SENTENCE STRUCTURE OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH
A THESIS
BY
NADRASIAH HERYANA
REG. NO. 140705126
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA
MEDAN 2018
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I, NADRASIAH HERYANA, DECLARE THAT I AM THE SOLE AUTHOR
OF THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCE IS MADE IN THE TEXT
OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO MATERIAL PUBLISHED
ELSEWHERE OR EXTRACTED IN WHOLE OR IN PART FROM A
THESIS BY WHICH I HAVE QUALIFIED FOR OR AWARDED ANOTHER
DEGREE. NO OTHER PERSON’S WORK HAS BEEN USED WITHOUT
DUE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IN THE MAIN TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS
THESIS HAS NOT BEEN SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF ANOTHER
DEGREE IN ANY TERTIARY EDUCATION.
Signed :
Date : October 22, 2018
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA COPYRIGHT DECLARATION
NAME : NADRASIAH HERYANA
TITLE OF THESIS : SENTENCE STRUCTURE OF AFRICAN-
AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH
QUALIFICATION : S-1/SARJANA SASTRA
DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH
I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR
REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES,
UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING THAT
USERS ARE MADE AWARE OF THEIR OBLIGATION UNDER THE LAW
OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA.
Signed :
Date : October 22, 2018.
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bismillahirahmannirahim.
Assalamu’alaikum Wr, Wb.
Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. All praises and thanks be to the Almighty Allah
SWT for all the blessings, guidance, health and easiness that are necessary to accomplish this thesis. Shalawat and Salaam may always be granted to our prophet
Muhammad SAW.
The most special thanks I dedicate to my beloved family. First and foremost,
I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my beloved parents and bestfriends, H. Heryanto and Hj. Murianna Sinulingga for their endless and unconditional love, never-ending supports both material and spiritual contributions, as well as continuous prayers and patience that I am forever indebted to. I would also like to express my gratefulness to my beloved brothers, Hasby Hernando and Habib
Hernando, and sister, Klara Dienul Majd for their constant motivations, and all the laughs and memories that we share together.
I would like to express my greatest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr.
Deliana, M.Hum for her kindness, knowledge, patience, encouragement and precious time during the process of my thesis’ completion. I would also like to send my biggest thank to co-supervisor, Ely Hayati Nasution, S.S., M.Si for her kindness, guidance, helps, and advices to help me finish writing this thesis.
I would like to give much appreciation to the Dean of Faculty of Cultural
Studies of University of Sumatera Utara, Dr. Budi Agustono, M.S, the head of
English Department, Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D, the secretary of English
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Department, Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, MA. Ph.D, and all the lecturers of English
Department for their guidance, supports and suggestions during my academic years. I would also like to thank all the academics and administrative staffs, specially Mr.
Kirno (Bang Kibot), for their contributions and helps in fulfilling my thesis’ preparation and administrative support.
I would like to give massive thanks to my bestfriends, Inas, Nadila, Nadya,
Widya and Windy for always giving me love, supports and advices, lifting me up when I am down, and cheering me on to finish this thesis. I would also like to thank my fellow friends in English Literature, especially those of class C namely Felicia,
Hannah, Lidya, Suci, Ollak and Riska for their helps and motivations as well as the memes, jokes and laughs that we share together over the course of time of our college life.
Finally, I would like to thank everyone who is important to the successful of this study. I am really grateful to have them supporting and encouraging me in the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to thank the readers who are willing to spare their time to take a look at this study and I hope this study can give valuable informations and can be used as a reference for an upcoming research. This study, however, is far from perfect. Therefore, the constructive thoughtful suggestions and criticsm are wholeheartedly welcomed for the better improvement of this study.
Medan, October 22, 2018
Nadrasiah Heryana
Reg. No. 140705126 viii
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ABSTRACT
This thesis aims to analyze the sentence structures of AAVE and how they differ from the ones in SAE. It was descriptive qualitative research by using Barry Jenkins’ screenplay entitled Moonlight as the main source of data and the five selected rap song lyrics as the supporting ones by applying the method of rewrite rules in tree diagram analysis by means of three theories of syntax namely PSG (Phrase-Structure Grammar), TGG (Transformational Generative Grammar), and CG (Constructional Grammar). Thus, 70 data are selected in which 50 sentences are directly obtained from Act 1-3 in the screenplay by using Bungin’s formula, and 20 sentences are taken evenly from the five song lyrics. The data of the study were limited to only declarative and interrogative simple sentences, and were focused on the three distinctive grammatical features of AAVE namely copula absence, double negation, and uninflected verb. These three features represent the differences between AAVE and SAE, i.e. 1) AAVE is copulaless, while SAE is with copula, 2) AAVE permits the use of two negators in one sentence, while AAVE only allows one, and 3) AAVE uses bare verbs for all subjects and often concord singular subject with plural verb or vice versa, while SAE follows the subject-verb agreement rule where the singular subject must agree with the singular verb and so do the plurals. The finding of the study shows that the sentence with declarative form is more dominant than the interrogative one with the percentages 78.5% and 21.4% respectively, and also displays that the sentence with copula absence as its feature has the most prominent occurrence with the percentage 61.4%, followed by the sentence with uninflected verb with 24.2%, and the one with double negation with 14.2%.
Keywords: AAVE, SAE, sentence structure, tree diagram analysis, copula absence, double negation, uninflected verb.
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ABSTRAK
Skripsi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis struktur kalimat AAVE dan bagaimana struktur tersebut berbeda dari struktur kalimat SAE. Skripsi ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif dengan menggunakan skenario Barry Jenkins berjudul Moonlight sebagai sumber data utama dan lima lirik lagu rap tertentu sebagai sumber data pendukung dengan menerapkan metode rewrite rules yang ada di dalam analisis diagram pohon dengan menggunakan tiga teori sintaks yaitu PSG (Phrase-Structure Grammar), TGG (Transformational Generative Grammar), dan CG (Constructional Grammar). Dengan demikian, 70 data dipilih di mana 50 kalimat diambil langsung dari Act 1-3 yang ada di skenario tersebut dengan menggunakan rumus Bungin, dan 20 kalimat diambil secara merata dari lima lirik lagu rap. Data penelitian skripsi ini dibatasi dengan hanya memfokuskan pada tipe kalimat sederhana deklaratif dan interogatif saja, dan juga memusatkan pada tiga ciri gramatikal AAVE yaitu ketiadaan copula, negasi ganda, dan kata kerja tidak berinfleksi. Ketiga fitur ini mewakili perbedaan antara AAVE dan SAE, yaitu 1) AAVE tidak ber-copula, sementara SAE memiliki copula, 2) AAVE memungkinkan penggunaan dua negator dalam satu kalimat, sementara AAVE hanya memperkenankan satu negator saja, dan 3) AAVE menggunakan kata kerja tidak berinfleksi untuk semua subyek kalimat dan sering memasangkan subyek tunggal dengan kata kerja jamak ataupun sebaliknya, sementara SAE mengikuti kaidah perjanjian subyek-kata kerja di mana subyek tunggal harus dikombinasikan dengan kata kerja tunggal dan begitu pula dengan bentuk jamak. Penemuan penelitian menunjukkan hasil bahwa kalimat dengan bentuk deklaratif lebih dominan daripada bentuk interogatif dengan masing-masing persentase 78,5% dan 21,4%, dan juga menampilkan bahwa kalimat dengan ciri gramatikal ketiaadaan copula memiliki tingkat frekuensi yang paling menonjol di antara yang lain dengan persentase 61,4%, diikuti oleh kalimat dengan ciri gramatikal kata kerja tidak berinfleksi yaitu 24,2% dan kalimat dengan ciri gramatikal negasi ganda yaitu 14,2%.
Kata kunci: AAVE, SAE, struktur kalimat, analisis diagram pohon, ketiadaan copula, negasi ganda, kata kerja tidak berinfleksi
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ...... v
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION ...... vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT...... vii
ABSTRACT ...... ix
ABSTRAK ...... x
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... xi
LIST OF TABLES ...... xiv
LIST OF DIAGRAMS ...... xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ...... xviii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Problems of the Study ...... 5 1.3 Objectives of the Study ...... 5 1.4 Scope of the Study ...... 5 1.5 Significances of the Study...... 6
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Syntax...... 7 2.2 Syntactic Categories...... 9 2.2.1 Word-Level Category...... 9 2.2.2 Phrase Structure...... 13 2.2.3 Sentence Structure…...... 16 2.2.3.1 Parts of Sentence...... 17
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.2.3.2 Patterns of Sentence...... 19 2.2.3.3 Types of Sentence...... 22 2.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure...... 26 2.3.1 Tree Diagram...... 26 2.3.2 Phrase-Structure Grammar (PSG)...... 27 2.3.3 Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG)...... 29 2.3.4 Constructional Grammar (CG)...... 33 2.4 Standard & Non-standard English...... 35 2.4.1 Standard English...... 35 2.4.2 Non-standard English...... 36 2.4.2.1 Vernacular...... 38 2.4.3 Differences Between Standard & Non-standard English Discourse ...... 39 2.5 Relevant Study on AAVE...... 40 2.5.1 Grammatical Features of AAVE...... 41 2.6 Conceptual Framework...... 46
CHAPTER III METHOD OF RESEARCH
3.1 Research Method...... 49 3.2 Data and Data Source...... 49 3.3 Data Collecting Method...... 50 3.4 Data Analysis Method...... 53 3.4.1 Data Condensation ...... 53 3.4.2 Data Display...... 55 3.4.3 Drawing and Verifying Conclusions...... 56
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
4.1 Data Coding (Data Labeling)...... 58 4.2 Data Classifications...... 63
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4.3 Data Analyses and Descriptions...... 62 4.3.1 Analyses and Descriptions of the Main Data...... 64 4.3.2 Analyses and Descriptions of the Supporting Data..145 4.4 Differences Between AAVE and SAE in Terms of Its Structure..……………………...... 143 4.5 Findings of the Study...………...... 153
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion...... 154
5.2 Suggestion...... 156
REFERENCES ...... 157
APPENDICES
1. Summary of the Screenplay Moonlight...... vi 2. Song Lyrics...... vii
xiii
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Some Sentences Containing Parts of Sentence...... 18
Table 1.2 Five Basic Patterns of Sentence in English...... 20
Table 1.3 Data Coding of the Main Data of the Study...... 57
Table 1.4 Data Coding of the Supporting Data of the Study...... 60
Table 1.5 Data Classification of Main and Supporting Data...... 61
Table 1.6 Differences Between AAVE and SAE in Terms of Its Structure………144
Table 1.7 The Percentage of Sentences Based on the Types of Sentence…...... 151
Table 1.8 The Percentage of Sentences Based on the Three Distinctive Grammatical
Features of AAVE…………………………………………………………...... 151
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA LIST OF DIAGRAMS
Diagram 1.1 The Organization of Phrase Structure...... 14
Diagram 1.2 Syntactic Representation Using Phrase Structure Rules...... 15
Diagram 1.3 The Process of Derivational in Sentence Proposed by Bornstein...... 16
Diagram 1.4 The Structure of a Sentence Using PSG...... 29
Diagram 1.5 The Structure of a Sentence Using TGG...... 31
Diagram 1.6 The Structure of a Yes-No Question Using PSG...... 32
Diagram 1.7 The Structure of a Wh-Movement Using PSG...... 33
Diagram 1.8 The Structure of a Sentence using CG...... 35
Diagram 1.9 The Conceptual Framework of the Study...... 44
Diagram 2.1 Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model...... 51
Diagram 3.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS01)...... 63
Diagram 3.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS02)...... 66
Diagram 3.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS03)...... 67
Diagram 3.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS04)...... 69
Diagram 3.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS05)...... 70
Diagram 3.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS06)...... 71
Diagram 3.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS07)...... 72
Diagram 3.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS08)...... 73
Diagram 3.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS09)...... 75
Diagram 4.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS10)...... 77
Diagram 4.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS11)...... 79
Diagram 4.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS12)...... 80
Diagram 4.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS13)...... 81
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Diagram 4.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS14)...... 83
Diagram 4.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS15)...... 84
Diagram 4.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS16)...... 86
Diagram 4.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS17)...... 87
Diagram 4.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS18)...... 88
Diagram 5.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS19)...... 89
Diagram 5.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS20)...... 90
Diagram 5.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS21)...... 92
Diagram 5.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS22)...... 93
Diagram 5.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS23)...... 95
Diagram 5.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS24)...... 96
Diagram 5.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS25)...... 98
Diagram 5.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS26)...... 99
Diagram 5.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS27)...... ……100
Diagram 6.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS28)...... 103
Diagram 6.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS29) ...... 104
Diagram 6.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS30)...... 106
Diagram 6.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS31)...... 107
Diagram 6.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS32)...... 109
Diagram 6.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS33)...... 110
Diagram 6.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS34)...... 111
Diagram 6.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS35)...... 112
Diagram 6.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS36)...... 115
Diagram 7.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS37)...... 116
Diagram 7.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS38)...... 117
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Diagram 7.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS39)...... 118
Diagram 7.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS40)...... 120
Diagram 7.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS41)...... 122
Diagram 7.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS42)...... 123
Diagram 7.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS43)...... 124
Diagram 7.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS44)...... 125
Diagram 7.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS45)...... 126
Diagram 8.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS46)...... 128
Diagram 8.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS47)...... 129
Diagram 8.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS48)...... 130
Diagram 8.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS49)...... 132
Diagram 8.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS50)...... 133
Diagram 8.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL01)...... 135
Diagram 8.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL04)...... 136
Diagram 8.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL11)...... 137
Diagram 8.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL14)...... 137
Diagram 9.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL19)...... 138
Diagram 9.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL05)...... 140
Diagram 9.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL07)...... 140
Diagram 9.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL09)...... 140
Diagram 9.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL13)...... 141
Diagram 9.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS18)...... 141
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AAVE : African-American Vernacular PredP : Predicational Phrase English N : Noun SAE : Standard American English V : Verb SE : Standard English Adj : Adjective CA : Copula Absence Prep : Preposition DN : Double Negation Adv : Adverb UV : Uninflected Verb Pron : Pronoun PSG : Phrase-Structure Grammar Det : Determiner TGG : Transformational Generative Deg : Degree Word Grammar Qual : Qualifier CG : Constructional Grammar Aux : Auxiliary S : Sentence Conj : Conjunction C : Complementizer Ø : empty/vacant position of CP : Complementizer Phrase auxiliary NP : Noun Phrase e : empty category VP : Verb Phrase ‘SS01’ : the coding of the first AP : Adjective Phrase sentence structure
PP : Prepositional Phrase ‘SL01’ : the coding of the first song lyric AdvP : Adverbial Phrase
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Language represents the society in which the speaker lives. This is a
common belief amongst linguists all around the world. According to Trudgill (in
Magnusson, 2008:1), ―Language is a social phenomenon and different varieties
of a language have more or less prestige than others.‖ Fasold claims that when
people use language, not only they try to get another person to understand their
thought and feelings, but also in subtle ways to define their relationship to each
other, to identify themselves as part of a social group, and to establish the kind of
speech event they are in (in Arifin, 2017:1). Therefore, owing to variation within
a standard language, regional and social dialects exist within languages across the
world. These varieties or dialects differ from the standard variety in syntax
(sentence structure), phonology (sound structure), and lexicon (the inventory of
words and phrases). Dialect communities often align with geographic and
sociological factors, as language variation emerges within distinct social
networks or is affirmed as a marker of social identity, e.g. African-American
Vernacular English (AAVE).
AAVE has several different names such as Black English, Black
Vernacular English, African-American English, Ebonics, and so forth. However,
the term AAVE is the most frequently used one among linguists and is thus also
the term that will be used in this study. It is extremely difficult to say how many
people speak AAVE because it is not only spoken by the African-Americans, but
also by the non-African-Americans (the whites). According to census data from
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Rickford‘s research papers (1999), it is safe to say that the estimate number of
AAVE speakers is less than 40 million people with the majority of black people.
Rickford (in Feldman, 2002:5) says, ―Most features of AAVE alternate with mainstream variants, sometimes even in the course of a single utterance or interaction.‖ As for the phonological and grammatical features, Fasold divides them into three categories: (1) unmarked features which do not differ from the corresponding structures in Standard English (SE), (2) non-standard features shared with other non-standard varieties, and (3) unique, non-standard features
(in Feldman, 2002:5). What makes AAVE different from other varieties is the existence of features of the third category, i.e. the existence of a distinctly
African-American communicative style, and is due to the frequency of AAVE features which occur more significantly in AAVE than in other stigmatized
English dialects with shared features.
AAVE is academically considered as a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, but some of both Whites and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of SE. This situation gives nod to an on- going debate among educators regarding AAVE. Some educators view it as exerting a negative influence on the learning of SE since it differs grammatically from SE. For example, the inner-city African-American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE sometimes have more difficulty with standardized testing at school. Wurl in her thesis (2006:103), affirms that when her students speak AAVE which is the language of their homes, they are judged to be uneducated and even ignorant. In addition, Turner states that well-intentioned educators are likely to assume that the language is a hindrance to them as it lacks the vocabulary for precise thinking and expression, and take it upon themselves
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to ―fix‖ the problem (in Wurl, 2006:104). Meanwhile, other educators propose that Standard English should be taught as a ―second dialect‖ in educational contexts where AAVE is a strong part of students‘ culture.
As mentioned before, AAVE and SE differ in certain linguistic levels such as syntax which is the most prominent one. Syntax is simply defined as the study of sentence structure. Sentence structure is the arrangement of the syntactic categories like words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. The study of sentence structure cannot be separated from its core element, i.e. grammar which is a set of structural rules, norms or patterns used in the composition of words, phrases, and clauses in a given language. Sentence structure of both AAVE and SE is obviously different from one another as each has their own grammatical rules in arranging the syntactic categories to form a proper sentence. However, despite having unique grammatical features, AAVE is often frowned upon by people.
Those people tend to stigmatize AAVE‘s grammatical features such as copula absence (the absence of auxiliary), negative concord (double negation), and uninflected verbs (the use of bare infinitive for singular and plural noun/pronoun) as the wrong usage of English which leads them to regard the speakers of AAVE as uneducated.
This research paper uses AAVE as a research object for some reasons.
Firstly, AAVE is linguistically and stylistically distinct from other varieties of
English because of the exclusion of African-Americans from almost all elements of European-American culture throughout over three hundred years of slavery, and it retains its distinctiveness as a result of continued segregation and the existence of a vibrant African-American culture. Secondly, AAVE is nowadays widely known all around the world through African-American culture which has
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a pervasive, transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture, as well as on world culture, for instances, oral tradition including literature such as poetry, prose, and drama and music like Jazz, Hip-Hop/Rap, and RnB, or aesthetics including hairstyles such as Afro, Braids, and Dreadlocks.
All of these cultures find their way into mainstream American popular culture, give influences on modern popular culture, and become international phenomena.
Furthermore, this research paper focuses on sentence structure, particularly that of AAVE as a research topic since it has different patterns from the standard one. Thus, this research paper uses Barry Jenkin‘s screenplay
―Moonlight‖ as the main data which encompasses all aspects of the African-
American lives and reveals black experiences, as a proper exemplary for studying and understanding how the sentence structure of AAVE ―deviates‖, or for the better phrasing, ―differs‖ from the SE‘s which can be seen from the language (in the form of dialogue), i.e. AAVE as utilized by the characters. However, to get a more comprehensive data, this study also takes some supporting data, i.e. song lyrics, especially that of rap music in which the scenes are dominated by African-
American rappers such as Nas, Kanye West, Lil Wayne, Nicki Minaj, Cardi B and so forth. Their lyrics, in particular, are analyzed to strengthen and enrich the main data of the study.
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1.2 Problems of the Study
In accordance with the background of the study, the problems are formulated as
follows:
1. What is the sentence structure of African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE)?
2. What are the differences between African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE) and Standard American English (SAE) in terms of its structure?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
Based on the problems of the study, the objectives are as below:
1. To describe the sentence structure of African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE).
2. To describe the differences between African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE) and Standard American English (SAE) in terms of its structure.
1.4 Scope of the Study
In order to achieve the objectives of the study, it is important to limit the
study by concentrating on the particular objects. In this case, the scope of the
study covers two areas as follows:
1. Syntax focusing on its core element, i.e. the grammatical features, in
particular that of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) specifically
on copula absence, double negation, and uninflected verbs.
2. The data of the study is also limited: only the declarative and interrogative
simple sentences are analyzed and portrayed in tree diagram by using two
sources of data, i.e. a) Barry Jenkins‘ screenplay ―Moonlight‖ and b) song
lyrics of rap music, specifically that of Nas, Kanye West, Lil Wayne, Nicki
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Minaj, and Cardi B. The reasons on why only the above two types of
sentences are chosen to be analyzed is firstly because the other two types, i.e.
imperative and exclamative have a little occurrence compared to the other
two with exclamative having no occurrence at all both in the main and
supporting data, and secondly because imperative forms in AAVE is very
similar to SAE in the sense that they are built by the VP category alone.
1.5 Significances of the Study
The significances of the study are divided into two categories, they are:
1. Theoretical Significance
a. This study is expected to broaden the readers‘ knowledge about African-
American Vernacular English (AAVE), precisely on the sentence
structure.
b. This study can be used as a reference particularly for students and
lecturers of Department of English as well as for English Language
Learners (ELL), who are interested to do some research on the AAVE
language.
2. Practical Significance
a. This study provides the readers about the sentence structure of African-
American Vernacular English (AAVE).
b. This study helps to broaden the readers‘ insights and develop their
cultural understanding towards AAVE as one of the cultural forms of
America.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Syntax
―The term ‗syntax‘ derives from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal
noun which literally means ‗arrangement‘ or ‗setting out together‘. Traditionally,
it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or
without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning
within the sentence.‖ (Matthews in Van Valin and LaPolla, 2008:1). The
followings are some definitions of syntax defined by linguists:
a. Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are
constructed in particular languages. (Chomsky in Sari, 2013)
b. Syntax is the system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined
to the form of sentence. (O‘Grady, 1997:181)
c. The syntax of a language is the set of properties which determine the
construction of sentences in that language. (Hawkins in Sari, 2013)
d. The study of syntax is the study of how words are combined to form phrases
and ultimately sentences in languages. Because it consists of phrases that are
put together in a particular way, a sentences has a structure which consists of
way in which the words are organized into phrases and the phrases are
organized into larger phrases. (Tserdanelis and Wong in Sari, 2013)
e. Syntax is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. It concerns
both word order and agreement in the relationship between words. Syntax is
primarily concerned with structure of sentence. (Knowsley in Ginting,
2009:6)
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f. Syntax is the grammatical tool that deals with how sentences are put together
and the relationship between words. (Bryan in Ginting, 2009:6)
Based on the linguists‘ definitions above, it can be seen that talking about syntax, there are some keywords involved such as sentence, structure, construction, form, rules, principles, and grammar. From all of these keywords, it can be concluded that syntax is ―the study of how sentences of a particular language are structured, constructed, or formed grammatically through the use of rules and principles.‖
The expressions of a language involve a relationship between a sequence of sounds and a meaning, and this relationship is mediated by grammar, a core component of syntax. In English and many other languages, the arrangement of words is a key factor in determining the meaning of an utterance, as illustrated in
(a) and (b).
a) The man saw the woman.
b) The woman saw the man.
Van Valin and LaPolla (2001:2) asserts that each language stores meaning-bearing elements and different ways of combining them to express different meanings, and these ways of combining them are themselves meaningful. The two sentences above contain exactly the same meaning-bearing elements, i.e. words, but they have different meanings because the words are combined differently in them. These different combinations fall into the realm of syntax. The two sentences differ not in terms of the words, but rather in terms of their syntax. Thus, syntax deals with how sentences are constructed, and users of human languages employ a striking variety of possible arrangements of the elements in sentences.
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2.2 Syntactic Categories
O‘Grady (1997:182) says that in all human languages, there is a basic fact
about words that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of
classes, called syntactic categories. This classification which is also known as
word classes in traditional grammar reflects a variety of factors such as the type
of meaning that words express, the type of affixes that they take, and the type of
structures in which they can occur. In syntactic categories, there are three major
components including word-level categories, phrase structure, and sentence
structure.
2.2.1 Word-Level Category
Word-Level category is the very first component of syntactic categories
which is divided into two categories: 1) lexical categories and 2) non-lexical
categories.
1) Lexical Categories
These categories are composed of five fundamental syntactic
categories: noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), preposition (P), and adverb
(Adv). All of these elements plays a crucial role in the sentence formation.
Van Valin (2001:6) mentions that words of these categories are traditionally
referred to as ‗parts of speech‘ or ‗word classes‘; in contemporary linguistics
they are termed lexical categories. In traditional grammar, lexical categories
are given notional definitions, i.e. they are characterized in terms of their
semantic content, e.g. noun is defined as ‗the name of a person, place or
thing‘. Meanwhile, in modern linguistics, they are defined morpho-
syntactically in terms of their grammatical properties.
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a. Noun
A noun is a word used to name a person, place, or thing. A noun
can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object,
a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective
and an adverb (Ginting, 2009:10). Examples of noun are dog, house,
father, school, England. Wren and Martin (2013:3) described that the
noun thing have two important aspects: (1) All objects that we can see,
hear, taste, touch, or smell, and (2) Something that we can think of, but
cannot be perceived by the senses. Moreover, a noun is also governed by
its inflection, i.e. the plural marker –s and its distribution or the type of
elements it occurs with, i.e. a determiner (det). b. Verb
A verb is used to show an action or a state of being (Ginting,
2009:12). O‘Grady (1997:183) declares that a verb can function as an
action (walk, climb), state (feel, love), and sensation (be, remain). A verb
has two main inflections which are the past tense marker –ed and the
progressive marker –ing. The usual occurrence of a verb is with an
auxiliary such as has and will. According to the object they are requiring,
verbs can be:
1. Transitive Verbs: verbs which have direct objects (no prepositions
are needed to connect verb and object). For example, ―I believe you.‖
2. Intransitive Verbs: verbs which do not have a direct object. This
includes both intransitive verbs which take an indirect object (usually
with a preposition), for instance, ―He spoke to her.‖, and intransitive
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verbs which have no object at all, for example, ―The woman aged
slowly.‖ c. Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun. In
English, adjectives precede the noun they describe and typically has a
function which is to designate a property or attribute of the entities
denoted by the nouns (O‘Grady, 1997:183). Similar with verb, adjective
has also two basic inflections: the comparative –er and the superlative –
est. The examples of adjective are beautiful, smart, longer, tallest. d. Preposition
A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship of a noun
(or noun phrase) to another word. Examples of prepositition are to, at,
with, for, against, across, from. Wren and Martin (2013:4) defines a
preposition as a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the
person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to
something else. e. Adverb
An adverb is a word that describes or modifies a verb (Ginting,
2009:13). For instances, very, too, now, soon. An adverb sometimes also
modifies an adjective as in the sentence, ―The man is very clever.‖ the
adverb ‗very‘ is used to modify the adjective ‗tall‘. Furthermore, an
adverb commonly ends with „-ly‟, for examples, beautifully, carefully,
slowly, quickly. Here are the five most basic classification of adverbs in
syntactic analysis:
1. Adverb of Time, which shows when e.g. before, now, ago, soon, etc.
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2. Adverbs of Place, which shows where, e.g. here, there, everywhere,
up, within, etc.
