Secondary Schools and Inequality: Navigating the Fragmented Landscape of Educational Choices in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

CAP Paper 214, January 2019

Aigoul Abdoubaetova researches the growing gap and fragmentation of schools. in educational opportunities in Kyrgyzstan. She is The paper sets out to answer the following specific questions: Programme Manager of the MA in Politics and Security at the OSCE Academy in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, and has 1. How do parents in Bishkek over nine years of professional experience working in navigate the fragmented landscape of the second- higher education administration. Previously, Aigoul ary education system and worked for a number of non-profit organizations choose schools for their specializing in the areas of youth, international adoption, children? and other social issues. She holds an MA in International 2. To what degree do parents’ educational choices reflect Studies from the University of Oregon and a BA in and reinforce growing so- Foreign Languages from Osh State University. cio-economic inequality in s of 2018, Kyrgyzstan’s that used to be a Soviet republic a society that is undergo- GDP per capita was where citizens had more or less ing significant transforma- Areported to be $1,221.1 equal status and equal access to tions? Yet the cost of tuition at some high-quality public education. private schools in the capital city, To answer these questions, we Bishkek, tells a very different Over the past two decades, sec- employed a combination of qual- story: annual tuition is $23,800 ondary educational opportu- itative and quantitative methods. at the QSI International School,2 nities in Bishkek have become Our main group of informants in- $14,155 at the ESCA Bishkek more diversified, due both to cluded parents of schoolchildren International School, $13,000 at the growing number and vari- aged 7-17 who attend public and the Oxford International School, ety of private schools and to the private schools in Bishkek. Reli- and $11,000 at the Cambridge division of public schools into gious private schools were not in- Silk Road International School.3 different categories depending cluded in the study. We surveyed Parents of students at these schools on the quality of education they 115 parents using a questionnaire pay between 3.5 and 7.5 times the offer. This paper explores grow- and supplemented this with 22 average yearly salary on educa- ing inequality in accessing and in-depth interviews. The survey tion alone. These numbers are obtaining secondary education included questions on parents’ illustrative of growing socio-eco- in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in the motivations and strategies for nomic inequality in a country context of this diversification choosing their children’s schools,

CAP Fellows Paper 214 1 Figure 1. Number of private schools in Kyrgyzstan

Source: National Statistical Committee level of satisfaction with their schools. Overview choices, alternative/complemen- tary ways of acquiring knowledge, In addition, we interviewed the Private schools emerged in Kyr- and their child’s post-secondary principals or top administrators gyzstan in the mid-1990s as a re- plans. of eight private schools in or- sult of neoliberal reforms. Figure der to gain greater insight into 1 shows the growth in the number Of the 115 parents who partici- the work of private schools. The of private schools in post-Soviet pated in the survey, 79 percent sample included high- and me- Bishkek: from 19 (1 percent of all had children in public schools, dium-cost private schools. Final- schools) in 1995 to 114 (5 percent) 19 percent in private schools, ly, we conducted interviews with in 2017. The number of students and 2 percent in both. These 115 twelve experts in the field of ed- who attend these schools has risen parents completed surveys about ucation, who provided analytical from 0.3 percent to 2.5 percent of the educations of 175 children (87 insights into our research ques- all students.4 More recent sourc- boys and 88 girls). The majority tions. We also drew on private es state that there are now 187 of parents who participated in the schools’ websites and social me- private schools in the country,5 survey were women (95 percent). dia pages, as well as online news most of which are located in Bish- Most of them had higher educa- sources about schools and online kek. While older private schools tion degrees (78 percent). Twen- forums for parents. in Bishkek were often established ty-eight percent of informants in the buildings of former kin- lived in the city center, 47 percent The paper proceeds as follows. dergartens and other municipal in the residential micro-districts, First, it provides an overview of buildings, in recent years several and 25 percent in the urban pe- the state of secondary education new, elite-style private schools riphery. Sixty-seven percent of in Bishkek and classifies existing have been constructed. These participants indicated that that school choices. Next, it explores new elite schools are located in they had an average income, 25 parental motivations and strate- the southern part of Bishkek, percent higher than average, 2 gies in choosing schools, before where many of the city’s wealthy percent high, 2 percent lower engaging in the wider debate and privileged families live. than average, and only 1 percent about the link between education very low. Of the 22 parents inter- choices and inequality. Finally, it Private schools in Bishkek are viewed, 13 sent their children to draws conclusions and provides very heterogeneous, with a di- public schools and 9 to private recommendations. verse mix of prices and services.6

CAP Fellows Paper 214 2 Many of them have excellent in- Due to high internal migration to schools in Bishkek—but only two frastructure and facilities, small the capital city and urban popu- state schools are built per year.9 It class sizes, and better-paid teach- lation growth in general, public has become common practice for ers (see Figures 2 and 3). schools in Bishkek have become first-graders to start their school extremely overcrowded.8 Accord- year in classes exceeding 40, and The boom in private schools is ing to Chinara Isakova, Bish- in some cases even 50, students10 occurring in the context of acute kek’s 97 schools currently have a (see Figure 4). This problem is shortages and the deteriorating 76,500-student capacity, but the mostly observed in Bishkek and quality of public schools. So far, actual number of students is dou- Chui region.11 Due to overcrowd- very little has been done by the ble that. The number of school ing, 1,657 of Kyrgyzstan’s 2,262 state to address the myriad issues students is growing by around public schools have two shifts facing public schools: the declin- 10,000 students per year, most- and 159 elementary schools have ing quality of education, the short- ly concentrated at the elemen- a flexible schedule. age of qualified teachers, and the tary level. Evidently, therefore, poor maintenance of buildings.7 there is a serious need for more Obviously, in such large class-

Figures 2 and 3. Classrooms in the Cambridge Silk Road International School and Oxford International School

Source: “Gid Kaktus. Chastnye shkoly Bishkeka. Usloviia i tseny,” Kaktus Media, May 25, 2018, https://kaktus.media/doc/338956_gid_kaktus._chastnye_shko- ly_bishkeka._ysloviia_i_ceny.html Figure 4. Overcrowded classes in a public school in a novostroika in the Muras Ordo housing development, Bishkek

Source: “Shkoly Bishkeka. Po chetyre uchenika za partoi,” Azzatyk, May 24, 2014, https://rus.azattyk.org/a/26568113/ p2.html CAP Fellows Paper 214 3 Figure 5 and 6. The deteriorating state of School #44 in Bishkek

