THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO WATER, ICE, LAPIS LAZULI: THE METAMORPHOSIS OF PURE LAND ART IN TANG CHINA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE HUMANITIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ART HISTORY BY ANNE NING FENG CHICAGO, ILLINOIS AUGUST 2018 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………..…………………iii ABSTRACT……..………………………………………..…………………………………viii LIST OF FIGURES.…………………………………………………..……...………………..x ABBREVATIONS…………………………………………………..……...………….…..xxiv INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..……………………………1 1 WHAT DID SHANDAO SEE? THE SHAPE OF PURE LAND ART……………..30 1.1 Illuminating Shandao…………………………………………………………….31 1.2 In Search of the Tang Pure Land Tableau……………………………………….42 1.3 Chang’an and Dunhuang: Cave 220 in the 7th century.………………………….52 1.4 Suspended Animation: Cave Space and Ritual.……………………………….…66 1.5 Linked Jewels and Dead Stars: The “Original Cave” as Prime Object………..…75 2 THE IMPRISONED QUEEN: LANDSCAPE AND VISION…………………...…83 2.1 Lady Vaidehī and Landscape Aesthetics………………………………………...87 2.2 Lady Vaidehī and the Ajātaśatru Narrative………………………………………96 2.3 Lady Vaidehī, Vulture Peak, and the Architecture of Pure Land Art ………….110 2.4 Becoming Lady Vaidehī.………………………………………………………..131 3 WATER TRANSFORMATION AND THE SIXTEEN MEDITATIONS………...147 3.1 Object/Event: Sixteen Meditations as a Conceptual Program………………….151 3.2 Depicting Metamorphosis………………………………………………………159 3.3 Depicting Light…………………………………………………………………171 3.4 Depicting Space…………………………………………………………………178 3.5 The Disappearing Image………………………………………………………..182 i 4 REFLECTIONS ON A LOTUS POND……………………………………….……195 4.1 The Lotus Pond: Entering the Pure Land ………………………………………196 4.2 Pond to Palace: Horizons of an Ideal Monastery ………………………………201 4.3 Ponds and Portal: Amitābha and Fifty Bodhisattvas.…………………………...222 4.4 Aquatic Rebirth: Cave 171 as a Lotus Pond……………………………………234 CODA………………………………………………..…………………………………..…251 APPENDIX………………………………………………………..…………………..……257 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………..…………………………261 FIGURES………………………………………………..…………………………….……284 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I started graduate school with little understanding of its life-changing force. My slow path of self-discovery would not have been possible without many helping hands. Most of all, I am grateful to my advisor Wu Hung, who has been the best teacher of art history (and life) that one could ask for. It is his passion for art and knowledge that has inspired me to constantly pose daring new questions, yet at the same time ground them in research and evidence. As a sensitive and acute reader, Paul Copp’s detailed comments and suggestions has pushed me to think carefully about the interconnection between philology, material culture, and ritual studies. Wei-cheng Lin has supported my work from the very beginning, kindly teaching me how to conduct fieldwork and navigate the intricacies of academia. Masterfully taught and always challenging, Niall Atkinson’s courses on Florentine topographies allowed me to explore new ways of combining literary sources and urban spaces in art historical studies. I have been fortunate to work with many inspiring scholars at the University of Chicago. Chelsea Foxwell’s rich knowledge of Japanese art has pushed me to think critically about painting styles, nationalism, and site-based studies of sacred precincts in East Asia. Ping Foong’s austere demeanor forced me to realize the importance of painting connoisseurship and acquire patience for looking at art attentively and inquisitively. Their perseverance and diligence in the pursuit of knowledge has always been a source of encouragement for me. I have acquired a deep fondness for ghosts and strange things in Judith Zeitlin’s classes in Chinese literature. Discussions with Claudia Brittenham helped me consider more broadly the medium of mural painting across the ancient world. I have also greatly benefited from Marty Ward’s knowledge of exhibition histories, Aden Kumler’s wisdom in theology and image production, Patrick Crowley’s insights on crystalline aesthetics in the classical world, Katherine Tsiang’s passion for digital humanities, Persis Berlekamp’s patience and empathy, and Christine Mehring’s resourcefulness and timely iii professional advice. Throughout graduate school, Jerome Silbergeld has supported me with his erudition, and the whimsical and indefatigable Eugene Wang has led me to discover the wonders and mysteries of Buddhist art and visual culture. As an undergraduate advisor at New York University, Jenny Liu introduced me to the Silk Road, and set me on the path to graduate school. From the very beginning, it was Meng Sihui, with her effortless grace and kindness that brought me into the study of mural paintings. This project would not have been possible without generous support from the Dunhuang Academy. It is because of the people there that made Dunhuang a home away from home for me. I would like to thank Wang Xudong and Zhao Shengliang for accommodating