3. Adverbs of Manner, which shows how or in what manner, e.g.
clearly, well, hard, bravely, etc. This class includes all those adverbs
which are derived from adjectives and end in -ly.
4. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation, e.g. surely, certainly, not,
etc.
5. Adverbs of Reason, e.g. hence, therefore, etc.
2) Non-Lexical Categories
Just like lexical categories, these categories which is also known as
‗functional categories‘ consist of five basic elements as well, and they are:
determiner (Det), degree word (Deg), qualifier (Qual), auxiliary (Aux), and
conjunction (Con). Grimshaw (in Amritavalli, 2008:1) expresses that ―a
functional category is a relational entity. It is functional category by virtue of
its relationship to a lexical category.‖ She also notices that certain functional
categories typically pair up with certain lexical categories. They take only
these lexical categories as complement, e.g. determiner (Det) takes noun (N)
complement or inflections (I) takes verb (V) complement.
a. Determiner, a determiner may be articles or demonstratives, for
examples, the, a, this, these. It may also be what is otherwise known as
adjectives of quantity such as some, much and adjectives of number in
traditional grammar such as one, first, all, several, each, every, either
(O‘Grady, 1997:182).
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b. Degree word, is also called as adverb of degree in traditional grammar.
Several examples of it are too, any, so, almost, pretty, etc. (O‘Grady,
1997:182).
c. Qualifier, or adverb of frequency in traditional grammar. Some examples
are twice, often, again, always, etc. (O‘Grady, 1997:182).
d. Auxiliary, is a verb used to form the tenses, moods, voices, etc. of other
verbs (Wren and Martin, 2013:110). Wren and Martin (2013:111) defines
auxiliary as a special verb used to make question forms, combine with n‟t
in the negative (e.g. isn‟t, haven‟t, mustn‟t), and serve to make question
tags (e.g. „isn‟t it?‟, „can‟t you?‟) or stand for a whole verbal group in
appended statements (e.g. ‗He likes sweets, and so do I‘). Other examples
of auxiliary (also called as defective verbs) are will, have, shall, can, and
must.
e. Conjunction, is a word which joins words or sentences (Wren and
Martin, 2013:4). There are two types of conjunction, i.e. coordinating
conjunction and subordinating conjunction. The former is used to connect
two independent clauses and the examples include for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, while the latter is used to connect independent and dependent clauses,
for instances, after, although, because, before, since, that, unless, when,
while, where, and so on (Ginting, 2009:14).
2.2.2 Phrase Structure
O‘Grady (1997:185) states that sentences have a hierarchical design in
which words are grouped together into successively larger structural units. These
units are built around the lexical syntactic categories and are known as phrases
which is a ‗skeleton‘ consisting of two levels, depicted as follows:
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NP VP AP PP phrase level
N V A P word level
Diagram 1.1 The organization of phrase structure.
Furthermore, O‘Grady (1997:187-189) indicates that there are three major elements that can be found in a phrase and they are: a. Heads, the lowest level that is reserved for the word around which the phrase
is built: an N in the case of NP, a V in the case of VP, and so on. It is also
possible to have a phrase in which only the head position is filled, e.g. laptop,
horse, beautiful, and out. b. Specifiers, help semantically to make more precise the meaning of the head
and syntactically to mark a phrase boundary, for instances, in English the
determiner the indicates something specific, and the degree word quite shows
the extent to which a particular property or relation is manifested. These
specifiers occur at the left boundary (the beginning) of their respective
phrases. c. Complements, phrases that provide information about entities and locations
whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. For example, the
meaning of eat implies an object that is eaten, the meaning of in implies a
location, and so forth. In English, compelements are attached to the right of
the head.
Based on the above explanation, the arrangement of the elements that
make up a phrase is regulated by a special type of grammatical mechanism
called phrase structure rule which stipulate the position of heads, specifiers,
and compelements in the various types of phrases.
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NP → (Det) N (PP)…
VP → (Qual) V (NP)…
AP → (Deg) A (PP)…
PP → (Deg) P (NP)…
XP → (Specifier) X (Complement)
Fukui (2008:374) explains that phrase structure rules express the basic structural facts of the language in the form of ―phrase markers‖ they generate, with terminal strings drawn from the lexicon. In particular, phrase markers generated by phrase structure rules express three kinds of information about syntactic representations:
1. The hierarchical grouping of the ―constituents‖ of the structure
(Dominance);
2. The ―type‖ of each constituent (Labeling);
3. The left-to-right order (linear order) of the constituents (Precedence).
a) S
NP VP
NP
Det N V Det N
The girl drank a milk.
Diagram 1.2 Syntactic representations using phrase structure rules.
b) i. S → NP VP v. N → girl
ii. VP → V NP vi. N → drank
iii. NP → D N vii. V → milk
iv. D → the
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For example, the above phrase marker (a), generated by the above
phrase structure rules in (b), indicates that the largest constituent, whose label
is S (the designated initial symbol), is made up of a constituent NP (Noun
Phrase) preceding the other constituent VP (Verb Phrase); that the NP
consists of two constituents, Det (determiner) and a N (noun), in this order;
and that the VP is composed of V(verb) and NP (in this order), and so on.
2.2.3 Sentence Structure
LaPalombara (in Alduais, 2012:215) says that a sentence is a group of
words containing a subject plus a predicate and expressing a complete thought.
Traditional grammar defined a sentence in one of two ways: (1) by meaning, a
sentence is a complete thought, and (2) by function, a sentence consists of a
subject and a predicate. From both definitions, it can be concluded that a sentence
is a full predication containing a subject plus predicate with a finite verb (Frank
in Zahroniyah, 2015:10). Hence, these are the facts about sentence generated
from some definitions above: sentences provide us with the framework for the
clear written expression of our ideas, sentences always begin with a capital letter
and end in either a full stop/period, exclamation point or question mark, and a
sentence always contains a subject and a verb expressing a complete idea and
makes sense standing alone.
Sentence structure is a phrase that is used frequently in the discussion of
syntax. As mentioned before, syntax is concerned with how sentences of a
particular language are arranged or constructed; it is the study of sentence
structure. Nordquist (2018) on ThoughtCo claims that sentence structure is the
arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. He also explained that
the grammatical meaning of a sentence is dependent on this structural
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organization, which is also called syntax or syntactic structure. The term
„sentence structure‟ is made up of two words, i.e. sentence and structure.
According to Oxford Dictionary (2013), the former is ―a set of words that is
complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a
statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause
and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.‖ Meanwhile, the latter one
refers to ―the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of
something complex.‖ Based on that information, sentence structure can be
defined as ―the arrangement of and relations between the elements such as words,
phrases, and clauses in a sentence.‖
2.2.3.1 Parts of Sentence
According to Bauman (2012:29), sentence is a group of words that
includes a subject and a predicate which expresses a complete thought. When
any one of these elements is missing, readers or listeners are confused. Moreover,
he explained that a simple subject is a noun or pronoun that tells who or what the
sentence is about which can either be composed of a single pronoun, noun or
noun phrase, e.g. Nadine, he/she, the scientists, a woman, President Joko
Widodo, and so on, while a simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase that tells or
asks what the subject is doing or what is being done to the subject, e.g. paints,
was right, have finished, cries, has come to visit, etc. The complete subject of a
sentence includes the simple subject and all of its modifiers. The complete
predicate includes the verb or verb phrase and its modifiers, objects, and
complements, e.g. paints a portrait, was right about the prediction, has finished
the research, cries for help, has come to visit Korea today, and so forth.
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Examples:
Table 1.1 Some sentences containing parts of sentence
Complete Subject Complete Predicate
The new student of that school received an outstanding reward.
may choose their own extracurricular All students in that school activity.
He and I will be joining a photography club.
The person who sent the flowers might have been her boyfriend.
Notice in the preceding examples that the verbs in the predicate may consist of one word (received) or several (will be joining). In a verb phrase, the principal verb is the final one (joining). The other verbs are helping or auxiliary verbs. The most frequently used helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, been, have, has, had, must, ought, can, might, could, would, should, will, do, does, and did. To get a better understanding, take a look at the list of the parts of sentence below: a. The subject of a sentence is a noun/pronoun (or phrase or clause used as a
noun).
e.g. To get many rewards in the Month of Ramadhan is not easy. b. The verb is the word or phrase that tells the reader what the subject is or does.
e.g. Sally bought a red cocktail dress. c. The direct object is the noun or pronoun that names the receiver of the action
of the verb.
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e.g. The lecturer sent a message.
d. The indirect object is a noun or pronoun that tells to whom something is
(was/will be) done. The indirect object normally comes before the direct
object.
e.g. The lecturer sent me a message.
e. An object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition
in a prepositional phrase.
e.g. The lecturer sent a message to me.
f. A complement is a noun, pronoun, or modifier that explains, renames, or
describes the subject of a linking verb (e.g., is, seems, appears, smells, tastes,
etc.). e.g. The view is incredible.
2.2.3.2 Patterns of Sentence
The patterns of sentence depends on the language in which you‘re
writing or speaking. In English, it is common for a simple sentence to have a
pattern/structure like this: ―Mary wears a dress.‖. In this case, the sentence
pattern consists of subject – verb – object. However, there are many ways to
make the sentence pattern much more complex while still providing a
framework for the information we are conveying and being grammatically
correct. Linguists out there have contributed on the patterns of sentence. One
of them proposes that there are six basic patterns, while others suggest that
there are five or even four basic sentence patterns. Nevertheless, this study
decides to use the patterns of sentence which are presented by Longman and
Bauman.
According to Longman (2007), there are the five basic patterns of
sentence in English as follows:
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Table 1.2 Five basic patterns of simple sentence in English
No. Subject Predicate
1. Subject Verb (intransitive)
The little e.g. cried girl
Verb 2. Subject Direct Object (transitive)
The e.g. caught the thief police
Verb 3. Subject Subject Complement (noun/adjective) (linking)
e.g. The food was delicious
Verb Indirect Direct Object 4. Subject (transitive) Object
her a gift e.g. Anna gave husband
Verb Direct Object Complement 5. Subject (transitive) Object (noun/adjective)
e.g. He considered her a friend
Bauman (2012:30-31) proposes that there are four basic patterns expressing the thoughts in English sentences. As a business or professional writer, patterns 1, 2, and 3 are the most often used because readers want to
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know the subject first. For variety and emphasis, however, introductory elements and inverted order in pattern 4 can be used.
1. SUBJECT – VERB
In the most basic sentence pattern, the verb follows its subject. The
sentence needs no additional words to make sense and be complete, e.g.
―All students | are studying English.‖
2. SUBJECT - ACTION VERB – OBJECT
When sentences have an object, the pattern is generally subject, action
verb, and direct object. A direct object is usually a noun or pronoun that
answers the question What? or Whom?, e.g ―Harry | washed | his new
car.‖ This basic sentence pattern may also employ an indirect object that
often answers the question To whom?, e.g. ―Harry | gave | his mom | a
birthday present.‖
3. SUBJECT - LINKING VERB – COMPLEMENT
In the third sentence pattern, the subject precedes a linking verb and its
complement. Common linking verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, being,
and been. Other linking verbs express the senses: feels, appears, tastes,
sounds, seems, looks. A complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that
renames or describes the subject. A complement completes the meaning
of the subject and always follows the linking verb, e.g. ―Your friends | are
| my friends.‖
4. INVERTED ORDER
In inverted sentences, the verb precedes the subject. Inverted order can be
used for variety or emphasis in the sentences, e.g. ―Here | are | the list of
the suspected.‖
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2.2.3.3 Types of Sentence
There are two types of classifications of sentence, i.e. a) based on the
number and kinds of clauses within the sentence and b) based on the
messages or the discourse functions of the sentence.
A. Based on the Number and Kinds of Clauses within the Sentence
1. Simple Sentences
The most basic sentence is the simple sentence. A simple sentence
is made of one complete subject and one complete verb that express a
complete thought. In other words, a simple sentence is an independent
clause. Oshima and Hogue (in Zahroniyah, 2015:11) determines that a
simple sentence is one independent clause. This independent clause may
possibly be formed with one subject and one verb, a compound subject
and one verb, one subject and a compound verb, or a compound subject
and a compound verb. In conclusion, a simple sentence can be formed not
only with a subject and a verb, but also with a compound subject, a
compound verb, or both compound subject and verb.
Examples:
a. Some of the students | study | French. (compound subject & one verb)
b. They | sang and danced for us. (one subject & compound verb)
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is the combination of two or more simple
sentences. Thus, a compound sentence contains more than one
independent clause. Oshima and Hougue in Zahroniyah (2015:13) states
that a compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined
together. Usually, those independent clauses are connected by using
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conjunction. According to Frank (in Zahroniyah, 2015:13), there are three
conjunctions in compound sentences, namely:
a) Punctuation: semicolon (;)
b) Coordinate conjunction, such as: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
c) Conjunctive adverbs, such as: beside, likewise, moreover (addition),
otherwise (condition), accordingly, consequently, hence, than,
therefore (result), then (time), however, nevertheless, still (contrast)
For instance, a compound sentence is several simple sentences; it
can be two or more simple sentences, which is joined together. In order to
make correct compound sentence, those simple sentences should be
connected by using conjunction including; punctuation, coordinate
conjunction, and conjunctive adverb.
Examples:
a. Habib was pleased with his new smartphone; having extra storage
meant he could install more games. (with semicolon)
b. The handbook was expensive, but I had to buy it. (with coordinate
conjunction)
3. Complex Sentences
Frank in Zahroniyah (2015:14) explaines that a complex sentence
is made up of two or more full predication. One of these is an independent
clause (or, main clause) that is similar to the form of the simple sentence,
and one or more of these are dependent clause (or, subordinate clauses).
The independent clause can stand alone, but the dependent clause cannot;
it must depend on the main clause. Usually, the dependent clause is
introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as after, although, when,
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since, because, so that, or relative pronoun such as, who, which, that.
There are three types of dependent clauses which are in complex
sentences. In which, the name of those types refer to its function, they are;
adverbial clause, adjective clause, and noun clause.
Examples:
a. When my parents came, I was sweeping the floor. (with adverbial
clause)
b. She met a woman who is very kind. (with adjective clause)
c. I know where he lives. (with noun clause)
4. Compound-Complex Sentences
The last sentence type is complex-compound sentence. Basically, it is
rarely constructed by beginning writer; it is useful especially for the upper
intermediate and advance level of writer. Structurally, a compound-complex
sentence comprises at least two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses (Bram in Zahroniyah, 2015:15).
Examples:
a. After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to
work immediately. (one dependent clause & two independent clauses)
b. As she is going to her hometown, she thinks about her mother because
she misses her so much. (two dependent clauses & one independent
clauses)
B. Based on the Discourse Functions of the sentence
According to Quirk & Greenbaum (in Neužilová, 2005:62),
sentences may be classified into four major syntactic types. Their use
mostly corresponds with four different discourse functions:
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1. Declaratives are sentences in which a subject is present and precedes the
verb. They are primarily associated with statements, statement that
something is (positive sentence) or is not the case (negative sentence).
Examples:
a. My major is English Literature. (positive sentence)
b. She does not like the design. (negative sentence)
2. Interrogatives are typically associated with a discourse function of
questions that are used to seek information. Questions can be divided into
further subcategories. The basic distinction, according to Quirk &
Greenbaum (in Neužilová, 2005:63), is the following:
a. Yes–no questions are those questions that expect affirmation or
negation, e.g. ―You like him, don‘t you?‖
b. Wh-questions are those questions that expect a reply from an open
range of replies, e.g. ―Where do you live?‖
c. Alternative questions are those questions that expect as the reply one
of two or more options presented in the question, e.g. ―Do you want
bread or cake?‖
3. Imperatives are sentences that normally have no grammatical subject and
whose verb has the base form. Their discourse function is primarily a
directive which means that they are mostly used to instruct somebody to
do something.
Examples:
a. Stand up straight!
b. For further details, contact the number above.
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4. Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by
what (with noun) or how (with adjective/adverb). They primarily express
exclamations that show the extent to which the speaker is impressed by
something.
Examples:
a. What an amazing view!
b. How extraordinary!
2.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure
2.3.1 Tree Diagram
Bornstein (in Purwata, 2008:16) says that a tree diagram shows the
hierarchical structure of the sentence. The sentence is considered to be the
basic of syntactic system. Instead of beginning with actual sentences, we
begin with the directions for generating or producing structural descriptions
of sentences, which are set forth in phrase structure rules. The rules should be
interpreted as an instruction to rewrite or expand the symbol on the left of the
arrows as the sequence on the right. In S, NP + VP with S for Sentence, NP
for Noun Phrase, and VP for Verb Phrase.
S
NP VP
Pron. Aux Vt NP
Pron. N Tense M Vi Adv. P
Det + N Pres Be VL Comp
NP + S Past Have Be Pred
Diagram 1.3 The process of derivational in sentence proposed by Bornstein.
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In diagrams, some elements precede others and this corresponds to a
temporal precedence in the speaking of a sentence. For instance, in a tree
diagram of the sentence ―Hasby has bought a new house.‖ the noun Hasby
would appear at the leftmost position with bought a new house to the right
with the verb has in between. This ordering reflects the precedence relations
of the elements in the sentence.
Having dealt with these conditions, one can now look at some of the
techniques which have been developed in syntactic analysis. Initially, a
sentence was broken up into its constituent elements by a process of
branching from a single element at the top – the sentence – down to all the
individual elements of the actual sentence at the bottom, which is called a
terminal string. In this type of analysis, the function of a word becomes
obvious from the label which is used above it within the tree diagram.
2.3.2 Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG)
The basis for the branches of tree diagram is what is called phrase
structure grammar. Noam Chomsky and his colleagues are the leading
experts who contribute to the development of syntax theories which is
dominant starting in the mid 1950s and continuing to this day. However,
phrase structure grammars or phrase structure analysis are originated in
models of Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis which was firstly introduced
by Bloomfield in 1933 and then established by Bloomfield‘s successors such
as Wells (1947), Harris (1957), and Chomsky (1957). The notion of IC
analysis is that the structure of an expression (sentence) can be divided into
parts, namely its immediate constituents which then can be further subdivided
until they syntactically became indivisible units.
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Chomsky (in Blevins & Sag, 2013:205) proposes that phrase structure grammars are referred as ―the form of grammar [that] corresponds to [the] conception of linguistic structure‖ expressed by IC analysis. Chomsky argues that the procedures for segmenting and classifying expressions/sentences can be delivered by means of re-write rules which split a larger unit, starting with the sentence itself, into its next smallest components, continuing until one has reached the lowest level which consists of the individual words of a sentence, the terminal string. Thus a rule such as S → NP VP would rewrite a sentence
S by a subject NP and a VP predicate, and the rule V → took would classify took as a verb.
The syntactic analysis that is assigned to an expression by a phrase structure grammar is conventionally represented by a phrase structure tree, although in Chomsky‘s initial formulations, analyses are represented by string sets called phrase markers. They contain strings from equivalence classes of derivations differing from one another in a sense that they apply the same rules in a different order (e.g., a derivation where the subject NP is rewritten before rewriting the VP and a second derivation where the VP is rewritten first).
Sentence : Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase
Verb Phrase : Verb + Noun Phrase
Auxiliary and full Verb
Noun Phrase : Determiner + Noun
(determiner = articles, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, numerals, etc.)
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From the first re-write rule, one can see that this represents the
simplest type of sentence, a subject and an intransitive verb as in Klara
laughed. The second rule breaks down the verb phrase of the first and can be
used to deal with a sentence like Klara wrote poems. The noun phrase can be
further broken down, for instance, to accommodate the sentence Klara wrote
some poems where some is a determiner. The number of re-write rules
necessary is dependent on the complexity of the sentences as these simple
examples show.
S
NP VP
N V NP
Det N
Klara wrote some poems.
Diagram 1.4 The structure of a sentence using phrase-structure grammar.
2.3.3 Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG)
Chomsky‘s book ―Aspects of the Theory of Syntax‖ which was firstly
published in 1965 is considered to be the theoretical framework of linguistics,
especially for the much more extensive concept of transformational
generative grammar that attempts to describe the idea that each sentence in a
language has two kinds of representation: 1) deep structure (underlying
syntactic structure) and 2) surface structure (the outward form of sentence).
The former refers to the core semantic (meaning) relations of a sentence and
is realized onto the surface structure, while the latter one indicates the
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phonological form of sentence which is derived from the deep structure via a series of transformations.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) emerges in purpose of replacing the old grammatical systems (specifically PSG) and provide a more precise and efficient tool of analyzing language. It refers to the theory of generative grammar of a natural language that goes beyond the process of structural grammar which tends to focus on the proper construction of sentences (surface structure) as the device for communication. Along with sentence structure, this type of grammar also attempt to explore the thought behind the words (deep structure). Just like PSG with PS-rules, TGG also employs a standard or a rule namely T-rules which is established because of the inadequacy of PSG to describe some construction of language. PSG has its limitations, for instance, it is reflected in the case of transforming an active sentence into a passive one and vice versa. It cannot account for transformational relationships as in Jocelyn writes a book and A book is written by Jocelyn which cannot be considered as two different sentences since the second sentence is only a transformation of the first one obtained through a re-arrangement and morphemic changes in the terminal string.
Linguists working within transformational generative grammar often view tree structure as a primary object of study. According to this view, a sentence is not merely a string of words. Instead, adjacent words are combined into constituents, which can then be further combined with other words or constituents to create a hierarchical tree-structure. A tree structure in transformational grammar is a diagrammatic representation of sentences distinguished by their syntactic characteristics.
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a) b) S CP
NP VP C S
= NP VP
Aux Adj Infl N Infl V
You are hungry. Are you e hungry?
Diagram 1.5 a) and b) contain the same meaning-bearing elements (words), i.e. words, but employ different constructions.
The two tree diagram above indicates that phrase structure rules (PS- rules) would produce a declarative sentence in (a) ―You are hungry.‖ and then a new T-rules would change the whole sentence into another one (b) by transforming it onto an interrogative structure in which e stands for ‗empty category called trace that records the movement (denoted by the arrow) of an element from the head position within S.
There are two key features in transformational generative grammar: 1)
Inversion in yes-no questions and 2) Wh Movement which are described as under:
1) Inversion in yes-no questions
O‘Grady (1997:203) states that these question structures which is
called ‗yes-no questions‘ because they expect yes or no as a response are
built in two steps. In the first step (a), the usual XP rule is used to form a
structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, that
is, between the subject (NP) and the predicate (VP). Take a look at the
following tree diagram of a sentence ―The boy will leave.‖
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a) b) S CP
NP VP C S
Det N Infl V NP VP
The boy will leave. Infl Det N Infl V
Will the boy e leave?
Diagram 1.6 a) shows that Infl ‗will‘ occurs in the head position between the
subject/NP (its specifier) and the predicate/VP (its complement); b) indicates
movement of an auxiliary ‗will‘ from Infl to C.
In the second step (b), it is a formation of question structures that
requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element
from one position to another. In this case, this type of transformation is
known as inversion which is done by moving the auxiliary from the Infl
position to a position to the left of the subject (NP).
2) Wh Movement
O‘Grady (1997:203) claims that these question structures is also
known as wh questions because of the presence of a question word
beginning with wh. Consider the following sentence: ―The man should
repair.‖ The sentence is somehow incomplete as there is no NP after the
verb repair. Nevertheless, it is suggested to add the wh phrases ‗which
car‘ to fulfill the complement function in the sentence. The tree diagram
in (i) captures this fact by treating the wh phrases as complement of the
verb. In order ti convert the deep structure of this sentence (declarative)
into corresponding surface structures, e.g. an interrogative, a
transformation is required to move the wh phrase from its position in the
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deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This type of
transformation is called as Wh Movement. By applying wh movement and
inversion to the deep structure in (i), the tree diagram of the desired
question structure is obtained in (ii).
i) S
NP VP
NP
Det N Infl V Det N
The man should repair which car.
ii) CP
C S
NP NP VP
Det N Infl Det N Infl V NP
Which car should the man e repair e? a b
Diagram 1.7 i) denotes a sentence before transformation, i.e. declarative
form, while (ii) designates a sentence after the transformation, i.e.
interrogative form, in particular by the process of inversion shown by ‗a‟ and
wh movement shown by ‗b‘.
2.3.4 Constructional Grammar (CG)
The development of constructional grammar is motivated, among
other things, by the realization that true understanding of speakers‘ linguistic
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knowledge cannot be reduced to tracking down merely the structural properties of linguistic expressions and the meaning of words, but must incorporate also principles that govern the ways in which linguistic units are used and interpreted in actual communication (Fillmore in Fried, 2013:3).
Fried (2013:3) affirms that construction grammar does not divorce linguistic form from its meaning, function, and principles of usage but, instead, takes these dimensions to form an integrated whole – a grammatical construction, i.e. a conventional pattern of speakers‘ understanding.
Constructional Grammar or also known as constructional analysis is used in the case of copula absence in AAVE (Bender, 2000). As quoted from
Bender‘s thesis (2000:95-96), Mufwene and Sag and Wasow are the ones who independently suggest constructional analyses of copula absence in
AAVE. These constructional analyses avoid the need to posit a rule of deletion or even a phonologically empty verb, and as such, are in keeping with the surface-orientation of much recent work in HPSG (Head-driven
Phrase Structure Grammar). Building on the observation that copulaless sentences in AAVE have the same distribution as clauses in a and b, the construction posited builds clauses out of an NP and a predicative phrase.
a. You in trouble. (S&W99)
b. If you alone, watch out! (S&W99)
Mufwene's version (in Bender, 2000:96) is given below, where PredP stands for Predicative Phrase, a cover category for NP, AP and PP predicates and participial verb phrases.
S → NP PredP
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Based on the above rule, it can be seen that there is no phrase
structural position in the tree diagram for the copulaless sentences.
S
NP PredP
PP
N P N
You in trouble.
Diagram 1.8 The structure of a sentence using constructional analysis in
which PredP covers PP and acts as a VP.
2.4 Standard & Non-standard English
2.4.1 Standard English
A number of linguistic have argued strongly that Standard English is
easily defined and delimited: it shares its grammar with the vast majority of
Standard English varieties world-wide, differing from them in a small number
of minor grammatical features. Its vocabulary is less fixed, though it avoids
regional, traditional words. Trudgill (2011) gives perhaps the clearest
statement of this position. He stated that Standard English is simply one
variety of English among many which is standardized and codified. It is not a
language, an accent, a style or a register. It is a sub-variety of English called
dialect.
In the Macmillan Dictionary, Standard English is defined as the form
of spoken and written English that is considered acceptable by most people.
