Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 15 and − (Kontogianni et al., 1 − 4744 4743 erent parts of the study region. Some of these changes ff 1 ects significantly and directly the runways and may threaten ff and R. Kalliola to co-occur in di 1 1,2 − and landing security. ff This discussion paper is/has beenSystem under Sciences review (NHESS). for Please the refer journal to Natural the Hazards corresponding and final Earth paper in NHESS if available. Department of Geography and Geology, UniversityDepartment of of Turku, Geography, 20014 Harokopio Turku, Univeristy Finland of Athens El. Venizelou 70, 2007). Unstable ground a takeo and agricultural infrastructures. Thisdynamic reality ground imposes movements a withstudy need high focuses to spatial the monitor and andoccurring region temporal ground estimate of deformation resolutions. Thessaly changes The damageNumerous in current the fissures central region’s important Greece may infrastructures. mainly open where at various up its eastern types across parts,area of the cutting of across co- Thessaly the cultivated Plain land, Larissamay roads, National during houses, form, Airport and the presenting even where also the dry fissures an season up expansion to rate several of tens up of to centimeters 30 mm a water level and expansive soils. 1 Introduction Ground movement is a major cause of natural hazards that threaten the stability of civil fering from continuedfissures ground and deformation sinkholes as as wellthetic evidenced as Aperture observed by Radar land interferometric the techniques subsidence. (InSAR) Thisground presence to study deformation detect of uses short- dynamics and in two ground long-term the Syn- airportsults using indicate the complex GAMMA Software subsidence25 (S/W). mm and The a re- uplift processesmay at be attributed ranges to between tectonicmation fault processes movements are but more some likely of to result the from observed human ground induced defor- changes in the ground- The possibility of usevanced the Environment productions Satellite of ENVISAT SAR Earthgiven (Synthetic Resource Aperture the Satellite Radar) potential C-band (ERS-1/2) to have mation and within detect Ad- high and spatial estimate and temporal the resolution. time The Larissa series National of Airport dynamic is suf- ground defor- Abstract 1 2 17671 Athens, Greece Received: 23 June 2014 – Accepted: 10Correspondence July to: 2014 F. – Fakhri (falah.fakhri@utu.fi) Published: 28 July 2014 Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. Geohazard risk assessment using high resolution SAR interferometric techniques: a case study ofNational Larissa Airport Central Greece F. Fakhri Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/2/4743/2014/ Discuss., 2, 4743–4763, 2014 doi:10.5194/nhessd-2-4743-2014 © Author(s) 2014. CC Attribution 3.0 License. 5 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent timescales, and found both short- and ff 4746 4745 ects (Caputo, 1993; Caputo and Helly, 2005). ff erent directions and ages, having a general E–W to ESE–WNW ff Both of the two major basins in the region, the Pinios River basin and the Lake The precipitation in the study area shows both monthly, seasonal and inter-annual Considerable neo-tectonic activity occurs in the region; the known active faults are In the present study we apply spatially and temporally high precision enhanced SAR In a previous SAR interferometry study in the region of Thessaly reflecting the pe- The opening of these fissures may be related to drought and over-exploitation of general higher yet variableare between composed the of years. coarse grained Theof permeable silt major sediments and aquifers clay with within up locally to the interbedded 300 layers graben m thick (PetralasKarla et al., basin, 2005). are extensivelysuch used as for cotton intensive andhas cultivation maize. led The of to absence a water-demanding remarkable of crops, increaseexploitation reasonable in of water water groundwater resources. demand, resources This which management unsustainable isalready practice usually has disturbed fulfilled deteriorated water by the the balance over- and accelerated water resources degradation leading lacustrine deposits andpossible therefore occurrence on of site highly e vulnerable geological conditionsvariations for (Fig. the 2). Thezero minimum whereas precipitation the during maximum the is summer over season 90 is mm. close Precipitation to levels during winter are in normal and WNW-trending,fault indicating system a in the NNE northerncharacterized extension part