my studies and research. As a strict teacher with a gentle heart, Dr. Wang Huimin’s vast knowledge of Dunhuang has been a guiding force for my work. It has been an honor to survey the caves with him in scorching summer heat and rare desert snowstorms. Lou Jie has been a continuous source of inspiration, and my understanding of mural painting techniques has been enriched by her keen insights as a skilled artist and dedicated curator. I am in debt to many at the Academy, who often went out of their way to look after me: Zhao Xiaoxing, Sun Yihua, Sha Meizhen, Li Tao, Wu Qiongfang, Wang Huihui, Zhu Shengyun, Xuesong and Yin Bo, Fu Hualin, Kong Lingmei, Liu Fei, Hua Erjie, Chen Bo. It is because of them that I was always well fed during lunch, had fresh melons under grape lattices, tasted halal delicacies and freshly grounded coffee, sunbathed with Peng laoshi’s myriad cats, journeyed through river valleys, and gazed at the starry night sky in the desert. Much of my research has been conducted in China with support from a Fulbright-IIE Fellowship. At Lanzhou University, I owe thanks to Zheng Bingling, Feng Peihong, Wang Jingbo, and Wei Wenbin, who taught me how to read Dunhuang and Turfan manuscripts, and took me on field trips to Maijishan and Binglingsi. I would like to thank my classmates who helped me navigate Lanzhou: Zhu Yantong, Zheng Hongxiang, Zhang Xu, and Shao iv Qiangjun. I am also grateful to the brilliant Sha Wutian, who invited me to participate in and present at the weekly Dunhuang Workshop. At Peking University, I had the honor of attending Rong Xinjiang’s renowned Chang’an Workshop and Lu Yang’s reading course on Daoxuan’s Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks. I also want to thank Tian Weiwei for keeping me updated about events on campus, and providing me insider’s knowledge of the best Beida canteens. Opportunities to participate in workshops and field trips allowed me to learn from a wide-ranging group of scholars. At Chen Jinhua’s Seminar and Fieldwork on Buddhism at Emeishan, I was able to study with Stephen Teiser, Barend ter Haar, and Imre Galambos. Yen Chuan-ying kindly allowed me to participate in Academia Sinica’s Cross-Strait Seminar on Buddhist Art. It was a truly fulfilling experience to view Dunhuang caves with Lee Yu- Min, Liu Shu-Fen, Miyaji Akira, Hida Romi, and Pia Brancaccio. I hope our tableau vivant of the Parinirvana with fellow classmates Zhang Shubin, Zhang Ming, and Shao Xuecheng will go down in history. I also want to thank Guo Feng, Zhang Hailong, and Xia Lidong for helping me gain access to the Kizil and Toyok Caves. Eleanor Hyun gave me helpful instructions on how to view Dunhuang objects at the British Museum. My work has benefited greatly from the support from the Dunhuang Foundation, of which I am sincerely thankful to Chris Hudak, Mei Mei Chan, and Julia Grimes. My dissertation writing has been supported by the Andrew W. Mellon COSI Curatorial Fellowship. Wang Tao, Elinor Pearlstein, Jill Bugajski, and Zhang Lu introduced me to Buddhist artifacts in the collection, and were always a source for professional advice. Under the guidance of Jim Chandler and Margot Browning, completing my dissertation at the Franke Institute was an eye-opening experience, and I will miss conversations on English tea and indoor plants with my officemate Chloe Blackshear. v Scholars that I have met in the previous years have shared their expertise with me. Deep thanks are due to Dora Ching, Jeehee Hong, Susan Huang, Sonya Lee, Michelle C. Wang, Youn-mi Kim, Phillip Bloom, Kate Lingley, Mia Liu, Li Yuhang, Hu Jun and Kwi Jeong Lee. My life between Chicago and Beijing is enriched by my friends and companions. Together we have survived Chicago winters, conferences, travel mishaps, and the Regenstein stacks: Rong Rong, Solveig Nelson, Jadine Collingwood, Caroline Schopp, Jenn Sichel, Beth Woodward, Max Koss, Luke Fidler, Nora Lambert, Maggie Borowitz, Hanne Graverson, Savannah Esquival, Shi Jie, Nancy Lin, Seunghye Lee, Zhang Xi, Naixi Feng, Xu Tingting, Zhiyan Yang, Yunfei Shao, Nancy P. Lin, Sandy Lin, Dongshan Zhang, Zhao Meng, Yifan Zou, Alice Casalini, Slyvia Wu, Yu Win, Wang Weijiao, Daniela Lincandro, Boqun Zhou, David Lebovitz, Alex Hsu, Chan Ling, Zheng Yiren, Chen Jiayi, Yan Yuqian, Zhu Jiayi, Wei Jianpang, Carol Fan, H.S. Sum Cheuk Shing, Will Carroll, Paride Stortini, Kyle Peters, Alex and Minna, Sun Bo, Yan Zinan, Micki McCoy and Alan Yeung, Zhang Zhan, Chen Suyu, Lu Pengliang, Sun Miao and Xing Na, Lu Qi, Qi Ziyu, Wei Cong, Zhao Jinchao, Fang Zhijun, Wu Hong, Lailai, and Xiao Lang. I especially want to thank Zhenru Zhou for being a yoga guru, sutra chanter, and graphic imaging wizard. Several images from this dissertation come from her many hours of hard work. It has always been a delight to share my ideas about art and museums with Mei Mei Rado, a passionate fashion historian, and my personal vintage dress consultant. Through Tao Jin, I have learned how to wear Daoist robes, light up a Boshan censor, and imagine new architectural spaces for rituals.