Furthermore, in Language, Society and Power, Thomas et al. (in Tioukalias,
2010:9) explains that part of the ideology of Standard English is that it is the
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‗correct‘ form of the language and that other varieties are ‗incorrect‘. In
addition to that, they make clear that Standard English is the dialect of
institutions such as government and the law; it is the dialect of literacy and
education; it is the dialect taught as ‗English‘ to foreign learners; and it is the
dialect of the higher social classes; therefore adding that Standard English is
the prestige form of English. Moreover, Thomas et al. (in Tioukalias, 2010:9)
says that using Standard English in such high-status contexts as the ones
mentioned above means that the status of Standard English is strengthened,
which means that to participate in the high-status functions/contexts, one is
obliged to use Standard English.
Based on some definitions given by the linguists above, it can be
concluded that Standard English is one of the English language varieties
which is regarded as the ―correct‖ form of the language. The term ‗variety‟ or
also called as ‗lect‟ refers to a specific form of a language or language cluster
which may include languages, dialects, registers or styles. Standard English
is used as the national rule or norm in an English-speaking country, in
particular as the language for the public and formal usage. For example, in
the United Kingdom such as in Scotland, Wales or Ireland, the term Standard
English is associated with British English. In line with that, in the United
States such as in Boston, New York, or Philadelphia the term is closely-
related with General American or also known as American English.
2.4.2 Non-Standard English
According to Melich (2017:1), ―Non-standard English refers to those
varieties of English that differ from the Standard with respect to the grammar
and the phonology.‖ Melich further explains that those non-standard varieties
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have been a subject to the attribution of stereotypes by being considered
―bad‖ English. In the eighteenth century, there are judgmental attitudes towards non-standard speech which then arose and fed directly into the nineteenth century condemnation of regional and local accents. In the words of Fairclough (in Hickey, 2012:5) ―Standard English was regarded as correct
English, and other social dialects were stigmatized not only in terms of correctness but also in terms which indirectly reflected on the lifestyles, morality and so forth of their speakers.‖
Non-standard English is linguistically the equal of the standard version – in fact, dialects tend to be more sophisticated grammatically than standard (as in the plural ―youse‖ of many non-standard dialects where standard has just one confusing form). Yet standard continues – even now – to be valued as the ―correct‖ form, and any deviation is considered to be wrong, lazy, corrupt or ignorant (Ritchie, 2013). With this notion of standard, also came the idea of its inherent value. The standard was ‗good‘ and all forms of non-standard speech were ‗bad‘. From then onwards, remarks on standard and non-standard use of language became evaluative as many sociolinguists have remarked, for example, Spector (2015) argues that using non-standard forms is not lazy, immoral, or inherently wrong, but instead it can be rich, creative, and eloquent.
Non-standard English is just not a language which is merely different from SE, an accidental or one of ‗slip‘; it implies a systemic feature of language which is shared with other speakers of the language but which diverges from the standard form. As Spector (2015) further explains that it is a question of context—and, strangely enough, of history. Along the history of
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mainstream media, film makers have focused their attention on the
representation of certain non-standard English varieties on the big screen.
Because the media is considered to be a way of fostering credibility and
engaging with reality one would think that directors would try to be as
accurate as possible when representing the speech of the characters. One of
the non-standard English varieties that has been most research is African-
American Vernacular English (AAVE), for instance, it can be seen from the
interaction among the characters in Barry Jenkin‘s screenplay ―Moonlight‖
using AAVE.
2.4.2.1 Vernacular
According to Merriam-Webster (2018), ‗vernacular‘ is brought into
the English language as early as 1601 from the Latin vernaculus (‗native‘)
which had been in figurative use in Classical Latin as ‗national‘ and
‗domestic‘, having originally been derived from vernus and verna, a male or
female slave respectively born in the house rather than abroad. In Merriam-
Webster (2018), the term ‗vernacular‘ is defined as a mode of expression of a
group or a class which occurs in ordinary speech rather than formal writing.
Some linguists use ‗vernacular‘ and ‗non-standard dialect‘ interchangeably,
for instance, AAVE. The additional term vernacular in the term AAVE refers
to everyday language and distinguishes the black AAVE speakers from the
black speakers of Standard English (Trudgill in Magnusson, 2008:1). AAVE,
which is by some people considered to be inferior to Standard English (SE),
among non-linguists in particular, is a linguistic variety with defined
syntactic-semantic, phonological, and lexical features, which have been the
subject of a rich body of sociolinguistic literature.
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2.4.3 Differences Between Standard and Non-standard English
Trudgill (in Arifin, 2017:20-21) described the comparison between
Standard English and non-standard English as follows:
1. Standard English does not distinguish between the forms of the auxiliary
do and its main verb forms. Non-standard varieties normally include the
forms I done it (main verb), but did he? (auxiliary): Standard English has
did for both functions.
2. Standard English does not permit double negation (negative concord), as
in I don‟t want none. Most non-standard dialects of English around the
world permit double, or even multiple negation.
3. Standard English has an irregular formation of the reflexive, with myself
based on the possessive my, and himself based on the object form him.
Non-standard dialects generalize the possessive form, as in hisself.
4. Standard English has an unusual and irregular present tense verb
morphology in that only the third-person singular receives morphological
marking: he goes versus I go. Many other dialects, e.g. AAVE use either
zero or -s for all persons, for instances, I say, he say or you gets, she gets.
5. Standard English fails to distinguish between second-person singular and
second-person plural pronouns, having you in both cases. Many non-
standard dialects maintain the older English distinction between thou and
you, or have developed newer distinctions such as you versus youse.
6. Standard English has irregular forms of the verb to be both in the present
tense (am, is, are) and in the past (was, were). Many non-standard
dialects have the same form for all persons, such as I be, you be, he be, we
be, they be, and I were, you were, he were, we were, they were.
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7. In the case of many irregular verbs, Standard English redundantly
distinguishes between preterite and perfect verb forms both by the use of
the auxiliary have and by the use of distinct preterite and past participle
forms: I had seen versus I saw. Many other dialects have I have seen
versus I seen.
8. Standard English has only a two-way contrast in its demonstrative system,
with this (near to the speaker) opposed to that (away from the speaker).
Many other dialects have a three-way system involving a further
distinction between, for example, that (near to the listener) and yon (away
from both speaker and listener).
2.5 Relevant Study on AAVE
As quoted from Feldman‘s research (2002:2), studies of AAVE have
been based on a variety of sources, including slavery-era literary texts (e.g.
Dillard, 1972), letters written by freed slaves (Montgomery, Fuller, and
DeMarse, 1993), transcripts of Depression-era interviews with former slaves
(e.g. Schneider, 1989), audio recordings of interviews with former slaves
(Bailey, Maynor, and Cukor-Avila, 1991), exam essays written by African
American high school students (Smitherman 1992, 1994), and sociolinguistic
interviews (e.g. Wolfram, 1969; Labov, 1972; Rickford, 1992).
Prasetyo (in Arifin, 2017:7) in his journal, ―An Analysis of AAVE
Grammatical Features as Depicted in The Utterances of Christopher Wallace in
Notorious Movie‖, found that there are many utterances of the main character in
the movie containing the AAVE grammatical features by applying the theories
of Wolfram and Rickford. The findings are generally about the use of preverbal
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negator ain‟t, multiple negation, formation of direct question, absence of
auxiliaries, and generalization of was.
In addition, Khoirun and Widyastuti (in Arifin, 2017:7) in their journal,
―The Use of Ain‘t in John Steinbeck‘s of Mice and Men novel‖. They found that
the use of the non-standard use of negation sentences using ain‟t is popular
among African-American speakers. By applying the theory of Guth, she
analyzed the sentences in the accordance of the theories and classified those
sentences into some parts. She categorized the use of the word ain‟t in some
different functions and explanations.
2.5.1 Grammatical Features of AAVE
There are some grammatical features of AAVE and they are mostly
concerned with tense and aspect, double negation, copula absence, uninflected
verbs, genitive case, word order, and personal pronoun. However, in this paper,
the grammatical features of AAVE are limited to the case of copula absence,
double negation, and uninflected verbs, as mentioned in the scope of the study in
the chapter one. Here are the brief descriptions of the above three grammatical
features:
a) Copula Absence
One common feature of African-American Vernacular English is the
null/zero copula. Sentences such as ―We Ø tired,‖ and ―He Ø a doctor‖ are
grammatically correct in AAVE. Rickford (in Wurl, 2006:114) claims that
the use (or deletion) of the copula is a rule-governed feature in AAVE, which
means that the above deletions of are and is are acceptable. Nevertheless, it is
not grammatically acceptable to delete past tense copulas was and were,
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giving the following correct sentence, ―He been doin it since we was teenagers, and he Ø still doin it‖. The absence of copula and auxiliary for contractible forms of is and are as found in the expression, She pretty for
―She‘s pretty‖ or They showing off for ―They‘re showing off‖, has been one of the most often described structures of AAVE.
Copula absence is one of the most identifiable, and most frequently studied features of AAVE. As Fasold remarked that although other American dialects do exhibit copula absence, especially Southern white varieties, none has nearly as high a rate of is absence as AAVE (in Feldman, 2002:7). In addition, Sharma and Rickford (2009:53) claimed that this pattern is highly consistent and dominant in AAVE because of two important factors namely simplification and historical contact which go side by side. McWorthy (in
Sharma and Rickford, 2009:56) said that the first factor is caused by the general process of imperfect second language learning that operated as the
African ancestors of today‘s speakers acquired English. In line with that, the second one is caused by the African-Americans‘ background, i.e. slavery that they used to deal with where education is often discouraged by making literary illegal which leads to the imperfect learning of language. As
Wolfram (in Sharma and Rickford, 2009:57) stated that copula absence among African Americans is probably traceable to a contact based case of fossilized, ‗imperfect language learning‘ found among groups in African diaspora.
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b) Uninflected Verbs
Verbs are uninflected for number and person: there is no -s ending in
the present-tense third-person singular. Absence of third person singular
present tense is a feature of AAVE which may appear in examples such as
―He talk‖ for SE ―He talks,‖ in the use of don‘t instead of ―doesn‘t,‖ as in
―She don‘t cry,‖ or ―have‖ instead of ―has‖, as in ―She have it.‖ Don‟t and
have as used in these examples are feature related, since ―doesn‘t‖ and
―hasn‘t‖ include third person singular suffix (Fasold in Ezgeta, 2012:12-13).
Furthermore, AAVE does away with the third person singular exception,
making ―he go‖ and ―he have‖ acceptable conjugations. Irregular verbs may
be regularized, so the first person and second person verb forms are
generalized onto the third person singular as well: I see it, he see it, they see
it; I was, he was, they was; I have, he have, they have (Burling in Ezgeta,
2012:13). c) Double Negation
The formation of negation in AAVE is actually not particularly
distinct from other vernacular varieties of English in the US or in the outside
of it. To begin with, it participates in double negation which refers to the
grammatical construction in which two forms of negation are used in one
sentence, such as ―He ain‘t got no money.‖ or ―You ain‘t going nowhere.‖, or
even multiple negation which indicates that there are more than one form of
negation used in one sentence, as in She won‟t love nobody no more or I
never owe nothing to no one. According to Howe (2005:16), AAVE shows
two types of negative concord: 1) to indefinites, and 2) to verbs. To
indefinites, the application of negative concord includes plural nouns (e.g.
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―The rich man didn‘t worry about no cars no more.‖), uncountable nouns
(e.g. ―He ain‘t got no time for commitment.‖), adverbials (e.g. ―It wasn‘t even fun no more.‖), and pronouns (e.g. ―You won‘t believe none of that.‖).
As for the application of negative concord to verbs is less common than the previous one, as in ―None of them can‟t fight.‖ or ―Nobody can‟t make a meal on their own.‖. In urban areas, the incidence of negative concord is sharply stratified; some low-status speakers show the categorical realization of negative concord while middle-class speakers often show very low frequency levels or no negative concord at all in their sociolinguistic interviews (Wolfram, 2004:124).
In Standard English, two negatives are understood to resolve to a positive. However, it is not encouraged to do so since the cancelation of two negative produces a weakened affirmative (Victora, Robert, & Nina,
2002:15). For instance, ―I do not disagree‖ could mean several things such as
―I certainly agree‖, ―I agree‖, ―I sort of agree‖, ―I don't understand your point of view‖, ―I have no opinion‖, and so on. This is known as a form of ―weasel words‖ referring to nonspecific statement which is aimed to soften or under- state a biased or otherwise controversial statement. As a result, such construction needs further statements to resolve which particular meaning was intended.
Up to the 18th century, double negatives were used to emphasize negation. ‗Prescriptive grammarians‘ recorded and codified a shift away from the double negative in the 1700s. Double negatives continue to be spoken by those of Vernacular English, such as those of Appalachian English and
African American Vernacular English. To such speakers, they view double
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negatives as emphasizing the negative rather than cancelling out the negatives. Researchers have studied African American Vernacular English
(AAVE) and trace its origins back to colonial English. This shows that double negatives were present in colonial English, and thus presumably English as a whole, and were acceptable at that time. English after the 18th century was changed to become more logical and double negatives became seen as canceling each other as in mathematics. The use of double negatives became associated with being uneducated and illogical which in turn made it fall into disuse in Standard English. In conclusion, the standard varieties of English use two negators with a desire to form a positive statement at the end of it, while the non-standard ones such as AAVE use such pattern in order to produce a negative statement.
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2.6 Conceptual Framework
SENTENCE STRUCTURE OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH
Parts of Sentence Sentence Structure Syntactic Categories
Tree Diagram
Sentence Structure of African- The Differences between AAVE and American Vernacular English SAE in Terms of Its Structure Problem 1 Problem 2
PSG TGG CG Theory 2 Theory 3 Theory 1
Decl. Interro. Decl.
Yes-No Wh- Question Question (Inversion) (Movement)
Uninflected Double Copula Verbs Neg. Absence
Descriptive Qualitative Method
Sentence structure of AAVE The differences between AAVE portrayed in tree diagrams & and Standard American English
their descriptions (SAE)
Finding 1 Finding 2
Conclusion
Diagram 1.9 The conceptual framework of the study
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The previous diagram is the conceptual framework of the study entitled
Sentence Structure of African-American Vernacular English in Barry Jenkins‟
Screenplay “Moonlight”. This conceptual framework reveals the construction of the study and conveys how the study is carried out in order to obtain a conclusion. It starts with ―Sentence Structure‖ as the topic of the study which cannot be separated from its two subcategories namely ―Syntactic Categories‖, and ―Parts of Sentence‖ which is branched out into ―Tree Diagram‖. Tree diagram is used as the most suitable method to analyze the sentence structure in the study by breaking down the sentence into its smallest parts or elements called „heads‟. The study formulates two problems of the research: 1) the sentence structure of African-American Vernacular
English (AAVE), and 2) the differences between African-American Vernacular
English (AAVE) and Standard American English (SAE) in terms of its structure.
There are three theories specifically used to answer the first problem: Phrase-
Structure Grammar (PSG) which was introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1957,
Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) which was also introduced by Noam
Chomsky in 1965 and later developed by William O‘Grady in 1997, and
Constructional Grammar (CG) which was firstly proposed by George Lakoff in 1974 and developed by Mufwene, Sag ad Wasow in 1998. Those three theories are seen as the most well-suited theories for the study because the first theory, i.e. PSG, can be applied to the analysis of sentence structure of AAVE, particularly in the case of the sentences which are in declarative form with double negation and/or uninflected verbs as their grammatical features, the second one, i.e. TGG, covers the case of transforming the declarative question forms into the interrogative ones. Declarative question is usually concerned with the inversion (yes-no questions) and movement
(wh-questions) and is defined as those sentences that have declarative forms but are
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intended to ask a question or request for something, and the third one, i.e. CG, can precisely be used in the case of copula absence, one of the most dominant grammatical features of AAVE, especially useful for analyzing declarative forms which are copulaless. The first and the second problems are conducted with qualitative descriptive method in which the first problem is portrayed in tree diagrams with descriptions, while the second one is described in the table of differences between AAVE and SAE. Then, the analysis and findings of two problems are followed by a conclusion in the final chapter.
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CHAPTER III
METHOD OF RESEARCH
3.1 Research Method
This study was a library research by applying descriptive qualitative
method. According to Bungin (in Srikandi, 2010), there are three kinds of
research based on the location of the research: 1) library research, 2) laboratory
research, and 3) field research. Gall, Gall, & Borg (in Nassaji, 2015) says that in
descriptive research, the data may be collected qualitatively, but it is often
analyzed quantitatively, using frequencies, percentages, averages, or other
statistical analyses to determine relationships. Meanwhile, in qualitative research,
the data are collected qualitatively and the method of analysis is also primarily
qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify
recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those
categories (Nassaji, 2015:129-130).
3.2 Data and Data Source
There were two kinds of data used in this study, i.e. the main data and the
supporting one, which means that there were two sources of data. The main data
source of this study was the screenplay entitled ―Moonlight‖ written by Barry
Jenkins which was based on Tarrel Alvin McCraney‘s unpublished semi-
autobiographical play ―In Moonlight Black Boys Look Blue‖. The screenplay
was taken from the internet, particularly from the website called
www.dailyscript.com in the form of ‗e-book‘ (electronic book). Therefore, the
main data of this study were written text, specifically in the form of utterances or
conversations (dialogues) among the characters in the screenplay which was
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directly taken from the data source ―Moonlight‖. The screenplay ―Moonlight‖
consists of 98 pages and it is divided into three main parts or acts: i. Little, ii.
Chiron, and iii. Black, with some introduction from page one to five before
entering the first act.
In addition, there are five song lyrics of rap music from different rappers,
i.e. ―Cops Shot the Kid‖ by Nas, ―All Mine‖ by Kanye West, ―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil
Wayne, ―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj, and ―She Bad‖ by Cardi B, which were
deliberately chosen as the supporting data source which can be accessed through
the website namely www.genius.com. Thus, the supporting data of this study
were also written text, especially in the form of lines which were taken from the
above song lyrics. Those data, either the main or supporting ones, which were
obtained through the data sources, are limited to only declarative and
interrogative simple sentences.
3.3 Data Collecting Method
In most qualitative studies, researchers usually use a variety of research
methods to collect data, in order to obtain as many perspectives as possible on the
phenomenon being researched. In their book entitled ―Qualitative Research In
Applied Linguistics‖, Juanita and Crocker (2009:17-18) states that there are six
data collection methods which are most commonly used in qualitative research
such as observation, interviews, open-response items on questionaires, verbal
reports, diaries, and discourse analysis. Moreover, Creswell (2009:178) proposes
that in qualitative research, the data collection steps include setting the
boundaries for the study, collecting information through unstructured or
semistructured observations and interviews, documents, and visual materials, as
well as establishing the protocol for recording information. Therefore, he further
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explained that there are four main data collection types: observation, interview
(face-to-face or focus group), documents (e.g. journals, letters, newspapers), and audio-visual materials (e.g. photographs, videotapes, films) (Creswell, 2009:179-
180).
Since the data of this study were obtained through the data sources, i.e.
Barry Jenkins‘ screenplay ―Moonlight‖ and five song lyrics namely ―Cops Shot the Kid‖ by Nas, ―All Mine‖ by Kanye West, ―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil Wayne,
―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj, and ―She Bad‖ by Cardi B, the method of collecting the data is thus, a written document, which is gathered by using purposive sampling. Bungin (in Ginting, 2009:24-25) affirms that ―purposive sampling is used according to accurate understanding about population, therefore only the
‗key‘ are collected as research sample.‖ He also adds that if the population consists of the large number, the sample which is taken depends on the researcher‘s capability: it is 10% - 50% or more.
The estimate number of sentences found in the screenplay ―Moonlight‖, particularly from Act 1 to Act 3 is about 500 sentences. For this reason, the least
precentage (10%) is chosen as in: . Thus, it is about 50 sentence
structures from Act 1 – Act 3 that is portrayed in the tree diagram. As for the supporting data of the study which are taken from the source of data, i.e. the above five song lyrics, there are four lines which are deliberately chosen from each lyric which indicates that there are 20 lines in total. Therefore, the overall amount of sentence structures is 70 data which only contain the declarative and interrogative simple sentences. To calculate the most frequent sentence type out of two, it can be done by applying the following formula from Bungin (in
Ginting, 2009:25).
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FX = individual frequency (one type of sentences)
N = number of occurence (all type of sentences)
The steps of collecting the main data of the study are explained as follows: a. Search and find the e-book (electronic book) version of the screenplay
―Moonlight‖ from the internet through a website called www.dailyscript.com. b. Download the screenplay in the form of pdf file. c. Print out and read the screenplay repeatedly. d. Calculate the estimate number of sentences from Act 1 to Act 3, which is
about 500 data. e. Determine the amount of sentences which is taken from the estimate number
of sentences (500 data) by using the percentage depending on the researcher‘s
capability, and in this case, only 10% is taken. f. Obtain 50 data (the amount of sentence structures) containing only
declarative and interrogative simple sentences that are directly taken from
Act 1 – Act 3. g. Draw/Portray those sentence structures (50 data) which are used as the
sample of the study in the tree diagram. h. Calculate the percentage of each type of sentences and find out the most
dominant type between declarative and interrogative by using the formula
proposed by Bungin. i. Write down the percentage of each type of sentence and the frequency of
AAVE features being appeared in the table of findings. j. Draw a conclusion from the table of findings in the final chapter. 52
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3.4 Data Analysis Method
―In qualitative research, the analysis is described as three concurrent
flows of activity: (1) data condensation, (2) data display, and (3) drawing and
verifying conclusions.‖ (Miles, Huberman and Saldaña, 2014:31-33). To get an
in-depth understanding, take a look at the diagram portrayed as under:
Diagram 2.1 Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model (Miles, Huberman
& Saldaña, 2014)
3.4.1 Data Condensation
Data condensation refers to the process of selecting, focusing,
simplifying, abstracting, and/or transforming the data that appear in the full
corpus (body) of written-up field notes, interview transcripts, documents, and
other empirical materials (Milles, Huberman and Saldaña, 2014:31). The data
taken are in the form of utterances or conversations (dialogues) among the
characters and in the form of lines from the song lyrics. There are 70 data
selected, that is, 50 data used as the main data of the study which are obtained
from Act 1 to Act 3 in the screenplay and 20 data used as the supporting data
which are taken from five particular song lyrics. These data which are only
composed of simple sentences are used as the sample of the research.
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In this research, the study focuses on the declarative and interrogative types of sentence. The reasons behind that is because firstly, the other two types of sentence, i.e. imperative and exclamative have a little occurrence compared to the other two. As a matter of fact, there are no exclamative type of sentence found in the two sources of data, while imperative form occurs no more than ten times in the main and supporting data combined. As for the another reason for the above focusing is because imperative form in AAVE is very similar to SAE in the sense that they are built by the VP category alone and the fact that both of them have no subject. For instances, the sentence
―Get that nigga! (pg. 2)‖ from the main data, i.e. the screenplay Moonlight is an imperative as it has no subject and is built by the VP category containing the verb get, and the noun phrase that nigga.
Then, the data is simplified by using coding. Miles, Huberman and
Saldaña (2014:79) claims that coding are used to retrieve and categorize similar data chunks, so the researcher can quickly find, pull out, and cluster the segments relating to a particular research question, hypothesis, construct, or theme. Coding is classified into two processes: 1) First Cycle and 2)
Second Cycle. The former refers to a way to initially summarize segments of data, while the latter one is a way of grouping those summaries into a smaller number of categories, themes, or constructs. In this research, the coding of the data applies descriptive coding in the first cycle and pattern coding in the second cycle. In the first cycle, the data, which are the sentences, is coded by assigning labels to each of them to summarize in a word or short phrases, for instances, giving label „S1‟ to the first sentence, „S2‟ to the second one, „S3‟ to the third one, and so on. After that, the characteristics, i.e. the grammatical
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features of AAVE, of those labeled sentences is jotted down, e.g. writing
down the feature of the sentence „S1‟, which is copula absence, for example.
In the second cycle, from the list of the labeled sentences with their
grammatical features, it can be seen whether those sentences with the same
feature share the same structure/configuration. Therefore, those with the same
feature and structure is grouped into one category, and those with the same
feature but different structure is grouped into another one, and so forth.
Finally, as for the data abstraction, those labels and categories above is
written down into a table.
3.4.2 Data Display
After doing condensation of the data, data display is the second phase
to analyze the data. A display is an organized, compressed assembly of
information that allows conclusion drawing and action. The most frequent
form of display for qualitative data in the past has been extended text, but it
tends to get terribly cumbersome as a researcher may find it easy to jump to
hasty, partial, unfounded conclusions.
Good displays are major avenue to robust qualitative analysis and
nowadays displays may include many types of matrices, graphs, charts and
networks. All are designed to assemble organized information into an
immediately accessible, compact form so that the analyst can see what is
happening and either drew justified conclusions or move on to the next step
of analysis that the display suggests may be useful.
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3.4.3 Conclusion Drawing and Verification
The final of steps in data analysis does not occur until data collection
is over. Conclusions are verified as the analyst proceeds. Verification may be
brief with short excursion back to the field notes or it may be thorough and
elaborate with lengthy argumentation and review. As presented above, these
three streams: data condensation, data display, and conclusion
drawing/verification, are interwoven before, during, and after data collection
in parallel form to make up the general domain called ―analysis‖. In the
above diagram, the three types of analysis activity and the activity of the data
collection itself form an interactive, cyclical process. In general, the
researcher moves along those four nodes during data collection and then
shuttles among condensing, displaying, and conclusion drawing/verifying for
the remainder of the study (Miles, Huberman and Saldaña, 2014:32).
In this step, a clear information on the result of the study/analysis is
explained, and then a conclusion/verification on the result is also drawn along
with their validity.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND FINDING
In this chapter, there are five steps to answer the two problems of the study which are formulated in the first chapter. Thus, this chapter is divided into five subchapters: 1) Data Coding (Data Labelling), 2) Data Classification, 3)
Data Analyses and Descriptions, 4) Differences Between AAVE and SAE, and 5)
Findings of the Study. Nevertheless, before going to the first step, it is required to firstly describe about the data of the study.
There are 70 data which are achieved from the main and supporting data.
The main data are 50 sentences that are obtained from 10% of the whole sentences, i.e. 500 sentences by using the Bungin‘s formula as previously mentioned in the third chapter, that is, method of research. These 50 sentences which are used as the main data of the study are directly taken from Act 1-3 from the source of data, i.e. Barry Jenkins‘ screenplay ―Moonlight‖.
Moreover, the supporting data are 20 lines which are taken from five song lyrics, specifically that of rap music in which the scene is dominated by African-
American rappers such as Nas, Kanye West, Lil Wayne, Nicki Minaj, and Cardi
B, who are at the top of their career in a way that all of them are ranked as the top five rappers in the world and since then become the talk of the town among music critics, fellow rappers and fans. These five lyrics which are taken from their latest album include: ―Cops Shot the Kid‖ by Nas (NASIR, 2018), ―All
Mine‖ by Kanye West (ye, 2018), ―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil Wayne (Tha Carter V,
2018), ―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj (Queen, 2018), and ―She Bad‖ by Cardi B
(Invasion of Privacy, 2018). These 20 lines are obtained by deliberately choosing
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four lines from each lyric and thus, are used to strengthen and enrich the main
data.
