A Case Study of Agricultural Extension in South Sudan

4 Enhancing Food Security in the World’s Youngest Nation: A Case Study of Agricultural Extension in South Sudan

Robert Strong Jr.,* Kirk Edney and Roger Hanagriff Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

Background Anya Nya guerrilla movement—and the Sudanese government. A second conflict— History of conflict in South Sudan termed the Anya Nya civil war—occurred from 1963 to 1972 and only ended when Formed from the ten southernmost states of the Addis Ababa peace agreement of 1972 Sudan, South Sudan is a land of expansive accorded the south a measure of autonomy. grassland, swamps and tropical rainforest In 1983 the south again rose in rebellion— straddling both banks of the White Nile led by the Sudan People’s Liberation Move- (Natsios, 2012). It is highly diverse ethnically ment (SPLM) and its armed wing, the Sudan and linguistically. Among the largest ethnic People’s Liberation Army (SPLA)—when the groups are the Dinka, Nuer and Shilluk. Un- Sudanese government cancelled the auton- like the predominantly Muslim population omy arrangements (Belloni, 2011). This was of Sudan, the South Sudanese follow trad- the start of the second southern civil war, itional religions, while a minority is Christian which took place between 1983 and 2006. (Jok, 2011). During the second southern civil war, and As Sudan prepared to gain independ- specifically from 1991 to 1996, an internal ence from joint British and Egyptian rule ‘civil war within a civil war’ took place be- in 1956, southern leaders accused the new tween the Dinka and Nuer tribes and caused authorities in Khartoum of backing out of massive casualties and human suffering be- promises to create a federal system and try- fore the SPLA could establish its authority ing to impose an Islamic and Arabic identity (Collins, 2007: 1783). on the south (Schomerus and Allen, 2010). The conflict officially came to an end This tension led to a series of armed con- with the signing of the 2005 Comprehensive flicts. Collins (2007) indicated that the long- Peace Agreement. The south was granted re- est, most destructive and violent of Sudan’s gional autonomy and guaranteed represen- five civil wars were the two between the north tation in a power-sharing government (Dagne, and south. The first occurred in 9551 when 2011). The agreement included a referendum southern army officers mutinied, igniting a in the south on independence, to be held in civil war between the south—led by the 2011. The people of the south voted 99% to

* Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

1% in favor of splitting from Sudan. The Corporation, 2014). These raids are a long- prospect of independence excited the South running cultural practice that exists outside Sudanese, who were looking for a fresh start, of national issues. Several cease-fire agree- a new country and lasting peace (Christopher, ments have been proposed recently, but 2011). Consequently, South Sudan broke away these have broken down since the summer from Sudan and became an independent na- of 2015. tion in 2011. SPLA officers remained in military leadership positions as governmental reorganization proceeded. The post-conflict context This process was not without its costs. Hanzich (2011) reported that at least 1.5 million South Sudan, like many fragile states, has people are thought to have lost their lives not yet fully emerged from conflict. There- and more than 4 million were displaced in fore, terming it a post-conflict state is some- the 22 years of guerrilla warfare. Food inse- what misleading. Nonetheless, South Sudan curity became a pressing issue as the war has many characteristics that are consistent escalated (Keen and Lee, 2007). Massive with other countries facing sporadic and re- numbers of people fled the conflict either curring violence following larger conflicts. northwards or to adjoining nations and have These characteristics have important im- not returned. Thousands who fled took what pacts on the roles of agriculture and agricul- livestock they could with them. tural extension. In December 2013, the young state South Sudan remains a resource-rich again plunged into crisis amid a power nation with poor infrastructure and con- struggle between the president and his tinuing tribal conflicts that hinder agricul- deputy, whom he had dismissed. South ture and the conservation and responsible Sudan’s president is a member of the Dinka use of natural resources. Efforts to develop tribe and the former deputy is a Nuer tribe agriculture have been negatively impacted member (Jok, 2011). Fighting between gov- by the conditions surrounding the conflict. ernment troops and rebel factions erupted, For example, much of the direction of eco- largely through tribal conflict between the nomic activity in South Sudan is managed Southern Sudan Defense Forces (SSDF) by generals and other leaders of the former and the SPLA, which is controlled by the SPLA. Given their backgrounds and the president. importance placed on security, approxi- Within weeks the conflict had killed mately 40% of the budget of South Sudan thousands and prompted more than 800,000 is allocated to maintaining military infra- to flee their homes (Arnold and LeRiche, structure. This reduces the budget avail- 2013). Aljazeera America (2014) reported able for agriculture and other activities. In that nearly 100,000 South Sudanese civil- addition, military leaders have a de facto ians had been given refuge in UN camps in role in identifying and encouraging vari- South Sudan. These civilians fled to escape ous endeavors and enterprises important killings and massacres, and continue to fear to South Sudan, in terms of both economic returning home. The large populations in viability for the nation and logistical con- the UN camps have given rise to specific siderations (e.g. food supply) for the mili- challenges related to food security due to tary. Agriculture therefore has a unique problems of access to food, distribution of role in this context of militarization and food aid and the dietary needs of refugees priority-setting. with diverse age ranges. Funding for agriculture is additionally A series of cattle raids between the compromised by the composition of the Nuer and Dinka tribes in December 2013 South Sudanese economy and reliance on oil and January 2014 caused conflict to spread revenues. Years of civil war have prevented once again. Hundreds of people were killed the development of any effective infrastruc- and thousands were displaced from their ture, and crude oil represents the only reli- homes in retaliation (British Broadcasting able revenue stream for the government. 64 R. Strong et al.

Personal property taxes or income taxes are youth of the nation and the corresponding not a possible source of governmental fund- lack of institutional capacity to serve farming, and the nation is not yet stable enough to ers, a wide variety of non-state entities work allow for any significant income from tour- to assist South Sudan with agricultural de- ism. However, the sporadic and ongoing con- velopment. All provide crucial services and flicts, together with the current low price of fill unique roles. oil, have led to a dramatic fall in oil production in South Sudan. The budget assigned to agriculture has decreased considerably as a SPLA Agricultural Extension Battalion result of the lowered oil revenues. This re- duction has had a ripple effect, influencing Following independence in 2011, the SPLA the resources—human and other—that would was faced with the question of how to en- typically have been devoted to food security. gage its fighters in productive activities that Access to and the use of natural re- would provide food for the military but also sources are also factors that affect agricul- serve the development goals of the country, ture in South Sudan. As Sudan—and later while providing employment to a group of South Sudan—endured multiple civil wars military officers lacking many marketable between 1956 and the present, these con- skills. At the same time, South Sudan’s flicts reduced the country’s access to natural population was heavily reliant on agricul- resources and consequently its production ture as a livelihood and food production of agricultural commodities (Collins, 2007). strategy. Given that many SPLA fighters For example, restricted access to and the came from agrarian backgrounds, an early strain on water supplies during the civil concept of a post-conflict extension system wars led to decline in agricultural product- for South Sudan was that a battalion from ivity (Fegley, 2009). In addition, managing the SPLA would serve as extension officers. South Sudan’s water supply in the current Efforts were made to create this agricultural period remains important in the fight battalion, which does provide limited ser- against food insecurity (Rai et al., 2012). vices to farmers. However, the system was Water conservation programs in South not fully developed due to the further upris- Sudan are paramount for agricultural pro- ing in December 2013. Nonetheless, the duction, due to domestic pressures on the SPLA agricultural battalion is still a pro- Nile River and the needs of other countries posed model for agricultural extension ser- that rely on the Nile. Meanwhile, the vices in South Sudan. swamps in the southern part of the nation are in danger of being drained for cultiva- tion, leading to a loss of biodiversity and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Tourism, soil fertility (Salman, 2011). Gorsevski et al. Animal Resources and Fisheries (2012) have also indicated that the conflicts have had a negative effect on forests and The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, other natural resources. Tourism, Animal Resources and Fisheries (MoAFTARF) also plays a major and central Agricultural Extension Providers role in South Sudan’s extension system, and Actors particularly as related to the development of the agricultural sector. The MoAFTARF has a broad mandate that includes efforts to: The system of agricultural extension in South Sudan is largely disorganized and in- • Establish and manage an effective agri- cludes a range of actors with varied roles and cultural extension service. operational statuses. Public sector programs • Formulate legislation, policies, stand- and institutions from both the South Sudan- ards and plans for the development of ese government and its military provide agriculture and forestry in South Sudan extension services. In addition, due to the and ensure adequate food availability. Enhancing Food Security in South Sudan 65

