblendon, W.A.P,….& Mijovic D. (2004): IUGS Geosites project progress- A first attempt at a common framework list for south-eastern European Countries. In: Parkes. M.A. (ed) "Natural and Cultural Landscapes: the geological foundation", Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 81-89. Fassoulas, C. (1999). The structural evolution of central Crete: Insight into the tectonic evolution of the South Aegean (Greece). J. Geodynamics, 27/1, 23-43 Fassoulas, C. (2001). Field Guide to the Geology of Crete, Natural History Museum of Crete Publ., Irakleion, pp.104. Fassoulas C. & Staridas S. (2012a). Peculiar Tafoni Structures at Sitia Nature Park: A preliminary study. In:11th European Geoparks Conference, Proc. V. 105-106pp. Aruca, Portugal.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Fassoulas C. & Staridas S. (2012b). The use of modern technologies in assessing geosites and developing management plans in geoparks: the case of Sitia Nature Park. In:11th European Geoparks Conference, Proc. V. 107-108pp. Aruca, Portugal. Fassoulas C., Paragamian K. & Iliopoulos G. (2007). Identification and assessment of Cretan geotopes. Bull Geol. Soc. Greece. XXXVII, 1780 – 1795 35. Fassoulas C., Mouriki D., Dimitriou-Nikolakis P. & Iliopoulos G. (2012). Quantitative assessment of geotopes as an effective tool for geoheritage management. GEOHERITAGE, DOI 10.1007/s12371-011-0046-9 Fassoulas C., Perakis V., Mavrokosta C. & Staridas S. (2012). The beauty of far East: Sitia Nature Park. In:11th European Geoparks Conference, Proc. V. 109-110pp. Aruca, Portugal. Fassoulas C., Staridas S., Perakis V. & Mavrokosta C. (2013). Developing a geopark at the easternmost end of Crete: Sitia Nature Park. In:12th European Geoparks Conference, Proc. V. 64-69-63pp. Cilento and Vallo di Diano, Italy. Fassoulas C., Staridas S., Perakis V. & Mavrokosta C. (2013). Revealing the geoheritage of eastern Crete through the development of Sitia Geopark, Crete, Greece. Bull Geol. Soc. Greece, XLVII Faure, P. (1996). Sacred caves of Crete. Irakleion 258pp. Flerit, F., Armijo, R., King, G., Meyer, B., (2004). The mechanical interaction between the propagating North Anatolian Fault and the back-arc extension in the Aegean. Earth planet. Sci. Lett., 224 (3-4): 347-362. Frantz L. (1992). Die polymetamorphe Entwicklung dew Altkrystaline auf Kreta und Dodekanes (Griechenland): Eine geologische, geochemische und petrologische Bestandsaufnahme. Diss. Enke Verlag. Stuttgart. Fytrolakis N. (1980). Geological structure of Crete. Phd thesis, Athens, 148p. Klein, T., Reichhardt, H., Klinger, L.,Grigull. S., Wostal, G. & Zulauf, G. (2008). Reverse slip along the contact Phyllite-Quartzite Unit/Tripolitsa Unit in eastern Crete: implications for the geodynamic evolution of the External Hellenides. In: Xypolias, P. and Zulauf, G. (Eds.), New results and Concepts on the Regional Geology of the Eastern Mediterranean. Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss., 159, 375-398. Klein, T., Craddock, J.P. & Zulauf, G. (2013). Constraints on the geodynamic evolution of Crete: Insights from illite crystallinity, Raman spectroscopy and calcite twinning above and below the Cretan detachment. International Journal of Earth Sciences. 102(1), DOI: 10.1007/s00531-012-0781-4 Kuss, S.E. (1980). Führer Zur Kreta-Exkursion, Des geologisch-paläontologischen Institutes der Universität Freiburg/BR, pp. 51. Le Pichon, X., and Angelier, J., (1979). The Hellenic arc and Trench system: A key to the neotectonic evolution of the eastern Mediterranean area. Tectonophysics, 60: 1-42. Meulenkamp, J.E., Dermitzakis, M., Georgiadou-Dikaioulia, E., Jonkers, H.A. & Boeger, H. (1979). Field guide to the neogene of Crete. Publications of the department of Geology & Paleontology, University of Athens, series A., N. 32, pp.32. Perakis V., Ikonomakis M., Mavrokosta C. and Fassoulas C. (2011). The Karstic area of Itanos: A project for the development of an aspiring geopark in Crete, Greece. In: 10th Int. European Geoparks Conference, 16-18/9/2011, Gea Norvegica Geopark, Norway.

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark

Peters, J.M. (1985). Neogene and quaternary vertical tectonics in the south Hellenic arc and their effect on cocurrent sedimentation proccesses. PhD Thesis.,GUA papers of Geology, Ser. 1, no. 23. Amsterdam. Platakis E. (1975). Caves and other karstic structures of Crete. Vol. A & B. Heraklion. Poulakakis, N., Lymberakis, P. & Fassoulas, C. (2005). A Deinotherium giganteum KAUP, 1829 (Proboscidea, Deinotheriidae) from the middle Miocene of Siteia (East Crete, Greece). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 25(3), 732–736. Rahl J., Fassoulas C. & Brandon M. (2004). Exhumation of High Pressure rocks within an active convergent margin, Crete, Greece: A field Guide. 32 Inter. Geol. Congr.,Florence. Reese D.S. (1996). Pleistocene and Holocene Fauna of Crete and its First settlers. Monographs in world Archaeology, No. 28., Prehistory Press. Wiscosin. Robertson A.H.F. (2008). Late Palaeozoic–Early Mesozoic metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of the Phyllite-Quartzite Unit, eastern Crete (Greece): an extensional, rift-related setting for the southern margin of Tethys in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss., 159/3, 351-374. Seidel, E., Kreuzer, H. & Harre, W. (1982) The late Oligocene/early Miocene high pressure in the external hellenides. Geol. Jahrb., E, 23, 165–206. Strobl M., Hetzel R., Fassoulas C., & Kubik P.W. (2014). A long-term rock uplift rate for eastern Crete and geodynamic implications for the Hellenic subduction zone. J. Geodynamics, 78, 21-31 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2014.04.002) Symeonidis N., (1965). Neogene of eastern Crete. Ann Geol. D. Pays Hell., 16, 249-314. Ten Veen, J. H. & Postma G., (1999). Neogene tectonics and basin fill patterns in the Hellenic outer-arc (Crete, Greece). Basin Research, 11, 223–241. Thomson, S.N., Stoeckhert, B., & Brix, M.R. (1998). Thermochronology of the high-pressure metamorphic rocks of Crete, Greece: Implications for the speed of tectonic processes. Geology, 26: 259-262. Zulauf, G., Klein, T., Kowalczyk, G., Krahl, J. & Romano S., 2008. The Mirsini syncline of eastern Crete, Greece: a key area for understanding pre - Alpine and Alpine orogeny in the eastern Mediterranean. In: Xypolias, P. and Zulauf, G. (Eds.), New results and Concepts on the Regional Geology of the Eastern Mediterranean. Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss., 159, 399-414.

* The present report has been prepared by Nature Park staff based on the Management Plan and the relative reports contacted under the implementation of “GEOTOPIA” project, funded under INTERREG IIIC Greece- Cyprus transnational collaboration.