The overall amount of data which is 70 data are those sentences which are
only composed of declarative and interrogative simple sentences. These 70
sentences are analyzed by conducting various theories of syntax such as PSG
(Chomsky, 1957), TGG (Chomsky, 1965), and CG (Mufwene, 1998). The
analyses of these sentences are portrayed in tree diagram by employing the
rewrite rules, a method which is applied by breaking down the sentences into its
individual components named ‗heads‘.
4.1 Data Coding (Data Labeling)
In this section, all of the data of the study which are calculated to be 70
data in total are simplified by using coding. Firstly, these data which are in the
form of sentences are labeled by codes according to a particular serial number. In
this case, the first sentence to be analyzed is labeled by the code ‗SS01‘ in which
SS stands for ‗sentence structure‘ and the number 01 identifies the sentence
structure as the first data of the study. This coding proceeds to the next sentences
in a sense that the second sentence is labeled as ‗SS02‘, the third one as ‗SS03‘,
the fourth one as ‗SS04‘, and so on until it reaches to the last sentence. Secondly,
these sentences which are labeled by codes are distinguished by their
grammatical features, particularly that of AAVE, i.e. copula absence labeled as
‗CA‘ (with ‗Ø‘ denotes the absence of auxiliary verb), double negation as ‗DN‘,
and uninflected verb as ‗UV‘. Such grammatical features of each sentence is
written down next to their codes/labels in a table which can be seen as follows.
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Table 1.3 Data Coding of the Main Data of the Study
AAVE’S COD GRAM. NO. ACT SENTENCES ING FEATU RES
You don‟t know nothing about that chopped 1. SS01 DN and screwed?
2. My name Ø Chiron. SS02 CA
3. Who is you? SS03 UV
4. He Ø good that way. SS04 CA
5. You Ø a real damn prize, Chiron. SS05 CA
6. Your TV privileges is revoked, Buddy Roe. SS06 UV
7. Yeah, it get borin‘ after a while. SS07 UV
8. You Ø funny, man. SS08 CA ACT 9. 1 Ø You alright? SS09 CA
10. Why Ø your name Juan? SS10 CA
11. Little, you Ø a funny lil‘ dude. SS11 CA
12. We was the first ones on this planet. SS12 UV
13. Ø Somebody with you? SS13 CA
14. Your shit Ø ugly as hell. SS14 CA
15. Ø They basin‘? SS15 CA
16. He Ø having women problems today. SS16 CA
17. You Ø just standing there straight spaced. SS17 CA
18. You Ø right. SS18 CA ACT 19. That ain‟t no name for you no more. SS19 DN 2 20. You and Juan Ø thick as thieves. SS20 CA
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21. Ø You good, Black? SS21 CA
22. She Ø fine. SS22 CA
23. That bitch over there ain‟t no kin to you. SS23 DN
24. Teresa ain‟t give you nothing, huh? SS24 DN
25. That chick Ø fine as fuck. SS25 CA
26. You Ø in my smoke out habitat, nigga. SS26 CA
27. You Ø puttin‘ on a show for me, Black? SS27 CA
28. ACT That breeze feel good as hell man. SS28 UV 29. 2 Damn you Ø nosy. SS29 CA
30. Man, a nigga don‟t see school no more. SS30 UV&DN
31. The food wasn‟t never good. SS31 DN
32. We was calling you Tyson after that shit. SS32 UV
33. I ain‟t no boy. SS33 DN
34. Yeah it sound funny to me too. SS34 UV
35. Ø You still in them streets? SS35 CA
36. You Ø short, Travis. SS36 CA
37. Chiron, this Ø your mother. SS37 CA
38. This Ø Kevin. SS38 CA
39. Ø You a cook? SS39 CA
40. ACT Ø This your number? SS40 CA 41. 3 This Ø the dinner. SS41 CA
42. Well shit, you Ø here now. SS42 CA
43. We Ø here, Chiron. SS43 CA
44. So Ø you Cuban now? SS44 CA
45. Nah, we Ø still cool though. SS45 CA
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46. You wasn‟t playing about them traps. SS46 UV
47. Who is you man? SS47 UV ACT 48. So Ø you hard now? SS48 CA 3 49. I wasn‟t never worth shit. SS49 DN
50. I wasn‟t never worth myself. SS50 DN
The above table represents the coding of the main data of the study which are in the form of sentences that are directly taken from the utterances among the characters from Act 1 – Act 3 in Barry Jenkins‘ screenplay ―Moonlight‖. As for the supporting data of the study which are also in the form of sentences that are obtained from some lines of the song lyrics, the coding of the data is conducted by giving labels or codes to these lines (sentences). However, to distinguish it from the main data, it is necessary to give the different codes to these supporting data.
Therefore, firstly, the first line to be analyzed is labeled by the code ―SL01‖ in which SL stands for ‗song lyric‘ while the number 01 denotes the serial number of the line or the sentence. This process of coding continues to the next line which is the second line that is labeled as ―SL02‖, the third one as ―SL03‖, and the fourth one as ―SL04‖ until it reaches the final code, that is, ―SL20‖ as the supporting data are composed of 20 lines of song lyrics. Secondly, just like the main data, these 20 lines that are labeled with their own codes are also characterized by
AAVE‘s grammatical features, particularly copula absence, double negation, and uninflected verb which are coded as ‗CA‘ (with ‗Ø‘ denotes the absence of auxiliary verb), ‗DN‘, and ‗UV‘ correspondingly. These two steps of coding are written down in the following table.
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Table 1.4 Data Coding of the Supporting Data of the Study
RAPPERS/ AAVE COD NO. SENTENCES GRAM LYRICS & ING ALBUMS FEAT
1. Nas I don‟t wanna hurt nobody. SL01 DN 2. ―Cops Shot Cop cars Ø on the creep. SL02 CA the Kid‖ 3. (NASIR, This Ø fake news. SL03 CA 4. 2018) Cop wanna make it home by nighttime. SL04 UV
5. Yeah you Ø supermodel thick. SL05 CA
Damn that ass Ø bustin‘ out the 6. SL06 CA Kanye West bottom. ―All Mine‖ 7. (ye, 2018) All these thots Ø on Christian Mingle. SL07 CA Ayy, if you Ø drivin‘ ‗round in some 8. SL08 CA Dri-Fit
9. Now you Ø feelin‘ so silly. SL09 CA
She bite the bullet and cough up the 10. Lil Wayne SL10 UV shells. ―Mona 11. Lisa‖ (Tha She feed him lies with his silverware. SL11 UV Carter V) Man, he want to meet her mother by 12. SL12 UV tomorrow.
13. They Ø switchin‘ like sissies now. SL13 CA Nicki Minaj 14. You niggas is iffy now. SL14 UV ―Majesty‖ 15. (Queen, Bitches tune Ø switchin‘ up. SL15 CA 2018) 16. He want me to be his wife. SL16 UV
17. New nigga Ø gon‘ kill for me. SL17 CA Cardi B 18. Damn daddy, you Ø fine as hell. SL18 CA ―She Bad‖ Uh uh, she buy her man a Bentley 19. (Invasion of SL19 UV coupe. Privacy, 2018) Uh uh, she wear off-white to church, 20. SL20 UV ooh.
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4.2 Data Classification
The next step after giving a particular code or label to each sentence is
classifying data which is also known as data classification. Data classification
refers to a circumstance where the data with the same characteristics are
classified into one group. In this study, the data classification is based on the
grammatical features, specifically that of AAVE, i.e. copula absence, double
negation, and uninflected verb. For example, the sentences with the code ‗SS01‘,
‗SS06‘, and ‗SS11‘, are grouped together into one category as these three
sentences have the same grammatical feature, that is, double negation, for
instance. The data classifications of the main and the supporting data of the study
are organized and drawn into one table which can be seen as under.
Table 1.5 Data Classification of Main & Supporting Data
SENTENCES AAVE’S SUPPORTING NO. GRAMM. MAIN DATA TOTAL DATA FEATURES (CODE: SS) (CODE: SL)
02, 04, 05, 08, 09, 10, 02, 03, 05, 06, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 07, 08, 09, 13, Copula Absence 18, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 15, 17, 18 1. 43 (CA) 27, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48
Double Negation 01, 19, 23, 24, 30, 31, 01 2. 10 (DN) 33, 49, 50
Uninflected Verb 03, 06, 07, 12, 28, 32, 04, 10, 11, 12, 3. 17 (UV) 34, 46, 47 14, 16, 19, 20
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The previous table indicates the categorizations of all data of the study
which, in this case, are in the form of sentences represented by their own
code/label. These categorizations are based on three distinct grammatical features
of AAVE, i.e. copula absence, double negation, and uninflected verb. By looking
at the table, it is revealed from both the main and supporting data that the
occurrence of ‗copula absence‘ is the most dominant of all three grammatical
features in the event that the total amount of occurrence is 43 data/sentences
which is then followed by the occurrences of ‗uninflected verb‘ and ‗double
negation‘ with 18 and 10 data/sentences as their overall amount respectively.
4.3 Data Analyses & Descriptions
In this section, the discussion is divided into two parts since there are also
two data of the study, i.e. the main and the supporting data. The whole data of the
study is 70 sentences with 50 sentences as the main data which are directly
obtained from Barry Jenkins‘ screenplay ―Moonlight‖ and 20 sentences as the
supporting data which are taken from five particular song lyrics, that are, ―Cops
Shot the Kid‖ by Nas, ―All Mine‖ by Kanye West, ―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil Wayne,
―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj and ―She Bad‖ by Cardi B.The main data are analyzed
and portrayed in tree diagrams according to the serial number attached to each
code of the sentences. For example, the first analysis and description is
conducted to the first data, i.e. the first sentence with the code ―SS01‖ and it is
followed by the analysis and descriptions of ―SS02‖, and so on until it reaches
the final analysis of the main data, i.e. ―SS50‖. As for the supporting data, only a
certain number of sentences are analyzed and portrayed in tree diagram since
there are many of them that have the same type of structure.
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4.3.1 Analyses and Descriptions of the Main Data
1. SS01: You don‘t know nothing about that chopped and screwed? (pg. 6)
a ) S
NP VP
VP
NP
PP
NP
N
Pron Aux V Pron Prep Det N Conj N
You don‟t know nothing about that chopped and screwed?
double negation
b) CP
C S
NP VP
NP
PP
NP
N
Infl Pron Infl V Pron Prep Det N Conj N
Don‟t you e know nothing about that chopped and screwed?
Diagram 3.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS01)
Based on the analyses of the above sentence structure, it can be seen
that there are two steps of analyses since the sentence is in the form of
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declarative question, that is, a sentence intended to ask a question (with rising intonation at the end indicated by the question mark) but constructed in declarative form. In the first step (a), since the sentence is in the form of declarative, the analysis is done normally by using the PSG theory that utilizes the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957) in which the sentence is broken down to its individual elements with don‟t labeled as the auxiliary verb of the sentence. The auxiliary verb don't contains ‗not‘ which belongs to one of the type of negative markers namely not-negator (the most common negative marker) that usually comes before the non-finite verbs (verbs without any tenses, in this case, the bare form of the verb ‗know‘) but after the finite auxiliary verbs (auxiliary verbs with tenses, in this case, the present auxiliary verb ‗do‘). The sentence also contains the adverb ‗nothing‘ (that modifies the verb ‗know‘) i.e. another type of negative markers called n- negator which is used to negate a statement. Because there are two types of negative markers in the above sentence structure, the sentence is known to have a double negation.
Double negation is one of the most prominent grammatical features of
AAVE. It distinguishes AAVE as the non-standard English from the standard one, i.e. SAE (Standard American English) since the use of double negation in SAE is not permitted as it is believed that the construction of double negation will alter the meaning of the whole sentence. In the case of this type of sentence structure, the standard way to form a negative sentence is by following the formula: Subject + Do/Does + Not (Not-Negator) + Bare
Verb Form + Object. However, in AAVE, the use of this feature is allowed and usually used to put an emphasis on the expression (sentence), i.e. to
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strengthen the idea of negative declarative form (to intensify the negation) in a way that somebody or something ‗really‘ does not do something.
In the second step (b), the declarative question form which is the usual way to construct the interrogative type of sentence in AAVE is altered into a negative interrogative, particularly a yes-no question, which is also analyzed in tree diagram by using the TGG theory (Chomsky, 1965). However, there is a slight difference, that is, the sentence structure which is initially in the form of declarative question is reconstructed into a negative interrogative by having an inversion. To do an inversion, it is required to follow the rule or formula of SAE. In this case, the standard way to form a negative interrogative sentence in SAE is by applying the formula: Do/Does + Not
(Not-Negator) + Subject + Bare Verb Form + Object. The auxiliary verb don‟t in the sentence which is called as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis is inversed by moving it to the beginning of the sentence, to the left of the NP ‗you‘ which in turn creates an ‗e‘, i.e. empty category, that resides in the previous location of infl before the inversion. The movement is usually marked by an arrow which starts from the e in the sentence to the current position of infl (the left of the NP category). Thus, the appropriate structure for the above sentence based on the SAE rules is ―Don‘t you know nothing about that chopped and screwed?‖.
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2. SS02: My name Chiron. (pg. 7)
S
NP PredP
NP
Det N N
My name Chiron.
Diagram 3.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS02)
The above tree diagram shows how the sentence structure of AAVE is
broken down to its smallest components called heads. It can be seen that the
sentence structure has a specific feature namely copula absence which refers
to a situation where the auxiliary of sentence is absent or omitted. Copula
absence is also one of the unique grammatical features of AAVE which sets it
apart from the standard language variety, for examples, British English (BE)
and American English (AmE). The analysis of the above sentence structure is
done by applying the CG theory in which PredP can stand for NP, AP, or PP.
Thus, according to this theory, a sentence with copula absence as its feature
can be analyzed in parse (tree diagram) by following the rule S → NP PredP
(Mufwene, 1998), and in this case, PredP covers the NP category ‗Chiron‘, in
the above sentence structure. However, in SAE, such sentence structure is
clearly forbidden since it can be a lot confusing for many people, particularly
those people who tend to judge this kind of sentence as the wrong usage of
English because it is indeed considered to be non-standard, and instead, what
they see as the standard rule is S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). Therefore, the
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appropriate sentence structure according to SAE is by adding the auxiliary
verb is just after the subject of the sentence my name as it is singular. So, the
‗standard‘ sentence structure for the above sentence is ―My name [is]
Chiron.‖
3. SS03: Who is you? (pg. 9)
S
NP VP
V NP
N Aux Pron
Who is you?
Diagram 3.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS03)
From the above diagram, it can be seen that there seems to be an error
in a way that there is the wrong usage of auxiliary verb in the sentence
structure according to the SAE rules. The sentence itself which is analyzed by
conducting the PSG theory has a very simple structure, i.e. an interrogative
type of sentence, but the error lies in one of the elements (words) used to
construct the sentence. According to the standard rules of SAE, to construct a
standard English sentence, it is necessary for us to follow certain rules, one of
them is subject-verb agreement (Wren & Martin, 2013). To put it simply, it is
defined as a situation where subjects and verbs must ‗agree‘ with one another
in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also
be singular, and if a subject is plural, then its verb must be plural as well.
However, that is not the case with the above sentence structure as it uses the
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auxiliary verb is which is singular in number instead of the plural are for the plural subject ‗you‘.
On one hand, this kind of situation which is called as uninflected verbs is often found in the non-standard variety, most dominantly in AAVE which permits the rule that the singular verbs can agree with the plural subjects and vice versa. This feature of AAVE usually includes two conditions: 1) the sentence structure violates the standard rule, i.e. subject- verb agreement rule where the singular auxiliary verbs agree with the plural subject or the other way around, e.g. She don‟t instead of ‗she doesn‘t‘, you was instead of ‗you were‘, and so forth (Fasold, 1972), and 2) the use of bare verbs for all the subjects, either singular or plural, e.g. I go, she go, they go
(Rickford, 1999). On the other hand, it is not allowed in SAE to construct a sentence with such rule since it can confuse a lot of people, especially those who do not study English in in-depth capacity, for instance, studying one of the non-standard varieties of English such as AAVE. This leads those people to often misinterpret the speakers of the above sentence (the speakers of
AAVE) as uneducated which then can prompt a conflict between them. So, if it is based on the SAE rules, the ‗standard‘ structure for the above sentence is supposed to be ―Who [are] you?‖.
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4. SS04: He good that way. (pg. 10)
S
NP PredP
AP
NP
Pron Adj Det N
He good that way.
Diagram 3.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS04)
Based on the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence
structure seems somehow incomplete as there is no auxiliary in sight. This
kind of structure is called as copula absence which is allowed in AAVE and
in fact, is one of the distinctly unique grammatical features of AAVE that has
the most frequent occurence in AAVE than in any other non-standard English
variety. Copula absence is a situation in which the auxiliary of a sentence is
absent or deleted. To analyze a sentence with this type of feature, it can be
done by applying the CG theory (Mufwene, 1998) that employs the rule S →
NP PredP in which PredP can cover these categories: NP, AP, and PP, and as
for the above tree diagram, it can be seen that PredP covers the AP category
‗good that way‘. Nonetheless, the appearance of copula absence in SAE is not
permissible as it may confuse the listeners, especially those who do not know
well about AAVE and are inclined to view it as an error of constructing the
so-called appropriate sentence structure of English. In SAE, a sentence
structure is considered to be appropriate if it is composed of a subject and a
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predicate which then generates the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). Thus,
the standard sentence structure according to the SAE rules is ―He [is] good
that way.‖, that is, by adding the singular auxiliary verb is to the singular
subject he.
5. SS05: You a real damn prize, Chiron. (pg. 10)
S
NP PredP
NP
Pron Det Adj Adj N Adv
You a real damn prize Chiron.
Diagram 3.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS05)
The above sentence structure is analyzed by using the CG theory
(Mufwene, 1998). Just like the usual rule of the analysis in parsing (tree
diagram), the analysis is done by breaking down the sentence down to its
smallest components named heads. Nevertheless, there is a slight difference
in a sense that instead of opting for VP as a predicate of the sentence just like
how it is normally occured in the case of PSG or TGG analysis, CG takes
PredP as a stand-in for VP. As a result, CG produces the rule S → NP PredP
(Mufwene, 1998) in which PredP covers for AP, NP, and PP which is distinct
from the SAE rule, that is, S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). In this case, as can
be seen from the tree diagram, PredP covers the NP category ‗a real damn
prize, Chiron‘ in the sentence structure as there is no auxiliary and this kind
of circumstance is known as copula absence which is allowed in AAVE but
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not in SAE. In SAE, such circumstance is completely deemed as an error and
even the speakers of it are often judged to be ignorant. Therefore, according
to the SAE rules, the appropriate structure for the above sentence is ―You
[are] a real damn prize, Chiron.‖, in which there should have been an addition
of the plural auxiliary verb are to agree with the plural subject you in the
sentence.
6. SS06: Your TV privileges is revoked, Buddy Roe. (pg. 11)
S
NP VP
Det N N Aux V Adv
Your TV privileges is revoked Buddy Roe.
Diagram 3.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS06)
From the above sentence structure alone, there seems to be nothing
wrong with it as the sentence itself consists of a subject and a predicate which
fulfill the requirement for an appropriate sentence. However, as can be seen
from the analysis which is done in parsing (tree diagram) with the PSG
theory, there is a violation of one of the SAE rules, specifically the subject-
verb agreement rule (Wren & Martin, 2013). This rule refers to the situation
where the singular verbs are in concordance with the singular subjects and so
are the plurals. In this case, instead of employing the plural auxiliary verb are
to agree with the plural subject your TV privileges, this sentence structure
employs the singular auxiliary verb is. This circumstance refers to another
unique characteristic of AAVE namely uninflected verbs which involves two
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conditions: 1) the sentence structure violates the standard rule, i.e. subject-
verb agreement rule where the singular auxiliary verbs agree with the plural
subject and vice versa, e.g. She don‟t instead of ‗she doesn‘t‘, you was instead
of ‗you were‘, and so forth (Fasold, 1972), and 2) the use of bare verbs for all
the subjects, either singular or plural, e.g. I go, she go, they go (Rickford,
1999). According to the SAE rules, this certain trait is not permissible and
thus, the above sentence structure should have been, ―Your TV privileges
[are] revoked, Buddy Roe.‖ which can be done by using the plural auxiliary
verb are to agree with the plural subject your tv privileges.
7. SS07: Yeah, it get borin‘ after a while. (pg. 13)
S
NP VP
AP
PP
Adv Pron V Adj Prep N
Yeah it get borin‘ after a while.
Diagram 3.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS07)
Based on the above analysis, it can be seen that the sentence structure
actually seems normal in a sense that it fulfills the criteria for a standard
English sentence as it is made up of two main components, i.e. a subject and
a predicate. However, from the analysis of tree diagram which is done by
using the PSG theory in which S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957), it is apparent
that there is something odd with the verb ‗get‘ in the sentence, that is, it has
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no inflection or in other words, it is uninflected which is known as
uninflected verb. Uninflected verb is one of the unique features of AAVE
where all subjects usually take the bare verbs. While this type of
circumstance is totally allowed in AAVE, it is not the same with SAE.
According to the SAE rules, especially the subject-verb agreement rule, it is
only allowed to concord the singular subjects with the singular verbs and the
plural subjects with the plural verbs as well. In this particular rule, it is
asserted that the singular subjects such as he, she, it, etc. take the singular
verbs which refers to those words that have the singular inflection -s /-es / -
ies, as in the examples of works, goes, cries, etc. So, the appropriate structure
for the above sentence based on the SAE rules is by adding the singular
inflection -s in the verb get in relation with the singular subject it that the
sentence becomes ―Yeah, it get[s] boring after a while.‖
8. SS08: You funny, man. (pg. 13)
S
NP PredP
AP
Pron Adj Adv
You funny man.
Diagram 3.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS08)
The above tree diagram depicts how the sentence is structured. The
construction of a sentence can be seen clearly by the analysis in parsing (tree
diagram) as this method applies rewrite rules which refers to the rule where a
sentence is divided into some parts down to the smallest ones namely heads.
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In addition, the method of tree diagram works with several theories of syntax such as PSG, TGG, CG, and many more. However, to analyze the above sentence structure, the CG theory (Mufwene, 1998) is chosen as the most suitable approach. This theory employs the rule S → NP PredP in which
PredP can substitute for these categories, i.e. AP, NP, and PP. In the above sentence structure, PredP substitutes the AP category ‗funny, man‘. Although this condition is approved in AAVE, it is absolutely another thing in SAE.
SAE does not recognize this rule as it utilizes the rule S → NP VP instead
(Chomsky, 1957), and according to the standard rule, the above sentence has no auxiliary verb signifying that it has no VP which then makes it impossible to rely on the SAE rule as mentioned before. The sentence with this kind of feature is known as copula absence which is one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE, and it indicates the omission or absence of a copula (auxiliary verb). In this case, the plural auxiliary verb are to agree with the plural subject you is absent. Nonetheless, based on the SAE rules, the sentence is considered as standard or appropriate if it has a structure like this: ―You [are] funny, man.‖
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9. SS09: You alright? (pg. 16)
a) S b) CP
NP VP C S
V AP NP VP
Pron Aux Adj AP
You Ø alright? Infl Pron Infl Adj
Are you e alright?
Diagram 3.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS09)
As can be seen from the above analyses, the sentence structure is
analyzed twice in parsing (tree diagram) and thus undergoes two steps. In the
first step (a), the sentence structure which is a declarative question is
analyzed by utilizing the PSG theory that involves the rule S → NP VP
(Chomsky, 1957). From the first analysis, it can be seen that the above
sentence structure lacks of the auxiliary verb as it is literally just made up of
the NP ‗you‘ and the AP ‗alright‘. This situation is also known as copula
absence which is one of the unique characteristics of AAVE. This feature
denotes that there is an omission or absence of auxiliary verb in a sentence
which, in SAE, is not permitted. However, since the analysis of the sentence
is done by using the PSG theory, the VP category which is built by a verb,
specifically the auxiliary verb is temporarily occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘
indicating a vacant spot. Thus, to construct a standard English sentence which
is approved in SAE is done by adding the auxiliary verb are to the sentence in
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relation with the plural subject you and thus, the sentence becomes ―You [are] alright?.‖
In the second step of the analysis (b), the sentence structure ―You
[are] alright?‖ in which the auxiliary verb is initally omitted as constructed in
AAVE is ‗understood‘ that there is an auxiliary, that is, are in the sentence according to the SAE perspectives. This sentence structure is analyzed by employing the TGG theory in which there is some kind of movement. There are two key features in TGG analysis, i.e. inversion (yes-no questions) and movement (wh-questions). However, this particular structure which is in the form of declarative question is concerned with the yes-no question which means that it requires an inversion. Therefore, the inversion of the above sentence structure is conducted to alter the declarative form to the interrogative one by moving the auxiliary verb are which is also known as
‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the beginning of the sentence or to the left of the NP category, that is, the left side of ‗you‘. This movement causes the infl position (head) in the sentence to be vacant which is then occupied by the empty category symbolized as ‗e‘. The movement in TGG reconstruction of declarative to interrogative form is usually indicated by an arrow which starts from the ‗e‘ in a sentence to the left of the NP, to the current position of infl. Therefore, the sentence structure becomes ―[Are] you alright?‖ after the inversion.
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10. SS10: Why your name Juan? (pg. 19)
a) CP b) CP
NP S NP C S
C NP VP NP VP
NP NP
N Det N Aux N N Infl Det N Infl N
Why your name Ø Juan? Why is your name e Juan?
Diagram 4.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS10)
Based on the above analyses, it can be seen that this sentence structure
is similar to the previous one since it also undergoes two steps of analyses.
Firstly (a), this sentence structure which is in the form of declarative question
is broken down to its individual constituents namely heads by applying the
TGG theory which was proposed by Chomsky in 1965 (O‘Grady, 1997). In
TGG analysis, apart from recognizing the rule S → NP VP, this theory also
recognizes another rule in which the ‗S‘ category is embedded in the CP
category. CP which stands for complementizer phrase is composed of a C or
complementizer and a S or sentence that generates the rule CP → C S. This
rule is important for the analysis of a structure that contains wh-words such as
why, where, when, etc. where these words are categorized as NP. As can be
seen from the first tree diagram, the sentence structure has no auxiliary verb
and this situation is referred as copula absence which, in the diagram, is
distinguished by the mark ‗Ø‘. It is allowed to have this kind of situation in
AAVE, but not in SAE. Based on the SAE rules, in order to obtain an
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appropriate English sentence, it is necessary to include the singular auxiliary verb is in the above sentence structure in concordance with the singular subject your name. Therefore, the sentence transforms into ―Why your name
[is] Juan?‖.
In the second step (b), the sentence ―Why your name [is] Juan?‖ which initially has no auxiliary verb but is somehow ‗understood‘ that there is an auxiliary is in the sentence is still in the form of declarative question.