by of (Caputo, the di 1993). Larissa basindirection The is and Rodia composed finally of bounding several to segments stratum the is north in to direct Tyrnavosboth Low contact where in the with general Palaeozoic Pliocene sub- andas and in well mainly particular as Quaternary in most deposits. the of Thessaly, sector the corresponding villages to in the the Tyrnavos region, Basin, are settled on thick Quaternary fluvio- The Larissa National AirportThessaly is region located in in Centralmain Greece the airport (Fig. Eastern 1). of part It the ofserves was city as Larissa built until a in in military 1997 the 1912 airport. when northern and it functioned was as closed the from civil uses. Currently it still 2 Study area interferometric techniques to monitor ground deformationgeohazard dynamics risk and to that evaluate the correspondsmore in we will the reveal area whether thisor/and of ground long- the deformation term is Larissa likely National impacts toshrinkage Airport. be of operations resulting of groundwater Further- from clay level short- minerals. fluctuations through the swelling and part of the southerntical part changes of up the to ThessalyFakhri Plain, several and centimeters Parcharidis Kalliola et during al. (2014) thedeformation (2011) used summer with detected enhanced period. higher ver- precision interferometric Fakhri and techniques (2013) inlong- to di and term study ground ground deformation processes to co-occur at the regional scale. minor contributions from present-day tectonicsRaspini (Chang et et al., al., 2013). 2004; Cigna et al., 2011; riod from 1992 tothe 2006 predominant by feature Lagios in the (2007),(Gianouli region, it area). reaching was However, maximum the found amplitudecompared that Larissa of to systematic about city its subsidence 350 center northern mm is Using appears and eastern SAR to suburbs, be techniques which geophysically to are stable detect closer to seasonal cultivated deformation regions. signals in the south-western groundwater. For example theport South in Ring the Expressway southern andsubsidence suburb of Wushu due Taiyuan, International to China, Air- are groundwateralso being overexploitation the threatened (Wu by dominant et severe process ground ico, al., driving 2010). also land Groundwater resulting it subsidence in is in shallow the faulting region which of mimics Morelia pre-existing in faults, Mex- possibly with 5 5 25 20 10 15 25 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ers ff erential InSAR approach, the ff erent times. The use of the interfero- ff 4748 4747 erential phase to estimate height and deformation rate (see Werner et al., 2003). ects of surface topography and coherent displacement can be separated. The re- Two SAR interferometric techniques were used with the GAMMA processing soft- Persistent Scatters Technique was applied to identify ground deformation in relation The Pineios River basin where the Larissa National Airport is located also su ff ff Time series data of thetual groundwater recharge level and indicates discharge fluctuations ofthe the resulting monitored aquifer from period and the (Fig. a mu- 3). continuous Groundwaterduring decline level towards winter tends the and to end rise early of during spring,The the lowers months late in fall, of is late May high spring and and October often is show at rapid low changes level during in groundwater summer. level. 4 Results 4.1 Behavior of the groundwater level a small subset of imagecalled Permanent pixels Scatterers corresponding (PS), to provide stablepoints a areas. to kind These monitor of terrain points, motion natural hereafter Point through network Target Analysis the of (IPTA) phase ground was history control furthermorecharacteristics of of used each interferometric to one. signatures assess from Interferometric the pointherence. targets temporal The that and exhibit processing spatial long-term proceeded co- di by performing a least-squaresThe regression estimates on are the relative to a reference point in the scene. metric phase from long timethe data series entire requires observation that period the2006; correlation (Fruneau Agram, remains et 2010; high over al., Ferretticorrelation et 2003; al., and Wegmüller 1999; et atmospheric Werner al.,surements inhomogeneities et 2006; at al., may Hooper, the 2003). occur, sale Although reliable of temporal deformation de- millimeters can mea- be obtained in a multi-image framework on phase comparison of SAR images gathered at di to long term groundwater level fluctuations. Thisground technique elements relies on that identifying