Source: “Zdanie shkoly 44 v Bishkeke nakhoditsia v avariinom sostoianii,” Reporter Akipress, March 26, 2014, https://reporter. akipress.org/print:28010. es, students do not get enough Yet the outlook for public schools rize them in a table. attention from teachers. This is not altogether bleak. There are is compounded by the fact that a few high-performing “elite” The first category of private the average monthly salary of a public schools (gymnasiums and schools includes elite interna- schoolteacher is 1.3 times lower lyceums) that achieve top results tional private schools with tuition than the national average, with on the NST,15 a national mer- fees above $10,000 per year: QSI the result that few people are it-based selection system that International, Cambridge Silk interested in becoming teach- tests the knowledge and skills Road International, ESCA Bish- ers and existing teachers end up of secondary school graduates kek International, and Oxford In- weighed down by ever heavier applying for government schol- ternational. These schools boast teaching loads. arships to local universities.16 international accreditation and High-performing elite public international curricula different Infrastructure is another issue. schools are seen as prestigious from the curriculum approved by Having mostly been built in the and are difficult to get into. Even the Kyrgyz Ministry of Education Soviet period, these schools are families that can afford to send and Science. All classes are taught now in need of serious renova- their children to private schools in English, primarily by internation (see Figures 5 and 6), yet may prefer these schools because tional faculty but also by local fac- the annual budget that a public of their reputations and excellent ulty with solid English language school receives from the Min- academic outcomes. skills. These schools have excel- istry of Education and Science lent infrastructure, facilities, and for such purposes is extreme- Landscape of Secondary security, as well as small class siz- ly low: 20,000 soms ($285).12 Educational Opportunities es. They are licensed by the Minis- Many schools are thus forced in Bishkek try of Education and Science, and to collect money from parents13 by taking some additional cours- or continue functioning in poor Based on our analysis and pub- es, students can also gain a local physical conditions. The Bulan licly available information, we high school certificate. However, Institute for Peace Innovations have classified secondary school the primary goal of these schools recently sent an official letter to opportunities into six main cat- is to prepare students to apply to President Jeenbekov highlight- egories: three types of private colleges abroad; some students ing these issues and warning that schools (based on tuition costs), have been admitted even to some the secondary education system two types of public schools, and of the world’s top-ranked univer- could collapse completely in the private tutoring/private learning sities. These schools can there- coming 10-15 years.14 centers. In this section, we dis- fore be described as preparing cuss each category and summa- students “for export.” Many of

CAP Fellows Paper 214 4 their students do not take part tify their high tuition costs. With additional fee. Unlike in the first in the National Scholarship Test- the exception of the Silk Road In- two categories, where some of the ing (NST) required for admission ternational School, which teach- co-owners or top management to local universities:17 if parents es in English, the language of are foreign citizens, the owners of can afford to pay $10-25,000 for instruction of the schools in this these private schools are mostly schools in Kyrgyzstan, they can category is Russian or Kyrgyz. locals. Some schools—like Ilim, also afford to pay for universities However, all of them claim that Kelechek, Zvezdochka, and Evri- in Europe and the US. It is only some subjects are taught in En- ka—are better known than oth- obvious that upon graduation glish or that they generally place ers; they have been in the educa- from such universities, these stu- a heavier emphasis on English. tion market longer and have an dents are going to have expand- While some of them successfully established clientele. The average ed life and career opportunities. prepare students to study abroad, tuition cost is around $2,500 per Local students study in these they do not have internation- year. The Bilimkana school chain, schools alongside the children of al accreditation. These schools which was established only a few expats: their share of local stu- are successful in preparing their years ago but is quickly becoming dents at Cambridge Silk Road graduates to enter prestigious lo- popular, also belongs to this cate- International, ESCA Bishkek In- cal universities and build success- gory. We also include here some ternational, and Oxford Inter- ful local careers. Several of them lesser-known or smaller private national ranges from 40 percent see preparing the future elite of schools with relatively inexpen- to 80 percent, but they comprise Kyrgyzstan as part of their larger sive tuition ranging from $500 just 10 percent of the student educational mission. Local stu- to $800 per year. Some of them body of QSI International.18 dents constitute the vast majority are located on university campus- of these schools’ student bodies. es. The price goes down for those The second category of private schools where the school day is schools is those with annual tu- The third category contains a lon- only half a day and where tuition ition costs between $3,000 and ger list of various schools where excludes food expenses. $7,000. Schools in this category the cost of education is below include Turkish private schools $3,000 per year. These schools The fourth category is public such as the Silk Road Interna- are not necessarily known for schools, mostly gymnasiums and tional School and Turkish private high-quality teaching or for the lyceums, whose students achieve lyceums that belong to the Sa- high performance of their stu- a high level of academic perfor- pat International Education In- dents. Only occasionally do their mance. They can be described as stitution. Sapat private lyceums names appear among the Gold the “top 10,” “top 5,” or “top 3,” have established a reputation as Certificate winners on NST. Yet depending on who ranks them. high-quality schools.19 They are they still attract students, as they These are schools whose students known for achieving very high offer better facilities, better secu- get high NST scores and win var- results on the NST and in various rity, and smaller class sizes than ious kinds of knowledge-based knowledge-based competitions state schools, as well as a stu- competitions. However, there is (Olympiads). The Silk Road In- dent-friendly environment. Send- a hierarchy even within this cat- ternational School, for its part, is ing children to private schools, egory: three Bishkek schools con- known for being one of the oldest including those in this category, tinuously top the national school English-language private schools is very convenient for parents rankings for academic perfor- in the country and for charging who can afford the tuition: chil- mance. On a scale from 0 to 100, much less than other interna- dren are safe, they are fed and School #61’s score is 91, School tional schools. Other schools in cared for all day, and they come #70’s is 88, and School #69’s is this price range, such as Bilimka- home having completed their 76, while the average score for the na-AUCA High School, Bilimka- homework. Extra services such rest of the schools in the top 20 is na-European School, and Erudit, as transportation to and from only 40.20 Such schools maintain being relatively new, have yet to school and some extracurricular their reputations by attracting earn reputations that would jus- activities can be arranged for an the most qualified teachers and

CAP Fellows Paper 214 5 imposing harsh study discipline, The majority of schools fall into facilities specifically designated heavy study loads, and competi- our fifth category: public schools for this purpose. The most popu- tive selection. If students do not with average or poor perfor- lar subjects are English and other perform to the expected stan- mance. These schools generally foreign languages, but tutors are dard, they are either expelled or lack qualified teachers, produce also increasingly engaged for tra- leave voluntarily, unable to cope poor NST results, have two or ditional school subjects such as with the heavy workload. Among even three daily shifts, and have math or Kyrgyz and Russian lan- the top three, School #61 stands poorly maintained facilities. It is guages. Such courses help chil- out: since the launch of the NST surprising that the achievement dren catch up if they lag behind in 2003, 215 students from this gap is so wide, considering that in school or else learn something school have received Gold Cer- all public schools and many pri- that is not on the curriculum.23 tificates, meaning that one-third vate schools follow the same cur- They offer flexible hours and a of all Gold Certificate winners riculum. more or less standard set of pric- nationally have attended this es, which differ for individual and school.21 These schools are in Finally, we look at private tutor- group classes. Nowadays, such high demand by parents despite ing and private learning centers, tutoring practices and private ed- the fact that their classes are both as an important secondary ucational centers have become so overcrowded and children study education component and as an popular that it is almost impossi- in two shifts. Their students have individual category. Such services ble to imagine secondary school high chances of entering local are sometimes provided by teach- education without them. universities, universities in Rus- ers in schools, but most often they sia, and even some foreign uni- are offered outside the school versities on the basis of merit.22 system, in people’s homes or in

Table 1. Secondary educational opportunities in Bishkek

1. Top elite international private schools: a. Tuition – $10-25,000 b. Preparing students “for export”: international accreditation, all subjects taught in English c. International teachers, excellent facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly atmosphere 2. Higher-fee private schools: a. Tuition – $3-5,000 b. Excellent prospects of entering top universities in Kyrgyzstan c. Qualified and well-paid teachers, good facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly 3. Medium and lower-fee private schools: a. Tuition—under $3,000; b. Financial (not always merit-based) opportunities for entering good universities c. Select teachers, decent facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly atmosphere 4. High-performing public schools: a.Free; collection of fees from parents for school needs—$100-200 per year (estimated average) b.Merit-based opportunities to enter good universities c.Select teachers, average facilities, no security, large class sizes, harsh discipline, selective admission 5. Public schools with average and low academic performance: a. Free; collection of fees from parents for school needs—$50-80 a year (estimated average) b. Limited prospects (both merit-based and financial) of entering good universities c. Underpaid teachers with heavy loads, average or poor facilities, no security, large class sizes 6. After-school private tutoring and private learning centers: a. $2-4 per hour or $80-150 per month to attend group sessions (3-4 times a week) b. Flexible schedules and payment schemes; targeted choice of subjects

CAP Fellows Paper 214 6 Figure 7. Parents’ reasons for choosing a private school

Table 1 summarizes the main cent of parents were swayed by than a minute of attention from characteristics of all six educa- a perception that private schools the teacher. By contrast, classes tional categories, listing their av- had better attitudes toward chil- in private schools are generally erage costs. dren. Good infrastructure (55 small; student numbers range percent), highly qualified teach- from 10 to 25.24 In choosing pri- Parents’ Motivations and ers (41 percent), English lan- vate schools, parents expect clos- Strategies for Making School guage education (41 percent), a er teacher-student interaction Choices specialized program (41 percent), and a more individualized ap- and security (36 percent) were proach. Parents interpret small Having sketched the landscape also important. class sizes as an important factor of educational choices parents in that contributes to the quality of Bishkek have for their children, In the following subsections, we learning. we turn to explore their motiva- unpack these and other motivations and strategies when navi- tions by interweaving the survey Some parents were very con- gating this landscape. We distin- results with analysis of our in- cerned about their child’s health guish between the motivations terviews with parents, school ad- and wellbeing in overcrowded and strategies for choosing pri- ministrators, and experts. classes. One parent, whose child vate and public schools. attends one of the high-perform- Small Class Sizes, Better Condi- ing public schools in Bishkek, Private Schools tions, and Better Treatment of expressed a wish to move her Children daughter to a private school so The survey results shown in Fig- that she would have better study ure 7 highlight parents’ most One major factor motivating par- conditions: commonly mentioned motiva- ents to consider private school tions for choosing private schools. for their children is the size of I am satisfied with the quality of ed- Small class sizes (73 percent) was classes. In many public schools, ucation that our school provides and the leading motivating factor, fol- classes are extremely overcrowd- the teachers are very qualified. How- lowed by quality of education and ed: several informants indicat- ever, if I had more money, I would transfer my daughter to private all-day child care, each of which ed that in a 45-minute lesson, school because of the small class siz- scored 68 percent. Sixty-six per- the average child receives less es and good conditions. There are 47

CAP Fellows Paper 214 7 children in my daughter’s classroom nize after-school activities, such years have parents started to col- which was designed to fit 25. There is as language courses, sports, mu- lect money to hire security guards a 40 cm gap between the blackboard sic, arts, and other interest-based or install camera surveillance at and the desk in the first row, so the clubs, on the school premises, as public schools. Even then, pri- child who has to sit at that desk is well as reserving time for com- vate schools guarantee children’s the most miserable, because he/she pleting homework. Schools orga- security far better than public sits too close to the blackboard. In schools, respondents noted: winter, when the heater is on, there nize transportation to and from is not enough air in the classroom. school, which can save parents Private schools are more expensive, It’s the same on hot summer days. time during rush hour. This ap- but you are paying not for education Because of the high number of chil- proach is convenient for families, but for security. There are 16 people dren, school happens in two shifts. particularly in households where in the class and you know that no one The school cafeteria stops working at both parents work. An expert on will hurt your child (Parent, private 4 pm and the child who is at school education articulates this in the school). until 7 pm often goes hungry (Parent, following way: public school #26). An education expert echoed this For some parents, especially of view: A few parents, often who had children in elementary school, it is lived abroad or had been exposed convenient that their child is cared I think if parents could afford it, to Western-style education, were for during the day because they are many would send their children to at work. He eats there, rests, does very critical of the teaching meth- private schools just to make sure the homework. This takes a certain ods and communication style of child is looked after. This is especial- amount of pressure off parents (Ex- teachers in public schools. They ly important in the case of the secu- pert, Ministry of Education). took a negative view of the top- rity of teenagers, including informa- down and authoritarian style of tional security. Parents do not worry interacting with students, com- As many public schools in Bish- and their children are in a secure paring it to the old Soviet style kek are underfunded and over- environment until they pick them up with its harsh disciplinary meth- crowded, they work in two shifts (Expert, Ministry of Education). ods. For them, private schools of- and do not have the means or fa- fered an escape from the conser- cilities to organize afterschool ac- Thus, another motivation driv- vative style of teaching in public tivities. This creates a burden on ing parents to choose private schools, promising better treat- working parents, who tradition- schools is this “all-day childcare” ment of children and a more lib- ally reach out to grandparents or approach, which helps minimize eral and relaxed learning atmo- other extended family members parents’ daily chores and ensure sphere. As one parent explained: for help with childrearing. How- their children’s safety. ever, this option is not available If I were to choose between two evils, to everyone. Many residents of International Private Schools I would choose private schools be- Bishkek come from various parts and English as a Means of Enter- cause at least they offer some relief, of the country and leave their el- ing Universities Abroad including better teaching and com- derly parents and extended fam- munication methods (Parent, private ilies behind. Working parents The cost of a private school rises school). therefore seek alternative help sharply if it offers a curriculum with child rearing, either hiring taught solely in English and has All-Day Child Care Services nannies, relying on local rela- international accreditation. Inter- tives, or choosing private schools. views with school administrators Most private schools in Bishkek In Kyrgyzstan, children’s and analysis of graduates’ pro- provide all-day child care ser- safety at school has been a prob- files revealed that these schools vices. The school day in a private lem for many years. There have are heavily oriented toward pre- school lasts from 8 am to 5 or 6 been many reported cases of vi- paring children to study abroad. pm. Schools provide breakfast, olence among high school chil- Having native English speakers lunch, snacks, and in some cases dren, as well as of school rack- as teachers, an international cur- an early dinner. They also orga- eteering.25 Only in very recent CAP Fellows Paper 214 8 riculum, and college counselors take international exams such performance by the same stan- who prepare applications to for- as the SAT, TOEFL, and IELTS, dards under which foreign uni- eign universities all mean that which are required for entrance versities’ students gain admission these students have more oppor- to universities in the West. rather than on the number of tunities to access the global edu- Gold Certificates or local Olympi- cation system than their peers at When it comes to private schools ads. The latter, according to him, other schools. These schools can with a local curriculum and in- are local and trivial matters. also organize trips to European struction in Russian, it becomes and U.S. universities (at parents’ less clear how successful they are Turkish Boarding Schools: Qual- expense) to spark students’ inter- at preparing children for educa- ity and Added Value est in studying abroad. tion abroad. Most of them allo- cate more hours to studying En- Many Turkish private schools in However, some parents and ex- glish than public schools and use Kyrgyzstan belong to the Sapat perts raised questions about the English as one of their main mar- International Education Institu- quality of this education for its keting strategies. Some of them tion system, which currently has high cost. One expert said: also organize study tours to Eu- two international schools, 16 ly- rope or the US for an extra fee. An ceums (boarding schools), and As far as I know, in most private interview with a representative of four primary schools in the coun- schools where the cost is very high, the Sapat lyceum (Sapat Inter- try.26 Both international schools, the emphasis is on infrastructure, national Education Institution) two of the boarding schools, and good conditions, and English-speak- administration revealed that the three of the primary schools are ing teachers. But I have reservations chain has big ambitions to send located in Bishkek. Sapat private regarding the qualifications of teachers at these schools. Look at the re- students to foreign universities in schools are known for their qual- sults of republican Olympiads and the coming years: ity, proof of which can be seen Gold Certificates. Among them you in the number of international will not find representatives of these This year, out of 750, about 350-400 and local competitions their pu- elite schools, except for the Kyr- students went abroad. Fifty went on pils have won and the number gyz-Turkish Lyceums (Expert, edu- full scholarships to universities that of Gold Certificates that students cation agency). are included in the world’s top 100. have received over the years. In We achieved this goal in just two addition to quality, other motiva- Interviews with representatives years. Our plan for next year is to increase this number to 100. They tions prompted parents to choose of some of the elite internation- took 25 students to Hong Kong. They these schools: they instill moral al schools suggest that their stu- have eight universities and five of values and encourage an upright dents do not achieve high NST them are in the top 100. All 25 [stu- lifestyle. Students of the Turk- results for three reasons. The first dents] received scholarships. Tuition ish schools are often described is language limitations: NST and costs $25,000-35,000 (Representa- as well-bred, hardworking, hon- local competition are conduct- tive of Sapat International Education est, and self-disciplined.27 While ed in Russian or Kyrgyz, while Institution). the curriculum does not contain these schools’ students study in religious education per se, they English. The second is that many The same representative of the try to school children in Islamic local students of international Sapat school chain was critical of ethics within a universal moral schools do not plan to apply to the local system of rating schools framework; values such as re- local universities: by the time the based on the NST, pointing to a spect for parents and the elderly, NST comes around, they have of- number of flaws in that approach. tolerance, compassion, altruism, ten already received admission He suggested that Kyrgyzstan brotherhood/sisterhood, etc., are letters from universities abroad. should shift to thinking more important components of Sapat Third, the children of foreign citi- globally and rely on internation- education. A representative of a zens and expatriates who study in al ratings, such as the Program Turkish school administration these schools are not interested for International Student Assess- confirmed: in taking the NST. Instead, they ment (PISA), evaluating schools’

CAP Fellows Paper 214 9 Our philosophy is to provide two said that whereas previously par- quently travel abroad. They need things: quality education and proper ents sent their children to a mol- someone who can take care of [their upbringing. These two things cannot do (an Islamic school), they now children]. Parents may not always be separated from each other (Rep- send them to Turkish schools. be interested only in the quality of resentative, Turkish private school). education or school results. So our school, besides education, is also A representative of the girls’ lyce- A parent whose child attends taking care of children and filling this um shared that boarding schools one of the Turkish elite private social gap that we have in our society like his have become popular not schools commented: (Representative, Turkish boarding just because of education, but school). also due to social/family circum- The reason why I gave my son to the school is English, but the ethics of stances. He explained that girls Private Schools as Social Curren- the school were equally important to who live with stepfathers are fre- cy me (Parent, private school). quently sent to boarding schools. He also discussed the role of mi- In choosing schools, parents pri- According to this parent, Turkish gration. Boarding schools, espe- marily rely on the opinions of boarding schools are much more cially in the south, have become their social networks: friends, effective at promoting important popular among migrant fami- relatives, or colleagues. Accord- values than non-boarding Turkish lies who live in Russia. Hous- ing to the survey, 76 percent of schools because their pupils have ing prices are too high in Russia all parents surveyed rely on the less contact with outsiders. Sapat to allow the entire family to live recommendations or reviews of boarding schools are segregated properly, and often both parents friends and relatives in finding by gender in the upper-middle are labor migrants. It has thus information about schools (see grades and high school students become common practice among Figure 8). usually live at school during the migrants in Russia to leave their week, going home for weekends. children behind in Kyrgyzstan Because private schools are rel- Teachers in boarding schools with grandparents or other rela- atively new and it is not easy to therefore have more control over tives. For these families, private obtain information about their the behavior of their students. boarding schools have become a results and performance, par- Often, boys and girls are sent to good option, giving children edu- ents normally seek suggestions Turkish boarding schools during cation as well as needed care: from people in their social circles. their teenage years specifically for We find that parents are more these reasons. One respondent Lots of parents work abroad or fre- likely to send their children to a

Figure 8. Sources of information used by parents to choose a school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 10 Figure 9. Parents’ reasons for choosing a public school

particular private school if other vate schools serve as social cur- School Location parents in their social circle send rency for parents. their children there and assess In line with the survey results, in- their experience positively. Public Schools terviews confirmed that the most significant factor in choosing Interestingly, such sharing of When it comes to parents’ mo- public schools is their proximi- their experiences in obtaining tivations for choosing public ty. Parents choose public schools private secondary education can schools, the survey results reveal because they are located in the also reinforce status competition a completely different picture. neighborhood or close to where among parents: if some families The figure below details the most parents work. In the Soviet era, send their children to a presti- commonly mentioned reasons Bishkek schools were planned in gious school, others also feel so- for choosing a public school. The such a way as to be walking dis- cial pressure to do so. One parent majority (68 percent) indicated tance from any place of residence. whose child attends the Silk Road that the proximity of the school This is still the case in the cen- International School told the sto- was a major motivation, while 52 tral parts of the city and in some ry of how, when a more expensive percent said that their choice was micro-districts, while access to branch of the same school was determined for them by the dis- schools is more complicated in opened, wealthier parents moved trict in which they reside. Only 33 the new residential areas on the their children there, even though, percent indicated that the quality urban periphery. For families according to her, there was no of the education was a motivating that live within walking distance difference between the curricu- factor, and all other factors were of a public school, it is a very con- la of these two schools. Parents significantly less relevant. venient choice. send their children to more expensive schools to be “on trend” We now turn to analyze the most Parents in Bishkek can send their and “keep up with the Joneses.” significant reasons why parents children to the schools in their We suggest that by sending chil- chose public schools, using both district or else try to place children to private schools, parents survey and interview results. dren in the schools of their choice implicitly seek to showcase their in other districts. Our informants social status. In this sense, pri- who send their children to pub-

CAP Fellows Paper 214 11 lic schools were divided between courses, and a heavier workload. ematics and I want him to devel- those who used neighborhood The cost of these extra courses is op these skills further (Parent, schools and those who bypassed partly covered by the Ministry of public school # 61). this system in search of bet- Education. The school principal’s ter-quality schools. Among those ability to raise extra funding from Because admission to these who chose neighborhood schools, parents and other sponsors helps high-performing schools is com- proximity was the single most im- these schools retain good-quality petitive, securing a place for a portant factor influencing their teachers. This, coupled with se- child requires certain skills and decision. When asked about their lective admission policies, leads commitment from parents, such reasons for choosing their school, to a differentiation in education as early planning, preparation, one parent said this: quality and outcomes between hiring tutors, etc. One parent lyceums/gymnasiums and aver- shared her experience of how be- I did not go and check out other age schools.28 In Bishkek, some ing strategic and preparing well schools. This school is located close lyceums/gymnasiums are pop- in advance helped her to prepare to us, so I chose it. I don’t know how ular and in high demand due to her children for the high-per- it is different from other schools their higher NST scores, which forming school #61: (Parent, public school # 87). increase students’ chances of entering more prestigious local uni- I would prepare both my kids at home Sticking to a neighborhood school versities. after they came home from kinder- was also influenced by a lack of garten. They could read at the age of the resources associated with at- The search for high-quality edu- 4. I taught them math. I researched what schools are good, where they are tending better ones, which would cation was one of the major fac- require extra cost and effort. One located, what they teach. I planned tors that influenced parents to ahead, thinking about which school parent explained her experience choose such high-performing ly- with it in this way: to choose. I developed my own rating ceums/gymnasiums. Those who by asking parents about the schools lived in poorer new settlements their kids attend. I asked questions I have five children; four of them go in Bishkek and those who had no about which schools were the best. to school. Before, two of them used And then based on my personal rat- to go to a gymnasium. After they choice but send their children to ing, I decided that my kids should finished elementary school, I had to low-performing neighborhood go to school #61. And then we start- transfer them to School #88 near our schools complained that schools ed preparing for admission (Parent, place of residence. The reason for were extremely overcrowded and this is that we would spend money understaffed, with a very high public school # 61). on transportation and it would also rate of teacher turnover. Parents require an adult to take them and who were able to place their chil- In choosing a similar type of bring them back. And that school dren in high-performing public school, another parent consid- would require more money for reno- schools mentioned qualified and ered a combination of factors. vation and we would pay more mon- committed teachers, the school’s First, she shortlisted the top three ey. So we have transferred them to schools: schools #70, #61 and the neighborhood school. You pay specialized curriculum, discipline, high NST scores, and the #26. She recognized that school less for school fees here. It is only #61 was the highest quality of all one stop away. The children walk to number of competitions won by but considered her children to school (Parent, public school # 88). the students as important factors in their decision. When asked be better at humanities than at mathematics, and after consid- Quality of Education about her motivation, one mother said the following: ering the schools’ locations chose school #26. Although their neigh- After the collapse of the Soviet borhood school was also consid- Union, some schools were restruc- First, this school is very strong ered not bad, she decided to go tured into lyceums and gymnasi- and my child will get a good ed- with school #26 because it had ums. These differ from ordinary ucation not only in physics and much higher ratings. Additional- schools in that they have a more mathematics, but also in all other ly, she found out from her social specialized curriculum, extra subjects. My son is good at math-

CAP Fellows Paper 214 12 circles that the principal of school expert reminded us that despite urban families in Bishkek. After- #26 had a good reputation and the presence of elite internation- school time can also be used to at- made sure that the admissions al private schools in Bishkek, tend various interest-based clubs, process was transparent and for many residents, the dream such as dancing, drawing, sports, based on merit. She hired private schools remain the “elite” public chess, etc. tutors and successfully prepared schools, such as #61, #13, and her child for the entrance exam- #6, attendance at which has been Many use these free hours to fill ination. seen as a status symbol since So- the gaps in the public education viet times. He mentioned that un- system in certain core subjects by One common feature of par- til very recently, it was common attending private lessons. Private ents who sent their children to to have to pay large bribes to be tutoring has become very pop- high-performing public schools admitted to these public schools. ular among students of all types was that parents were themselves Higher, unofficial parental fees of schools, but more so in public educated and interested in their paid to gain admission to these schools (36 percent of students) children’s development. They schools help explain why very than in private ones (23 percent) were very resourceful and well-in- poor parents cannot send their (see Figure 10). However, more formed about schools in Bishkek, children there.29 private school students attended their ratings and performance, educational centers (41 percent) using their social and profes- Flexible Afterschool Time than did their counterparts in sional networks to find out infor- public schools (30 percent). One mation. Most importantly, they Attending public schools general- way to explain this is that stu- knew how to get their children ly takes only half a day, in contrast dents in public schools want ex- into these schools: they actively to the full day at many private tra help with core subjects such encouraged and motivated their schools. Children are therefore as math and English, and there- children to study. Many used the left with ample afterschool time fore seek out private tutors, while services of private tutors, while to do homework, tutoring, and private school students tend to be others prepared children at home various extra-curricular activi- enrolled in extracurricular classes themselves, investing their own ties. Some parents indicated that for sports, music, arts, etc., which time and energy and using their that the advantage of a public are more often group-based. own knowledge and skills. school is that their child can at- More students in public schools tend the Shubin music school, received family help with home- In an interview, an education which is popular among many work (59 percent) than students

Figure 10. Strategies for obtaining additional knowledge outside the school curriculum, by type of school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 13 Figure 11. Choice of private vs. public school, by income

in private schools (36 percent), live in new settlements. public school children do not have as many private schools provide these skills. So this is a big disadvan- homework support at school. While private tutoring is not tage of public schools if you want to cheap, it can actually offer cost send your kid abroad. You have to Survey results showed that math savings to middle-income fam- get additional help in this (Parent, public school # 6). and languages, especially En- ilies. Some such families find glish, are the most popular sub- it more strategic to send their Preparing Children for “Real jects. One expert described the child to a high-performing pub- Life” popularity of the private tutoring lic school and compensate for the business in Bishkek this way: missing knowledge through pri- Some parents find that public vate tutoring. For example, learn- schools allow children to grow I know very few schools where kids ing English privately is much less up in the authentic social envi- do not go to private tutors. Even the costly than attending an interna- ronment of Bishkek and better majority of kids in elite gymnasiums tional private school. One parent, prepare them for real life. Many also go to private tutoring. Money while convinced that high-per- flows there (Expert, consultant on parents who chose public schools forming public schools provide education). were critical of the conditions in quality education, noted the ad- private schools, considering them vantage of private schools when it However, location and distance too protective and nurturing and comes to English. For her, hiring are important. Parents who lived noting that children socialize a private tutor was the solution: on the outskirts of Bishkek com- mainly with others from similar plained about the lack of access social backgrounds. One expert I have seen how well children from shared the following opinion: to good tutoring centers in their international schools speak English. area. The majority of private ed- As far as I understand, they are no ucational centers and places to do different in terms of other subjects. Many parents consider that private extracurricular activities are lo- Of course, it is not bad, but why schools do not provide kids with the cated in the city center. This also would you overpay just for English? opportunity to become closely fa- contributes to the popularity of I need to hire a good tutor so that my miliar with life and make them less adaptable (Expert). such activities among long-term child can compete with them. These urban residents compared to schools also give academic writing Parents consider that public newcomers, who overwhelmingly skills. This is their big advantage; schools allow children to study

CAP Fellows Paper 214 14 with other children from diverse private schools, while public percent) than in public schools backgrounds and learn to social- school users are those who have (33 percent). The comparison of ize and survive. They see “real average incomes or are poor. parental satisfaction with their life,” take public transportation However, some families with choice of schools shows that par- to school, become more indepen- higher-than-average incomes ents from private schools were dent and more disciplined, and also use public schools. more satisfied—4.29 out of 5, thus grow up to be more prepared compared to 3.74 for parents of for the difficult life ahead. Inequality can also be identified children in public schools. The by comparing parents’ motiva- reasons for dissatisfaction were Discussion: Portrait of Edu- tions and strategies. For example, different for public and private cational Inequality location was the most important schools. The most common com- factor for parents of children in plaints about public schools in- In this final section, we try to un- public schools—69 percent, ver- cluded poorly qualified teachers, derstand how these choices are sus only 5 percent for parents overcrowded classes, bad treat- shaped by the kinds of resources of children in private schools. ment of children, a lack of books, parents have at their disposal. This suggests that children in and collection of money from This requires taking a hard look private schools are not limited parents for various school needs. at the issue of inequality, which by distance: their parents can Complaints in private schools we do first by comparing families’ take them across the city, usual- were more elaborate and related motivations and strategies and ly in their own cars, or they can to the quality of food, the quality then by categorizing families by afford to pay for transportation of education not being quite up to the different forms of capital they organized by schools. Mobility is expectations, and fear of the ex- employ in providing education thus connected to income. Mon- perimental character of private for their children. ey also allows parents of private schools and their innovative cur- school children to access privileg- ricula. Factors of Inequality es: small classes with proper conditions, a good diet, and better One of the most noticeable gaps The most obvious factor that re- treatment of children by teach- between the two types of schools flects inequality between public ers and staff. For families whose is revealed in the future plans and private school parents is in- children attend public schools, that parents envisioned for their come. Figure 11 confirms the ob- these were not mentioned as fac- children. Figure 12 shows these vious, showing a direct correla- tors in their choice. differences: only 10 percent of tion between income and choice parents of private school attend- of school. We see that parents The quality of education in pri- ees were interested in local uni- with higher incomes can afford vate schools was rated higher (68 versities, compared to 46 percent

Figure 12. Plans for children’s future, by type of school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 15 Figure 13. Study abroad plans, by income

of the parents of those attend- the situation is more complex; In the context of Kyrgyzstan, so- ing public schools; 81 percent of looking at educational inequali- cial relations and networks have parents of private school chil- ty only from the financial angle always been extremely import- dren indicated that their child does not tell the complete story. ant;31 indeed, tribal and family would study abroad, compared In the next section, we incorpo- networks are believed to be at to 20 percent of parents of public rate other forms of capital into the core of Kyrgyz politics.32 In school children. The top destina- the discussion. this research, we found that par- tion for obtaining post-secondary ents with wider social networks education was Europe, followed Three Forms of Capital and could access more information by the US and Russia. Categorization of Families on educational opportunities. It is through their social networks Besides a correlation between In order to see the full picture, we that they sort out which schools future plans and type of school, suggest looking at family resourc- are good and find out where to there is also a very strong posi- es by considering different forms find qualified teachers and tutors. tive correlation between future of capital: financial, social, and In some cases, having connec- plans and income. This is shown cultural (human). This approach, tions to school directors can even in Figure 13. pioneered by Bourdieu, has been secure a discount at a private explored by a number of other school or a place for a child in a Looking at all these figures and scholars. Non-financial forms of highly competitive school. comparisons, one could suggest capital—social and cultural—are a fairly straightforward correla- important resources that can con- Cultural capital refers to various tion here: those who have money tribute to people’s wellbeing.30 kinds of knowledge, skills, and in- have more opportunities both formation, including familiarity for private education and for Social capital usually implies var- with how institutions work, that education abroad, while those ious forms of social relations that result in positive outcomes for up- who lack money have fewer. Yet people can use to their benefit. ward mobility. It is a question of

CAP Fellows Paper 214 16 knowing the “rules of the game.”33 man capital are the ones at risk. construction, or other businesses. Parents, even when they do not Accordingly, we can distinguish Many of them came to Bishkek have much financial capital to in- several main categories of fami- from the regions and built their vest in an elite private school, are lies by reference to the resources fortunes by working hard over the still able to access high-quality they have for placing children in course of many years. Such “new education by sending their chil- schools. It is important to look at Kyrgyz” may not have strong ur- dren to high-performing public these categories as fairly abstract ban cultural capital and may have schools. Knowing the rules of the ones and bear in mind that many only a modest education and so- game helps them make strategic families belong to more than one cial background. But they do have decisions, such as preparing chil- category. Yet creating some form money, and depending on how dren ahead of time for admission of typology helps us visualize the successful their businesses are, to a competitive school or univer- nuances of inequality. We start they can afford different kinds of sity; taking advantage of various at the upper end in terms of re- private schools, from the cheap- extracurricular activities, such as sources. est to the most expensive. For music schools, drawing, choreog- representatives of this category, raphy, etc.; seeking out addition- Elite sending children to an expensive al learning opportunities through private school might be a matter private tutors; and being actively This category includes represen- of social prestige, while placing engaged in their children’s edu- tatives of the upper echelons of them in cheaper private schools cation, constantly motivating and Kyrgyz politicians: parliamenta- is a matter of convenience: kids directing them. ry deputies, upper-level minis- are well looked-after and parents try bureaucrats, representatives do not have to do homework with Parents’ education also helps. of the Presidential Office, and them. Many parents who grew up high-ranking professionals work- during the Soviet era, when lit- ing in international organiza- Urban Middle Class eracy was almost universal and tions. These are people who have schools and universities offered at least two (financial and social) This category includes long-term very high-quality education, pos- or even three (financial, social, city residents who themselves sess a very good knowledge of and cultural) forms of capital. grew up in Bishkek or consid- core school subjects. These par- These families can afford to send er themselves urbanites. Mem- ents might not have the money their children to international bers of this group have excellent to place their children in private English-language schools or else Russian language skills35 and ur- schools or the social connections oblige school principals to accept ban-style manners. Many of them to secure them places in presti- their children to these schools work as professionals in various gious public schools, yet they are for a lower fee (or no fee at all). fields, including the more or less quite well-educated themselves Parents in this category have the well-paid positions in interna- and they devote their own time to widest range of choices for their tional organizations. Some might studying with children. children. Down the hierarchy of have small businesses. Even official positions, the range of with higher-than-average sala- Thus, having a wide range of so- choices shrinks: lower-ranked of- ries, their incomes might not be cial connections and cultural cap- ficials might still have social and enough to afford private schools. ital can increase parents’ access cultural capital, but not necessar- The top choice for such parents is to schools and opportunities for ily financial capital. to place their children in the pres- obtaining knowledge.34 When tigious high-performing public we take into consideration these “New Kyrgyz” schools. To do so, they make the additional forms of capital, the best of their social, cultural, and portrait of educational inequality This category includes Kyr- human capital. We interviewed becomes more complex and nu- gyz businessmen who became parents who had graduated from anced. We see that those who do wealthy by engaging in cross-bor- such schools and whose children not have financial, social, or hu- der trade, the sewing industry, now attend the same schools. A

CAP Fellows Paper 214 17 feeling of belonging and person- holds, as these schools still collect the city. The only choice they have al connections with school prin- higher parental contributions is to send children to the neigh- cipals and teachers help them in than average schools. The low borhood schools. Unfortunately, this. Being well-educated them- status of their jobs means that because many novostroikas lack selves, they can benefit from their they have limited social capital schools, their children have to human capital by helping children or professional connections. The travel long distances to attend the prepare to study in such demand- only form of capital these urban nearest school. These children ing schools. These are the parents poor might have, then, is their are the most unfortunate because who are most likely to be criti- human capital—that is, their own their parents do not have money cal of private schools, dismissing knowledge of subjects. They are or connections; being from rural them as providing a poor quality more likely to send children to areas, their social capital is built of education, while justifying their the regular neighborhood schools around kinship and relatives own choice. and contribute to their children’s who live in the villages they came education by helping them with from. Nor do they have much hu- Urban Poor their homework. man capital to help their children with homework or advance their This is the category of long-term Poor Internal Migrants educational opportunities. urban residents in the lower socio-economic strata—those with- Since Kyrgyzstan’s independence, These are the five categories of out regular or well-paid jobs. Bishkek has attracted a large Bishkek residents, which sum- These include low-paid teachers, number of internal migrants, marize the inequality between medical staff (nurses), and oth- who have come to the capital in families in terms of children’s er low-paid government work- the search of income/surviv- access to education by looking at ers, whose only source of income al opportunities. These families different forms of capital: - finan is their salary. Unlike the urban might not have any qualifications cial, social, and cultural. What is middle class, they are not able to or social connections that would the relative weight of each cate- generate additional income from help them in the professional or gory in the overall composition small and medium businesses. business realms. They live in the of resource possession? Putting Having a child attend a high-sta- family dormitories in the city precise numbers on this is be- tus public school can place a sig- center or in the less prestigious yond the scope of this research, nificant burden on such house- novostroikas on the outskirts of but by looking at average sala-

Figure 14. Categorization of families in regard to access to schools

CAP Fellows Paper 214 18 ries and at the numbers of public in Bishkek is layered and depends performing public schools for and private schools in the city, we on how families can utilize their mentorship suggest that the composition is resources. It is those families • Organize workshops for high- skewed toward the lower end. We that lack all three forms of capital performing school principals propose that educational inequal- whose children are at the highest to share knowledge and skills ity in Bishkek can be understood risk and need serious attention through training as a pyramid (see Figure 14). from policymakers. It is disturb- • Foster a sense of community ing to know that these poor fam- and collegiality among principals Conclusion ilies—who make up the majority of all schools through a range of the urban population of Bish- of activities, such as social Parents’ secondary education kek—are disadvantaged in access- gatherings, workshops and social choices in Bishkek reveal that, as ing not only private schools, but media networks in many parts of the world, pri- also high-quality public schools. • Facilitate public-private vate schools serve wealthy and school cooperation by sharing the upper middle-income families. Recommendations best practices of high-performing Despite some debates around the private schools with low- quality of education in private The secondary education land- performing public schools schools, privileged families in scape in Bishkek is diverse and • Establish incentives for Bishkek opt for private education fragmented. This research di- private schools to conduct for a variety of reasons. Some see vides secondary schools into five socially responsible activities and in private education an oppor- categories: three types of private contribute to the improvement of tunity to escape the Soviet-style schools differentiated by price the education system education system, which they (elite, high, and medium-fee • Reach out to international perceive as outdated, while oth- schools) and two types of pub- organizations and private donors, ers value private schools for their lic schools differentiated by per- such as local businessmen, conveniences. For a select few, formance (high-performing and to sponsor scholarships for private schools provide an easier low-performing schools). Our re- children from new settlements path to leaving the country and search found that while wealthy to cover expenses such as books, entering global education, while families chose private schools, transportation, and meals at for others, they provide a mech- it was middle-income urban high-performing schools. anism for securing higher status families who primarily accessed for children (and parents). As high-performing and competitive To International Organiza- most private schools do not have public schools. Poor families lack tions and NGOs: strict and competitive admission both the financial and non-finan- policies, the only criterion for ac- cial resources to access high-qual- • Establish community learning cessing such schools is the fami- ity schools and mostly attend centers that offer low-fee or free ly’s financial status. Thus, private low-performing neighborhood educational courses and activities schools sort out student compo- schools. To address such inequal- in new settlements. Such sition according to parents’ so- ity in secondary education, poli- opportunities can supplement the cio-economic backgrounds. This cymakers should prioritize the Ministry of Education’s efforts to paves the ways for social segrega- needs of low-performing schools help low-performing schools and tion and inequality. and increase poor families’ access increase their competitiveness to quality education. with higher-quality schools. However, parents with strong so- • Provide expert assistance in cial and cultural capital can place To the Ministry of Educa- developing effective mechanisms their children in the best public tion and Science of the Kyr- of monitoring, evaluating and schools, which provide an educa- gyz Republic: rating school performance. Such tion no worse than that in some mechanisms can help parents private schools. This tells us that • Establish a program that and the wider community to inequality in secondary education pairs individual high- and low- access information about school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 19 22 “Istoriia litseia,” Lyceum # 61, performance and the means of 11 “Schools in Kyrgyzstan 1.5 Times last accessed December 16, 2018, Overcrowded,” 24.kg, September 10, addressing problems in low- https://yk61.ru/index.php/news/ 2018, last accessed December 10, performing schools. k2-item. 2018, https://24.kg/english/95503_ 23 Iveta Silova, “Private Tutoring in Notes Schools_in_Kyrgyzstan_15_times_ Eastern Europe and Central Asia: overcrowded_/. Policy Choices and Implications,” 1 “The Poorest Countries in the 12 Interview with a public school Journal of Comparative and World,” Focus Economics (blog), administrator, Bishkek, 2018. International Education 40, no. 3 last accessed September 2, 2018, 13 Ruben Ruiz Ramas, “Parental (2010): 327-344. https://www.focus-economics.com/ Informal Payments in Kyrgyzstani 24 Kaktus Media, “Gid Kaktus.” blog/the-poorest-countries-in-the- Schools: Analyzing the Strongest 25 “S reketom v shkolakh world. and the Weakest Link,” Journal of Kyrgyzstana stalkivaiutsia 51% 2 Z. Kozhobaeva, “Stoit li ucheba v Eurasian Studies 7, no. 2 (2016): mal’chikov i 12% devochek— chastnykh shkolakh zaplachennykh 205-219. issledovanie NISI,” Bilim Akipress, deneg?” Azzatyk, February 6, 14 “Obrashchenie Bulan Instituta October 9, 2017, last accessed 2017, last accessed October k Presidentu KR Sooronbaiu November 21, 2018, http://bilim. 11, 2018, https://rus.azattyk. Jeenbekovu,” Bulan Institute, akipress.org/ru/news:1409182. org/a/28281350.html. September 5, 2018, last accessed 26 Sapat International Educational 3 “Gid Kaktus. Chastnye shkoly November 21, 2018, http:// Institution, last accessed November Bishkeka. Usloviia i tseny,” Kaktus bulaninstitute.org/ru/obrashenie- 21, 2018, http://sebat.edu.kg/about. Media, May 25, 2018, last accessed presidentu/. php?lang=ru. October 11, 2018, https://kaktus. 15 “Reiting. Top 20 shkol Bishkeka 27 Cenet Engin Demir, Ayse Balci, media/doc/338956_gid_kaktus._ 2018 goda,” Bilim Akipress, August and Fusun Akkok, “The Role of chastnye_shkoly_bishkeka._ 24, 2018, last accessed November Turkish Schools in the Educational ysloviia_i_ceny.html. 21, 2018, http://bilim.akipress.org/ System and Social Transformation 4 National Statistical Committee of ru/news:1466310. of Central Asian Countries: The Case the Kyrgyz Republic, Education and 16 Duishon Shamatov, “The of Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan,” Culture, last accessed November Impact of Standardized Testing Central Asian Survey 19, no. 1 21, 2018, http://www.stat.kg/ru/ on University Entrance Issues in (2000): 141-155. statistics/obrazovanie/. Kyrgyzstan,” European Education 28 Christopher Whitsel, “Parental 5 Kozhobaeva, “Stoit li ucheba.” 44, no. 1 (2012): 71-92. Choices in the Primary and 6 Kaktus Media, “Gid Kaktus.” 17 Interviews with administrators Secondary School Market in 7 Sanzhar Eraliev, “Skol’noe of international schools, Bishkek, Dushanbe, Tajikistan,” European obrazovanie. Problemy dostigli 2018. Education 46, no. 2 (2016): 53-73. krainei tochki,” Azzatyk, September 18 “Admissions—Other International 29 Annette Lareau, “Cultural 6, 2018, last accessed November Schools,” Bishkek International Knowledge and Social Inequality,” 21, 2018, https://rus.azattyk. School, last accessed November American Sociological Review 80, org/a/kyrgyz_education_school- 21, 2018, http://www.esca.kg/ no. 1 (2015): 1-27, 1. problems/29474742.html. admissions/other-international- 30 Annette Lareau, Unequal 8 Eric Eversmann, “Dropping Out: schools/. Childhoods: Class, Race and Family School Attendance in the Kyrgyz 19 Interview with experts, Bishkek, Life, with an Update a Decade Republic,” PRAXIS: The Fletcher 2018. Later (Oakland, CA: University of Journal of Development Studies 20 Bilim Akipress, “Reiting”; California Press, 2011). XVI (2000). “Nazvany 20 luchshikh shkol 31 Kathleen Kuehnast and Nora 9 Eraliev, “Skol’noe obrazovanie.” Bishkeka za 2018 god,” Kaktus Dudwick, Better a Hundred Friends 10 “Po piatero za partoi. Skol’ko Media, August 24, 2018, last Than a Hundred Rubles? Social detei uchiatsia v pervom klasse v accessed September 2, 2018, Networks in Transition—The prestizhnykh shkolakh Bishkeka,” https://kaktus.media/doc/378847_ Kyrgyz Republic (Washington, Kaktus Media, September 10, nazvany_20_lychshih_shkol_ DC: World Bank, 2004), last 2018, last accessed November bishkeka_za_2018_god.html. accessed January 23, 2019, http:// 21, 2018, https://kaktus.media/ 21 “Zolotye tsertifikaty ORT,” Lyceum documents.worldbank.org/ doc/379418_po_piatero_za_ #61, last accessed November 21, curated/en/821201468774540164/ partoy._skolko_detey_ychitsia_v_ 2018, https://yk61.ru/index.php/ Better-a-hundred-friends-than-a- pervom_klasse_v_prestijnyh_ dostizheniya-uchenikov/zolotye- shkolah_bishkeka.html. sertifikaty-ort.

CAP Fellows Paper 214 20 hundred-rubles-Social-networks-in- transition-the-Kyrgyz-Republic. 32 Aksana Ismailbekova, Blood Ties and the Native Son: Poetics of Patronage in Kyrgyzstan (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2017). 33 Lareau, “Cultural Knowledge.” 34 Lareau, Unequal Childhoods. 35 Natalya Kosmarskaya, “The Russian Language in Kyrgyzstan: Changing Roles and Inspiring Prospects,” Russian Journal of Communication 7, no. 2 (2015): 217-222.

CAP Fellows Paper 214 21