Declarative question which is defined as a sentence intended to ask a question but constructed in the form of declarative is actually a very common type of sentence in AAVE. However, it is not permitted in SAE and thus, this kind of structure is analyzed in parsing (tree diagram) by utilizing the TGG theory in which there are two key movements named inversion (yes-no questions) and movement (wh-question). As can be seen from the second tree diagram, it is depicted that the sentence structure is altered through a process called wh- movement which is done by moving the singular auxiliary verb is from the embedded ‗S‘ position to the ‗C‘ position which was previously left empty in the first analysis. This movement is characterized by an arrow that goes from the VP location which is now occupied by the symbol ‗e‘ (empty category) to the C location in the sentence. Therefore, after the process of inversion, the sentence transforms from declarative questions into an interrogative, i.e.
―Why [is] your name Juan?‖.
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11. SS11: Little, you a funny lil‘ dude. (pg. 19)
S
NP PredP
NP
Adv Pron Det Adj Adj N
Little you a funny lil‘ dude.
Diagram 4.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS11)
From the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence structure
possesses one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE namely copula absence.
Copula absence refers to a situation where the auxiliary verb of the sentence
is absent or deleted. The simplest way to analyze this type of structure is by
employing the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP PredP (Mufwene,
1998). In this case, the sentence structure which lacks of the auxiliary verb
and only contains two NP categories is analyzed based on the rule as
previously mentioned. The first NP category is built by the pronoun ‗you‘,
while the second one is made up of a group of words, i.e. ‗a funny lil‘ dude‘.
According to the CG theory, the second NP category can be covered by
PredP as it acts as a substitute for AP, NP, and PP categories, and as for the
first one, it can acts as the subject of the sentence. While it is completely
approved in AAVE, it is not the same if it is viewed from the SAE rules as it
utilizes the rule S → NP VP instead (Chomsky, 1957). Therefore, to have an
appropriate English structure, it is required to add the plural auxiliary verb
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are to match with the plural subject you in the construction of the sentence
and thus, the sentence becomes ―Little, you [are] a funny lil‘ dude‖.
12. SS12: We was the first ones on this planet. (pg. 19)
S
NP VP
V NP
NP PP
PP NP
Pron Aux Det Adj N Prep Det N
We was the first ones on this planet.
Diagram 4.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS12)
From the above tree diagram, it is depicted that the sentence structure,
in fact, fulfills the criteria of the appropriate English sentence. According to
the SAE rules, a complete sentence is one that contains a subject and a
predicate which are symbolized by the NP and VP categories respectively
which then generates the formula S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The
sentence ―We was the first ones on this planet.‖ is composed of the NP ‗we‘
as the subject and the VP ‗was the first ones on this planet‘ as the predicate
which can be seen from the analysis which is conducted with the PSG theory.
Nevertheless, there is an error which lies in one of the elements which builds
up the whole sentence, i.e. the auxiliary verb. Instead of following the SAE
rules, specifically the subject-verb agreement where the singular subjects are
in concordance with the singular verbs and the plural subjects are in
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concordance with the plural verbs as well, the constructions of the sentences
in AAVE tend to violate this rule by pairing up the singular subjects with the
plural verbs and vice versa, e.g. the singular auxiliary verb was is paired up
with the plural subject we as can be seen from the above sentence structure.
This kind of situation which is also known as uninflected verb is not allowed
in SAE and thus, it is necessary to replace the singular auxiliary verb was
with the plural were to agree with the plural subject we which then generates
the sentence ―We [were] the first ones on this planet.‖
13. SS13: Somebody with you? (pg. 22)
a) S b ) CP
NP VP C S
PP NP VP
N Aux Prep Pron PP
Somebody Ø with you? Infl N Infl Prep Pron
Is somebody e with you?
Diagram 4.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS13)
Based on the above tree diagrams, it is shown that there are two steps
in analyzing the sentence ―Somebody with you?‖ which is in the form of
declarative question. Declarative question is a type of sentence which is
intended to ask a question but has a declarative form. In the first step (a), the
above sentence structure is analyzed by utilizing the PSG theory in which it
embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). As can be seen from the
first diagram, the auxiliary verb of the sentence is absent and this kind of
circumstance is better known as copula absence which is one of the unique
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grammatical features of AAVE that are considered to be the most dominant among the others. Nonetheless, it is not permissible to have this kind of structure in SAE. According to the SAE rules, for an English sentence to be appropriate is to have a subject (NP) and a predicate (VP). In this case, the sentence only contains the NP ‗somebody‘ and the PP ‗with you‘. Therefore, since the analysis of the sentence uses the PSG theory, the VP category of the sentence which is built by a verb, particularly the auxiliary category is
‗temporarily‘ occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ showing that it is empty. So, it is required to add the singular auxiliary verb is to concord with the singular subject somebody to alter the sentence into the standard one that the sentence becomes ―Somebody [is] with you?‖.
In the second step (b), the tree diagram shows that the sentence
―Somebody [is] with you?‖ in which the auxiliary verb is originally absence but is considered to be 'understood' that there is an auxiliary in it is altered from the declarative question form to the interrogative one. This particular structure is analyzed by employing the TGG theory which usually involves two types of movement in the process of transforming a declarative to an interrogative form: 1) inversion (yes-no question) and 2) movement (wh- question). The above sentence is, however, concerned with the first type of movement, i.e. inversion. The inversion of the above sentence is done moving the auxiliary verb is which is called as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the left of the NP category (just before the subject) in the sentence.
This movement is marked by an arrow which proceeds from the former location of infl which now is occupied by the empty category symbolized by
‗e‘ to the current location of infl on the left of the subject ‗somebody‘ (the NP
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category). As a result, after undergoing the inversion, the sentence becomes
―[Is] somebody with you?‖.
14. SS14: Your shit ugly as hell. (pg. 22)
S
NP PredP
Adj
Det N Adj Adv
Your shit ugly as hell.
Diagram 4.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS14)
The above tree diagram shows that the sentence structure is lacking in
the predicate department in a way that there is no auxiliary verb in the
sentence. Based on the SAE rules, the above structure cannot be considered
as a sentence as it is believed in SAE that a sentence is one structure that
comprises two important components namely a subject and a predicate.
Unlike in SAE, this kind of structure is permitted in AAVE in which there is
an absence of auxiliary verb in a sentence which is better known as copula
absence which, as a matter of fact, is included as one of the unique
grammatical features of AAVE. The above structure is analyzed in parsing
(tree diagram) by utilizing the CG theory (Mufwene, 1998) where there is a
certain rule in which S → NP PredP. PredP, here, has a similar role to the VP
and actually is a stand-in for these categories: NP, AP, and PP. In this case,
the above sentence only consists of the NP ‗Your shit‘ and the AP ‗ugly as
hell‘ which is then substitued by PredP. However, as mentioned before, this
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type of structure is not permissible in SAE and in order to fulfill the criteria
for an appropriate English sentence based on the SAE rules is by adding the
singular auxiliary verb is to the sentence in relation with the singular subject
your shit and thus, the sentence transforms into ―Your shit [is] ugly as hell.‖
15. SS15: They basin? (pg. 26)
a) S b) CP
NP VP C S
Pron Aux V NP VP
They Ø basin‘? Infl Pron Infl V
Are they e basin‘?
Diagram 4.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS15)
Based on the above analyses, it is depicted that this sentence structure
is analyzed twice as there are two similar yet distinct tree diagrams. At a
glance, it seems that there is nothing wrong with the above sentence structure
as it already contains the criteria for a standard English sentence in a sense
that it consists of a subject (NP category, i.e. they) and a predicate (VP
category, i.e. basin‟). Nevertheless, according to the SAE rules, the above
sentence is still regarded as an incomplete sentence as there is no auxiliary
verb although the sentence is constructed in the form of present continuous
tense characterized by the verb -ing basin‟. The present continuous tense,
based on the SAE rules, is usually formed with the formula: S + To Be (is,
am, are) + V(ing). In the first step (a), the tree diagram shows that the
sentence structure which is in the form of declarative question is analyzed by
using the PSG theory which comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957)
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and is discovered to possess one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE, i.e. copula absence which is distinguished by the lack of auxiliary verb that is then temporarily distinguised by the symbol ‗Ø‘ to indicate a vacant spot.
Then, if it is based on the SAE rules, the standard way to form a present continuous structure is by adding the plural auxiliary verb are to agree with the plural subject they and thus, the sentence becomes ―They [are] basin‘?‖.
After the first step is done, it is followed by the second one (b) which is conducted by employing the TGG theory where ‗S‘ category for sentence is embedded in the ‗CP‘ category for complementizer phrase which then generates the rule CP → C S (Chomsky, 1965) and S → NP VP (Chomsky,
1957). The sentence ―They [are] basin‘?‖ where originally it has no auxiliary but is somehow ‗understood‘ that there is one namely the plural auxiliary verb are is in the form of declarative question. Based on the SAE rules, an interrogative form, particularly a yes-no question, is distinguised by having the auxiliary verb in the beginning of the sentence or to the left of the NP category. In this case, as can be seen from the second tree diagram, the sentence structure is analyzed by transforming it from declarative form into an interrogative through an inversion. In TGG analysis, the inversion can be done by moving the plural auxiliary verb are which is better known as ‗infl‘ from the head position to the left of the NP category they. This movement is always characterized by an arrow that proceeds from the head position which is then occupied by the empty category ‗e‘ to the current position of infl at the beginning of the sentence. Finally, the sentence becomes ―[Are] they basin‘?‖ after going through an inversion.
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16. SS16: He having women problems today. (pg. 33)
S
NP VP
NP
Pron Aux V Adj N Adv
He Ø having women problems today.
Diagram 4.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS16)
From the above tree diagram, it depicts how the sentence structure is
analyzed by applying the PSG theory which embodies the rule S → NP VP
(Chomsky, 1957). The above sentence structure completes the criteria of an
appropriate English sentence where one should contain a subject and a
predicate. The sentence consists of the subject ‗he‘ and the predicate ‗having
women problems today‘. However, since the sentence is in the form of
present continuous tense, according to the SAE rules, the structure of the
sentence is still incomplete. It is asserted in the SAE rules that the form of
present continuous tense follows the formula: S + To Be (is, am, are) +
V(ing), but the above sentence has no auxiliary verb and this situation is
named as copula absence which is one of the unique grammatical features of
AAVE that is obviously not permissible in SAE which can be seen from the
rule as explained before. Therefore, to have a standard English sentence
based on the SAE rules, it is obligatory to add the singular auxiliary verb is in
concordance with the singular verb he which then creates the sentence ―He
[is] having women problems today.‖
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17. SS17: You just standing there straight spaced. (pg. 35)
S
NP VP
AdvP
Pron Aux Adv V Adv Adv
You Ø just standing there straight spaced.
Diagram 4.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS17)
As can be seen from the above tree diagram, the sentence structure is
very much similar to the previous one. The sentence is analyzed by utilizing
the PSG theory which represents the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). This
sentence actually seems to complete the standard characteristics for an
appropriate English sentence where it is made up of a subject and a predicate.
It contains the subject ‗you‘ and the predicate ‗just standing there straight
spaced‘ in which they take the role of the NP and VP category respectively.
Nevertheless, it is still regarded as an incomplete sentence since the sentence
itself is constructed in the form of present continuous tense which is usually
built by the formula: S + To be (is, am, are) + V(ing). For this reason, the
sentence is seen as incomplete because it is lacking in the auxiliary
department. The lack of auxiliary verb in a sentence is better known as
copula absence which is one of the most prominent grammatical features of
AAVE. Copula absence is not acknowledged in SAE as it is believed in this
rule that to have a standard English sentence, particularly in the present
continuous tense, it is necessary to add a helping (auxiliary) verb which, in
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this case, is done by adding the plural auxiliary verb are to the sentence in
relation with the plural subject you so that it can produce the sentence ―You
[are] just standing there straight spaced.‖
18. SS18: You right. (pg. 38)
S
NP PredP
AP
Pron Adj
You right.
Diagram 4.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS18)
Based on the above tree diagram, it is shown that the sentence
structure has no predicate which means that it cannot be considered as a
standard English sentence, at least viewed from the SAE perspectives.
According to the SAE rules, a sentence is regarded as appropriate or standard
if it has a subject and a predicate. However, the above sentence cannot fulfill
the criteria as mentioned before since it only consists of the NP and AP
category, i.e. ‗you‘ and ‗right‘ respectively. This kind of sentence structure is
best analyzed with the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP PredP,
where PredP acts as a substitute for these categories namely AP, NP, and PP
(Mufwene, 1998). Thus, in this case, the AP category ‗right‘ in the sentence
can be substitued by PredP. However, this condition in which a sentence
lacks of an auxiliary verb which is often called as copula absence that is one
of the unique features of AAVE is not permitted in SAE as it is mandatory to
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follow the SAE rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). So, in order to obtain an
appropriate English sentence which is based on that certain rule, it can be
done by adding the plural auxiliary verb are to the plural subject you that it
obtains the sentence ―You [are] right.‖
19. SS19: That ain‘t no name for you no more. (pg. 38)
S
NP VP
V NP
PP
NP PP NP
Pron Aux Det N Prep Pron Det N
That ain‟t no name for you no more.
Diagram 5.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS19)
From the above tree diagram, it can be seen that there is nothing
wrong with the sentence structure. In fact, this sentence ticks all the boxes of
the characteristics of a standard English sentence. According to the SAE
rules, a standard sentence is one that contains a subject and a predicate. The
above sentence is analyzed by employing the PSG theory comprising the rule
S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957) where the sentence is built by two main
categories namely the NP category ‗that‘ and the VP category ‗ain‘t no name
for you no more‘. As can be seen from the auxiliary verb ain‟t which is
actually an informal form for the negative constructions of am not, is not, and
are not (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018), this sentence is categorized as a negative
declarative type of sentence. However, instead of using just one negator like
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‗not‘, this sentence takes more than one negator, particularly three negators,
i.e. the auxiliary verb ain‟t which contains a negative marker called not-
negator, and the NP categories no name and 'no more' where each contains a
negative marker named n-negator.
The state of having more than one negative marker in the sentence is
called as double negation or in this case is better known as multiple negation
which is considered as a ‗standard‘ way to construct a negative statement in
AAVE. This unique grammatical feature of AAVE, as a matter of fact, has
two alternative meanings: 1) double negation cancel one another and produce
an affirmative or 2) double negation used to intensify the negation in the
sentence. Nevertheless, it is not allowed to do so in SAE as it is believed that
this construction may confuse a lot of people, especially those who do not
know well about English such as the language varieties, either the standard,
e.g. BE/British English or SAE/Standard American English or the non-
standard ones, e.g. AAVE/African-American Vernacular English or
CSE/Colloquial Singaporean English.
20. SS20: You and Juan thick as thieves. (pg. 40)
S
NP PredP
AP
Pron Conj N Adj Adv
You and Juan thick as thieves.
Diagram 5.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS20)
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The above tree diagram shows that the sentence structure lacks of one of the two important elements that makes up a standard English sentence.
Based on the SAE rules, a standard sentence must consists of a subject and a predicate in which S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The above sentence contains the NP category ‗you and Juan‘ which acts as a subject and the AP category ‗thick as thieves‘, but it has no auxiliary verb which can take the role of the VP category in the construction of a sentence. The situation where there is an absence or omission of an auxiliary verb in a sentence is known as copula absence which is one of the distinctly unique features of AAVE. This sentence structure is best analyzed by applying the CG theory in which S →
NP PredP (Mufwene, 1998). The PredP category can cover the AP, NP, and
PP categories. In this case, the AP category in the sentence, i.e. ‗thick as thieves‘ is covered by PredP. Nonetheless, this kind of situation is not permissible in SAE as it is obligatory to include an auxiliary verb in a sentence, particularly the plural auxiliary verb are in this case since the subject you and Juan is plural as well, and thus it can produce the sentence
―You and Juan [are] thick as thieves.‖
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21. SS21: You good, Black? (pg. 41)
a) S b) CP
NP VP C S
V AP NP VP
Pron Aux Adj Adv AP
You Ø good Black? Infl Pron Infl Adj Adv
Are you e good Black?
Diagram 5.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS21)
As can be seen from the above analyses, there are two tree diagrams
which denotes that the sentence structure undergoes two steps of analyses. In
the first step (a), the above sentence which is constructed in the declarative
question form is analyzed in parsing (tree diagram) by utilizing the PSG
theory which comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The sentence
only contains the NP category ‗you‘ as a subject, the AP category ‗good‘, and
the adverb ‗Black‘. Since the sentence is analyzed with the PSG theory, it is
possible to have the VP category which is built by a verb, but this category is
occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ denoting that it is vacant which is depicted in the
first tree diagram. This situation in which a sentence lacks of an auxiliary
verb is named as copula absence which is one of the most popular
construction in AAVE, which, in fact, is not acceptable in SAE. Therefore, to
generate an appropriate English sentence according to the SAE rules is by
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including the plural auxiliary verb are in relation with the plural subject ‗you‘
producing the sentence ―You [are] good, Black?‖.
In the second one (b), the sentence ―You [are] good, Black?‖ where it
originally has no auxiliary verb but is somehow ‗understood‘ that there is
one, i.e. are is still in the form of declarative question. This particular form
which is intended to ask or request for something but is built in declarative is
the most common form of interrogative found in AAVE which is
unacceptable in SAE. The above sentence is analyzed in parsing (tree
diagram) by employing the TGG theory (Chomsky, 1965) in which a
declarative question form can be transformed into an interrogative by going
through two alternative options namely inversion (yes-no questions) and
movement (wh-questions). However, this sentence is concerned with the first
option, i.e. inversion which is done by moving the auxiliary verb are which is
also known as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the beginning
of the sentence in which the movement itself is marked by an arrow
proceeding from the location of head to the left of the NP category you which
then generates the sentence ―[Are] you good, Black?‖.
22. SS22: She fine. (pg. 42)
S
NP Pred
AP
Pron Adj
She fine.
Diagram 5.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS22)
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The above tree diagram depicts how the sentence structure with no VP category can be analyzed. Based on the SAE rules, a standard sentence is the one that contains a subject and a predicate which then builds up the rule S →
NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The situation in which a sentence lacks of the auxiliary verb is known as copula absence which is one of the unique characteristics of AAVE that is completely not allowed in SAE as it violates the rule as mentioned before. The above sentence is obviously regarded as non-standard structure since it has a copula absence as its feature in a way that it only consists of the NP category ‗she‘ and the AP category ‗fine‘. This kind of sentence structure is best analyzed with another theory called the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP PredP in which PredP is a stand-in for these categories: AP, NP, and PP (Mufwene, 1998). In this case, the AP category ‗fine‘ in the sentence is substitued by PredP. In SAE, however, it is forbidden to construct a sentence without a predicate or a VP category and thus, to have an appropriate English sentence according to this rule is by adding the singular auxiliary verb is to the sentence in concordance with the singular subject she that the sentence transforms into ―She [is] fine.‖
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23. SS23: That bitch over there ain‘t no kin to you. (pg. 43)
S
NP VP
V NP
NP PP
Det N Adv Aux Det N Prep N
That bitch over there ain‟t no kin to you.
Diagram 5.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS23)
From the look of the above tree diagram, it is depicted that the
sentence structure seems to be normal in a sense that it is constructed
appropriately in terms of the SAE rules, particularly the one where a standard
English sentence must contain a a subject and a predicate. This sentence
structure is analyzed in parsing (tree diagram) by utilizing the PSG theory
which comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). It is revealed that
the sentence is made up of the NP category ‗that bitch‘, the VP category
‗ain‘t no kin to you‘, and the adverb ‗over there‘. As can be seen immediately
from the auxiliary verb ain‟t in the sentence, it is discovered that the sentence
is constructed in the negative declarative form. However, the auxiliary verb
ain‟t which is an informal form for the negative constructions of am not, is
not, and are not (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018) is not the only one that consists
of a negative marker, i.e. ‗not‘ called as not-negator, the NP no kin embedded
in the VP category also possesses a negative marker, i.e. ‗no‘ named as n-
negator.
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The existence of two negative markers as explained in the sentence as
explained before is better known as double negation which is basically the
usual way to construct a negative statement in AAVE and in fact, it is
included as one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE. This circumstance,
nevertheless, is not permitted in SAE as it is asserted that, based on this rule,
it requires only one negative marker to form a negative declarative sentence.
Furthermore, double negation may cause a misunderstanding to many people,
particularly those who try to understand the meaning behind this type of
structure since there are two of them: firstly, to intensify the value of the
negative in a statement and secondly, to alter the meaning into a positive one
which is produced by the cancelation of two negations.
24. SS24: Teresa ain‘t give you nothing, huh? (pg. 43)
S
NP VP
VP NP
N Aux V N Pron Adv
Teresa ain‟t give you nothing huh?
Diagram 5.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS24)
The above tree diagram shows that this sentence structure has a
similarity to the previous one. From the look of the sentence, it seems that
there is nothing wrong as it is composed of a subject and a predicate in which
the two of these elements are considered to be the main elements used in
building up a standard English sentence based on the SAE rules. The analysis
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of the above sentence is conducted with the PSG theory which embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957) and it is revealed through a tree diagram that the sentence consists of the NP category ‗Teresa‘ and the VP ‗ain‘t give you nothing, huh‘. The auxiliary verb ain‟t which is embedded in the VP category denotes that the sentence is meant to be a negative declarative sentence. Nevertheless, the auxiliary verb ain‟t which is defined as an informal form for the negative constructions of am not, is not, and are not
(Oxford Dictionaries, 2018) is not the only component that contains a negative marker, i.e. ‗not‘ namely not-negator, the word nothing also describes a negativity and in fact, contains a negative marker called n- negator.
This kind of circumstance where there is an emergence of two negative markers in the sentence is called as double negation which is one of the unique grammatical features of AAVE and it is the most common way used by the AAVE's speakers to form a negative statement. While it is allowed in AAVE to use more than one negation in a sentence, it is not the same in SAE because based on this rule, it allows us to only construct a negative sentence with one negative marker. SAE forbids this kind of structure as it may confuse many people to understand the meaning behind the sentence as it is claimed that double negation has two choices of meaning:
1) to strengthen the idea of a negative statement (intensifying the negation) or
2) to create an affirmative sentence (caused by double negation canceling each other).
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25. SS25: That chick fine as fuck. (pg. 46)
S
NP PredP
NP
Det N Adj Adv
That chick fine as fuck.
Diagram 5.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS25)
Based on the above tree diagram, it can be seen that there is
something odd with the sentence structure. According to the SAE rules, an
appropriate English sentence is the one that consists of a subject and a
predicate in a way that it can fulfill the theory where S → NP VP (Chomsky,
1957). Through a tree diagram, it is discovered that the above sentence
contains two main categories, that are, the NP category ‗that chick‘ and the
AP category ‗fine as fuck‘. This situation leads to the fact that the sentence is
regarded as the non-standard one as it lacks of the VP category, precisely the
auxiliary verb. This kind of structure where there is an absence or deletion of
an auxiliary is better known as copula absence which, as a matter of fact, is
one of the most prominent grammatical features of AAVE and it is usually
best to analyze this type of structure with the CG theory which embodies the
rule S → NP PredP where PredP can cover the three categories such as AP,
NP, and PP. In this case, it is obvious that PredP can cover the AP category in
the sentence. However, if the construction of the sentence is based on the
SAE rules since SAE clearly forbids the copula absence structure, then it is
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mandatory to add the singular auxiliary verb is in relation with the singular
subject that chick to the above sentence so that it becomes ―That chick [is]
fine as fuck.‖
26. SS26: You in my smoke out habitat, nigga. (pg. 49)
S
NP PredP
PP
NP
NP
NP
Pron Prep Det N Prep N Adv
You in my smoke out habitat nigga.
Diagram 5.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS26)
The above tree diagram shows that the sentence structure is not
appropriately constructed. According to the SAE rules, a standard English
sentence must consist of a subject and a predicate which then produces the
rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). This particular sentence, nonetheless,
clearly does not meet the criteria of a standard English sentence since it only
contains the NP category ‗you‘ taking the role as a subject and the PP
category ‗in my smoke out habitat, nigga‘, which means that the sentence
lacks of the VP category that acts as a predicate which is usually built by a
verb, specifically ‗an auxiliary verb‘. This type of circumstance where there
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is an omission or absence of an auxiliary verb is known as copula absence
which is one of the most dominant and unique traits of AAVE that, however,
is totally unacceptable in SAE as briefly mentioned before which can be seen
through the SAE rules. A sentence with this kind of a structure is best treated
and analyzed by conducting the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP
PredP in which PredP can substitute for these categories: AP, NP, and PP
(Mufwene, 1998). Thus, in this case, the PP category of the above sentence is
substitued by the PredP category. However, if it is based on the SAE rules,
then it is mandatory to add the plural auxiliary verb are to agree with the
plural subject you that the sentence can transforms into ―You [are] in my
smoke out habitat, nigga.‖
27. SS27: You puttin‘ on a show for me, Black? (pg. 49)
a) S
NP VP
PP
VP NP PP
Pron Aux V Prep Det N Prep Pron Adv
You Ø puttin‘ on a show for me Black?
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b) CP
C S
NP VP
VP
PP
NP PP
Infl Pron Infl V Prep Det N Prep N Adv
Are you e puttin‘ on a show for me Black?
Diagram 5.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS27)
From the above tree diagrams, it can be seen that the sentence structure undergoes two steps of analyses. In the first step (a), the sentence structure which is in the form of declarative question, a form intended to ask/request something but constructed in declarative, is analyzed by conducting the PSG theory which embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky,
1957). Thus, the above sentence is broken down to two categories namely the
NP category taken by the pronoun ‗you‘ and the VP category built by a group of words ‗puttin‘ on a show for me, Black?‘ in which the position of auxiliary verb is occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ denoting its nonexistent. The existence of the auxiliary verb in this case is considered to be very important since the sentence is formed in the present continuous tense comprising the formula: S
+ To Be (am, is, are) + V(ing), and the verb ‗having‘ requires the helping
(plural auxiliary) verb ‗are‘ to agree with the plural subject ‗you‘. The circumstance where a sentence lacks of an auxiliary verb is also known as copula absence which is included as one of the most promiment grammatical
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features of AAVE which, definitely, is not allowed in SAE. So, in SAE, it is mandatory to follow the above formula to have an appropriate English sentence in the present continuous tense that the sentence becomes ―You [are] puttin‘ on a show for me, Black?‖.
In the second step (b), the sentence ―You [are] puttin‘ on a show for me, Black?‖ which originally has no auxiliary verb but is somehow
‗understood‘ that there is one, i.e. the plural auxiliary verb are is still in the form of declarative question which, in fact, the usual form used by the
AAVE‘s speakers to construct a question form. This type of structure is best analyzed with transformational analysis, a method in the TGG theory
(Chomsky, 1965). In TGG analysis, there are two dominant processes called
1) inversion (yes-no questions) and 2) movement (wh-questions). The above sentence is concerned with the first type of process, i.e. inversion, which in this case is conducted by moving the plural auxiliary verb are which is better known as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis in the head position to the left of the NP category ‗you‘ in which the movement itself is usually distinguished by an arrow proceeding from the location of the head to the location at the beginning of the sentence which then transforms the whole sentence into
―[Are] you puttin‘ on a show for me, Black?‖.