are selected dominated by a single scatterer and involve interferometric ferometry was implemented toand investigate to short ascertain term patternsto whether of originate they ground due are deformation to attributablee any to other the impact locationstrieval factor. of of In displacement faults such maps or Di interferogram is that are facilitated has likely by the potential combining1999). to multiple provide observations millimeter scale into accuracy an (Ferretti et al., C-band images of ERS-1/2, duringacquired 1995–2000 during and 2003–2008 15 by SLC ESA images1995 (Table of 1). till ENVISAT ASAR The 2008 examined (13 time years). period extends from ware (S/W) (Gamma Remote Sensing, 2008). A conventional technique of SAR inter- gion by the Thessaly LarissaSterea Regional Elada). Unit One (Decentralized of AdministrationAirport these of and boreholes Thessaly its data is areations located here for 100 used the m to study east construct area of a along sequence the the of time Larissa groundwater axis National level for fluctu- the period3 1992–2010. SAR data and methods Ground deformation was monitored by the use of 24 Single Look Complex (SLC) SAR et al., 2010). serious water shortage duedemand to for poor water. water In resources orderfluctuation to management on identify and and land the to deformation, increasing estimate more the than relation 15 of groundwater wells level have been established in the re- in some cases into seawater intrusion or land subsidence (Loukas et al., 2007; Rozos 5 5 20 10 15 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ects and ff 149.104 mm in − 1.971 mm in April 2004 and 1.51 m). Clear interferometric − − as well as uplift deformation up 1 ⊥ − erential InSAR (DInSAR) technique near the 4750 4749 15 mm LOS ff − 66.80 m) to avoid residual topographic e 1 to − − ⊥ 62 mm. In the summertime analyses (Fig. 4b) the perpendic- − . Three candidate points were chosen examine temporal changes in 1 − in the Tucson city in Arizona (Cusson et al., 2012; Kim, 2013), and ground 1 − In a study using archive data stack (3 m resolution) from 17 RADARSAT-2 images The deformation behavior of the third point (number 41185), at a distance of 475 m The point number 41694 which is located 322 m from the borehole R72 indicates 20 mm a 75.945 mm in December 1995, respectively, while the minimum and maximum uplift able ground deformation dynamics inintense sedimentary basins groundwater can extraction often within be the associated region with (Chang et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2010; shown to cause cracking anddence bending has of also the runway been (CussonVancouver documented International et by Airport al., di 2012). and Fast Skytent subsi- Train scatterers, station in (Samsonov turn, et have al.,Airport shown 2014). of both Persis- Zaventem subsidence and (Devleeschouwer− uplift et in al., the 2006), Belgian moderatedeformation National along subsidence the exceeding wider coastaltas zone basin including in the northern airport Greece area (Raspini of et the al., Anthemoun- 2013). Such spatially and temporally vari- SAR inferometry showed seasonallyarea whereas varying the spatial persistent scatterer changecentimeter inferometry level patterns indicated annual longer over changes term and the dynamics an study with overall trend of uplift. in the Iqaluit Airport in NE Canada, locally inhomogeneous ground uplift has been served. The minimum and− maximum subsidence was was 0.881 mm in August 2004 and 18.254 mm in December 2006 respectively. 5 Discussion Both of the applied SARspecific inferometric ground techniques deformation revealed in relatively fast and but around highly the site Larissa National Airport. Conventional uplift. from the borehole R72,as shows the rather beginning equal of deformationsidence the behavior monitored but and the period uplift change was during lower. rate the There period was April a swap 2004–May between 2005 sub- and eventually uplift is ob- a general rising trend, as the time series begins with subsidence and then goes into May 2005 and 33.334 mm in Decemberof of the 2006, point respectively. number The 41858, deformation behavior at a distance of 341 m from the borehole R72, also indicates tains 236 candidate pointsmation (Fig. at 5). rates Their varying change between to patterns 25 mm indicate LOS subsidencegroundwater defor- level and land deformation. a general rising trend afterand a maximum short subsidence initial period ratesJune 1995, of were respectively, while subsidence the (Fig. 3.059 minimum mm 6a). and maximum The in uplift