• Promote and, where necessary, regulate reduced involvement from foreign govern- the efficient production and marketing ments. Instead, other organizations are an- of agricultural and forest products. ticipated to provide agricultural extension • Conduct demand-driven research and services in South Sudan to address institu- collect data on production and its tional weaknesses and gaps due to poor co- socio-economic impacts on incomes ordination between the MoAFTARF and the and well-being. SPLA. • Rehabilitate and expand training and research institutions. • Develop the capacities of farmers and Agricultural non-governmental other stakeholders in the fields of agri- organizations (NGOs) culture and forestry, especially related to the development and adaptation of Several NGOs provide extension services in appropriate technologies. South Sudan. The specific objectives and • Provide technical assistance and train- approaches of different non-state actors are ing to state and local governments to both similar and dissimilar to governmental build their capacity to assume respon- efforts, although they share the common sibilities for agriculture and forestry. mission to increase food security in South Sudan. Within the context of this mandate, the priority objectives of the Ministry are: (i) to es- Catholic Relief Services (CRS) tablish and maintain an effective agricultural extension service; (ii) to develop the CRS has been working in the southern part human resources of stakeholders working of Sudan—and later South Sudan—since in agriculture and forestry; and (iii) to re- 1983. After independence in 2011, CRS habilitate and expand training and research supported development and recovery in institutions. To accomplish these object- parts of the country where post-conflict ives, the Ministry is supported by the USA, remedial services were otherwise entirely the EU and the Ministry of Agriculture of lacking. Against a background of political and the People’s Republic of China. However, to economic turmoil resulting from the conflict date the MoAFTARF does not support or that flared up in December 2013, the CRS provide training for any type of extension website for South Sudan announced: ‘The system in South Sudan. Only the SPLA’s presence of Catholic Relief Services in South agricultural battalion performs this role. Sudan is needed now more than ever to These three Ministry objectives align strengthen these relationships and promote with US Department of State and SPLA agri- healing, while continuing to deliver lifesav- cultural battalion goals for agricultural de- ing emergency and development assistance’ velopment and extension in South Sudan. (Pozniak, 2015). However, historical and political barriers— CRS South Sudan offers programs in such as perpetual tribal and political con- agriculture, civil society and governance, flicts—keep the leaders of the SPLA’s agri- disaster response, microfinance, peace build- cultural battalion and the Ministry from ing, and water and sanitation. The immedi- working together. At the time of this case ate goal of the CRS South Sudan agriculture study, the Ministry had no working rela- program is to improve family well-being tionship with the extension efforts pro- through agro-economic development and vided by the SPLA. Over time, inter- environmental stewardship. The agency’s national organizations may be able to help long-term goal is to strengthen the capacity improve working relationships between of local agencies and farming communities the Ministry and the SPLA for the benefit to take control of their own development. of the rural poor, but more effective collab- The formal objectives of the agriculture pro- oration is not expected in the short term gram are: (i) to engage with vulnerable com- due to internal socio-political conflict and munities to meet their long-term food and 66 R. Strong et al.

livelihood needs; (ii) to foster sustainable maintains collaborative relationships with socio-economic development; and (iii) to evangelical Christian groups, the United promote agricultural practices that link pro- States Agency for International Develop- duction to conservation, using local sources ment (USAID), the Konrad Adenauer Foun- where available. dation and the Norwegian Institute for International Affairs. World Vision International (WVI) United Methodist Committee on Relief WVI has been involved in South Sudan for (UMCOR) over 25 years. It has provided numerous agricultural extension programs during this UMCOR currently conducts up to 69 pro- time and in 2014 worked with approxi- jects in South Sudan (2015–2016) and has mately 128,000 people. World Vision’s South collaborative relationships with USAID, the Sudan country program reported in 2015 EU, the US State Department and various that their organization was the only entity UN agencies. Sustainable agriculture and combating food insecurity in the northern- food security are a programmatic focus of most state, the Upper Nile. UMCOR (2015). Under its food security pro- World Vision South Sudan provides ject, 16 fish farms have been established and training on improved agricultural practices over 200 farmers in the Central Equatoria such as soil conservation techniques, no-till state of South Sudan have been trained in farming techniques, native tree regeneration aquaculture and received fish management and the development of small seed-saving inputs. An additional 2400 farmers have been banks (Africa CSA Alliance, 2014); post- trained in cassava intercropping. UMCOR also harvest handling and packaging; agricul- provides training and advice on water quality tural marketing; and financial management. for rural people living in the Upper Nile State Extension programs focus on commodities and Bahr el Gazal/Darfur region (UMCOR, that include sesame, pineapple, fish, tomato 2015), and estimated that over 40,000 indi- and maize, among many others. viduals will be impacted by this project. Besides teaching farmers, the organization also provides inputs such as hoes, seeds Agricultural colleges and fishing equipment. The organization do- nated approximately 174 oxen to farmers in john garang memorial university of science Warrap State to increase food production (jgmust). John Garang Memorial University (World Vision–South Sudan, 2013). In South of Science in Bor, the capital of Jonglei State, Sudan, World Vision has had an impact on provides agricultural services and education farmers’ yields, income and well-being as a in the agricultural sciences. The university, result of these efforts (Oxfam, 2014). in collaboration with the US State Depart- ment and the Norman Borlaug Institute for African Centre for the Constructive International Agriculture of Texas A&M Uni- Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) versity, designed the Consortium for Develop- ment project to improve agricultural education; ACCORD is one of several agricultural create institutional linkages to improve pro NGOs that are still operational despite past ductivity; encourage agricultural develop- and current conflicts in South Sudan. It has ment and resource conservation; and develop been involved in South Sudanese agricul- programs to address youth entrepreneurship, tural extension work for approximately conflict resolution and gender-based educa- 30 years. ACCORD operates in the Central tion issues. Based on JG-MUST faculty input, and Eastern Equatoria States. a livestock production course was developed ACCORD offers extension programs re- and is currently being offered. Curriculum for lated to conflict resolution, leadership devel- the course was delivered by three methods: opment, fishery production, animal manage- (i) traditional pencil and paper; (ii) separate stu- ment and water conservation. The organization dent and instructor course CDs; and (iii) a basic Enhancing Food Security in South Sudan 67

web-based format. Challenges relative to develop sustainable food sources for sol- maintaining the infrastructure at JG-MUST diers and their families while stationed make it difficult todetermine the effective- at bases or training camps and while de- ness of any of these delivery methods. ployed on mission. The project designed an approach that engaged military personal, employed local people in food pro- Agricultural Extension Projects duction activities that contributed to rural and Activities livelihoods and utilized available resources to generate food locally for consumption by the SPLA. Various efforts have been made by state and In addition, the project focused heavily non-state actors to provide and strengthen on designing and delivering basic and ex- agricultural extension in South Sudan. panded agricultural training curricula, with However, given the influential role of the the understanding that the curricula would military, many efforts have sought to engage function as infrastructure by creating a sys- the SPLA directly. USAID, in particular, has tem for knowledge to be transferred from created a number of projects to assist the trainer to learner (Knowles et al., 2005). In SPLA in improving food security, working curricula design, the project team from closely with the US State Department and Texas A&M and the US State Department Texas A&M University’s Norman Borlaug assessed the needs of participants, devel- Institute for International Agriculture to de- oped and provided curricula to meet those sign and deliver these projects. needs and evaluated the change in knowledge gained due to the curricula and in- struction. Ultimately, the project contrib- Enhancing Agricultural Infrastructure for uted to improved food supplies for both the the Military of South Sudan Project SPLA and rural people.

A major collaborative project—funded by the US Department of State—was the En- Extended Agricultural Training (EAT) project hancing Agricultural Infrastructure for the Military of South Sudan Project. The pro- The EAT project—conducted with SPLA— ject aimed to support the Republic of South was derived from the Enhancing Agriculture Sudan in its efforts to transform its military Infrastructure for the Military of South Sudan from a largely guerrilla force to a national Project. The project was originally a class de- army under the newly formed government. signed to train members of the SPLA to serve Part of the project involved the develop- as extension officers and to operate as farmers ment of agricultural infrastructure, specific- themselves. Upon graduating from EAT, army ally the building of roads linking farmers officers were provided with a farm and were to markets, and the development of water expected to teach modern farming practices points for people and livestock. to local farmers through demonstrations and Food security, and particularly a sus- individual consultations, effectively employ- tainable food supply for the SPLA, was an- ing army personnel as extension officers other key objective. The SPLA was spend- through the SPLA’s agricultural battalion. ing upwards of US$100 million a year to Trainees learned the skills needed to teach import food for its troops. Through a grant, local farmers the sustainable management the US Department of State worked with and production strategies to improve their the South Sudan Ministry of Defense to es- food security but also developed the compe- tablish an agricultural support and training tencies to themselves manage the army’s program, which was implemented through farms, to increase the SPLA’s food production the Borlaug Institute for International Agri- and reduce food costs for the army. culture and Texas A&M AgriLife Research. The implementation of the EAT project The objective was to allow the SPLA to occurred in stages. First, the project’s Training 68 R. Strong et al.

Impact Specialist—under the direction of the A complete training manual was produced Project Training Coordinator—conducted an for use with farmers to help them under- observational needs assessment of future stand budgets, markets, options for improv- participants’ training needs and determined ing soil fertility and other relevant topics. whether curricula needed to be developed The first manual influenced subsequent at- from scratch, sourced from instructional tempts to develop materials for SPLA exten- resources or transformed from existing sion officers and farmers, many of whom materials. were illiterate in Arabic as well as English. The assessment showed that the major- The EAT project then reviewed its curity of future participants needed more rent training methodologies as compared to training on how to teach adults. In technical principles of adult education (Knowles areas, 67% needed more training in small et al., 2005). Recommendations for additional animal production; 80% wanted to be more adult training methodologies were devel- knowledgeable in identifying crop pests oped for use in conjunction with the im- and diseases; 73% of the participants be- proved training materials, and resources lieved they needed more farm management were sourced from program partners to sup- knowledge to help farmers become more port their use. successful; and 93% wanted to better under- Finally, the EAT project sought to iden- stand evaluation techniques to be able to tify environmental factors that could poten- measure the impact of their teaching. Fu- tially influence the adoption and diffusion ture participants also requested more visual of program objectives and educational re- materials due to their target audience being sources using a political, economic, social, illiterate (67%); materials that would help technological, environmental and legal them teach soil testing procedures and pest (PESTEL) analysis (Table 4.1). The PESTEL and disease identification (73%); and dic- analysis was selected because of its suit- tionaries to help them better understand ability in changing environments and was English and thus work more effectively therefore a more valuable assessment of ex- with US and European agricultural devel- ternal factors of influence than a strengths, opment organizations (47%). weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) Following the assessment, the EAT analysis. The analysis was completed Training Content Specialist developed through interviews and qualitative meas- new training materials—largely in pictorial urement of extension officers involved in formats—to fill gaps in existing curricula the EAT project. and allow better access to information for Ultimately, these themes were exempli- trainees with varying levels of literacy. fied in the actual outcomes of the EAT

Table 4.1. Barriers identified through the PESTEL analysis.

Political (P) Land ownership disputes; lack of trust in the government and governmental programs; limited education of farmers and officers; difficulties for outsiders in understanding the issues faced by farmers Economic (E) Limited incomes of farmers; high food prices; inadequate housing; lack of sustained funding and support from the government for basic needs Social (S) Separation from families to attend the training conducted at SPLA headquarters outside of Juba; lack of English skills; health problems; inadequate training facilities; short duration of the training program Technological (T) Lack of electricity; insufficient equipment and computers; poor quality of equipment; lack of textbooks/manuals; shortage of livestock inputs Environmental (E) Climate; poor living conditions at the school; high transportation costs; lack of medical care Legal (L) Inadequate follow-through on commitments from the local government, outside governments and non-governmental organizations

SPLA, Sudan People’s Liberation Army. Enhancing Food Security in South Sudan 69

project, which were affected by political in- the level of farmers. Branch and Mampilly fluences and sustainability issues related to (2005) suggested that until national conflicts ongoing conflict in regions affected by the are reduced or eliminated, farmers are un- civil war. However, PESTEL factors are use- likely to return home to plant and harvest ful not only for assessing the EAT project their crops, causing food insecurity to per- but also for providing insight into the larger sist. Farmers are also reluctant to participate context of agricultural extension services in in group-based programs or meetings com- South Sudan. monly employed by extension providers. Only by reducing the number and scale of conflicts in South Sudan will local people Conclusions and Lessons Learned feel safer in attending public educational events (Themnér and Wallensteen, 2012). The safety of both extension workers The examples described above provide a and farmers must be improved. Unless this range of themes and lessons learned from need can be met, the challenges of rebuild- South Sudan that may have larger import- ing agricultural extension in South Sudan ance for other post-conflict countries. will be hard to overcome. However, effective agricultural development can actually miti- gate some of these same safety and security Safety and security concerns. Agricultural extension programs that provide the rural population with the The ongoing conflict between the Dinka and means to improve their own production can Nuer tribes makes the rebuilding of agricul- help the nation achieve food security and re- tural extension in South Sudan challenging, duce poverty, ultimately lessening conflict to say the least. The safety of trainers, evaluators, and promoting social cohesion. This should, curriculum designers, farmers and local gov- in turn, raise the chances of sustaining peace. ernment officials involved in agricultural extension projects is a serious worry, both for the individuals concerned and for the or- Agricultural training for extension providers ganizations that employ them. Extension actors struggle with the ques- Pre- and in-service training tion of whether or not to approve activities in environments where safety cannot be evalu- The lack of a formal extension system in ated because the situation changes from one South Sudan underscores the need for con- day to the next. Ruiz-Postigo et al. (2012) re- sistent and ongoing training for extension ported that safety concerns prevented NGO officers. Individuals acting as extension offi- healthcare workers from screening South cers are often unprepared for the demands Sudanese citizens for human African tryp- of the job. Graduates of JG-MUST, for ex- anosomiasis. Likewise, Spencer et al. (2013) ample, lack the technical and process skills found that security issues prevented a needed to work with farmers. Data from the health screening team from testing children EAT project also pointed to a number of un- for the debilitating and potentially fatal met or inadequately met training needs of nodding syndrome. Similar limitations are army officers preparing to serve as exten- found in agriculture. Agricultural develop- sion officers. The training competencies ment workers with good intentions towards most needed were in developing and evalu- development and farmers’ empowerment ating educational programs for adults. are often deterred by safety concerns, result- Strengthening these training programs and ing in needs going unaddressed and depriv- the institutions that prepare extension offi- ing people of the hope that conditions can cers is therefore crucial. improve. Ongoing training in teaching, learning Security concerns also hinder the and disseminating information to farmers is growth and development of South Sudan at also needed. EAT graduates will continue to 70 R. Strong et al.

require professional development and re- training materials were predominately writ- sources to be successful in their roles as exten in English and at a ninth-grade (age 14) tension officers. In-service training is par- reading level. However, effective training ticularly needed on topics related to crop was confounded by two major factors: (i) lit- and small animal production; pest and dis- eracy levels in the workforce are low due to ease control; farm management and agri- 50 years of conflict; and (ii) those who were business; and agricultural marketing. Like literate mostly read Arabic (over 60% of the other post-conflict nations, South Sudan population are Arabic speakers) rather than needs the support of international organiza- the official language of English. tions to address its extension training gaps It was concluded that training materials and create competent and excellent agricul- needed to be bilingual (English/Arabic) to tural extension programs. encourage learning in both languages, more pictorial than text-based and with content Needs assessment and evaluation delivered at an appropriate level of under- for development organizations standing. Materials were supported by and extension actors teaching through demonstrations as much as possible. Texas A&M University’s In- Experiences in South Sudan—and specific- structional Materials Service provided a ally with the EAT project—illustrate the im- variety of reference materials and resources portance of proper needs assessment and to the EAT project, either as PDFs or CDs for evaluation when training extension profes- instructors and students. The materials sionals. Evaluating existing materials and were better suited to the audience and approaches against learner needs is essen- helped trainees learn to make decisions in tial for creating training programs that ad- many areas of farm management, including: dress knowledge and skill gaps and better (i) site location for crop production; (ii) crop prepare graduates for work with farmers. production designs, including patterns and Using a PESTEL analysis at the onset of rotations; (iii) water management; (iv) till- developing training programs to determine age and land preparation; (v) the use of in- barriers to learning and the adoption of new puts such as fertilizer and lime to control techniques can contribute to greater suc- soil acidity; and (vi) harvest and post-harvest cesses and sustainable outcomes. The re- operations. Extension programs operating sults of a PESTEL analysis can offer insight in post-conflict settings are most effective into needs likely to continue as issues for when using a similar participatory and needs- extension workers, such as land ownership, driven process for curriculum design. living conditions, family needs and insufficient infrastructure. Understanding these factors can help extension programs make Agricultural training to farmers strategic decisions and improve services. Consideration of experiences in other con- Programmatic targeting flict regions suggests that identifying these results or external factors may offer insight Agricultural extension programs that iden- into issues that may lead to program failure tify and understand the characteristics and if not properly managed. desired outcomes of their target audience are more likely to be successful. There are Agricultural extension curricula several examples of extension efforts that have had a positive impact on agriculture in Effective and appropriate curricula are also South Sudan. Successful NGO projects crucial to training future extension officers. working on food security are particularly For example, program leaders and SPLA evident. The common denominator for these generals described their training needs in a successful projects is that they targeted a meeting held at the outset of the EAT project. specific audience or commodity and the At the same time, existing curricula and organization has a long, positive history in Enhancing Food Security in South Sudan 71

South Sudan and a strong understanding of struggle to reach and benefit women farmers the local context. (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2011). Due to the lack In contrast, some projects observed a lack of training and educational opportunities of these characteristics. For example, the for women in production agriculture, women methodology espoused by EAT extension farmers are largely excluded from some personnel was not congruent with the con- business aspects of farming (Kabeer, 2012). text of resource-poor and risk-averse small However, when women are equally engaged farmers. The project focused on national- in extension and have equal access to re- level issues and did not adequately consider sources they see greater improvements in the needs of local farmers. The EAT project agricultural production than men (Davis et al., was further compromised because it was in- 2012), suggesting greater emphasis on serv- stituted by an internal organization and by ing women through extension could be the military, which was not ‘well-perceived’ beneficial to South Sudan’s agricultural sec- by a large percentage of the South Sudanese. tor. Benefits are greater when women farmers are taught by female extension officers, Alternative approaches to reaching farmers especially in contexts and communities with strict social and gender norms. Given the safety and security conditions However, the EAT project consisted that often limit the ability of extension offi- only of male participants, since women cers to interact directly with farmers, there were not involved in the agricultural battal- are useful alternative means of reaching ion. This raises the question of how women farmers in South Sudan. Many South farmers will react to male instructors, Sudanese—including EAT officers and whether women will participate in exten- farmers—have cell phones, which can be sion programs and if EAT graduates will be charged using solar power. This indicates able to serve women farmers to the same de- that information and communications tech- gree they serve males. This suggests that the nologies (ICTs) could be an avenue for de- benefits of the EAT project to women will be livering educational content to farmers minimal. throughout the conflict-torn nation. Cell In contrast, WVI has effective and well- phones could be used to get information to documented experience serving women farmers in remote locations, as well as offer- farmers in South Sudan. Unlike the SPLA, ing professional development to extension WVI specifically targets women farmers with officers, thereby saving on travel time and their programs and develops programs strictly expenses. The benefit of ICT use for agricul- for women. The primary lessons learned by tural development efforts in Africa, Latin WVI were the critical importance of identi- America and the Caribbean is well docu- fying the target audience, conducting a mented. This opportunity needs further in- needs assessment with that audience and vestigation in the context of South Sudan, developing educational programs based on but it appears that ICTs could help exten- those identified needs. These needs assess- sion personnel deliver agricultural content ments can highlight the aspects of agricul- to farmers more effectively than current tural education training most needed by face-to-face meetings, especially when con- women. In the case of WVI, evaluations were flict and safety are also factors. conducted during and after program implementation to help coordinators monitor and Service provision to women farmers improve programs for women farmers. Agricultural extension organizations— There is great need and potential to better whether governmental or non-governmental— serve women farmers in South Sudan. Glo- should examine the experiences of WVI bally, the diversity and number of females in serving women farmers in South Sudan. in food production is increasing as women The organization’s approach has proved become more involved in agriculture (Charlton, effective and replication of certain elements 1984), yet extension programs regularly may be possible. This would benefit all 72 R. Strong et al.

extension providers, but more importantly and more focused efforts in addressing food it would benefit women farmers. Increasing security across the young nation. Collabor- their inclusion in extension programming ation could also foster more national unity will help improve the food security of South and promote peace, improving the lives of all Sudan, assist a new democracy and provide South Sudanese and their descendants. citizens of both genders with a sense of In addition, despite actively providing ownership in the nation’s future. agricultural and extension services, many NGOs operate in isolation from state actors. Coordination and collaboration At the time of this case study, collaboration between the SPLA and agencies such as Coordination between providers is an area ACCORD, CRS, UMCOR and WVI seems to of concern for agricultural extension in be minimal. Nevertheless, collaboration be- South Sudan, as in many post-conflict coun- tween NGOs, the SPLA and MoAFTARF is tries. As discussed above, MoAFTARF did needed to more effectively train extension not collaborate with the SPLA on extension. staff to train farmers across South Sudan. All There could be numerous reasons why these extension actors could strengthen each other, breakdowns in collaboration exist (e.g. tri- creating synergistic relationships in which bal differences, socio-political power strug- the impact of the whole system is greater gles), although in this case there is no clear than the sum of its parts. Opportunities for single reason. collaboration readily exist, and external and Regardless of the cause, a lack of coordin- internal NGOs should seek positive collaboration between state actors certainly comprom- ation with the government to implement ises the quality of the services provided to projects that align with respective organiza- farmers. Building better collaboration within tional objectives to help South Sudan be- the public sector would enable better solutions come a food secure and peaceful nation.

References

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