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28. SS28: That breeze feel good as hell man. (pg. 50)
S
NP VP Adv
Det N V Adv Adv Adv
That breeze feel good as hell man.
Diagram 6.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS28)
As can be seen from the above tree diagram, there seems to be
nothing wrong with the sentence structure since it already meets the criteria
of a standars English sentence where, according to the SAE rules, a sentence
must consists of a subject and a predicate which then generates the rule S →
NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The above sentence contains the NP category ‗that
breeze‘ as a subject and the VP category ‗feel good as hell man‘ as a
predicate. However, through the tree diagram analysis which is done by
conducting the PSG theory, it is shown that there is an error lies in one of the
elements that makes up the whole sentence, particularly the verb ‗feel‘ which
lacks of the inflection -s. Based on the SAE rules, a standard English sentence
must also follow another important rule namely the subject-verb agreement
rule (Wren & Martin, 2013) which denotes that subjects and verbs must
‗agree‘ with one another in number (singular or plural). So, if a subject is
singular, its verb must also be singular, and if a subject is plural, then
its verb must be plural as well. The above sentence clearly violates the rule as
mentioned before as there is no -s inflection at the ending of the verb ‗feel‘.
This circumstance is referred to as uninflected verbs which is one of
the unique grammatical features of AAVE that usually includes two
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conditions: 1) the sentence structure violates the standard rule, i.e. subject-
verb agreement rule where the singular auxiliary verbs agree with the plural
subject or the other way around, e.g. She don‟t instead of ‗she doesn‘t‘, you
was instead of ‗you were‘, and so forth (Fasold, 1972), and 2) the use of bare
verbs for all the subjects, either singular or plural, e.g. I go, she go, they go
(Rickford, 1999). In this case, the above sentence is concerned with the
second condition since it uses the bare verb ‗feel‘ for the singular subject
‗that breeze‘. Nonetheless, many sentences have this type of structure in
AAVE which is not permissible in SAE since it can confuse a lot of people,
especially those who only learn English for the language only and not for the
other reasons such as its history, literature, and culture. This leads those kind
of people to misinterpret the speakers of AAVE deeming them as uneducated
which then can possibly cause a conflict between them. So, if it is based on
the SAE rules, the standard structure for the above sentence is supposed to be
―That breeze feel[s] good as hell man?‖.
29. SS29: Damn you nosy. (pg. 52)
S
NP PredP
AP
Adv Pron Adj
Damn you nosy.
Diagram 6.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS29)
The above tree diagram shows that the sentence structure, according
to the SAE rules, is regarded as an incomplete sentence which means that it
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cannot be categorized as a standard English sentence. In SAE, a sentence must consist of a subject and a predicate which then comprises the rule S →
NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). In this case, the above sentence is composed of the adverb ‗damn‘, the NP category ‗you‘ and the AP category ‗nosy‘. There is no VP category in sight which indicates that the sentence has no auxiliary verb. The situation in which the auxiliary verb of a sentence is absent or omitted is known as copula absence which is one of the most prominent way used by the AAVE‘s speakers to form a sentence. The sentence with copula absence as the feature, especially a declarative form like this one is best analyzed with the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP PredP where
PredP can substitute the AP, NP, and PP categories (Mufwene, 1998), and thus, the AP category ‗nosy‘ is substitued by PredP. Copula absence, however, is definitely not acceptable in SAE which can be seen from the explanation as mentioned before. Therefore, if it is based on the SAE rules, then the sentence becomes ―Damn, you [are] nosy.‖ in which the plural auxiliary verb are is added to the sentence in relation with the plural subject you.
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30. SS30: Man, a nigga don‘t see school no more. (pg. 56)
S
NP VP
VP NP
NP
Adv Det N Aux V N Det Pron
Man a nigga don‟t see school no more.
Diagram 6.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS30)
Based on the above tree diagram, it is depicted that the sentence
structure which is analyzed by conducting the PSG theory seems to have no
error, at least based on the characteristics that are necessary in building up an
appropriate English sentence. According to the SAE rules, a sentence is
regarded as standard or appropriate if it has two key elements, i.e. a subject
and a predicate which then generates the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957).
As can be seen from the tree diagram, the sentence has the NP category ‗a
nigga‘ which acts as the subject and the VP category ‗don‘t see school no
more‘ as the predicate. Nevertheless, despite of fulfilling the above criteria,
there is an error in the use of the verb, specifically the auxiliary verb don‟t.
The plural auxiliary verb don‟t is paired up with the singular subject a nigga
which indicates that the sentence violates one of the SAE rules, i.e. the
subject-verb agreement, a condition where the singular verbs must agree with
the singular subjects and the plural verbs with the plural subjects (Wren &
Martin, 2013). Such act of violation is called as uninflected verb which is
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often found in AAVE. However, if it is based on the SAE rules, the sentence
becomes ―Man, a nigga [doesn‘t] see school no more.‖ in which the singular
subject a nigga is in agreement with the singular auxiliary verb doesn‟t.
Looking at the rest of the elements that are used in building up the
whole sentence, it is shown that there is another error that lies in the
elements. This sentence structure is intended to be constructed in the negative
form, particularly a negative declarative form which can immediately be seen
from the auxiliary verb don‟t which is a negative construction of do.
However, instead of opting for using just one negative marker, the above
sentence uses two negative markers namely the word ‗not‘ in don‟t that is
usually referred to as not-negator and the phrase ‗no more‘ which is named as
n-negator. The use of two negative marker is famously known as double
negation which, as a matter of fact, is the usual way used by the AAVE‘s
speakers to form the negative sentences and is categorized as one of the most
prominent grammatical features in AAVE. This type of structure, however, is
not permitted in SAE as it only allows one negative marker to be used to
negate a sentence since double negation can often cause a misunderstanding,
especially towards the meaning behind the sentence structure.
31. SS31: The food wasn‘t never good. (pg. 56)
S
NP VP
V AdvP
Det N Aux Adv Adj
The food wasn‟t never good.
Diagram 6.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS31)
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From the look of the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence structure actually meets the criteria of a standard English sentence based on the SAE rules in a way that a sentence must consist of two main components namely a subject and a predicate. The above sentence which is analyzed with the PSG theory is composed of the NP category ‗the food‘ taking the role of the subject and the VP category ‗wasn‘t never good‘ as the predicate. However, this particular sentence is considered to be violating the rule in forming a negative statement as the sentence contains two negative markers in opposed of one of the SAE rules which allows to only use one negative marker. There are two negative markers: 1) the negative marker
‗not‘ which is called as not-negator that is located in the auxiliary verb wasn‟t, and 2) the negative marker never which is named as n-negator that is in the AdvP category never good. The use of more than one negative marker is better known as double negation which is included as one of the distinctly unique grammatical features of AAVE that has two choices of meaning, they are, to strengthen the negation in the sentence or to generate a positive statement. Double negation is clearly unacceptable in SAE as this type of structure tends to cause a confusion among many people, especially in understanding the meaning behind the structure.
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32. SS32: We was calling you Tyson after that shit. (pg. 57)
S
NP VP
NP
NP
PP
V NP
Pron Aux V Pron N Prep Det N
We was calling you Tyson after that shit.
Diagram 6.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS32)
The above tree diagram shows how the sentence structure meets the
criteria that are required for an appropriate English sentence in a sense that it
is made up of two main components namely a subject and a predicate. The
above sentence which is analyzed with the PSG theory comprising the rule S
→ NP VP (Chomsky, 1957), consists of the NP category ‗we‘ taking the role
of the subject and the VP category ‗was calling you Tyson after that‘ as the
predicate. However, there is a slight error which is found in the use of the
past auxiliary verb was as it is supposed to be used in relation with the
singular subjects like the third-person singular, e.g. he/she/it. Instead, the
singular auxiliary verb was is paired up with the plural subject we in the
sentence. This kind of circumstance which is better known as uninflected
verb is one of the unique characteristics of AAVE which is clearly not
permissible in SAE as it proves that the sentence violates one of the SAE
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rules, particularly the subject-verb agreement which denotes that the singular
verbs are in concordance with the singular subjects and the plural verbs with
the plural subjects. Therefore, if it is based on the above SAE rule, then the
sentence transforms into ―We [were] calling you Tyson after that shit.‖ in
which the plural auxiliary verb were is used instead of was in agreement with
the plural subject we.
33. SS33: I ain‘t no boy. (pg. 60)
S
NP VP
NP
Pron Aux Det N
I ain‟t no boy.
Diagram 6.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS33)
Based on the above tree diagram, the sentence structure seems to meet
the main criteria of an appropriate English sentence. In SAE, a sentence must
contain a subject and a predicate, and in this case, the above sentence is made
up of the NP category ‗I‘ which acts as the subject and the VP category ‗ain‘t
no boy‘ which takes the role of the predicate. As can be seen from the
auxiliary verb ain‟t, the above sentence which is analyzed with the PSG
theory is intended to be a negative statement as the word ain‟t consists of the
word ‗not‘ which is used to negate a statement. However, there are two
negative markers found in the sentence, i.e. the auxiliary verb ain‟t as
mentioned previously which is actually an informal form for the negative
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constructions of am not, is not, and or are not (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018)
that contains the negative marker 'not' known as not-negator, and the NP
category no boy embedded in the VP which also contain a negative marker
‗no‘ called as n-negator. Having two or more negative markers in one
sentence is the usual way used by the AAVE‘s speakers to form a negative
sentence and thus, it is named as double negation. Double negation which has
two alternative meanings: 1) intensifying a negative value in the sentence and
2) generating a positive statement due to the cancelation of two negatives, is
unacceptable in SAE as it is asserted that it is only permissible to construct a
negative statement with one negative marker.
34. SS34: Yeah it sound funny to me too. (pg. 66)
S
NP VP
VP PP
Adv Pron V Adv Prep N Adv
Yeah it sound funny to me too.
Diagram 6.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS34)
The above tree diagram shows that the sentence is constructed
correctly, at least viewed from the perspective of SAE. In SAE, a sentence is
considered to be standard and appropriate if it is made up of a subject and a
predicate generating the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The above
sentence which is analyzed with the PSG theory fulfills such characteristics
since it contains the NP category ‗it‘ taking the role of the subject and the VP
category ‗sound funny to me too‘ acting as the predicate. Nevertheless, there
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is one thing that seems out of place in the sentence, that is, the verb sound
that has no inflection, specifically the inflection -s. This situation is better
known as uninflected verb where the verb is uninflected which is one of the
common traits found in AAVE, and actually has two types: 1) pairing up the
singular verbs with the plural subjects and vice versa, e.g. She don‟t instead
of ‗she doesn‘t‘, you was instead of you were, and so on (Fasold, 1972), and
2) using the verbs in the bare form for all subjects, e.g. I go, she go, they go
(Rickford, 1999). The above sentence is concerned with those two types as it
uses the bare verb sound instead of the one with the inflection -s, i.e. ‗sounds‘
which, according to one of the SAE rules namely the subject-verb agreement
rule (Wren & Martin, 2013), is the right form to use for the singular subject
‗it‘ since it is necessary for the verbs of the third-person singular, e.g.
he/she/it to have the singular inflection -s as the suffix attached to the verbs.
Therefore, if it is based on the SAE rules, the above sentence becomes ―Yeah
it sound[s] funny to me too.‖
35. SS35: You still in them streets? (pg. 67)
a) S
NP VP
AdvP
PP
NP
Pron Aux Adv Prep Det N
You Ø still in them streets?
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b) CP
C S
NP VP
AdvP
PP
NP
Infl Pron Infl Adv Prep Det N
Are you e still in them streets?
Diagram 6.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS35)
From the above tree diagram, it is shown that there is something that seems out of place with the sentence structure which is distinguished by two things: 1) the fact that the sentence is lacking in the predicate department, and
2) the fact that the sentence itself is intended to ask a question but formed in declarative. There are two problems found in the above sentence which equally means that there are two steps in finding the solution which can be done through a tree diagram analysis. In the first step (a), the above sentence is analyzed with the PSG theory as it is treated as declarative because the sentence itself is in the form of declarative question which indicates that a sentence is intended to ask/request something but constructed in declarative.
Since the PSG theory comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957), the
NP category is taken by the pronoun ‗you‘ and the VP category is occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ to denote that the position is vacant, and as for the rest of the elements ‗still in them streets‘ takes the role of the AdvP category. This
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kind of circumstance in which the auxiliary verb of a sentence is absent, named as copula absence which is included as one the unique characteristics of AAVE. Nevertheless, it is unacceptable to have this kind of formation in
SAE in a way that it is necessary to include the plural auxiliary verb are to the sentence in concordance with the plural subject you and thus, the sentence becomes ―You [are] still in them streets?‖.
In the second step (b), as can be seen from the tree diagram, there seems to be a movement within the sentence. The sentence ―You [are] still in them streets?‖ which initially has no auxiliary verb but is somehow
‗understood‘ that there is one, hence the plural auxiliary verb are in the sentence is still in the form of declarative question which, in fact, is a normal way used by the AAVE‘s speakers in constructing a question. However, it is not permissible to do such thing in SAE as it is asserted that a question is formed in interrogative form instead of a declarative. Therefore, this type of sentence is best analyzed with transformation which is obviously done by conducting the TGG theory which has two kinds of conditions namely inversion (yes-no questions) and movement (wh-questions). This sentence structure is concerned with the first kind of transformations which, in this case, is done by moving the auxiliary verb are which is also known as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the left of the NP category ‗you‘ in which the movement is distinguished by an arrow starting from the head location to the beginning of the sentence which then generates the sentence
―[Are] you still in them streets?‖.
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36. SS36: You short, Travis. (pg. 69)
S
NP PredP
AP
Pron Adj Adv
You short Travis.
Diagram 6.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS36)
The above tree diagram indicates that the sentence structure which is
analyzed by conducting the CG theory lacks of the VP category. According to
the SAE rules, an appropriate sentence is the one that is made up of a subject
and a predicate generating the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). The above
sentence, however, is composed of the NP category ‗you‘ acting as the
subject, the AP category, ‗short‘ as the predicate, and the adverb ‗Travis‘.
This kind of circumstance where there is an absence or deletion of an
auxiliary verb is called as copula absence which is one of the unique
grammatical features of AAVE. The sentence with this type of structure is
often analyzed by using the CG theory developed by Mufwene, Sag &
Wasow comprising the rule S → NP PredP n which PredP can cover these
categories: AP, NP, and PP (Mufwene, 1998). Therefore, in this case, the AP
category ‗short‘ in the above sentence is covered by the PredP category.
Nonetheless, if it is based on the SAE rules since SAE clearly forbids this
type of structure, then it is mandatory to include the plural auxiliary verb are
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to the sentence in concordance with the plural subject you that the sentence
becomes ―You [are] short, Travis.‖
37. SS37: Chiron, this your mother. (pg. 71)
S
NP PredP
NP
Adv Pron Det N
Chiron this your mother.
Diagram 7.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS37)
From the above tree diagram it can be seen that the sentence structure
has a specific feature namely copula absence which refers to a situation
where the auxiliary of sentence is absent or omitted. Copula absence is also
one of the unique grammatical features of AAVE which sets AAVE apart
from the standard language variety, for examples, British English (BE) and
American English (AmE). The analysis of the above sentence structure is
done by applying the CG theory in which PredP can stand for NP, AP, or PP.
Thus, according to this theory, a sentence with copula absence as its feature
can be analyzed by following the rule S → NP PredP (Mufwene, 1998), and
in this case, PredP covers the NP category, i.e. ‗your mother‘ in the above
sentence structure. However, in SAE, such sentence structure is clearly
forbidden since it can confuse many people, particularly those who tend to
judge/perceive this kind of sentence as the wrong usage of English because of
its label, that is, ‗non-standard‘, and instead, what they see as the standard
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rule is S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). Thus, in this case, the appropriate
sentence structure according to SAE is done by adding the auxiliary verb is
just after the subject of the sentence this as it is singular. So, the ‗standard‘
sentence structure for the above sentence is ―Chiron, this [is] your mother.‖
38. SS38: This Kevin. (pg. 72)
S
NP VP
NP
Pron N
This Kevin.
Diagram 7.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS38)
Based on the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence
structure seems somehow incomplete as there is no auxiliary in sight. This
kind of structure is called as copula absence that is allowed in AAVE and in
fact, is one of the distinctly unique grammatical features of AAVE that has
the most frequently occurence in AAVE than in any other non-standard
English variety. Copula absence is a condition in which the auxiliary of a
sentence is absent or deleted. To analyze a sentence with this type of feature,
it can be done by applying the CG theory employing the rule S → NP PredP
in which PredP can cover these categories: NP, AP, and PP (Mufwene, 1998),
and as can be seen from the above tree diagram, PredP covers the NP
category, i.e. ‗Kevin‘. Nevertheless, the appearance of copula absence is not
permissible in SAE as it can cause a confusion among the listeners, especially
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those who do not know well about AAVE and are inclined to view it as an
error in constructing the so-called appropriate sentence structure of English.
In SAE, a sentence structure is considered to be appropriate if it is composed
of a subject and a predicate generating the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky,
1957). Thus, the standard sentence structure according to the SAE rules is
―This [is] Kevin.‖, that is, by adding the singular auxiliary verb is to the
singular subject this.
39. SS39: You a cook? (pg. 75)
a) S b) CP
NP VP C S
NP NP VP
Pron Aux Det N NP
You Ø a cook? Infl Pron Infl Det N
Are you e a cook?
Diagram 7.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS39)
As can be seen from the above analyses, the sentence structure is
analyzed twice in parsing (tree diagram) and thus undergoes two steps. In the
first step (a), the sentence structure which is a declarative question is
analyzed by utilizing the PSG theory that involves the rule S → NP VP
(Chomsky, 1957). From the first analysis, it can be seen that the above
sentence structure lacks of the auxiliary verb as it is literally just made up of
two NP categories ‗you‘ and ‗a cook‘. This situation is also known as copula
absence which is one of the unique characteristics of AAVE. This feature
denotes that there is an omission or absence of auxiliary verb in a sentence
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which, in SAE, is not permitted. However, since the analysis of the sentence is done by using the PSG theory, the VP category which is built by a verb, specifically the auxiliary verb is temporarily occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ indicating a vacant spot. Thus, to construct a standard English sentence which is approved in SAE is done by adding the auxiliary verb are to the sentence in relation with the plural subject you and thus, the sentence becomes ―You [are] a cook?‖.
In the second step of the analysis (b), the sentence structure ―You
[are] a cook?‖ in which the auxiliary verb is initally omitted as constructed in
AAVE is ‗understood‘ that there is an auxiliary, that is, are in the sentence according to the SAE perspectives. This sentence structure is analyzed by employing the TGG theory in which there is some kind of movement. There are two key features in TGG analysis, i.e. inversion (yes-no questions) and movement (wh-questions). However, this particular structure which is in the form of declarative question is concerned with the yes-no question which means that it requires an inversion. Therefore, the inversion of the above sentence structure is conducted to alter the declarative form to the interrogative one by moving the auxiliary verb are which is also known as
‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the beginning of the sentence or to the left of the NP category, that is, the left side of ‗you‘. This movement causes the infl position (head) in the sentence to be vacant which is then occupied by the empty category symbolized as ‗e‘. The movement in TGG reconstruction of declarative to interrogative form is usually indicated by an arrow which starts from the ‗e‘ in a sentence to the left of the NP, to the
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current position of infl. Therefore, the sentence structure becomes ―[Are] you
a cook?‖ after the inversion.
40. SS40: This your number? (pg. 76)
S CP
NP VP C S
NP NP VP
Pron Aux Det N NP
This Ø your number? Infl Pron Infl Det N
Is this e your number?
Diagram 7.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS40)
Based on the above tree diagrams, it is shown that there are two steps
in analyzing the sentence ―This your number?‖ which is in the form of
declarative question. Declarative question is a type of sentence which is
intended to ask a question but has a declarative form. In the first step (a), the
above sentence structure is analyzed by utilizing the PSG theory in which it
embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). As can be seen from the
first diagram, the auxiliary verb of the sentence is absent and this kind of
circumstance is better known as copula absence which is one of the unique
grammatical features of AAVE that are considered to be the most dominant
among the others. Nonetheless, it is not permissible to have this kind of
structure in SAE. According to the SAE rules, for an English sentence to be
appropriate is to have a subject (NP) and a predicate (VP). In this case, the
sentence only contains two categories, i.e. ‗this‘ and ‗your number‘.
Therefore, since the analysis of the sentence uses the PSG theory, the VP
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category of the sentence which is built by a verb, particularly the auxiliary category is ‗temporarily‘ occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ showing that it is empty. So, it is required to add the singular auxiliary verb is to concord with the singular subject this to alter the sentence into the standard one that the sentence becomes ―This [is] your number?‖
In the second step (b), the tree diagram shows that the sentence ―This
[is] your number?‖ in which the auxiliary verb is originally absence but is considered to be ‗understood‘ that there is an auxiliary in it is altered from the declarative question form to the interrogative one. This particular structure is analyzed by employing the TGG theory which usually involves two types of movement in the process of transforming a declarative to an interrogative form: 1) inversion (yes-no question) and 2) movement (wh-question). The above sentence is, however, concerned with the first type of movement, i.e. inversion. The inversion of the above sentence is done moving the auxiliary verb is which is called as ‗infl‘ in TGG analysis from the head position to the left of the NP category (just before the subject) in the sentence. This movement is marked by an arrow which proceeds from the former location of infl which now is occupied by the empty category symbolized by ‗e‘ to the current location of infl on the left of the subject ‗this‘ (the NP category). As a result, after undergoing the inversion, the sentence becomes ―[Is] this your number?‖.
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41. SS41: This the dinner. (pg. 76)
S
NP PredP
NP
Pron Det N
This the dinner.
Diagram 7.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS41)
The above sentence structure is analyzed by using the CG theory
(Mufwene, 1998). Just like the usual rule of the analysis in parsing (tree
diagram), the analysis is done by spliting down the sentence down to its
smallest components called heads. Nonetheless, there is a slight difference in
a way that instead of opting for the VP category as the predicate of the
sentence just like how it is normally occured in the case of PSG or TGG
analysis, CG takes PredP as a substitute for VP. As a result, CG produces the
rule S → NP PredP in which PredP covers for AP, NP, and PP, which is
distinct from the SAE rule, that is, S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). In this
case, as can be seen from the tree diagram, PredP covers the NP category in
the sentence structure, i.e. ‗the dinner‘ as there is no auxiliary and this kind of
circumstance is known as copula absence which denotes a situation where
there is an absence/omission of the auxiliary verb in a sentence that is
permitted in AAVE, but not in SAE. In SAE, such circumstance is
completely deemed as an error and even the speakers of it are often judged to
be ignorant. Therefore, according to the SAE rules, the appropriate structure
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for the above sentence is ―This [is] the dinner‖, in which there should have
been an addition of the singular auxiliary verb is that is in agreement with the
singular subject this in the sentence.
42. SS42: Well shit, you here now. (pg. 82)
S
AdvP NP PredP
PP
Adv Pron Prep Adv
Well shit you here now.
Diagram 7.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS42)
Based on the above tree diagram, it is shown that the sentence
structure has no predicate which means that it cannot be considered as a
standard English sentence, at least viewed from the SAE perspectives.
According to the SAE rules, a sentence is regarded as appropriate or standard
if it has a subject and a predicate. However, the above sentence cannot fulfill
the criteria as mentioned before since it consists of the AdvP category ‗well
shit‘, the NP ‗you‘, the PP ‗here‘, and the adverb ‗now‘. This kind of
sentence structure is best analyzed with the CG theory which embodies the
rule S → NP PredP, where PredP acts as a substitute for these categories
namely AP, NP, and PP (Mufwene, 1998). Thus, in this case, the PP category
‗here‘ in the sentence can be substitued by PredP. However, this condition in
which a sentence lacks of an auxiliary verb which is often called as copula
absence that is one of the unique features of AAVE is not permitted in SAE
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as it is mandatory to follow the SAE rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). So,
in order to obtain an appropriate English sentence which is based on that
certain rule, it can be done by adding the plural auxiliary verb are to the
plural subject we that it obtains the sentence ―Well shit, we [are] here now.‖
43. SS43: We here, Chiron. (pg. 83)
S
NP PredP
PP
Pron Prep Adv
We here Chiron
Diagram 7.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS43)
From the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence structure
possesses one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE namely copula absence.
Copula absence refers to a situation where the auxiliary verb of the sentence
is absent or deleted. The simplest way to analyze this type of structure is by
employing the CG theory which embodies the rule S → NP PredP (Mufwene,
1998). In this case, the sentence structure which lacks of the auxiliary verb
and only contains the NP category ‗we‘, the PP category ‗here‘ and the
adverb ‗Chiron‘ is analyzed based on the rule as previously mentioned.
According to the CG theory, the PP category can be covered by PredP as it
acts as a substitute for AP, NP, and PP categories, and as for the first one, it
can acts as the subject of the sentence. While it is completely approved in
AAVE, it is not the same if it is viewed from the SAE rules as it utilizes the
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rule S → NP VP instead (Chomsky, 1957). Therefore, to have an appropriate
English structure, it is required to add the plural auxiliary verb ‗are‘ to match
with the plural subject ‗you‘ in the construction of the sentence and thus, the
sentence becomes ―We [are] here, Chiron.‖
44. SS44: So you Cuban now? (pg. 84)
a) b) S CP
NP VP C S
V NP NP VP
Adv Pron Aux N Adv V NP
So you Ø Cuban now? Adv Infl Pron Infl N Adv
So are you e Cuban now?
Diagram 7.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS44)
From the above tree diagrams, it can be seen that the sentence
structure undergoes two steps of analyses. In the first step (a), the sentence
structure which is in the form of declarative question, a form intended to
ask/request something but constructed in declarative, is analyzed by
conducting the PSG theory which embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky,
1957). The above sentence is made up of two NP categories, i.e. ‗you‘ and
‗Cuban‘, and the adverb ‗now‘. Thus, since the analysis is done with the PSG
theory, the VP category which is built by a verb, especially the auxiliary verb
in which its position is occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ denoting its nonexistent.
The circumstance where a sentence lacks of an auxiliary verb is also known
as copula absence which is included as one of the most promiment
grammatical features of AAVE which, obviously, is not allowed in SAE. So,
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in SAE, it is mandatory to follow the above formula to have an appropriate
English sentence in the present continuous tense that the sentence becomes
―You [are] Cuban now?‖.
In the second step (b), the sentence ―You [are] Cuban now?‖ which
originally has no auxiliary verb but is somehow ‗understood‘ that there is
one, i.e. the plural auxiliary verb are is still in the form of declarative
question which, in fact, the usual form used by the AAVE‘s speakers to
construct a question form. This type of structure is best analyzed with
transformational analysis, a method in the TGG theory (Chomsky, 1965). In
TGG analysis, there are two dominant processes called 1) inversion (yes-no
questions) and 2) movement (wh-questions). The above sentence is concerned
with the first type of process, i.e. inversion, which in this case is conducted
by moving the plural auxiliary verb are which is better known as ‗infl‘ in
TGG analysis in the head position to the left of the NP category ‗you‘ in
which the movement itself is usually distinguished by an arrow proceeding
from the location of the head to the location at the beginning of the sentence
which then transforms the whole sentence into ―[Are] you Cuban now?‖.