minimum rates April were 3.712 2004 mm in and dicating subsidence that mayduring be the monitored related part to of the the lowering dry period. groundwater4.2.2 level (34.00 m) Long term changes The persistent scatterers inferometry covering the time period from 1995 to 2006 con- wintertime (Fig. 4a) isgeometric small de-correlation. (B The subsidence phaseof around the the runways borehole and andeast along especially of most the the densitygroundwater borehole of level are the was low subsidence probably (20.62 phase dueLOS m) (Line and to to of the the Sight) low normalized was north subsidence groundwaterular and deformation baseline level, rate was since too thefringes small depth can for anyhow a of be precise directed analysis around (B the borehole SR72 and along all runways, in- 4.2.1 Short term changes Conspicuous patterns can beof observed the in study the area conventional (Fig. SAR Inferometry 4). images The perpendicular baseline in these analyses during the 4.2 Ground deformation according to SAR interferometry 5 5 25 15 20 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent InSAR tech- ff erson, 2011; Mokhtari ff 4752 4751 The authors would like to acknowledge the European Space Agency ects may become “diluted” by the presence of abundant non-swelling minerals in The dynamic and spatially variable nature of ground deformation in the Larissa Na- Declined ground water level may also act as a carrier of small granular soil particles, Subsidence attributed to aquifer-system compaction in the USA is generally largest ff lected the reference data;Falah Fakhri Risto authored Kalliola the manuscript. has reviewed the results, Risto Kalliola and Authors contributions Falah Fakhri designed the research parameters and performed the research and col- The possibility of usevanced the Environment productions Satellite of ENVISAT SAR Earthgiven (Synthetic the Resource Aperture potential Satellite Radar) to C-band (ERS-1/2) monitor, detect have and and and short-term Ad- estimate and the also ground deformationhigh assess during the spatial long- time and series temporal ofniques resolutions. dynamic resulted The ground in combined deformation spatially use within anddynamics of in temporally two Larissa accurate di National monitoring Airport. of Probablychanges the are ground most the deformation important impacts of factors the causingwhich swelling such and can shrinkage be of activated clay through minerals (expansive groundwater soil), withdrawal and recharge. faults cannot be fully excluded. 6 Conclusions the potential contribution of simultaneous micro-tectonic changes through pre-existing soil structure, such asand Dehghani, quartz 2012). and carbonates (Jones and Je tional Airport, as documentedgroundwater in withdrawal this in study, the suggests regionThis that is the view likely excessive is to and supported be intensive ern, the by and main the southwestern engine fact regions ofclay that of such minerals in changes. the of the eastern montmorillonite eastern,ture, part and from western, illite of 0 to northeastern, are northern 16.1 widely % south- Thessaly, and present the from in swelling 17.6 the to 30.4 surface %, soil respectively struc- (Sgouras, 1994). However, Field data indicate thatsiderable viruses, distances bacteria, colloids until and the1990). clay All groundwater particles changes (McDowell-Boyer, can that 1986; modify migratetion soil Gschwend con- as volume they et may can al., posee cause hazard heaving to or engineering shrinkage construc- of structures. However, these expansive of the Coastal lowlandsbility of aquifer these system aquifer (Gallowaythe systems and large to groundwater Sneed, aquifer-system abstractions 2013). compaction anddeposits. the is The By prevalence enhanced virtue suscepti- of because fine-grained of (clays of theirditions, and compaction larger silts) of compressibility’s the under fine-grained virgin sediments (inelastic) causes loading subsidence. con- which may stimulate thepended process particulate of matter ground is or widely soil compaction. recognized to The transport occur in of sus- subsurface environments. most spectacular manifestation ofthe subsidence-related margins phenomena, of often alluvialchanging alluvial occur basins, basin exposed near characteristics or (facies). shallow buried bedrock,in or magnitude over and zones distribution in of the western aquifer systems and in the Houston area Cigna et al., 2011; Raspini et al., 2013; Samsonov et al., 2014). Earth fissures, the Acknowledgements. (ESA) for providingParcharidis the for ERS_1/2, his comments ENVISATmanuscript. and ASAR UTU suggestions data. significantly improved Greatly an acknowledge earlier also; version of Issaak this 5 5 20 15 10 25 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (last access: , last access: erential Inteferometry and ff (last access: March 2012), http://www.hnms.gr 47 = erential SAR interferometry for moni- ff 21&tm = 4754 4753 98&dnsi = & Geo. 1.2 Ed., Gamma Remote Sensing AG, Gumligen, Switzer- ff erson, I.: Expansive Soils, Institution of Civil Engineers Manuals Se- ff lu, B., Cabral-Cano, E., Dixon, T. H., Alejandro, J., Ávila-Olivera, J. A., http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/17002/1/C5_expansive_soils_Oct.pdf ğ ontaines, B., Rudant, J. P., Parmentier, A. M. L., Colesanti, C., Mouelic, S. 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R., and Sitar, N.: Particle transport through porous media, Loukas, A., Mylopoulos, N., and Vasiliades, L.: A modeling system for the evaluation of wa- 5 30 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Landsat (b) . (m) ⊥ 316.94 242.85 370.97 355.38 273.99 340.82 633.79 114.30 355.38 215.33 517.27 389.10 460.2.3 627.5.0 1012.07 649.843 769.243 595.195 720.395 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − http://www.managenergy.net/ 4758 4757 Landsat TM image of the Larissa National Airport. http://landsat.usgs.gov/landsat8.php (c) ENVISATENVISAT 27 Mar 2008 5 Jun 2008 31760 32762 304.81 420.258 ENVISATENVISATENVISATENVISAT 12 May 2005 25 Aug 2005 28 Dec 2006 1 Feb 2007 16730 18233 25247 25748 426.83 397.01 ERS2ERS2ERS2 9 Apr 1998 18 Jun 1998 27 Aug 1998ENVISAT 15528 16530ENVISAT 17532 *ENVISATENVISAT 12 Feb 2004 5 637.29 Aug 2004 9 159.16 Sep 2004 14 Oct 2004 10217 12722 13223 13724 330.509 0.000 ERS2ERS2ERS2 14 Jan 1999 29 Apr 1999 3ENVISAT Jun 1999 19536 21039 22 Apr 2004 21540 137.424 11219 394.86 MissionsERS1ERS1 Acquisition Date 28 Jun 1995 20 Dec Orbit 1995ERS2 20672 23177 B 4 Apr 1996 615.44 05007 ENVISAT 27 May 2004 11720 ERS1ERS1ERS1ERS1ERS2ERS2ERS2 28 Feb 1996 3ERS2 Apr 1996 8ERS2 May 1996 20ERS2 Oct 1999 29ERS2 Jun 1995 21ERS2 Dec 1995 24179 29 Feb 1996 24680 25181 9 May 1996 43217 20 Mar 1997 00999 29 May 1997 03504 7 Aug 1997 04506 25ERS2 Dec 1997ERS2 05508 ENVISAT 10017ENVISAT 11019 760.036 ENVISAT 12021 14025 21 Oct 1999 3 Apr 18 2003 May 2000 21 Aug 2003 292.54 156.3.97 8 Jan 2004 276.35 23544 26550 05708 07712 07712 125.55 601.616 281.569 866.89 Master image (IPTA technique). Location of the study area and geological map of the Larissa region as modified . Normal faults are digitized according to Caputo et al. (1993, 2005). Datasets of ERS-1/2 SAR images (Ascending Track 143, Frame 785) and ENVISAT Figure 1. (a) ASAR SAR images (Ascending Track 143, Frame 783) used in the processing. Table 1. actors/1337 Sources of the Landsat images: USGS from IGME – Greek Institute of Geology and MineralTM Exploration image of Larissa and its vicinities. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Fluctuations of groundwater (a) Average precipitation and groundwa- (b) 4760 4759 Monthly precipitations (point symbols) and the year-wise averages and medians of Hydrographical time series data from the study area. level for borehole SR72 during the period 1992–2010. Figure 3. ter levels of selected months during the period 1992–2010. Figure 2. monthly precipitations for thestation period which 1992–2010. is The operated by data the is Hellenic from national the meteorological service Larissa HNMS. meteorological Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | for visualization Representing the 1 − (a) The period from 2 August (b) 0.1 m year ± 4762 4761 Average LOS velocity image along the runway and areas of Larissa National Airport Two conventional InSAR interferogram images of the study area. Figure 4. 1998 to 6 Septemberborehole 1998 well within SR72 is the shown descending with track white 279. point. The position of the groundwater purposes. The numbered persistentlyzed scatterers to with evaluate cyan time colorwhite series point have of is been ground the extracted borehole deformation. and R72. Background ana- is base map world imagery for the period 1995 to 2006. The image has been saturated at Figure 5. period from 28 February 1996 to 3 April 1996 within the track 143. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Corresponding to monthly (a) 4763 Corresponding to groundwater level of borehole SR72. Displacement time (b) LOS Displacemnt of three candidate points of PSI. precipitation. series of point candidates are rescaled to the first acquisition (i.e. 28 June 1995). Figure 6.