45. SS45: Nah, we still cool though. (pg. 85)
S
NP PredP
AdvP
Adv Pron Adv Adj Adv
Nah we still cool though.
Diagram 7.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS45)
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The above tree diagram shows that the sentence structure is lacking in the predicate department in a way that there is no auxiliary verb in the sentence. Based on the SAE rules, the above structure cannot be considered as a sentence as it is believed in SAE that a sentence is one structure that comprises two important components namely a subject and a predicate.
Unlike in SAE, this kind of structure is permitted in AAVE in which there is an absence of auxiliary verb in a sentence which is better known as copula absence which, as a matter of fact, is included as one of the unique grammatical features of AAVE. The above structure is analyzed in parsing
(tree diagram) by utilizing the CG theory (Mufwene, 1998) where there is a certain rule in which S → NP PredP. PredP, here, has a similar role to the VP and actually is a stand-in for these categories: NP, AP, PP and AdvP. In this case, the AdvP category ‗still cool‘ in the above sentence is substitued by
PredP. However, as mentioned before, this type of structure is not permissible in SAE and in order to fulfill the criteria for an appropriate English sentence based on the SAE rules is by adding the singular auxiliary verb are to the sentence in relation with the singular subject we and thus, the sentence transforms into ―We [are] still cool though.‖
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46. SS46: You wasn‘t playing about them traps. (pg. 90)
S
NP VP
PP
VP NP
Pron Aux V Prep Det N
You wasn‟t playing about them traps.
Diagram 8.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS46)
From the above tree diagram, it is depicted that the sentence structure,
as a matter of fact, fulfills the criteria of the appropriate English sentence.
According to the SAE rules, a complete sentence is one that contains a
subject and a predicate which are symbolized by the NP and VP categories
respectively which then generates the formula S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957).
The sentence ―You wasn‘t playing about them traps.‖ is composed of the NP
‗you‘ as the subject and the VP ‗wasn‘t playing about them traps‘ as the
predicate which can be seen from the analysis which is conducted with the
PSG theory. Nevertheless, there is an error which lies in one of the elements
that builds up the whole sentence, i.e. the auxiliary verb. Instead of following
the SAE rules, specifically the subject-verb agreement where the singular
subjects are in concordance with the singular verbs and the plural subjects are
in concordance with the plural verbs as well, the constructions of the
sentences in AAVE tend to violate this rule by pairing up the singular
subjects with the plural verbs and vice versa, e.g. the singular auxiliary verb
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wasn‟t (negative construction of ‗was‘) is paired up with the plural subject
you as can be seen from the above sentence structure. This kind of situation
which is also known as uninflected verb is not allowed in SAE and thus, it is
necessary to replace the singular auxiliary verb wasn‟t with the plural weren‟t
(negative construction of were) to agree with the plural subject you which
then generates the sentence ―You [weren‘t] playing about them traps.‖
47. SS47: Who is you man? (pg. 94)
S
NP VP
V NP
N Aux Pron Adv
Who is you man?
Diagram 8.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS47)
Based on the above tree diagram, it can be seen that the sentence
structure which is analyzed by conducting the PSG theory is formed as a
simple interrogative sentence, but there is an error that lies in the elements
(words) used to construct the sentence. According to the standard rules of
SAE, to construct an appropriate English sentence, it is necessary for us to
follow certain rules, one of them is subject-verb agreement (Wren & Martin,
2013), which is defined as a situation where subjects and verbs must ‗agree‘
with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular,
its verb must also be singular, and if a subject is plural, then its verb must be
plural as well. Nonetheless, that is not the case with the above sentence
structure as it uses the auxiliary verb is which is singular in number instead of
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the plural are for the plural subject you. This circumstance which is called as
uninflected verbs is one of the unique characteristics of AAVE.
This particular sentence is concerned with one of two conditions of
uninflected verb, that is, the sentence structure violates the standard rule, i.e.
subject-verb agreement rule where the singular auxiliary verbs agree with the
plural subject or the other other way round, e.g. She don‟t instead of ‗she
doesn‘t‘, you was instead of ‗you were‘, and so forth (Fasold, 1972). Such
circumstance, however, is not permitted in SAE to construct a sentence with
such rule since it can cause misunderstanding among people, specifically
those who do not know well about AAVE. Thus, if it is based on the SAE
rules, the ‗standard‘ structure for the above sentence is supposed to be ―Who
[are] you man?‖.
48. SS48: So you hard now? (pg. 94)
a) b) S CP
NP VP C S
V AP NP VP
Pron Aux Adj Adv V AP
Adv you Ø hard now Adv Infl Pron Infl Adj Adv
So are you e hard now?
Diagram 8.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS48)
From the above tree diagram, it is shown that there is something that
seems out of place with the sentence structure which is distinguished by two
things: 1) the fact that the sentence is lacking in the predicate department, and
2) the fact that the sentence itself is intended to ask a question but formed in
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declarative. There are two problems found in the above sentence which equally means that there are two steps in finding the solution which can be done through a tree diagram analysis. In the first step, the above sentence is analyzed with the PSG theory as it is treated as declarative because the sentence itself is in the form of ‗declarative question‘ which indicates that a sentence is intended to ask/request something but constructed in declarative.
Since the PSG theory comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957), the
NP category is taken by the pronoun ‗you‘ and the VP category is occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘ to denote that the position is vacant, and as for the rest of the elements, i.e. ‗hard‘ takes the role of AP category, and both ‗so‘ and
‗now‘ as the adverbs. This kind of circumstance in which the auxiliary verb of a sentence is absent, named as copula absence which is included as one the unique characteristics of AAVE. Nevertheless, it is unacceptable to have this kind of formation in SAE in a way that it is necessary to include the plural auxiliary verb are to the sentence in concordance with the plural subject you and thus, the sentence becomes ―So you [are] hard now?‖.
In the second step (b), as can be seen from the tree diagram, there seems to be a movement within the sentence. The sentence ―So you [are] hard now?‖ which initially has no auxiliary verb but is somehow ‗understood‘ that there is one, hence the plural auxiliary verb are in the sentence is still in the form of declarative question which, in fact, is a normal way used by the
AAVE‘s speakers in constructing a question. However, it is not permissible to do such thing in SAE as it is asserted that a question is formed in interrogative form instead of a declarative. Therefore, this type of sentence is best analyzed with transformation which is obviously done by conducting the
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TGG theory which has two kinds of conditions namely inversion (yes-no
questions) and movement (wh-questions). This sentence structure is
concerned with the first kind of transformations which, in this case, is done
by moving the auxiliary verb are which is also known as ‗infl‘ in TGG
analysis from the head position to the left of the NP category ‗you‘ in which
the movement is distinguished by an arrow starting from the head location to
the spot between the adverb ‗so‘ and the subject ‗you‘ which transforms the
sentence into ―So [are] you hard now?‖.
49. SS49: I wasn‘t never worth shit. (pg. 95)
S
NP VP
V AdvP
Pron Aux Adv Adj Adv
I wasn‟t never worth shit.
Diagram 8.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS49)
From the look of the above tree diagram, it is depicted that the
sentence structure seems to be normal in a sense that it is constructed
appropriately in terms of the SAE rules, particularly the one where a standard
English sentence must contain a a subject and a predicate. This sentence
structure is analyzed in parsing (tree diagaram) by utilizing the PSG theory
which comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). It is revealed that
the sentence is made up of the two main categories, i.e. the NP ‗I‘, the VP
‗wasn‘t never worth shit‘. As can be seen directly from the past auxiliary verb
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wasn‟t in the sentence, it is discovered that the sentence is constructed in the
negative declarative form. However, the past auxiliary verb wasn‟t is not the
only one that consists of a negative marker, i.e. ‗not‘ called as not-negator,
the adjective never embedded in the VP category also possesses a negative
marker namely n-negator.
The existence of two negative markers as explained in the sentence as
explained before is better known as double negation which is basically the
usual way to construct a negative statement in AAVE and in fact, it is
included as one of the distinct characteristics of AAVE. This circumstance,
nonetheless, is not permitted in SAE as it is asserted that, according to this
rule, it requires only one negative marker to form a negative declarative
sentence. Moreover, double negation may cause a misunderstanding to many
people, especially if they try to understand the meaning behind this type of
structure because there are two of them: firstly, to intensify the value of the
negative in a statement and secondly, to alter the meaning into a positive one
which is produced by the cancelation of two negations.
50. SS50: I wasn‘t never myself. (pg. 95)
S
NP VP
AdvP
V NP
Pron Aux Adv Pron
I wasn‟t never myself.
Diagram 8.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SS50)
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From the above tree diagram, it can be seen that there is nothing wrong with the sentence structure. In fact, this sentence ticks all the boxes of the characteristics of a standard English sentence. According to the SAE rules, a standard sentence is one that contains a subject and a predicate. The above sentence is analyzed by employing the PSG theory comprising the rule
S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957) where the sentence is built by two main categories namely the NP category ‗I‘ and the VP category ‗wasn‘t never myself‘. As can be seen from the auxiliary verb wasn‟t which is a negative construction of was (Oxford Dictionaries, 2018), this sentence is categorized as a negative declarative type of sentence. However, instead of using just one negator like ‗not‘, this sentence takes more than one negator, particularly two negators, i.e. the auxiliary verb wasn‟t which contains a negative marker called not-negator and the adverb never that contains a negative marker named n-negator.
The state of having more than one negative marker in the sentence is called as double negation which is considered as a ‗standard‘ way to construct a negative statement in AAVE. This unique grammatical feature of
AAVE, as a matter of fact, has two alternative meanings: 1) double negation cancel one another and produce an affirmative or 2) double negation used to intensify the negation in the sentence. Nevertheless, it is not allowed to do so in SAE as it is believed that this construction may confuse a lot of people, especially those who do not know well about English such as the language varieties, either the standard, e.g. BE/British English or SAE/Standard
American English or the non-standard ones, e.g. AAVE/African-American
Vernacular English or CSE/Colloquial Singaporean English.
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4.3.2 Analyses and Descriptions of the Supporting Data
In this part of analysis, only a number of sentences are analyzed and
portrayed in tree diagrams because most of the supporting data are very
similar in terms of its structure. Therefore, only half of the supporting data,
i.e. 10 sentences which are deliberately chosen, are analyzed based on their
grammatical feature. The analysis of sentences with the same grammatical
feature, e.g. ‗copula absence‘, are described simultaneously in paragraphs as
can be seen below.
1. SL01: I don‘t wanna hurt nobody. (―Cops Shot the Kid‖ by Nas, line 18)
S
NP VP
V NP
Pron Aux V V Pron
I don‟t wanna hurt nobody.
Diagram 8.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL01)
Based on the above sentence alone, it seems that there is no error in it
as it is composed of a subject and a predicate in which the two of these
elements are considered to be the main elements used in building up a
standard English sentence based on the SAE rules. The analysis of the above
sentence is conducted in parsing (tree diagram) with the PSG theory which
embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1998) and it is revealed through a
tree diagram that the sentence consists of the NP category ‗I‘ and the VP
‗don‘t wanna hurt nobody‘. The auxiliary verb don‟t which is embedded in
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the VP category designates that the sentence is meant to be a negative
declarative sentence. Nevertheless, the auxiliary verb don‟t is not the only
component that contains a negative marker, i.e. ‗not‘ namely not-negator, the
word nobody also categorized as one of the negative words which, in fact,
contains a negative marker called n-negator.
This kind of circumstance where there is an emergence of two
negative markers in the sentence is called as double negation which is one of
the unique grammatical features of AAVE and it is the most common way
used by the AAVE‘s speakers to form a negative statement. In SAE,
however, it allows us to only construct a negative sentence with one negative
marker. The SAE rule forbids this kind of structure as it may confuse many
people in understanding the meaning behind the sentence as it is claimed that
double negation usually has two choices of meaning: 1) to strengthen the idea
of a negative statement (intensifying the negation) or 2) to create an
affirmative sentence (caused by double negation canceling one another).
2. SL04: Cop wanna make it home by nighttime. (―Cops Shot the Kid‖ by Nas,
line 69)
S
NP VP
VP PP
N V V Pron N Prep N
Cop wanna make it home by nighttime.
Diagram 8.7 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL04)
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3. SL11: She feed him lies with his silverware. (―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil Wayne, line
55)
S
NP VP
VP PP
NP
Pron V Pron N Prep Det N
She feed him lies with his silverware.
Diagram 8.8 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL11)
4. SL14: You niggas is iffy now. (―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj, line 24)
S
NP VP
AP
Pron N Aux Adj Adv
You niggas is iffy now.
Diagram 8.9 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL14)
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5. SL19: Uh uh, she buy her man a Bentley coupe. (―She Bad‖ by Cardi B, line
69)
S
AdvP NP VP
VP
NP NP
Adv Pron V Det N Det N N
Uh uh she buy her man a Bentley coupe.
Diagram 9.1 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL19)
The above tree diagrams indicate that the sentences, particularly the
ones with the codes ―SL04‖, ―SL11‖, ―SL14‖, and ―SL19‖, have the
similarity in a certain trait, that is, those above four sentences are identified to
have one of the unique grammatical features of AAVE, i.e. uninflected verb.
In general, all four of them are composed of the NP and VP categories which
means that they have a subject and a predicate denoting that they fulfill the
main criteria of a standard English sentence based on the SAE rule that
comprises the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). However, by paying
attention to each element used in building up the whole sentence, it can be
seen that those four sentences violate one of the SAE rules, i.e. the subject-
verb agreement rule that refers to a condition where the singular verbs must
agree with the singular subjects and the plural verbs with the plural subjects
(Wren & Martin, 2013).
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There are two types of conditions that are often found in the case of uninflected, i.e. 1) the sentence structure violates the standard rule, i.e. subject-verb agreement rule where the singular auxiliary verbs agree with the plural subject and vice versa, e.g. She don‟t instead of ‗she doesn‘t‘, you was instead of ‗you were‘, and so forth (Fasold, 1972), and 2) the use of bare verbs for all the subjects, either singular or plural, e.g. I go, she go, they go
(Rickford, 1999). Among those above four sentences, the sentence with the code ―SL14‖ is concerned with the first condition in a sense that in the sentence ―You niggas is iffy now‖, the plural subject ‗you niggas‘ is paired up with the singular auxiliary verb ‗is‘. Meanwhile, the rest of the sentences such as ―SL04‖, ―SL11‖, and ―SL19‖ are with the second condition in a way that all these three sentences use the bare verbs, i.e. wanna (an informal construction of the bare verb ‗want‘ and prep ‗to‘), feed, and buy for their singular subjects such as ―Cop wanna make…‖, ―She feed him…‖, and ―Uh uh she buy him…‖.
Those two circumstances above, nonetheless, are definitely not permitted in SAE since it is necessary to add the inflection –s to the end of the verb for the singular subjects as in ‗wants to‘, ‗feeds‘, and ‗buys‘.
Furthermore, they also often cause a misunderstanding among people, specifically those who do not know well about AAVE. Thus, if it is based on the SAE rules, the ‗standard‘ structure for the above sentence is supposed to be ―Cop [wants] to make it home by nighttime.‖ (SL04), ―She feeds him lies with his silverware.‖ (SL11), ―You niggas [are] iffy now.‖ (SL14), and ―Uh uh, she buys him a Bentley coupe.‖ (SL19).
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6. SL05: Yeah you supermodel thick. (―All Mine‖ by Kanye West, line 1)
S
NP PredP
AP
Adv Pron Adj Adj
Yeah you supermodel thick.
Diagram 9.2 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL05)
7. SL07: All these thots on Christian Mingle. (―All Mine‖ by Kanye West, line
28)
S
NP PredP
PP
Det Det N Prep N
All these thots on Christian Mingle.
Diagram 9.3 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL07)
8. SL09: Now you feelin‘ so silly. (―Mona Lisa‖ by Lil Wayne, line 18)
S
NP VP
AP
Adv Pron Aux V Deg Adj
Now you Ø feelin‘ so silly.
Diagram 9.4 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL09)
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9. SL13: They switchin‘ like sissies now. (―Majesty‖ by Nicki Minaj, line 23)
S
NP VP
VP PP
Pron Aux V Adv Prep N Adv
They Ø switchin‘ up like sissies now.
Diagram 9.5 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL13)
10. SL18: Damn daddy, you fine as hell. (―She Bad‖ by Cardi B, line 18)
S
NP PredP
AP
Adv Pron Adj Adv
Damn daddy you fine as hell.
Diagram 9.6 Analysis of Sentence Structure (SL18)
Based on the above tree diagrams, the sentences, specifically the ones
with the codes ―SL05‖, ―SL07‖, ―SL09‖, ―SL13‖ and ―SL18‖, have the
similarity in a certain trait, that is, all those four sentences above are
recognized to have one of the most prominent grammatical features of AAVE,
i.e. copula absence. Copula absence refers to a situation where there is an
absence or omission of a copula or an auxiliary verb in a sentence. To analyze
the sentences with such structure, the CG theory (Mufwene, 1998) is chosen as
the most suitable approach. This theory employs the rule S → NP PredP in
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which PredP can substitute for these categories, i.e. AP, NP, and PP. The AP categories ‗supermodel thick‘ in ―SL05‖ and ‗fine as hell‘ in ―SL18‖ as well as the PP category ‗on Christian Mingle‘ in ―SL07‖ are all substituted by the
PredP category. As for the two other sentences, i.e. ―SL09‖ and ―SL13‖, however, it is best to analyze this kind of structure, particularly the continuous tense characterized by the verb –ing, with the PSG theory that embodies the rule S → NP VP (Chomsky, 1957). Thus, the vacant position of auxiliary verb in the above two sentences is occupied by the symbol ‗Ø‘.
However, in order to fulfill the criteria of an appropriate English sentence based on the SAE rules, it is necessary for a sentence to have a subject (the NP category) and a predicate (the VP category). Therefore, it is required to add the auxiliary verbs to those five sentences above that are in agreement with their subjects. In the sentences with the codes ―SL05‖,
―SL18‖, and ―SL07‖, the auxiliary verb are is added to concord with their subjects, that is, you for ―SL05‖ and ―SL18‖ as in ―Yeah you [are] supermodel thick‖ and ―Damn daddy, you [are] fine as hell‖, and all these thots for ―SL07‖ as in ―All these thots [are] on Christian Mingle.‖. As for the type of sentences with the present continuous tense such as ―SL09‖ and
―SL13‖, the auxiliary verb is also known as the helping verb which means that its presence is mandatory in relation with the verb –ing, and thus the auxiliary verb are is also added to agree with their subjects, i.e. you and they correspondingly as in ―Now you [are] feelin‘…‖ and ―They [are] switchin‘ up…‖
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4.4 Differences Between AAVE & SAE in Terms of Its Structure
Based on the above analyses and descriptions of the sentences with
AAVE‘s grammatical features, it can be seen that there are absolutely some
different traits between one of the non-standard English variety, that is, AAVE
and one of the English standard varieties, i.e. SAE. By looking at the three
grammatical features (copula absence, double negation, and uninflected verb)
which are also considered as the scope of this study, it can be perceived that there
are three main different traits between these two varieties of English.
Although the differences between AAVE and SAE are already explained
simultaneously with the descriptions of the sentence structure of AAVE in the
previous chapter, i.e. the analyses and findings chapter, it is important to focus
more on their differences alone. For this reason, in order to get a closer look at
that, the differences between these two varieties are arranged into a table.
Nevertheless, since there are many data that are similar in terms of their structure,
only a number of sentences which can represent the other sentences are
deliberately chosen. These sentences, which are, that of AAVE are organized and
drawn into the following table in comparison with the ‗standard‘ patterns found
in SAE, particularly how these sentence structures of AAVE would be like
according to the SAE rules.
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Table 1.6 Differences Between AAVE and SAE in Terms of Its Structure
SENTENCES DIFFERENCES NO. AAVE SAE
MAIN DATA (‘SS’) Based on the Presence of Copula
The sentence structures of AAVE from 1-3 My name Ø have one similarity, i.e. they are My name is 1. Chiron. declarative sentences and have no Chiron. (SS02) auxiliary verb. The differences between them are found in their complement: the first with the NP ‗Chiron‘, the second with You and You and the AP ‗thick as thieves‘, and the third Juan Ø Juan are with the PP ‗here‘. 2. thick as thick as thieves. As for the differences between AAVE and thieves. (SS20) SAE, it is revealed that the former is copulaless, while the later is with We Ø here, We are here, copula/verb which in this case generates 3. Chiron. Chiron. the patterns S + Ø + C and S + V (Aux) + (SS43) C respectively.
Ø You The sentence structures of AAVE from 4-6 Are you 4. alright? have one similarity, i.e. they are alright? (SS09) interrogative sentences and have no auxiliary verb. The differences between Ø You still Are you still them are found in their complement: the in them 5. in them first with the AP ‗alright‘, the second with streets? streets? the PP ‗still in them streets, and the third (SS35) with the NP ‗a cook‘.
As for the differences between AAVE and Ø You a Are you a SAE, it is discovered that the former is 6. cook? cook? copulaless, while the later is with (SS39) copula/verb which in this case comprises
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the patterns Ø + S + C and V (Aux) + S + C correspondingly.
This one particular sentence structure is different from the previous ones as this is in the form of the continuous/progressive He Ø tense which means that it includes the having He is having ‗verb –ing‘. Like the previous cases, the women women 7. difference also lies in the existence of the problems problems verb. As can be seen, AAVE is copulaless today. today. (without verb) while SAE is with (SS16) copula/verb which refers to the patterns S + Ø + V(-ing) + O/C and S + To Be (is, am, are) + V(-ing) + O/C individually.
AAVE SAE Based on the Number of Negator
That bitch The difference between AAVE and SAE is That bitch over there found in the construction of negative 8. over there is ain’t no kin statement in a sense that the former adapts no (isn’t a) to you. the trait of double negation while the later kin to you. (SS23) only allows to use one negator in a sentence. All three sentences of AAVE, The food The food i.e. 9-11, which are declarative contain two wasn’t was never 9. negators designating that they are double never good. (wasn’t negated. (SS31) ever) good. Usually, in AAVE, the speakers combine two kinds of negators namely non-negator, i.e. ‗not‘ which is normally embedded in I am no the negative construction of auxiliary verb I ain’t no 10. (ain’t/am such as don‟t, wasn‟t, ain‟t and so forth, boy. (SS33) not a) boy. and n-negator which refers to the negative words like nothing, never, nowhere, or ‗No + N‘. In SAE, however, double negation is
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clearly forbidden as the standard rule only permits to choose one negator of the above two kinds.
Like the previous case, these two You don’t You (don’t) sentences of AAVE, i.e. 11 and 12 also know know differ from SAE in terms of negating a nothing nothing sentence. These two sentences which are about that 11. (anything) in the form of declarative questions chopped about that (intended to ask/request something) are and chopped and recognized to have double negation by screwed? screwed? using two types of negators in a sentence, (SS01) i.e. not-negator ‗don‘t‘ and ‗ain‘t‘ for the first and the second one respectively, and Teresa n-negator ‗nothing‘ for both sentences. Teresa ain’t (doesn’t) This trait is definitely not acceptable in give you give(s) you 12. SAE as the rule itself only allows us to nothing, nothing construct negative statements by using one huh? (SS24) (anything), type of negators in a sentence. huh?
We was the The difference between the sentence We were the first ones on structure of AAVE and SAE lies in one of 13. first ones on this planet. the most essential elements in building up this planet. (SS12) a sentence, that is, verb. As can be seen from the table, these two sentences, i.e. 13 and 14, both have an error in the event that they use the auxiliary verb which are not You wasn’t in agreement with one another. playing You weren’t 14. about them playing about In AAVE, it is considered to be normal to traps. them traps. construct a sentence by pairing up the (SS46) plural subjects and the singular verbs, e.g. you or we with was or wasn‟t, and this situation is better known as uninflected
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verb. Nonetheless, this case is unacceptable in SAE as it violates one of the standard rule, that is, the subject-verb agreement rule where the singular subject must agree with the singular verbs and so do the plurals.
AAVE SAE Based on the Form Of Verb
That breeze These two sentences of AAVE, i.e. 15 and That breeze 15. feel good as 16, represent another condition of feels good as hell man. uninflected verb. They differ from the hell man. (SS28) sentence structures of SAE in case of their verb. In AAVE, beside concording the plural subject with the singular verb or vice versa, the speakers also typically use the bare verbs for all subjects, for instances, ‗feel‘ as in the first sentence and ‗sound‘ in the second one.
Yeah it However, this case is positively forbidden Yeah it sound in SAE since it goes againsts one of the sounds 16. funny to me standard rules, i.e. the subject-verb funny to me too. agreement rule where the verbs for the too. (SS34) singular subject must have the inflection – s at the ending of the word as can be seen from the sentence structures of SAE in the table, i.e. the singular verb ‗feels‘ and ‗sounds‘ are in concordance with the singular subjects ‗breeze‘ and ‗it‘ individually.
Who is The difference between this one particular Who are 17. you? sentence of AAVE and SAE is found in you? (SS03) the agreement between the subject and the
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verb of the sentence just like the previous case, particularly the sentence 13 and 14. In AAVE, the plural subject you is paired up with the singular verb is which violates the subject-verb agreement rule in which the plural subjects must be paired up with the plural verbs, and the singular subject with the singular verbs. Nevertheless, as explained through the previous case, this is not permitted in SAE and based on the standard rule, the plural you must concord with the plural verb are.
AAVE SAE DIFFERENCES
SUPPORTING DATA (‘SL’) Based on the Presence of Copula
This Ø fake The sentence structures of AAVE from 1-3 This is fake 18. news. have one similarity, i.e. they are news. (SL03) declarative sentences and have no auxiliary verb. The differences between All these All these them are found in their complement: the thots Ø on thots are on first with the NP ‗Chiron‘, the second with 19. Christian Christian the AP ‗thick as thieves‘, and the third Mingle. Mingle. with the PP ‗here‘. (SL07) As for the differences between AAVE and Damn SAE, it is revealed that the former is daddy, you Damn daddy, copulaless, while the later is with 20. Ø fine as you are fine copula/verb which in this case generates hell. as hell. the patterns S + Ø + C and S + V (Aux) + (SL18) C respectively.
Now you Ø Now you are This one particular sentence structure is 21. feelin‘ so feelin‘ so different from the previous ones as this is silly. silly. in the form of the continuous/progressive
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(SL09) tense which indicates that it involves the ‗verb –ing‘. Like the previous cases, the difference also lies in the existence of the verb. As can be seen, AAVE is copulaless (without verb) while SAE is with copula/verb which refers to the patterns S + Ø + V(-ing) + O/C and S + To Be (is, am, are) + V(-ing) + O/C individually.
AAVE SAE Based on the Number of Negator
The difference between the sentence structure of AAVE and SAE, in this case, lies in the way of negating a sentence. AAVE uses two kinds of negators, i.e. don‟t and nobody which are used in this I don’t I (don’t) one particular sentence. The former 22. wanna hurt wanna hurt denotes to ‗not-negator‘ while the later nobody. nobody refers ‗n-negator‘. This situation where (SL01) (anybody). one sentence is double negated is also known as double negation. In SAE, however, the rule only allows us to construct a negative sentence by using one negator.
AAVE SAE Based on the Form of Verb
By looking at the sentence structure of AAVE and SAE, it can be perceived that She feed She feeds the verbs of both sentence are similar yet him lies 23. him lies with so different. They are different in a way with his his that the verb used in SAE has the silverware. silverware. inflection –s as in ‗feeds‘, while in AAVE (SL11) the bare verbs are used for all subjects as in ‗feed‘ for the singular subject ‗she‘.
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This situation is included as one of the two types of conditions found in one of the grammatical features of AAVE namely uninflected verb. Uninflected verb is definitely not permitted in SAE as it violates the subject-verb agreement rule in which the singular subjects must agree with the verbs that has the singular inflection –s.
This particular sentence of AAVE is recognized to have one of the two conditions of uninflected verb, that is, the one which concerns about the agreement between the subject and the verb. In AAVE, the speakers usually construct a sentence by combining the singular subject You niggas You niggas with the plural verb or vice versa. In this 24. is iffy now. are iffy now. sentence, the plural subject ‗you niggas‘ is (SL14) paired up with the singular verb ‗is‘. This situation, nonetheless, is unacceptable in SAE as it adapts the subject-verb agreement, i.e. the plural subjects must concord with the plural verbs and so do the singulars, e.g. pairing up ‗you niggas‘ with ‗as in the sentence structure of SAE.
From the above table, it can be concluded that there are three major differences which make these two varieties of English are distinctive. Firstly, it is common in AAVE to form a sentence without the existence of a verb, specifically the auxiliary verb, but it is necessary in SAE for a sentence to have a verb as it is an element used to construct the VP category, i.e. the predicate. Secondly, it is
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mandatory in SAE to follow the subject-verb agreement rule, while AAVE
usually goes against it by mismatching the subjects and the verbs. Lastly, it is
natural in AAVE to form a negative sentence by using two negators, whereas it is
only permitted to use one negator in constructing a negative structure.
4.5 Findings of the Study
As mentioned before, there are 70 data (sentences) as the overall amount
of data which are composed of 50 main data that are obtained from Act 1-3 and
20 supporting data that are taken from the five selected rap song lyrics. The
finding of the study is described in the following tables by presenting their
frequency of occurrence in percentages based on the scope of the study: 1) types
of sentence, i.e. declarative and interrogative, and 2) three distinctive
grammatical features of AAVE, i.e. copula absence, double negation, and
uninflected verb.
Table 1.7 The Percentage of Sentences Based on the Types of Sentence
NO. TYPES OF SENTENCE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 1. Declarative 55 78,5% 2. Interrogative 15 21,4% Total 70 99,9%
Table 1.8 The Percentage of Sentences Based on the Three Grammatical
Features of AAVE
GRAM. FEATURES OF NO. FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE AAVE 1. Copula Absence 43 61,4% 2. Double Negation 10 14,2% 3. Uninflected Verb 17 24,2% Total 70 99,8%
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
This chapter is divided into two subchapters, that are, conclusion and
suggestion, in which the former contains the final thoughts on the problems that
are analyzed and discussed before, while the later consists of some suggestions
which may contribute benefits and inputs to those who want to do a research
concerning AAVE, and offer knowledge to those who are interested to learn
something about AAVE, particularly its sentence structure.
5.1 Conclusion
Based on the above analyses and findings in the previous chapter, it can
be concluded that the sentence structures of AAVE possess some distinctive
grammatical features, particularly copula absence, double negation, and
uninflected verb. These three unique grammatical features represent the
differences between AAVE and SAE in terms of its structure in the sense that
they have different ways to construct a sentence. By applying three different
theories of syntax namely PSG, TGG, and CG in the tree diagram analysis, it can
be seen that there are some sentences in AAVE which are formed without a
copula (auxiliary verb), some of them are also double negated with two negators,
and the others often have uninflected verbs which indicate that there is the
agreement of the singular subjects with the plural verbs and vice versa, or the use
of bare verbs for all subjects.
If it is compared to the sentence structures of SAE, the ones in AAVE
with the above three conditions are absolutely not acceptable in SAE. Firstly,
SAE demands us to form a sentence by including two essential elements, i.e. the
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subject which is built by the NP category and the predicate with the VP category which is usually constructed with a verb. Thus, it is mandatory for a sentence to have an auxiliary verb (copula). Secondly, SAE only allows the use of one negator instead of two negators in forming a negative sentence. Thirdly, SAE requires us to form a sentence by following the subject-verb agreement rule where the singular subjects must concord with the singular verbs and so do the plurals, and the singular verbs must have the inflection –s as the suffix.
The whole data, i.e. 70 data, are limited to only those that are declarative and interrogative simple sentences. As can be seen from the table in the previous chapter, it is revealed that declarative form is definitely more dominant than the interrogative one with the percentages of 78,5% for the former and 21,4% for the later. However, if it is based on the three grammatical features of AAVE, it is discovered that copula absence has the ratio of 61,4%, double negation with
14,2%, and uninflected verb with 24,2%. This designates the fact that the sentence structures with copula absence as their feature have the most frequent occurrence in this study, followed by the sentences with uninflected verbs and the ones with double negation.
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5.2 Suggestion
In this section, there is a number of suggestions that the author would like
to give. Firstly, for those upcoming researchers who are interested in choosing
‗sentence structure‘ as their research topic, the author suggests them to make
more detail the tree diagram analysis of each sentence and to give a thorough and
in-depth explanations regarding the analysis of the tree diagrams.
Secondly, for those researchers who are concerned with AAVE, the
author recommends them to also study the other aspects of AAVE in the event
that not only they study and analyze its syntax (sentence structure), but also its
word formations (morphology) and speech sounds (phonology).
Thirdly, for those researchers who are intent on setting their minds on
studying and conducting a research on the sentence structure of AAVE, the
author advises them to use other sources of data apart from screenplays and/or
song lyrics, to use other methods and theories aside from the ones that are used in
this study, and to present more systematically the analyses and findings of the
study so that it can be understood well by and be valuable to the readers.
Last but not least, for those readers who barely know anything about
AAVE, the author suggests them to start taking AAVE and possibly the other
non-standard varieties of English as seriously as they are with the standard
varieties of English such as British English or Standard American English, in
order for them to get a broader knowledge on English as a language in general,
and on AAVE as one of the cultural forms of America in particular.
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA APPENDICES
1. Summary of the Screenplay “Moonlight”
Moonlight
―Moonlight‖ is a remarkable screenplay to ever grace the history of
American literature as it literally embodies all facets of the African-American
lives, for instance, the language conversed by the characters. This screenplay,
which is written by Barry Jenkins whose story was based on Tarell Alvin
McCraney‘s unpublished semi-autobiographical ―In Moonlight Black Boys
Look Blue‖, has been adapted into an outstanding movie which has received
many exceptional awards such as Golden Globe Awards, Oscar or Academy
Awards, and so on. Moonlight which has become the first film with an all black
cast and the first film that promotes LGBT as its theme explores the live of the
main character, an African-American boy named Chiron, through his struggle of
discovering identity and sexuality while growing up in a rough neighborhood of
Miami. This screenplay is divided into three acts: i.e. 1) Childhood (‗Little‘), 2)
Adolescence (‗Chiron‘), and 3) Adulthood (‗Black‘).
(Source: www.dailyscript.com/scripts/MOONLIGHT.pdf)
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2. Song Lyrics
NAS – COPS SHOT THE KID I don't wanna hurt nobody From “NASIR” album, 2018 We just came here to party See a few dames, exchange some [Intro: Richard Pryor] names The cops used to come around in my I'm a top shotta, kid, stay in your lane neighborhood The cop shot the kid, same old scene "Alright, you kids, stop having so Pour out a little liquor, champagne for much fun, move along!" pain Oh they'd arrest me, you know, Slap-boxin' in the street especially at night Crack the hydrant in the heat They had a curfew, niggas had to be Cop cars on the creep home at 11, negros, 12 Doin' they round-ups, we just watch And you'd be trying to get home, for the sweep doing your crew runs Yeah, it's hotter than July And they'd always catch you out in It's the summer when niggas die front of a store or something It's the summer when niggas ride 'Cause you'd be taking shortcuts, right Together we'll be strong, but forever Cops, "Ree, put your hands up, black we divide boy!" So y'all are blowin' my high
Type of shit that's killin' my vibe [Chorus: Slick Rick] White kids are brought in alive The cops shot the kid Black kids get hit with like five The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– Get scared, you panic, you're goin' The cops shot the kid down The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The disadvantages of the brown The cops shot the kid How in the hell the parents gon' bury The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– their own kids The cops shot the kid Not the other way around? The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– Reminds me of Emmett Till The cops shot the kid Let's remind 'em why Kap kneels
[Verse 1: Nas]
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA [Chorus: Slick Rick] Just a good kid, he wasn't that guy The cops shot the kid Had a little hit, he wasn't that high The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– Cop gon' claim that it was self-defense The cops shot the kid Say he was ridin' dirty so the case rests The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid [Chorus: Slick Rick & Kanye West] The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– (workin' nine-to-five) The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid (tryna stay alive) The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– (makin' ends meet) The cops shot the kid The cops shot the kid I still hear him scream The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– (shot him this week) [Verse 2: Kanye West] The cops shot the kid Stay tuned up and down your timeline The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– This fake news, people is all lyin' The cops shot the kid Money is bein' made when a mom The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– cries The cops shot the kid Won't be satisfied 'til we all die The cops shot the kid, the cops shot– Tell me, who do we call to report The cops shot the kid crime I still hear him scream If 9-1-1 doin' the driveby? (Source: https://genius.com/Nas-cops- It's certain things I can't abide by shot-the-kid-lyrics) I ain't bein' extreme, this is my side
Talkin' big shit, ready to die I know every story got two sides Claimin' he paranoid by the black guy Cop wanna make it home by nighttime
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA KANYE WEST – ALL MINE Daniels From “ye” album, 2018 Sometimes you gotta bag the boss up I call that takin' Corey Gambles [Chorus: Ant Clemons] Find yourself up in the food court Yeah, you supermodel thick You might have to enjoy a sample Damn, that ass bustin' out the bottom All these thots on Christian Mingle I'ma lose my mind in it Almost what got Tristan single Crazy, that medulla oblongata If you don't ball like him or Kobe Get to rubbin' on my lamp Guarantee that bitch gonna leave you Get the genie out the bottle Ayy, time is extremely valuable
And I prefer to waste it on girls that's [Bridge: Ty Dolla $ign & Ant basic Clemons] That's just some Ye shit Fuck it up, fuck it up Right now, let's do what we want Pussy good, go 'n back it up Let's have a threesome: me, you, and a Pipe her up, I'ma pipe her up blunt Make her mine, I done fell in love I love your titties 'cause they prove Juicy thing, make that pussy sing I can focus on two things at once One more time, baby, do it big Make it cry, come boohoo this shit [Chorus: Ant Clemons] Yeah, you supermodel thick [Chorus: Ant Clemons] Damn, that ass bustin' out the bottom Yeah, you supermodel thick I'ma lose my mind in it Damn, that ass bustin' out the bottom Crazy, that medulla oblongata I'ma lose my mind in it Get to rubbin' on my lamp Crazy, that medulla oblongata Get the genie out the bottle Get to rubbin' on my lamp Get the genie out the bottle Get the genie out the bottle [Verse 1: Kanye West] [Verse 2: Kanye West] If I pull up with a Kerry Washington Let me hit it raw like fuck the outcome That's gon' be an enormous scandal Ayy, none of us'd be here without cum I could have Naomi Campbell Ayy, if it ain't all about the income And still might want me a Stormy Ayy, ayy, let me see you go ahead and
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA spend some Gettin' drunk with these bitches Ayy, if you drivin' 'round in some Dri- Then when they leave they get Fit followed Ayy, I'ma think that you the type to Fall asleep with that bitch and really dry snitch don't know much about her Hm, mhm, if I see you pull up with the Then she let us in, we take all of your three stripes shit Ayy, ayy, I'ma fuck around and make And when you wake up, she help you you my bitch try to find it, I love it
[Chorus: Ant Clemons] [Verse 1: Lil Wayne] Yeah, you supermodel thick I be with bitches that be with bitches Damn, that ass bustin' out the bottom That be with niggas with riches I'ma lose my mind in it I tell her, "Get 'em," she say, "I got Crazy, that medulla oblongata you" Get to rubbin' on my lamp I say, "No, bitch, I say get 'em" Get the genie out the bottle And they so pretty, and their hair Get the genie out the bottle lengthy
(Source: https://genius.com/Kanye- He hit it and sleep on her titties Then she give us the word, we come west-all-mine-lyrics) through with AKs
LIL WAYNE – MONA LISA It's a stick-up, she scream like a victim From “Tha Carter V” album, 2018 Now you feelin' so silly I smoke color purple, I'm up in here [Intro: Kendrick Lamar] feelin' like Celie (ooh) I got a story to tell Nappy-ass dreads, what's that you say? You know that I cherish thee Watch your mouth, Milli Vanilli (ooh) Hope it ain't too many feelings You can get snaked, you can get faked involved Out by the bitch that you feelin' 'Cause you thought that she was an [Chorus 1: Lil Wayne] angel I see niggas in this bitch, stuntin', That bitch ain't no angel, I treat her poppin' bottles halo like a frisbee
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA And you tellin' your business, she tell I see niggas in this bitch stuntin', me your business poppin' bottles You tell that bitch what you feelin' Gettin' drunk with these bitches All of the beans you be spillin' Then when they leave they get To you, she lie through her teeth followed cavities, fillin's I be with bitches that know the bitches She know where you hide to tell me That's with the niggas we followin' where it's hidden Get them on the line, stay two cars She know when you're gone, tell me behind when to visit And tell them hoes, "Don't be so We break in your home and take the obvious!" specifics Mona Lisa, long hair, don't care And meanwhile, the bitch is on She handle the business and don't ever vacation with him tell So she don't get blamed, we don't She bite the bullet and cough up the snatch chains shells We find out addresses, and we don't She tell 'em, "Ooh, daddy, let's go to leave messes your place!" You'll only know that it's gone when And if he say yeah, then we meet him you check it there Then your first thought is to start She feed him lies with his silverware second guessin' She don't want love, she just want her She say, "What's wrong?" He say, share "Nothin', keep restin'" She say, "What's missin'?", "How you [Verse 2: Lil Wayne] know somethin' missin'?" I know a bitch named Liz He scratch his head, she say, "Get This nigga think she his 'cause she tell back in bed" him that it is And she gave him some head So he tell her all his secrets, he tell her Boy, you can't trust them bitches, and all his fears then she say ooh And then she tell me and I be all ears And then I go and tell my people and [Chorus 2: Lil Wayne] they already know him
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA And then I call Liz and she say he You'll be dead after we get what we're comin' over after I say, "Good girl, just remember what If Liz call you daddy, she about to be a I told ya" bastard, oh She gave me the salute, I say, "Girl, I got way too many bitches that do you're a soldier" anything for me, nigga We're waitin' outside, watch him pull But think for me, nigga up Send her to you like she ain't for me, Walk up to the door and right before nigga he knock I hope you alone like bankruptcy, She open the door naked, she left it nigga unlocked She pour you a drink, that drink on They started French kissin' so he didn't me, nigga see moi She slip somethin' in it, now thank for And then she let him in, they stopped me, nigga on the couch Mona Lisa, I done painted the picture Music up loud with his head in the Mo-mona Lisa, out the frame on these clouds niggas Turn that shit down and I scared the Pussy got you out of character, nigga piss out of him You fall for these hoes off your ladder, Piss a nigga off, put a gun to his frown my nigga Nigga, turn around, I ain't here to fuck Take everything that you have 'til you around don't even have an opinion I ain't here to fuck around, caught you We have your attention wit' your pants down And now you're lookin' down a barrel You know what it is, put your fuckin' though, nigga hands up Now she lookin' for her pantyhose, Liz, that's enough, you can put your nigga hands down We just lookin' for the casserole, nigga And then he looked dead at her and he But she gon' show us where you stash shook his head at her it though, nigga She a good actress and you a dead Mona actor
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA [Verse 3: Kendrick Lamar] I'm a dog in the wind, I'm a pit Ah, every day she wake up with a laughing different color makeup I'ma call up again like I did last week And a promise he gone take her to the Make good with the friend and I'm all movie and the mall jazzy Chillin' with the Laker, on the floor, Britney with the twin and the girl fourth quarter Ashley Four minute on the clock, Black Found out that I fucked, he was Mamba with the ball unhappy Paparazzi lookin' at 'em both poppin' Bitch, I never let the bullshit get past up and take a picture, uh me Probably on a Internet blog Better yet, I wanna break up, don't you In a minute, he gon' be admittin' that ask me he love her on his mother 'Bout a motherfuckin' double standard, Man, he want to meet her mother by acting tomorrow Fucking on another nigga, that's a Mona Lisa negative alone Pussy good enough, it got him sinnin' But you sucked this dick, that's just in the walls nasty And he diggin' in it like he livin' in it Matter of fact, bitch, gimme your Make a new religion with it, man a phone! (No!) nigga 'bout to go against God You fuckin' with Wayne's? (No!) Poetry in a pear tree Bitch, gimme your phone! (No!) Sweet tone like a hummingbird when Let me, let me take this call real she asked him quick Did he want to make love in a yellow (…lick me like a lollipop) He on your taxi fuckin' ringtone? Never gave two fuck, jumped in the Is that the shit that you do? backseat Touchin' yourself, lookin' at Kendrick Woke up in the morning to The Great videos Gatsby Jump on the internet, watchin' his Then he dogged it again like the bitch interviews Lassie I don't know what the fuck lately got
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA into you Now he get the picture, Mona Lisa, Tell me who love you, I bet I love Mona Lisa, yeah harder (Source: https://genius.com/Lil- Forgot all the shit that I did for your wayne-mona-lisa-lyrics) daughter?
The pampers, the Pedialyte and my NICKI MINAJ – MAJESTY momma From “Queen” album, 2018 Daycare after school and she never did charge her [Chorus: Labrinth] You scandalous as fuck and I hope Whatever you say, Mrs. Majesty (oh, you blow up oh) You know what, I get buck, let me go Whatever you want, you can have get my gun from me (oh, oh) I got one in the chamber I'm plannin' I want your love, just lead me on on aimin' Won't give it up, hey, hey, hey, hey Goddammit, you know that the ‘Cause I'm a sucker for ya damage is done Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang Bitch I'm emotional 'cause I'm in Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang stress
I'm not supposed to go through this, I [Verse 1: Nicki Minaj] guess Mmm, uh, yo, I got the money and the So in conclusion, since you like power now rappers that's killin' that pussy The G5'll get me out there in an hour I'm killin' myself now The MAC movin‘ like crack, I'm [Outro: Lil Wayne & Kendrick sellin' powder now Lamar] G-game over, locker room, hit them She say, ooh, Daddy, ooh, Mona Lisa, showers now Mona Lisa I got the trophies and the catalogue Ooh, fake smile, Mona Lisa, Mona Just did a deal, Mercedes-Benz, check Lisa the catalogue She say, ooh, no emotion, Mona Lisa, I'm buyin' buildings, we don't buy the Mona Lisa blogs (Kyuh)
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA The Nicki challenge when I fly to [Post-Chorus: Eminem] Prague, uh She invites me to the condo Uh-oh, wifey's in Chicago (oh, oh) [Refrain: Labrinth] My side piece, but she's also 'Cause I'm a sucker for ya Someone's wife, so time we spend is Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang borrowed Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang But it's our moment right here, fuck tomorrow [Verse 2: Nicki Minaj] 'Cause moments like these are to die Uh, yo, who want it with Nicki now? for I smoke ‘em like hippies now And she's clear, all nice and easy They see me, say, "Yippie," now As hair when I'm bleaching it blonde Homes runnin‘ like Griffey now So we got that lightning in a bottle They switchin' like sissies now You niggas is iffy now [Verse 3: Eminem] Bitches tune switchin‘ up She's tipsy, I'm sober We take 'em to Jiffy now So she gets a chip on her shoulder I'm thicker than peanut butter Sits on the sofa, I go to load a He nuttin' like Skippy now Slick Rick song or throw some Souls He want me to be his wife of Mischief on His misses like sippi now, uh She goes, "All that old school hip-hop is over [Chorus: Labrinth] Think that shit's got pneumonia." Whatever you say, Mrs. Majesty (oh, I told her, "Bitch, now, just hold up!" oh) That's why rap needs a doctor Whatever you want, you can have Our genre's lymph nodes are swole up from me (oh, oh) It's time to check it for strep or some I want your love, just lead me on tonsillitis Won‘t give it up, hey, hey, hey, hey 'Cause like what they swab you with 'Cause I'm a sucker for ya when your throat hurts Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang That's why Tribe is so vital: we need Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang Q-Tip for the culture Speed it up a little bit!
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA You ain't dealin' with a fuckin' And you might wanna decide to cheat featherweight 'Cause you gotta open your eyes to I used to medicate until I'd get a peek fuckin' bellyache Am I indeed the last of a dying breed? And now I'm finna step on the pedal, Even if you fire-breathe, it ain't shit don't wanna ever brake you can say to inspire heat I wanna accelerate to a level that I can If you wrapped your entire meat pad elevate up in a dryer sheet Demented with the pen, I'll make the And I'm back to rule the kingdom of mothafucker detonate fuck it I wanna make it acapella—wait, I Better not use me as your topic gotta set a date Anybody who brings me up, duck it With the devil and celebrate, together Let me keep it one hundred we can renovate Two things shouldn't be your themes And re-develop hell awaits, and I'ma of discussion get a special place The queen and her husband Now, take a ride with me, hop into my Last thing you're gonna wanna be is time machine our subjects, yeah I'ma take the driver's seat as I thrust into hyperspeed [Chorus: Labrinth] Like I'm a meteorite, and mothafuck Whatever you say, Mrs. Majesty (oh, the fucking media oh) Right in the behind; I'm a human Whatever you want, you can have encyclopedia from me (oh, oh) I must be like pie crust because I was I want your love, just lead me on bred to rise like I was yeast Won't give it up, hey, hey, hey, hey And you're never gonna reach these 'Cause I'm a sucker for ya heights Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang They're just too high to reach Boom shang-a-lang-a-lang And I ain't even reached my fuckin' highest [Verse 4: Nicki Minaj] You better pick another game, try Yo, now let me hit you back hide-and-seek Told 'em I'd get you back
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA I know you sittin' there just thinkin' slow) 'bout who did you that Tell her that jealousy is a disease, die I am who did you that slow (die slow)
You trippin', did you pack? (Source: https://genius.com/Nicki- Can't post on Nicki block unless you minaj-majesty-lyrics) sellin' Nicki crack
Here, take a Nicki pack CARDI B – SHE BAD Check out this Nicki act From “Invasion of Privacy” album, Nicki this, Nicki that 2018 All these bitches piggyback Ha piggyback, ah, ah, ah back [Intro: YG] Ah, ah, ah back, ah, ah 4Hunnid! Mustard on the beat ho [Outro: Nicki Minaj] Out ah road they lovin' my style [Chorus: YG] The mandem want digits to dial Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass Inna the dance, we a go skin out I Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass know She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad And when I come out, gyal suicidal She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad Yeah, on the real, I'm these bitches' Gucci bag, Gucci bag, Gucci bag, idol Fendi bag Gotta be dumb to make me your rival Prada bag, Louis bag, Gucci bag, 'Cause I'm too powerful ('cause I'm too Gucci bag powerful), and you not Birkin bag, she in the bag, she drip, she swag powerful (yeah, you not powerful) Never mad, she glad, Louis bag, she in So say your prayers 'cause you 'bout to the bag die slow (die slow)
Die slow (die slow), die slow (die [Verse 1: Cardi B] slow) Look, look Jealousy is a disease, die slow (die Momma needs some mill money slow) (cash) Die slow (die slow), die slow (die Prada bag and heel money
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA See my ex, he still love me (ha) Birkin bag, she in the bag, she drip, New nigga 'gon kill for me (yeah) she swag All my chains got diamonds in it Never mad, she glad, Louis bag, she in (bling) the bag My account got commas in it (cash) She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad Damn daddy, you fine as hell She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad I hope your wallet got condoms in it I'm up, she mad, I'm first, she's last [Verse 2: Cardi B] (yeah) Weave long, pussy bold, suck his dick Rob who? Take what? Click-clack, through his drawers ski-mask Lick the balls just because, lil bitch, I I'm a boss in a skirt, I'm a dog, I'm a evolved flirt I'm a monsta, mouth open wide like Write a verse while I twerk, I wear opera Off-White at church Face down, ass up, I got perfect Prolly make the preacher sweat, read posture (woo) the Bible, Jesus wept It's lit like a lamp, lick you like a Bitch say that she gon' try me, how stamp (yuh) come I ain't seen it yet? Beat this pussy up (yuh) I take it like a Give it to him so good that his eyes champ (woo) roll back (huh?) Balenciaga momma, I know you heard Shorty said it's all hers, why her thighs about her don't match? Spoil me in Prada, I'm worth every dollar (cash) [Chorus: YG] The one you made, could keep 'em Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass (yeah) Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass I need Chrissy Teigen She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad Know a bad bitch when I see one She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad (yeah, woo) Gucci bag, Gucci bag, Gucci bag, Tell Rih-Rih I need a threesome Fendi bag I'm his favorite type of chick, boujee, Prada bag, Louis bag, Gucci bag, bad, and thick (uh) Gucci bag I could buy designer, but this Fashion
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Nova fit Uh, uh, she got niggas and bitches, too All that ass (woo, woo, woo, woo) Uh, uh, she wear off-white to church, ooh Uh, only Birkin, not Dooney & Burke, woo [Chorus: YG] Birkin bag, fuck a tag, fuck me, and Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass she fuck me bad Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass Whispered in her ear, "You got these She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad bitches beat, they runnin' laps" She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad You know you something special, you Gucci bag, Gucci bag, Gucci bag, figured it out, you from the traps Fendi bag Step out wearin' that dress, showin' Prada bag, Louis bag, Gucci bag, that ass and it's a fuckin' wrap Gucci bag
Birkin bag, she in the bag, she drip, [Chorus: YG] she swag Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass Never mad, she glad, Louis bag, she in Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass the bag She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad Gucci bag, Gucci bag, Gucci bag,
Fendi bag [Verse 3: YG] Prada bag, Louis bag, Gucci bag, She bad, in the bag, move slow, hit it Gucci bag fast Birkin bag, she in the bag, she drip, She ride me 'til I crash, 400 minutes, I she swag last Never mad, she glad, Louis bag, she in She compliment my swag, all you the bag niggas harass She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad All them bitches wanna be her friend She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad now, she laugh (hey now) Uh, uh, she buy her man a Bentley (Source: https://genius.com/Cardi-b- coupe and-yg-she-bad-lyrics)
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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA