Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) King of Forage Crops

Dost Muhammad Bimal Misri By Mohamed EL-Nahrawy Sartaj Khan Ates Serkan

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Regional Office for the Near East and North Africa Cairo, 2014 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) publications) [email protected]. FAO informationproductsareavailableontheFAO website(www.fao.org/ licencerequest [email protected]. commercial userightsshouldbemadeviawww.fao.org/contact-us/ All requestsfortranslationandadaptationrights,resaleother not impliedinanyway. given andthatFAO’s endorsementofusers’ views,productsorservicesis appropriate acknowledgementofFAO asthesourceandcopyrightholderis purposes, orforuseinnon-commercialproductsservices,providedthat be copied,downloadedandprintedforprivatestudy, researchandteaching this informationproduct.Exceptwhereotherwiseindicated,materialmay FAO encouragestheuse,reproductionanddisseminationofmaterialin © FAO, 2013 E-ISBN 9785-10800892(PDF) ISBN 9787-108004592(print) and donotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesof FAO. The viewsexpressedinthisinformationproductarethoseoftheauthor(s) of asimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned. these havebeenendorsedorrecommendedbyFAO inpreferencetoothers manufacturers, whetherornotthesehavebeenpatented,doesimplythat of products or companies specific of mention The boundaries. or frontiers city orareaofitsauthorities,concerningthedelimitation (FAO) concerningthelegalordevelopmentstatusofanycountry, territory, on thepartofFoodand Agriculture Organization oftheUnitedNations information productdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoever The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthis FOREWORD Bimal Misriprovidedassistancewithtechnicalediting. publication; to book this brought also who North Africa and East Near for office Regional Officer, Production FAO Plant Regional Muhammad, Dost by organised was Consultation information on berseem production, particularly in the smallholder sector. The Expert The contributions of authors are much appreciated by FAO in its efforts to disseminate the subject which is not easily available to outsiders, and Country Reports from participants. of the main themes ofberseem agronomy, summaries of the plethoric Egyptian literature on East Countries”on6-7November2012inCairo,Egypt. This publication presents reviews Near the in of Agriculture Intensification Sustainable in Role its and Clover Egyptian of farming, FAO organised anExpertConsultation Workshop on“ForageProductionPotential To improve exchange of information between berseem-growing countries with smallholder third withsomewhatlessthanEgypt. and cropresidues.NowIndiahasbyfarthegreatest area underberseem; Pakistan comes rice rotations, irrigation, smallholder farms withcattle and buffaloes reared on cut fodder India, now including Pakistan, where farming systems are similar to those in Egypt: wheat- use inmild,humidtemperate and sub-tropical areas. Itsspreadwasspectacular in Northern hectares. Its productionpotential, easycultivation and wideadaptability led towidespread fix enormous amounts of atmospheric nitrogen and quick growth, it is grown on millions of twentieth centuries. Because of itshighproduction potential, easy cultivation, capacity to for centuries. Berseem was introduced to manycountries in thelate nineteenth and early it has been a baseofEgyptian farming, both asfodderandforsoilfertility maintenance, designated “king of forages”. Wild in the Levant and domesticated in Egypt in antiquity Berseem, Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum ) hasachieved thedistinction of being supported byseasonallyavailable greenforageavailable from anumberofcultivated crops. demand forlivestockproductsisincreasing.Livestockproductionsubstantially Production of green herbage is attaining enormous importance, the world over, since Regional RepresentativefortheNearEast FAO Assistant DirectorGeneral Abdessalam OuldAhmed and North Africa and

Egyptian Clover iii (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover iv (Trifolium alexandrinum) Wafaa M.Sharawy, F. M.Abdel-Tawab, EmanM. Fahmy; andA.H.Belal A.M.Rammah andeffectofBiochemical geneticfingerprinting water stress on Egyptian clover (Trifolium L.) alexandrinum Shereen M.El-Nahrawy, andE. R.A.El-Refaey H.El-Seidy Relative tolerance ofEgyptian clover to dodderinfestation. genotypes M.M,R.Khalaf,Abdel-Galil H.O. Sakr, S.A.andM.Abo-Feteih Abo-Elgoud inEgyptian characterization Breeding clover. for salttolerance andkaryotyping I.Abdel-Gnawed and R.I.El-Zanaty. K. M. S.Radwan, Factors ofberseemin Egypt. affectingtheproductivity Abotaleb, H.HandNassef, M. A Biological nitrogen fixation in Egyptian clover. El-Refaey, R.A,E. H.El-Seidy, Samira A.Fouad andShereen M.El-Nahrawy Anatomical mechanisms ofresistance/tolerance to dodder(Cuscuta spp.) ofEgyptian clover. A.Abdu andSamy A.El-Nahrawy Mohamed M.Mohamed, Mohamed Magdy A.Shams Sinai-Governorate, Egypt. The ofEgyptian Role clover (Trifolium L.)inagriculture alexandrinum lands, development North indesert Chapter VIII. New Vistas Research inBerseem Chapter CultivationVII. Berseem Chapter VI. Chemical Composition Chapter V. Production Seed Chapter IV. Crop Improvement Chapter III.Agronomy Chapter II. The Crop anditsGrowth The Egyptian Perspective Chapter I.Introduction Executive Summary Acknowledgements List ofContributors Acronyms usedinthetext FOREWORD Contents viii 53 48 45 42 39 32 28 28 25 23 20 14 10 vii iii vi ix 2 1 6 References Rustu Hatipoglu in Turkey. Berseem Turkey Khan Sartaj inPakistan.Berseem Pakistan S. P. Tiwari &J.P. Yadav of berseeminNepal Consequence onseedyieldandbiomassproduction and theirinterval ofnumberirrigations Rameshwar SinghPande. (Trifolium inNepal.Berseem seedproduction alexandrinum) Nepal ShabaniandAsadallah Sarshad Azizallah Forage reference withparticular inIran to berseem. Iran BimalMisri onlivestock Production anditsimpact Berseem production. inIndia S. Karmakar, Kumar, Rakesh Agrawal B. K. Prasad andDevkant under arice –berseemsystem. ofintegratedImpact nutrientmanagement oncrop productivity, andeconomics soilfertility Nanda, Rakesh Vinod Gupta andP. Rai K. State, India) &K Evaluation offrontline Jammu(J demonstration oftheperformance inDistrict ofBerseem India Abu-Zeid Mohamed El-Nahrawy Egyptian clover anditsvitalrole inEgyptian agriculture. Egypt Hamdy Oushy inAfghanistan-Berseem report. Country Bashir Mohammad Mir Fodder inAfghanistan. production Afghanistan Chapter Papers IX.Country 110 104 104 72 72 63 63 59 55 55 55 98 98 95 91 91 86 86 82 77

Egyptian Clover v (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover vi (Trifolium alexandrinum) TLDP NARC NFCRP LDP LDD KVK IGFRI ICAR FCRI FLD DOAD ADO ARC Acronyms usedinthetext Third livestockDevelopmentProject National Agricultural ResearchCentre National ForagecropResearchProgramme Livestock DevelopmentProject Livestock DevelopmentDepartment Krishi Vigyan Kendra(AgriculturalScienceCentre) Indian GrasslandandFodderResearchInstitute Indian Councilof Agricultural Research Forage CropResearchInstitute Front LineDemonstration Department of Agriculture Development Agriculture DevelopmentOfficer Agricultural ResearchCouncil Jharkhand, India. Jharkhand, Agriculture University, -834006, Ranchi Kanke, Karm (Turkey). of Agriculture, Faculty of Cukurova University, Adana Hatipoglu, Rustu. Field Crops Specialist, Department India). Agricultural Sciencesand Technology, Jammu(J&K, Vinod.Gupta Assistant Professor, S.KUniversity of Shams Univ, Cairo, Egypt. Eman M.Fahmy. Fac. Dept, Genetic Agric, Ain Agriculture, Cairo University, El-Zanaty, R.I.Agronomy Faculty Department, of Agriculture, Tanta Univ, Egypt. E. H.AgronomyEl-Seidy Faculty Dept, of El-Refaey, R.A.Agronomy Dept, Tanta Univ, Egypt. Agriculture, Tanta University, Egypt. El-Refaey, R.A.Agronomy Faculty Dept, of of Agriculture andLandReclamation,Egypt. Forage Crops Research programme Leader, Ministry El-Nahrawy, Abu-Zeid. Mohamed Former National India. Jharkhand, Agriculture University, -834006, Ranchi Kanke, Devkant ofAgronomy, Prasad. Department Birsa Canal Univ, Sinai. El-Arish, North Belal, A.H.Plant Production Fac. Dept, Agric, Suez Project, Afghanistan. Bashir,. Livestock Mohammad Mir officer, FAO I.R ofIran. ofJehad-e-Agriculture, Azizullah, Shabani. Ministry [email protected]"e-mail: [email protected] Areas (IC ARDA),Research in theDry Amman, Jordan, Ates InternationalCentre Serkan. for Agricultural Agriculture, I.R.ofIran. ofJeahd-e- Asadallah, Sarshad. Ministry India. Jharkhand, Agriculture University, -834006, Ranchi Kanke, Agrawal, ofAgronomy, B. Department K. Birsa Water andEnviron. Egypt. Res.ARC, Inst. Abotaleb, Production H.H.Biofertilizer UnitSoil, Egypt. Abo-Feteih, S.M..Field Crops Research Institute, S.FieldAbo-Elgoud crops research Institute, Egypt. Cairo, Egypt. Abdel-Tawab F. Ain Dept, ShamsUniv, M.Genetic of Agriculture, Cairo University, Abdel-Gawad, I.Agronomy K. Faculty Department, Egypt. M.M.FieldAbdel-Galil Crops Research Institute. RNE,Cairo, Egypt ,[email protected] Dost Muhammad, Plant Production Officer, FAO List ofContributors akar, S. Department ofAgronomy, Department Birsa Farm, Banke, Gaughat, Nepal. Yadav, J.P. Pasture andforage Multiplication Seed Egypt. Wafaa M.Sharawy. Field Crop Giza, Res. ARC, Inst, Farm, Banke, Gaughat, Nepal. Tiwari, S.P. Pasture andforage Multiplication Seed Egypt. Shereen M.El-Nahrawy. Field Crops Res. ARC, Inst, Agriculture, SuezCanal Univ, Egypt. Samy A.Shams. Water Faculty Dept.; andSoil of Agriculture, Univ, El-Sheikh Kafr Egypt. Samira A.Fouad. Botany Faculty Dept, of Sakr, H.O. Field Crop Research Institute, Egypt. Giza,Egypt. ARC, Inst, M.ForageRammah, Crops Res. Field Dept, Crop Res. India. Jharkhand, Agriculture University, -834006, Ranchi Kanke, Rakesh Kumar. ofAgronomy, Department Birsa India). Agricultural Sciencesand Technology, Jammu(J&K, P.KRai, . Assistant Professor, SKUniversity of Nepal. Co-Operative Ltd,purpose I.E. Box 4827,Kathmandu, Agri-Business & Expert. Trade Promotion multi- Pande, Rameshwar Singh.Agriculture &Livestock and Environ. Egypt. Res.ARC, Inst. Nasser, Production M.A.Biofertilizer UnitSoil, Water India). Agricultural Sciencesand Technology, Jammu(JOKE, Professor,Nanda, Rakish. O.K. University of Egypt. A.El-Nahrawy.FieldMohamed Crops Res.ARC Inst, Institute, Egypt. ARC, A.Abdu.Mohamed Field Crops Research Forage 176062 HP. Institute, Regional Research Centre, Palampur and Head,Grassland andFodder Indian Research Bimal.Misri, Former Principal (Professor) Scientist of Agriculture, SuezCanal Univ, Egypt. M.Mohamed.Magdy Water Faculty Dept.; andSoil Agriculture, Cairo University, AgronomyM. S.Radwan. Faculty Department, of Council, Islamabad Agricultural Centre, Pakistan Agricultural Research Programme, Crop SciencesInstitute, National National Coordinator,Khan, Sartaj. Fodder Resources. Khalaf, Bankandgenetic R.M.National Gene

Egyptian Clover vii (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover viii (Trifolium alexandrinum) included inthisbook.,theircontributionismostsincerelyacknowledged. to thankindividually the large community of dedicated scientists whoseworkshavebeen country reports. Editing was done by DostMuhammad and Bimal Misri. Itisnot possible and gratitudeismostsincerelyextendedtoallofthem. Forageworkershavecontributed recognition due all, credit to difficult is it so authors, hundred a over by provided been East Countries” on 6-7 November 2012 in Cairo, Egypt . Papers and reports have Near the in Agriculture of Intensification Sustainable in Role its and Clover Egyptian regional workshop “Expert Consultation Workshop on“Forage ProductionPotential of Most ofthe information in the book hasbeen collected through a FAO RNEsponsored ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS production systemsand improvement ofdairystockandlivestockmanagement. Unfortunately it is difficult to conserve so has to be involved in year-round fodder production; it isespecially associated with dairy production and buffaloes. techniques. The enduseofberseem,fertility maintenance apart,islivestock infrastructure and followbyextensionofimproved cultivars and agronomic trade. Countrieswhereberseemisimportantshould supportseedimprovement quantities whichmeetthequalityandphytosanitary requirementsofinternational and its seed is easy to clean, very simple machinery suffices - Egypt exports large landraces, contaminated by weedsandparasites. Berseem gives highseedyields country studies showclearly that most smallholders sow dirty seed of unimproved the impact of its results are not very obvious on the farms of smallholders. The Egypt, in notably research, academic of flourishing great the Notwithstanding each country. and Turkey. These describe the state of cultivation and research on the crop in by aseriesofcountrypapersfrom Afghanistan, Egypt,India,Iran,Nepal,Pakistan Chemical Composition and New Vistas in Berseem Research. These are followed The Crop and its Growth; Agronomy; Crop Improvement; Seed Production; The publication is inninechapters. After anIntroduction there arechapterson: bibliography isprovided. of theseresultsmakesthemmorereadily available the worldoverandalarge results ofthisworkare summarised in this publication. A consolidated summary seed. Research on its cultivation and improvement has increased manifold. The herbage andseedproductionEgyptisthelargest andnow exporterofberseem varieties haveenhanced balance withtheenvironmentandfarmingsystems.New a boontofarmers. Traditional cultivation methods inEgyptwereexcellent and in for followingcrops. As agreenmanureonnewlyreclaimed orwornoutsoils,itis quantities of atmospheric nitrogen, sustainsanimal husbandry andraisesfertility two main reasons for its high productivity and sustainability. Berseem fixes huge Agriculture in Egypt is more than 5 000yearsold; the Nile and berseem are discussed here. areas ofmildwintersinEurope, America and Australia butthesecasesarenot Consultation. Berseem is alsowidelyusedinlarge-scale livestock systems in specialists in the region. This publication brings together the outputs ofthe Expert of to facilitate exchange of information between agronomists, livestock and fodder Intensification Sustainable in Role its Agriculture in the Near East Countries” on 6-7 November 2012 in Cairo, Egypt", and Clover Egyptian of Potential FAO RNEorganised an Expert Consultation Workshop on“Forage Production winters; Indiaisnowthe largest producer. Because of itsregional importance west andsouth Asia andusedin commercial farming in many countries with mild domesticated in Egyptandisnowwidespreadirrigated cropping systemsin EXECUTIVE SUMMARY soil fertility maintenance, was important crop, forfodderand Trifolium alexandrinum, avery Egyptian clover, orberseem,

Egyptian Clover ix (Trifolium alexandrinum) urban needs,therearefoddermarkets asforhorticulturalcrops,andprofessionalchaffers forthosewhoneedtheirservices. and needaregularsupplyofgreen fodder. Professionalfoddergrowersgrowberseem, andothercropsinseason,tosupply fodders, arealsogrownascash-crops inSouthern Asia wherelandlesscattle-owners andperi-urbandairiesarewidespread fodders andstoversarechaffed andmixedformoreeconomical feeding;onlyricestrawisfedlong.Berseem,andallgreen touches onthisandmentionsthe useofchaffers whichisso widespreadthere;notonlythecloverbutstraws,summer to stall-fed stock (cattle and buffaloes) to crop residues. It is difficult to dry under smallholder conditions. The Indian paper green fed generally is Berseem grazing. no or little is there areas main its In Consultation. the of make-up the reflects this The papersandcountryreportsconcentrateonthegrowing improvementofberseem;littleissaidaboutitsutilisation; (Suttie andReynolds2004). another in publication with FAO dealt is mixtures, in fodder, including as oats of use The season. difficult that at are popular1)toprovideearlybulkand2)sincetheclover’s growthisveryslowinmid-winter, toprovidefodder In the cooler parts of its range, the northern parts of India and Pakistan, mixtures of berseem with brassicas or oats considerable quantitiesofberseemseedtoEuropeandmeet thehighqualitystandardsrequiredthere. Berseem has a regularly shaped seed which can be cleaned by simple equipment. Egyptian seed merchants export addressed insmallholder systems. The maincountriesposessimprovedcultivarswhichcouldbemultiplied. recommended. Seed quality, forbothvarietyandpurityshouldbesimpletoimprovebuthasnotbeenseriously frequently is flotation by cleaning channels. of marketing Acontrolled form through pass not does and landraces although rational production techniques are well known; muchofthe seed is produced on-farm from local Farmers areslowtotakeuptheresultsofresearch.Seedquality isnotedasa probleminmostcountrystudies potential when hand-harvestedincut-and-carrysystemssincethecropdoesnot tolerate close orfrequentgrazing. Berseem iswell-suited to small farms and non-mechanised harvesting; the multicut cultivars can givetheir full comes third - 710 000 ha with somewhat less than Egypt 1 175 000 ha according to the respective country studies. cut fodderandcropresidues.NowIndiahasbyfarthegreatestareaunderberseem-2000ha;Pakistan similar to those in Egypt: wheat-rice rotations, irrigation, smallholder farms with cattle and buffaloes reared on The spreadofberseem was spectacular in northernIndia, now including Pakistan, wherefarming systems are 2005). ItisgrownasasummerannualintheMidwestUSA (Sheaffer andEvers2007). these arenotasubjectforourstudyanddiscussedinanotherFAOand thesoutheastUSA; publication (Frame consultation, it is now grownas a winter crop in areas such as eastern Australia, South Africa, Southern Europe many countriesinthelate nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries. In addition to thecountries involved inthis the wild there. It was a major crop in Egypt for centuries and quickly became widespread after introduction to to Egypt as the sixth century AD; the Turkey study in this publication states that it originated in the eastern, Mediterranean; Knight 1985 gives Syria as its origin and the date of its introduction are differences ofopinionon itsexact origin butitprobablycame from whatisnowSyria.Frame(2005)statesthat It wasdomesticated in Egyptantiquity and istheoldestcultivated clover. Itisuncommon in thewildandthere Berseem isacropformildclimates and neutraltoalkaline soils; initsareaoforiginitisgrownasawinterannual. Egypt, India,Iran,Nepal,Pakistanand Turkey. There isanextensivebibliography. Egyptian authors; andCountry Papers from participating countries describing their berseem crop: Afghanistan, Chemical composition; Berseem cultivation; New vistas in berseem research - a series of essaysandthemes by on berseem.Itcompriseschapters on: The cropanditsgrowth; Agronomy; Cropimprovement; Seed production; the outputsofExpertConsultationaswellprovidingsummariesmuchthe,mainlyEgyptianliterature exchange of information between agronomistsandfodderspecialists intheregion. This publication brings together facilitate to Egypt, Cairo, in 2012 November -7 6 on Countries” East Near the in Agriculture of Intensification an ExpertConsultation Workshop on“ForageProductionPotential of Egyptian Clover anditsRoleinSustainable organised (RNE) North Africa and East Near for FAOOffice importance, Regional regional its of Because Asia. maintenance, was domesticated in Egyptandisnowwidespreadirrigated cropping systemsinwestandsouth Egyptian clover, orberseem, Introduction Chapter I.INTRODUCTION Trifolium alexandrinum,averyimportant crop, forfodderandsoilfertility T. alexandrinum is found in

Egyptian Clover 1 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 2 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 1978 and664682.hain2000. However, theareaincreased suddenlyto836309hain2001(11% increase) devoted toseedproduction. The areaunderfull season berseem is relatively stable varying between745039 ha in about athirdofthecultivated areainEgyptduringwinterasfullseasonandshort cropaswellanarea green-chop, conservedashay or silagemanufacturedintopelletsandcubesotherfeed stuffs. Berseemoccupies natural pastureisscarce.Itprovides highforageyieldsofexceptionalvaluewhetherconsumed directlyaspasturage, of asustainablecroppingsystem.Ithassustainedlivestock andcropproductionforcenturiesinsituationswhere Egyptian clover or berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is the main winter forage in Egypt and is a basic component Nahrawy (2005)hasgivenanexcellentaccountofthecontribution ofberseemtoEgypt. major feedsources. This waschangedbyfarmerswhodiscovered,grewandestablished Egyptian clover. E.L. Besides crops, livestock was there since ancient times. Pastures and grazing lands are meagre and crop wastes were Initiatives continueunabatedandhaveresultedintheestablishment of Aswan, DamiettaandEsnareservoirs. since theearly nineteenth century. Irrigation projects were establishedalong with anetworkofcanal systems. crops which ripen between March and May. This traditional primitive agriculture was supplemented by efforts delta byalayerofwaterasdeep1.5m.InundationendedOctoberwithsoilsrichinmoistureandfertility for predictable. Water level usually increase in late August and September and eventually covered the flood plain and fairly were which Egypt to floods massive brought possible this made which Nile the 2011); (Julie, agriculture Egypt hadorganized agriculture by5500BC. The Egyptiansaretheearliest people topractice large scale The Egyptianperspective clear, butalltheorganic matterandmanynutrientsarelost(Figure-1). monsoonal areasdung-cakesarestoredinplastered stacks. Foddersprovidemuchfuel,theeconomicsarenot In kerosene. or gas to access nor firewood no with areas vast the in fuel as used and straw,dried chopped with mixed fertility, is of cycle the to and field the to returned being of instead dung, region the of much transfer.On on theresidual effect of clover on soilfertility but the role of animal dejections is usually a major means of fertility on its importance asa major cool-season source ofhigh-quality fodder to supplement straw. The papers concentrate cotton as a cash crop. In its new lands , while its role in fertility maintenance is recognised, more emphasis isput Egyptian clover isrenownedinEgypt as asourceofsoilfertility, originally in systemsbasedoninundation and Figure 1. Animal manure driedfor usingasfuelincooking • • • (309.52 kg/ha)whilerotating itwithberseemforthreesuccessiveseasonsgaveupto3 928.57 and4523.80kg/ha especially wildoats.(Tables 2&3).Successive cultivationofwheatforfourseasonsresultedinlow productivity Berseem cultivationisamost viableway, economically andenvironmentally, ofcontrollingallkindsweeds • • • • • alfalfa. Inadditionberseemhasenabledlivestocktobecloselyintegratedwithcroppingformanycenturiesitis: magic crop”inCalifornia due toitsmultiple advantages andrareornodisadvantagescomparedtocropslike than to give it credit for sustaining agricultural production in such an ancient land. Berseem has been called “The production. Gravesetal(1996)concludedthatitisdifficulttoimagine agreaterhonourtobebestowedoncrop Egyptian agriculture, Fairchild considered berseemtobeindispensableasarotation crop overcenturies of cotton stated thatitisthegreatforageandsoilingcropofNile Valley. Throughout hisassessmentoftheevolution Berseem isavitalcomponentoftheagricultural systems oftheNile Valley andDelta.DavidFairchild(1902) 40,699,000 tonsin1981;thehighestwas58,666,000t2002. seeds ofhighyieldingcultivarsdevelopedsincetheearlyeighties. The lowestannualproductionofberseemwas certified of spread the to due was This 2004. in t/ha 71.14 to up 1998 from increased then and t/ha, 59.52 around remained yields 1997 to 1978 From crops. field other to relation in least changed have yields berseem Recently be byincreasingproductivity. agricultural land, developing and increasing production of winter crops (especially wheat and berseem) can only There canbenoshortormedium term solutiontothisproblem.Inviewofthemajorconstraint, the shortageof major rise in prices of animal products, in particular meat and milk and even their import may become necessary. feed cattle) requires important policy choices. Increasing wheat area at the expense of berseem could lead to a Given the shortage of agricultural land in Egypt, competition between wheat (to feed humans) and berseem (to • • • • Egypt’s annualexportsofberseemseedrosetoover12000tonsin2004. The demandisincreasingeveryyear. Financial Group1991). There arealwayshighdemandsforberseemseedfromEast Asian andSouthEuropeancountries. Berseem isamajorseedexportcrop(7400tonnes)representing86%ofEgypt’s seedexportsin1989(Egyptian It isasuitablecovercropinorchardsforcontrollingweedsand enrichingthesoilwithnitrogenandorganic matter. bees, toproduceseed. It isamajorcropforbees.MostEgyptianhoneyfromberseem whichmustbecrosspollinated, primarily by Berseem isveryrichinproteinandlowenergy. Therefore, mixing itwithgrassescanleadtobalanced feeding. et al It isasuitable companion crop. Barley, annual rye grass,triticale and oats(Rammah and Radwan, 1977;Haggag Lauchli (1982) asmoderately tolerant of salinity more so than wheat and strawberryclover but lessthan barley. that itiswellknownforreclamation of saltylandsinEgypt.Itisdescribedby Lauchli (1984) and Winter and by establishingalivestockcropping system. It is the foundation cropforlandreclamation, especially, desert or marginal sites which can easily be achieved Berseem is the best crop for sustainable rotation with rice on salt affected soils. Graves Every yearmorethan714000tonnesofnitrogenarefixed(AbdElhady A better choice for soil improvement with its ability to addnitrogen up to297-400kg/ha (Graves et al probability ofwindandwatererosionaswellsoilcompaction. increased to due conservation soil as well as flora micro and structure soil to disturbance of lot a cause would It isthebestcropforapplying no-till concept especially when sowninstandingrice. Soil preparation after rice No pesticidesareusedduringthelifetimeofberseemcropexceptwhennecessaryinestablishmentstage. biologically. ones deleterious control help which insects beneficial for shelter best the is canopy berseem The and chemicalproperties.Itprovidesacerealdiseasebreakincroppingrotations. matter content of the soil especially in newly reclaimed lands as well as improving soil structure and physical Berseem in rotation helps toconservethe soilandpreventswindwatererosionincreases the organic berseem hadbeenusedasgreenmanureorplantedforforage. fertilizer for thesucceeding crop .Higher cereal yield andquality has beenobservedincereals on landwhere Cut severaltimes for forage,thenploughedin,berseemisagreenmanure which decomposesrapidly and 1995). A companiongrassreduces theriskofbloatespeciallyininitialharvests , 1993,Gravesetal et al 1996) inEgypt (1996) reported 1996).

Egyptian Clover 3 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 4 (Trifolium alexandrinum) clover grownthereispredominantly selfpollinatedbutrequirestrippingforbetterseed production. 0.96% confirming its cross pollinated character. However, studies in India suggest that the population of Egyptian presence of bees.Underuncaged conditions seed setwas51.9%while under caged conditions seed setwasonly Egyptian conditions cross-pollination in traditional cultivars, Meskawi and Fahl was up to 82 percent in the entomophilous, crosspollinated plant.Honeybeesarethemostimportant agents ofcrossfertilization. Under the corolla is almost double the height of the calyx. Seeds are solitary and small. pedunculate. There isasmallinvolucreatthebase ofthehead.Calyxtubedisplaystenprominentnerveswhile and terminal white, creamish are heads Flower in. denticulate and apex the at mucronate are Leaflets lanceolate. alternate, and membranous with visible green nerves. Leaflets are 1.5-3.5 x 0.6x 1.5 cm oblong, elliptical to oblong Trifolium alexandrinumisanannual,30-60cmtall,witherecthairy, stemsandbranches. The leavesaretrifoliate, superiority ofberseeminwinter(Table 3) In Egypt forage is mainly irrigated and many fodders are used; a comparison of their performances reveals the than 16timesanddecreaseinproductivityofwheatbyabout12.6comparisonwithrotationberseem. seasons from1991-92to1994-95,continuouswheatresultedinincreasenumberofspikeswildoatsbymore of grain,respectively(Table 1).Rotationhelpscontrolwheatdiseases.Comparingcropsequenceforfoursuccessive Rough pea Fodder Beet Pearl millet Cowpea Barnyard grass Echinochloa Hybrid grass Elephant grass Sudan grass Fodder maize(Darwa) Alfalfa Berseem (Singlecut) Berseem (multicut) Crop Table 3.ComparisonofproductionvariousforagecropsEgypt. Table 2.Wildoatseedbankincroprotations Table 1.Incidenceofwildoatspikesinwheat-berseem Faba bean Faba bean Berseem Berseem Berseem Berseem Wheat Wheat 91/92 91/92 Berseem Berseem Berseem Berseem Wheat Wheat wheat wheat 92/93 92/93 Crop Sequence Crop sequence Area undercrop(ha) Berseem Berseem Berseem Berseem Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat 93/94 93/94 197,345 783,000 87,923 35,923 1,120 3,000 4,550 3,330 2,150 3,503 500 30 4 Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat 94/95 94/95 Productivity (Fresht/ha At planting 152.4 74.0 33.6 30.8 39.0 78.4 52.2 54.0 28.6 94.5 59.0 70.0 6.0 22.9 0.8 0.3 1.8 Wild Oats Spikes/m² 129.5 33.2 14.1 227 Wild oatseedper500gsoil Trifolium alexandrinum isan At harvest 60.0 98.3 11.0 8.4 production kg/ha Production t 54,810,000 2,514,598 3,394,723 5,723,005 1,90,913 177,450 258,720 112,230 82,880 16,800 92,400 4,572 3890.47 4523.80 1178.57 24 Wheat 309.52 Difference 10.7 58.2 75.3 7.6 technology incropimprovementhavealsobeenadded. various aspectsofberseemcropinEgyptandothermajor berseem countries. A fewpapersontheuseoflatest important to consolidate them. An effort ismadeinthefollowingpagestopresentconsolidated information on was it so scattered and diffuse are reports, official and journals to confined Results, etc. agronomy improvement, Agricultural institutions and universities in Egypt have undertaken extensive work onberseem, its cultivation, berseem. 10-15irrigationsarerequiredduringthelifeofcrop. fertilizer P sowing to assure uniform spread. Sometimes seed is broadcast in standing paddy just before harvest. Phosphatic at soil dry with mixed and overnight soaked is seed kg/ha; 20-25 is rate Seed broadcast. seed the and flooded is The soilisploughedthoroughlyandplankedtomakeituniform.Farmyardmanuregenerallyadded. The plot soils richinlimearepreferred.Itdoesnotwithstandacidicbutgrowswellalkalineandsalinesituations. on widerangesofsoils.However,It needsmildtemperaturewell.grows to grow welldrainedmediumloamy in crop areas with mild winters. It requires a dry, widespread cool climate for best growth and is grownin most countries during winter. a become now has It plants. of potential regeneration and behaviour branching the notifies Egyptian clover is commonly known asberseem which hasbeen derived from Arabic Bersym orBerzym which 2 O 5 up to 125 kg/ha can be applied. Mustard, oats or Lolium multiflorum are sometimes mixed with mixed sometimes are multiflorum Lolium or oats Mustard, applied. be can kg/ha 125 to up

Egyptian Clover 5 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 6 (Trifolium alexandrinum) of the dry matter obtained from the treatments. Maximum crude protein. crude fibre, ash, and ether extract for extract ether and ash, fibre, blades andstemswas69.04(2 crude protein. crude Maximum treatments. the from obtained matter dry the of t/ha in secondcutunder45days.Kandiletal(2005)continuedthisstudyandlaterstudiedthechemicalcomposition cutting. Fresh yield of 28.35 t/ha was obtained under 45 days interval in first year while in second year it was 26.43 and Serw1sownon year thecumulativedryforageyieldwas9.87t/ha,M 185.44 kg(71kg/ha),303.99210.71(107and36.59kg/ha)respectively. were (combined) stems and blades for (kg/ha) extract ether and ash fibre, crude protein, combined maximum rates yields werefromsowingson1 large, medium and small. Hundred seed weight, determined by weighing four samples of 100 seeds from every 32 lotsofFahlseedwereevaluated. Samples weregradedbysieving.; seeds weredesignated as large, medium Radwanetal(1972) studied the influence of seed size and source on germination and seedling vigour of berseem; Influence ofexternal factorsoninitialgrowth The highestfreshanddryyields were obtained by sowing1 varietiesover ofnew yield seed and onforage two years.Fourvarieties were sownonfourdates: 15 October, 1November, 15November and 1December. dates sowing of influence the investigated (2005) El-Zanaty which waslessthanthemixturesM and third cut, solo berseem outyielded all mixtures in both years. In first year berseem produced 3.37 t/ha in first cut berseem + canary grass. Mixtures significantly outyielded pure berseem in the first cut in first season only. In second berseem +grassmixtures.Fourmixturestestedwerebarley, ryegrass,berseem+timothyryegrass, There hasbeenmuchresearchonberseeminEgyptandamultitudeofpapersproduced.Kirwanetal(1977)studied Crop growth aspects Chapter II. THE CROP AND ITSGROWTH of 27.08 t/ha in first year while in second year maximum yield of 25.53 t/ha was achieved in 3 in achieved was t/ha 25.53 of yield maximum year second in while year first in t/ha 27.08 of 55 days. In both years the first cut was 60 days from sowing. 50 cm height cut provided maximum fresh forage yield kg/ha were adopted. Cutting schedules were 30, 40, and 50 cm height; cutting intervals were fixed at 25, 35, 45 and Kandil in freshanddryforageaswelltotaldigestiblenutrients(TDN). The localcultivarwasinferiortoothers. ha) were studied. Giza 6 produced the tallest plants and most leaves per plant. It outyielded the other three significantly forage yieldandqualityoffourcultivars(Giza6,Gemmiza1,Serw1local)tothreeseedrates(35,5371kg/ Sarhan andEl–Maksoud(2002)investigatedtheresponseofberseemcultivarstoseedrates.Responsegrowth, during secondyear. grass rye of kg 10 with berseem of kg 15 and year first the in seed ryegrass of kg 8 with berseem of kg 20 mixing obtained when 20kgofberseem was mixed with 14 kgofryegrass.Lowest green forage yield was obtained by of pure berseem were added with 15, 20and 25 kgseed rate. During both years highest fresh and dry yield was were mixed with four seed rates of ryegrass, 8, 10, 12 and 14 kg. In the second year, three additional treatments kg 35 and 20 15, 3, Sakha cv of rates seed three experimentation, of year first the During 3. cv.Sakha berseem Nasr The proteincontentofthepurestandlegumeswasmuchhigherthanmixtures. increased forage yield by 18.91%,17.85%39.4%and7.58%thanthe yield of legumes in purestand,respectively. Younis Khadrawi on 1 stems were502.23(2 and blades for (kg/ha) expect ether and (kg/ha), ash (kg/ha) fibre crude (kg/ha), yield protein combined Maximum on 15Novemberprovidedthehighestseedyield. Total forage yield (dry) obtained was berseem 9.28 t/ha, M et al(1989)evaluated theeffect ofseedratesberseemandryegrassonfreshdryyieldmixtures et al et al (1986)studied the performance of mixing barley with berseem (Fahl andMeskawi), Vicia and Lathyrus (2004) investigated seed rates and cutting schedules on cv. Meskawi. Three seed rates of 35, 71 and 107 st November gave significantly highest dry forage field in both first and second year. second seed and Highest first both in field forage dry highest significantly gave November nd st cut),712.52(3 December provided the highest seed yield in the first season; during second year cv. year second during season; first the Giza in yield seed highest the provided December nd st December during first year and 15 November in second year. Cultivar Synthetic 79 cut),26.5(1 1 , M rd cut),560.5(2 2 , M 3 , andM st cut),44.47(second8.30(1 4 butinsecondandthirdcutpureberseemoutyieldedmixtures. 1 nd 10.95t/ha,M cut)and71-176(4 1 9.22 t/ha, M st November in bothyears. Sowingcvs. Ahaly and 2 10.23t/ha,M 2 8.75 t/ha and M th cut)respectively. Under different seed st cut)and5.33(3 3 10.29t/haandM 3 9.51 t/ha. In the second rd rd cutunder50days cut) respectively. 4 10.54t/ha. Sakha 4andFahlwereevaluatedinarandomizedcompleteblockdesignwithfourreplications. in therangeofmorethan30g /kgofclover. (62.7%) occurredintherange 1-5,6-10,and11-15g/kg ofcloverseed.12.7%contaminated samples occurred Contamination was higherinKafrEl-Sheikh(92.5%) whileinGhabiaitwas80%.Mostcontaminated samples clean. were sellers certified from seeds but dodder farmers’by of infected % were 86.7 samples Some 15°C. was Cuscuta seed, germinated in the temperature range of 10–20°Candthe optimum temperature for germination samples were collected from seedcompanies. A questionnaire to collect information from farmersrevealed that magnitudeof temperature range for itsspread.200seedsamplesweretested fordoddercontamination with adulterants. 150 findthe to optimum the find wereintegrated to made, were seeds dodder on studies Germination measures. farm studies control and infestations dodder and laboratory Field, Menoufia. and Gharbia Sheikh, Abdel-Hamid and El-Khanagry (2006)studied this menace in three governorates of the Nile Delta: Kafr El- of contaminatedseed.Farmersproduceandusetheirown seed. In Egypt infestation by Cuscuta planiflora and Dodder which waspositivelycorrelatedwithplantheight,stemdiameter, numberofbranchesandtotalleafarea. plants of weight dry and fresh increased GAsignificantly of ppm 50 with combination in or alone ppm) (100-800 significantly reduced plant height in both varieties; Alar alone or in combination with GA gave the best results. Alar and branches of number the increased GA ppm) and of (1-8 Alar. spray Morphactin the by significantly increased was observed.GA (50ppm)andor Alar sprayproducedthetallestplants. The numberofbranchesonthemainstem Alar (200-800ppm).UndersprayofGA,plantsgrewtallest.Inthemulti-cutvarietyMeskawialmostsametrend of spray by significantly increased Branches combination. in or alone Morphactin and (GA) acid Gibberellic with on berseemvarietiesMeskawiandFahl.Inthesinglecutvariety, Fahl,nobrancheswereobservedonplantssprayed Alar (100-1622ppm),Gibberellicacid(50ppm)andMorphactin(1.20weresprayedaloneincombinations Mohammed andFahmy(1988) studied the effect of Alar, Gibberellic acid (GA) and Morphactin on Egyptianclover. Zayed (2011) evaluated six cultivars for performance under hightemperatures. Helaly, Serw 1, square deviationfromregressionindicatedthatallvarietiestestedwerestablefordryyieldperformance. Elgalil new varietiesandsomecommercial ones (total8)wereevaluated for freshanddryforageyieldatsixsitesby Abd Genotype x environment interaction is ofgreat importance in the development and evaluation of cultivars. Seven The impactwaswellobservedinbothcultivars. 11exposure totheseeds. pulses a markedimpactonmorphological There wascharacters aswellherbageyield. by Tarrad Two cultivars,multi-cut Gemmiza and single-cut Fahl wereexposedtosixtreatments of nonthermal plasma pulse dates weredelayed. planting as decreased area unit per seedlings of Number percentages. average on significance any exert to failed to lateones.Drillinggaveahigherpercentage compared tobroadcastinginthesecondseason.Plantdensities alfalfa. and compared sowings Average early in higher significantly appeared seedlings germinated of percentage Kandil andShalaby(1985)studiedtheeffect of cultural practices on germination and seedcharacters of berseem to beconditionedbyintrinsiclotdifferences unrelatedtoseedsize. medium and small seeds. Seedsize is notamajor factor controlling seedling vigour duringgermination; it appears 85.6 while germination recorded byclasseswas83.7,83.5,79.8and74.7percent in case of large, medium large, related to seedsize,areimportant ingermination and emergence. Germination percentage ranged between61.6to first not factors, source seed that interaction. indicates significant This highly for a showed factors emergenceboth count, Except (classes). size seed and (lots) source seed by influenced significantly were emergence seedling lot, was198,255,328and403mgmsforsmall,medium,mediumlarge andlarge respectively. Germination and and soilwere18.540.8C et al(1998). Fresh and dry yields differed significantly between varieties within and among sites. The mean et al(2010). These treatments were comparedtoanuntreated control. Treatments were1,3,5,7,9and ° withameanof31.4C C. pedicellata ° . Giza6andHelalyyielded11.28 and11.57 t/harespectively. is widespread. and cause significant damage because Gemmiza 1,Giza6, Temperatures ofair

Egyptian Clover 7 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 8 (Trifolium alexandrinum) forage yieldthancommercial varieties Giza 10,Sakha4,Giza15,Helaly andGiza6by22.1,22.5,24.8,29.9 dry higher significantly gave strain multi-foliate The cut. first at content protein and yields forage dry and fresh The multi-foliate strain was evaluated with five cultivars by Bakheit (1998). There were significant differences for Sarol, Geminza1,Helaly, Sakha6Mand2. the newstraingavehigherseasonaldryforageyieldsascompared to established varieties like Sakha 3,4M, cut. Also first at yield forage dry and fresh highest gave strain multi-foliate new The yield. forage dry and fresh for varieties among differences significant were There cultivars. eleven with along evaluated were plants foliate after elevengenerationsofrigidselectiontheprogenyfor highlyproductivemulti-foliate plants. The newmulti- leaves, was crossedwith thetrifoliate, multicut cultivar Meskawi. The multicut, multi-foliate strain wasdeveloped mutant ofmonocutFahlandusedittocreateamulti-foliate strain ofberseem. This mutant,havingmulti-foliate and usedthem to produce multi-foliate generations by hybridization. Bakheit and El- Nehrawy (1997)found a In Ascorbic acidprovidedthehighestprotectionwhenapplied24hoursbeforeinoculationfollowedbysalicylicacid. respectively. Sprayofantioxidantsto25daysoldstandsresultedinprotectionagainstP. medicaginis infection. severity whileirrigationafterintervalsof21and35dayscaused70%23%incidencewith24%14% 54% with incidence 100% caused days 14 after significantly. Irrigation these reduced irrigation late while disease cut theincidencewas36%and 26% with20%and 10% severity respectively. Similarly, early irrigation causedmore early cuts and declined in later ones. Disease incidence after first cut was 53% with 34% severity. In second and third day oldplantsrecorded87.0and66.0%ofdiseasewith66%40%severity. Diseaseincidencewasmoreseverein susceptible tofungalinfections.Hundredpercentincidenceofdiseasewasfoundon25dayoldplantswhile35and45 the while stem latter causedlimited,smallanddarkbrownspotsmainlyonleavesattimesstem. black Younger and plantsweremore foliage the of spotting causes former The cause. the as identified were spp. Epicoccum and medicaginis Phoma viz, isolates Epicoccum. Two and Phoma as identified fungi of genera two revealed tests Black stemandleafspotsareverycommon.Shaat(2003)studiedthesediseasesinMinia.Isolationpathogenicity Foliar diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses are very common in clovers and Egyptian clover is no exception. Fungal infestationsandtheir control reported in Trifoliate leaf isaninherentanddiagnosticcharacter of thegenus Trifolium butmulti-foliate leaves havebeen be mutants. It is difficult to designate a plant as a mutant by only visual observations; detailed studies are required. caused byedaphicorclimatic factors buttheymaybebecauseofchangesatgene levelandsuchplantsmayinfact Aberrant, abnormaloruniqueplanttypescanbefoundinanypopulation. At timestheseabnormalities are Multifoliate strainsofberseem cause nosignificanteffect onsucceedingcrops. experimental conditions. The compounds induetime get degraded bysoilmicro organisms orget transformed and all cropsexceptmaize. These detrimental effects ofallelopathic constituents oftwocultivars are visibleonlyunder application of 20%and10%concentration extracts ofGiza15. The root extract of Helalyreducedgermination in antitoxic effect of Giza 15 root extract is concerned, it reduced germination of berseem by 77.0%and 82.09% with seedling length ofsoybeanandberseemwasreducedconsiderably with 20%rootextract of Giza15. As farasthe application of 20% concentration of this root extract germination was reduced by 87.67% in sunflower. Similarly, With 15. Giza of extract root by inhibited completely almost was germination sunflower In soybean. of case in of Giza15.Reduction in germination was 57.0and66.67%with2010%concentration extract respectively soybean, berseem and sunflower. Germination in all crops except maize was reduced considerably by root extracts seedlings of succeeding summer crops after seven daysofsowingwerestudied. Summer crops tested were maize, extracts ofGiza15andHelalywerepreparedtheireffects ongermination, seedling lengthandfreshweight/10 allelopathy; it occursinberseemand Toaima from themaretoxicorharmfultoothersanddonotletthesegrow, orhampertheirgrowth. This isknownas Crop competition is anaturalphenomenon.Besidestheinherentcharactersofplantstocompete, chemical exudates Allelopathic effectsofberseem Trifolium alexandrinummulti-foliate plants occur commonly; many geneticists have designated themasmutants Trifolium pratense andmanyotherspecies. et al(1999)studiedtheallelopathic effects oftwocultivars. Root and crudefibrepercentagevariedaccordingtocultivar, cut,yearandsalinitylevel. detrimental effects. Genetic variability for salinity tolerance and foragequality seems toexist.Crudeprotein,ash detrimental effects onplants height, freshanddryforageyields at all cuts inbothseasons.Increasing salinity had April 27.Inthesecondseason,cutsweretaken on Dec20,Jan21andMarch2.Increasing levels of salinity caused with asalinity level of 2.5,5.5and8.5mmohs/cm respectively. Three cuts weretaken on Jan25,March22and berseem. InastudybyEl-Nahrawyetal(1998),ninecultivarswereevaluated at threesiteswithsaltaffected soils vigour anditsresistance to salinity, onlyNaCl salinity was more toxic than NaCl+ CaC This investigation reveals thatberseematgermination has verylittle resistance tosalinity. Incaseofseedling percentage and index as (indescending order) alfalfa- Northking- sorghum, millet, berseem– sweet sorghum. irrigation rangedbetween6.91to11.22 kg/m normal under yields forage Fresh yields. decreased gave conditions drought under Growth field. forage dry and with thesameaccessionsundernormal irrigation. There was considerable variations amongst accessionsforfresh subjected 32 accessions to drought conditions throughout their growth till cutting and compared their performance Egyptian clover is amoisture loving crop which requires frequent irrigation. Bakheit and El Hinnawy (1993) Drought tolerance saline solutions ofNaClandNaCl+ CaC berseem (cv. Meskawi),alfalfa, forage sorghum (Sordan-Northking),Sweetsorghum andmillet were tested in two El-Rahim (1983) tested the responseoffourforagestosalinity in their germination and initial growth. Seedsof Berseem isfairlyresistanttosoilsalinitywhichrenderslarge tractsoflandunsuitableforcrops.Bakheitand Abd Tolerance ofsoilsalinity for leafareaestimationinberseem. for breeders.Increaseinleafareacertainly enhances thebiomassandRadwan(1973)hasgivenmethodology cottonproduction beforesowingorotherearlysummercrops. The multi-foliate trait canserveasageneticmarker protein yieldsthanothercultivars. Ithasbeensuggestedthatthismulti-foliate strain couldbeusefulforforage seasonal higher gave strain This varieties. commercial five than higher 18.3% was cuts over averaged ratio stem higher. was leaf strain the new Even the by provided yield forage dry cut first 6. The Giza and Helaly 15, Giza 4, 36.7% respectively. Bakheit (2001) furtherevaluated this strainalongwithcommercial varieties Giza 10,Sakha alfalfa- millet- berseem and sweetsorghum. IncaseofNaCl_CaC In case of sodium chloride salinity, germination percentage and index descended in this order: forage sorghum- after 10days. 10 days,2)germination rate index, 3)radical and plumule length after 10 days,and4)freshweightofseedlings water), 4000,81216000and20ppm.Germination testsrecorded,1)germination percentage after l2 . Sixconcentrations of bothsolutions were tested with, control (distilled 2 ; understressitwas3.80-6.06kg/m l2 salinity crops recorded germination 2 . l2 salinity. This was true for

Egyptian Clover 9 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 10 (Trifolium alexandrinum) achieved undersprayingof4200m irrigation withlarge quantitiesofwaterproducedshortestroots.Maximumseedproduction340kg/hawas for forageandseedyield.Sprinklerirrigation promoted longeranddeeperroots thansurfaceirrigation. Surface of droughtresistance in Egyptian clover. Kandil but there are areaswhereitisscarce.Investigations have studiedtheimpact of irrigation regimes andthepotential Berseem requires intensive irrigation. With the construction of damsonthe Nile, irrigation is widely available, Irrigation regimes nodule numberandbiomass.Significantdifferences duetobothinoculationandcultivarswereobserved. increasing in significantly strain reference the surpassed strains Local weight. dry and numbers nodule in increases significant showed plants inoculated while plants 10 per 110nodules to up produced plants Uninoculated effective. were analyzed for chemical constituents, total digestible protein and digestible nutrients. Native rhizobia can be very analyzed forNcontentafter45daysfromsowing.Freshanddryweight/hawererecordedinalltreatments.Samples plants andtheirdryweightwasrecordedafter45daysfromsowing.Dryof Three localrhizobiumisolateswerecomparedwithareferencestrainandcontrol. The numberofnodulesper10 continue. rhizobia efficient and compatible more produce and find effortsto their and 1950 in inoculants producing fertility, whichmaybethemainreasonforitsadoptionbyfarmers. soil The Agriculture ResearchCouncilbegan increase and nitrogen atmospheric fix to ability its is agriculture Egyptian to contribution greatest Berseem’s Biological nitrogen fixation III. AGRONOMYChapter significantly increased fresh and dry forage fields by 47.53 and 61.94% respectively compared to untreated plants. forage yields were obtained from irrigations thrice after each cut. Ureafoliar spray inconcentration up to0.50% dry and fresh Optimum water/ha. of litres 952 using cut each after days 20 and flowering after days 35 at times cut. Nitrogen foliar spray wasapplied as urea (46.5% N)at rates of 0.0,0.25and0.50%.Cropsweresprayedfour Two experimentswererepeated for twoyears.Irrigationtreatments comprisedof 1, 2and3irrigationsaftereach El-Sabbagh by studied was application foliar nitrogen and irrigation by influenced as Productivity exhibited duringsecondyearbutforageyieldswerehigher. were 18.02, 15.59, 13.92 and 17.76, 15.73 and 11.76 t/ha under A, B & C irrigation regimes. A similar trend was respectively. A similar trendwasfoundundersecondandthirdcutwhenaccumulated forage yields obtained accumulated forage yield (fresh) was21.90t/ha, 5.83t/ha and 18.02t/ha under A, BandCirrigation treatments highest the cut (50:50). first berseem At grass+ rye (75:25) berseem + grass rye (50:50) berseem barley+ (75:25) irrigation were provided. Cropcombinations were, berseem (pure) ryegrasspure,barley pure; barley+berseem Three water regimes of 738 (A)561(B) and 257 (C) m with barleyandannual ryegrass. The experiments were repeated overtwoyearswitha total of 21treatments. Rizk frequency inbothyears. irrigation. Fresh forage yield displayed the same trend and highest yields were achieved under 15daysirrigation (combined) was achieved under 15 daysfrequency and highest yield of protein was 1010kg/ha under 15 days plant heightinallthreecutsat52.96cm,60.57cmand68.69respectively. Similarly maximum protein kg/ha 20 and 25 days. Three cuts were taken during first year. Irrigation frequency of 15 days displayed highest average Meskawi, Sakha4,Helaly 4, Synthetic Sids 6andGiza 15 wereexposedto three irrigation frequencies after 15, Gaballah (2001) studiedtheeffect ofirrigation frequency on forageyield and quality of fourcultivars. Multi-cut irrigation every15days. under control (irrigation every 15 days)than every 30 days.Photosynthetic rates declined in all accessions under all accessions comparedwithmoderate drought andcontrol. All accessionsrecordedhigherfreshanddryyield eleven accessions. Severedroughtreduced stem/root length ratio, crowndiameter and number of branchesfor objectives were toinvestigate morphological and physiological parameters related to droughttolerance among Belal et al(2005)investigated theeffect of irrigation regimes and mixing ratios onforageyield of berseem mixed et al(1998)studiedtheeffect ofwaterstressonphotosyntheticrate,osmoticpotential and yield. The main 3 water/hainfourirrigations andaseedrateof28kg/ha. et al (1983)evaluated irrigation methods and quantities of water 3 /ha of water which amount to 100, 75 and 50 % ofactual et al (2005). treatment was 7.14and 3.57 t/ha during 1 was applied. Highest yieldswereobtained by addition of 119 kg/haNinbothseasons. Dryforageyield from this Abouenein (2010) increased intherootzone.Foliarapplicationwithureahadaslightincrementonthistrait. 1, 2and3irrigations at each cut respectively. Water consumptive usevalues increased as available soil moisture K P berseem cv. El-Miskawi. Seed rates were 28, 56 and 85 kg/ha. Phosphorus wasapplied at 0, 35, 70 and 107 kg Abdallah A number ofstudies havebeenundertakenontheseaspectsinEgypt Response tofertilization Water requirement valueswere64.75cm(6475m Sowing ondry, levelled soilandprovisionofirrigationaftersowinggavethehighestvaluewatersaving. ha. There were no significant differences in fresh and dry yield and crude protein percentage in the two treatments. seeds were sown on dry levelled soil and then irrigated. Nitrogen wasprovided in three regimes 0, 35 and 70 kg/ W2 In flooding. after soil wet on seed broadcasting involved W1 used. were methods Twosowing fertilization. Mady and Meleha (2007) studied water use efficiency of berseem as affected by methods of sowing and nitrogen plant withoutanysalinity. Serw 1andHelaly under nosalinity; during second year these cultivars attained maximum dry weight of 0.52gm/ cvs by achieved was plant / gm 0.42 of yield matter dry highest the year first the In ppm. 500 under 1 cv.Serw application of 107kgP by obtained was t/ha 51.07 of yield fresh Maximum yield. forage seasonal increased significantly kg/ha 56 rates, significantly was yield affected forage by phosphorusapplication. Yields dry increased with increasing phosphorus upto 107 kg/ha P and Fresh weeks. three of intervals at provided was Irrigation cut. first after berseem. Five levels of N (0, 59,119,berseem. FivelevelsofN 178and238kg/ha)twolevelsofP El Hamdietal(1981)studiedtheeffects ofnitrogen,phosphateandpotashonyieldchemical composition of this treatment. of bladespluspetioles decreased bydelaying planting dates and thisincreased when more cuts weretaken. In case in the second planting season (2 blades pluspetiolestendedto increaseasmorecuttingsweretaken. The nitrogenindrymatterofsheathsincreased dry matter ofstem and sheathsshowedthesame pattern. Mean amountsoftotal phosphorus uptake in drymatter of percentage of total nitrogen in dry matter was higherin Meskawi than Waffer. Meanpercentage of total nitrogen in dry matter of blades and petioles tended to increase as sowingdates were delayed or more cuttings taken. Mean Kandil andShalaby(1983)studiedfactorsthatmayaffectP N, uptake byEgyptianclover. andK Total nitrogenin Application ofpotashhadnosignificanteffect onforageyield. control. Highest seed yields of 1269and 1 559kg/ha were achieved by application of 178and119 kg.N/ha. maximum plant height of 46.9cmin2 plant height of 33.3cm was achieved by cv. Helaly under 2000ppm. During secondyear cv. Serw1achieved treatments salinity Under water). (tap control under maximum plant heightof45.2cmwasachieved in secondcutbycv. Serw1under000ppmsalinity. cut Minimum fourth in 1 Serw cv. by year first in achieved was cm with thesesalinity concentrations inthewholeseasonandcutfourtimesperyear. Maximum plant height of 46.3 NaCl concentrations in irrigation were, 500,1000,1500and2000ppmaddedtotapwater. Plantswereirrigated genotypes. berseem five of traits agronomic on salinity water of effect studied (1995) and Ahmed Mohamed Ali saved waterwhichamountedto104mm(18%). ranged from23to28%being5.27.94t/haascomparedfarmer’spractice. Growingberseemonraisedbeds beds revealed an increaseingreen(fresh)yieldrangedfrom20to26%being34-38.3t/haanddry dry and wet sowing were tested, 4) deficit and farmer irrigation practices were tested. Growing berseem on raised beds. Treatments included, 1) growingberseem onraisedbeds;growingitinbasins,2)farmer’s basinirrigation, 3) 2 2 O O 35and 71 kg/ha were applied. There was a gradual increase ingreen and dry forage yields as more nitrogen 5 /ha intheformofcalcium superphosphate (15%P et al(1981)studiedtheeffectfertilization ofphosphorusandseedrateonforageyield et al 2 O studied a water saving method for increasing yield of berseem by cultivation on raised 5 and56kg/ha seed rate. Maximum dryforage yield of 9.42t/hawasobtained under nd year) with more cuts. The mean amounts of total potassium uptake in dry matter nd cut undernosalinity. Maximum plant height of 44.4cmwasachieved in st and 2 3 nd / ha),75.92cm(7592m year respectively, to 143 and 150 percent higher yield than 2 O 5 ). Halfofthefertilizer was broadcast at sowing andhalf 2 O 3 5 /ha)and85.77cm (8577 m 71and142kg/hatwolevelsof 2 O 5 3 . Ofseed /ha)for

Egyptian Clover 11 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 12 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 114 kgK during third cut in both seasons. In first season maximum plant height was achieved in 1 Highest quantity of seed at 454.28 kg /ha and 620.95 kg/ha was achieved underapplication Highest quantityofseedat454.28kg/haand620.95kg/hawas60P respectively. Highestcrudeproteinpercentage of 23-28percentwas achieved in secondcutduring1 P and 178kg/haassoilapplication. SimilarlyK mixtures of berseem + barley at the rate of 50+50%,and 33+67%. Two NandP fertilizer treatments were also and solo barley solo, berseem of treatments the under sown were respectively. Mixtures season second and first in sandysoil.Egyptianclover var. Meskawiandbarleyvar.in DecemberandNovember during Gustoen weresown Kandil and Abo Deya (1994)investigated the responseofbarleyinpurestandtoNandcombination with berseem cut infirstseasonwhenfreshforageyieldincreasedsignificantly withadditionofbasaldose40kgN/ha. first at except seasons, both in yield total and cut each at yield forage dry and fresh on levels N in observed were During first season five cuts were taken; during second season only four cuts were taken. No significant differences 1 wereadded. Serw after everycutwereapplied. as basaldoseand40kg/ha N 40 kg/haN Three nitrogenlevelsO, to N fertilization by El-Zanatay (2005). During the second season of evaluation two more varieties, Giza 6 and Four varieties of Egyptian clover, Ahaly, Khadrawi,Synthetic 79 andGizaGammahwereevaluated for response P 76.67 cmandrespectively underP ha wasachievedbyapplication of 107kg/haP then the crop was left to seed. First cut was 80 days after sowing and the first highest fresh fodder yield of 51.07 t/ as potassium sulphate (48% K quality. Two formsand three rates of potassium fertilizer were tested. Fertilizer rates were 0, 71and 142 kg/ha Haggag andEl-Kholy(1998)investigated the effect ofpotassiumformsandratesapplication on yieldand increase bymorefrequentcutting. of drymater of stems plus sheathsthe mean percentage of potassium increased in second planting and it tended to 60 kgK tetrahydrogen diorthophosphate was used as afoliar spray at 476 g/ha. Similarly P achieved under 107kg/haP green yield was 42.26 and dry forage yield was 6.88 t/ha. In the first season highest seed yield of 237.85 kg/ha was 9.42 t/hawasachievedunderthistreatment. The sametrendwasrepeated in thesecondseasonwhenlowest application of 107kg P highest green and dry matter yields (92.73, 15.47, 101.52, 16.90 t/ha) at 142 kg. K affected greenanddrymatter yield forallcuts(3taken)inbothseasons.Potassiumsulphateprovidedthe affected bythenutritional treatments during1 kg and 476 g /ha respectively were applied as foliar spray. There were no significant differences in plant height as and potassiumwere provided assoilandfoliar applications. Besides thecontrol, P Nor El-DinandHaggag(1993)studiedtheeffect ofmineral nutrition on Egyptian clover onsalinesoils;phosphorus 2:1 ratioresultedinhighestforageproduction. treatment) was favourablewithberseem,adding75kgofbothNandP/hatothe mixtureofbarleyandberseemin season) andNovember (2 were usedatratesof50N+kgP a rate of 45 kg seeds /ha. Seed of both crops were thoroughly mixed and line sown 20cm apart. N and P fertilizers berseem. Egyptian clover and barley were sownalone as well as mixtures of 1:1,2:1and 1:2ratios respectively at Abou DeyaandKandil(1993)studiedtheresponseofbarleytoNP fertilization and grown mixedwith 107 kg/ha P berseem. Three seedratesof 28,56and102kg/hawereapplied while phosphoruswasapplied at 0,15,35and Abdallah respectively duringfirstandsecondseasonofexperimentation. ha and142kgP produced the highest forage yield in the second seasonandbarley in bothseasons. The inversepattern of 2:1(M 2 2 O O 5 5 ,114 kgK withseedrateof85kg/ha. 2 O asK 2 O/ha application, while duringsecond season maximum freshforage yield of 190t/ha was achieved by et al(1988)studiedtheeffectfertilization of phosphorusandseedrateonforageyieldof 2 O 5 2 . Half of the phosphorus was applied at sowing and the rest after first cut. Two cuts were taken and O and47kgCa/haduringfirstseason. 2 2 SO4. The situation was similar in secondseasonwhenthecrudeproteinpercentage was 22.48. O 5 /ha respectively. Total fresh forage yield of 117 t/ha during first season was achieved under achieved was season first during t/ha 117 of yield forage respectively.Totalfresh /ha 2 O 5 nd /ha. Highest seed production of 1 500 kg /ha was achieved withapplication /ha. Highestseedproductionof1500kg/hawas of 107kg season)sowncrops.Mixingbarley with berseem in aratio of 1:2(M 2 O 2 5 O) andpotassium chloride (60% P andseedrateof57kg/ha.Duringsecondseasonhighestyieldwaswithno 2 O 5 and75N+P 2 O st andsecondcutsinbothseasons.However, plantheightincreased 2 5 O was applied at114,was O 171and228kg/ha.Calciumascalcium application of 142and178kg/ha,P 2 O 5 andaseedrateof57kg/ha. The highestdryfodderyieldof 2 O 5 kgperha. Two cutsweretakeninDecember(1 2 O 5 ). Potassium sources and rates significantly rates and sources Potassium ). 2 O 2 O/ha for the 1 5 +K 2 O 2 O 5 wasapplied at 107, 142 st 5 2 , 2 application of 178kg/ O andCa at 107 kg.114 nd and3 st and 2 rd st cut at50cm, 2 seasonwith O 4 treatment) 5 asK nd season 2 SO st 5 4

or barleycomponentinmixtureresultedcorrespondingincreaseaggressivity. increasing N-P levels to berseem and increasing the ratio of any of them in the mixture. Increasing any of berseem berseem or barleycomponent in mixture increased LER value. RCC values of berseem and barley increased by values decreased and increased by increasing N-P added to solo berseem or solo barley respectively. Increasing estimated on drymatter basis asaffected by intercropping systems anddifferent levels of N-P fertilization. LER Land equivalent ratio (LER), relative crowding coefficient (RCC) and aggressivity (A) of berseem and barley were applied at 50kg/haN+P 2 O 5 and75kg/haN+P 2 O 5 kg. Two cutsweretaken during each season.

Egyptian Clover 13 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 14 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Haggag Sakha 4andGiza15werethebestcultivarsfornewlyreclaimedsoilsofIsmailia. ha respectively. Productivity, however, differed at individual cuts. The interaction of variety x year was significant. 3, Sakha4,Giza6,10,and15,producedcumulative dry matter yield of5.47,7.30,6.61,6.61and7.07t/ for cultivation onnewlyreclaimed soilsinIsmailia.Duringtwoyearsofevaluation 1990-91 and1991-92,Sakha cultivars identified studies the and years successive two for evaluated were 15 Giza and 10 Giza 6, Giza 4, Sakha El-Halim etal(1993) Abd evaluated five cultivars of Egyptian clover under Ismailia conditions. Cultivars Sakha 3, evaluated undervariousclimaticconditionsandotherparameters. Berseem has undergone a lot of improvement and a number of cultivars have been developed which have been Evaluation ofgeneticresources Chapter IV. CROP IMPROVEMENT 0.74-1.85 g. Two morecutsweretakenafter5 1.38-5.22 g,inmid September. Itrangedbetween 1.01-6.00 ginmidOctoberand inmid August itrangedbetween and mid October. Five cuts were taken from each sowing. Meanfreshweight per plant was foundto be between Egyptian clover and cv. Sonoraof Alfalfa were compared. Sowings weremade in mid August, mid September Kandil andShalaby(1985)studied a newapproach to growingEgyptian clover and Alfalfa. Cultivar Giza 1, of superior infreshanddryforageyieldoverGiza1,butits forageyielddoesnotreachthesignificantlevel. of Sakha 4 and Gemmeza 1 were comparatively more tolerant to NaCl. In case of forage yield cv. Ismaelia 1, was Seeds length. plumule and index rate germination percentage, germination depressed significantly ppm 000 4 to up concentration NaCl of levels Increased varieties. clover and concentrations NaCl by influenced significantly 4, Serw1,andGemmeza 1. Germination percentage, germination rate index, radical and plumule length were development, accumulative forage yieldsandchemical composition oncultivarsGiza,Ismaelia 1, Helaly, Sakha Rizk forage yieldwasachievedbygenotypeCairo3at13.52t/ha(meanoffoursites). highest drymatterachievedbycv. yieldwas Gammeza1at14.76t/ha(meanoffoursites)whileminimum dry while thelowestfreshforageyield(meanoffoursites)wasachievedbygenotypeCairo3at103.95t/ha. The were alsotested. The highestmeanfreshforageyieldatfoursiteswasachievedbygenotypeHatour(113 t/ha) Syn. Along with these, six promising genotypes Cairo 1, Cairo 2, Cairo 3, Narmer, Hatour and Assiut populations 10 releasedcultivars, Sakha3,4,96,Hellaly,2 andSids 1, Serw Giza6,15,Gemmeza1,Serw and middleEgyptduringtwosuccessiveseasons,2003-20042004-2005. The genotypestestedcomprisedof environments. Field experiments were laid out at four sites,Sakha,Gemmiza, Serw andSidsrepresenting the delta Abdel-Galil et al (2007) studied the yield and stability of sixteen Egyptian clover genotypes under different random to the main plots and five rates of phosphorine inoculation in combination with 35 kg/ha P 2001. The trialconsistedof15treatmentson3varieties. Varieties Giza6,Sakha4andHelalywereallocatedat mineral and bio-phosphate fertilization. Two field experiments were conducted at Sids during 1999-2000 and 2000- Sarhan Variety HelalyachievedhighestvaluesforalltheparameterswhileGiza6lowest. half the recommended dose of mineral phosphorus combined with phosphorine inoculation for all varieties studied. as wellprotein,phosphorusandpotassiumyields. The highestvalueswereobtainedfromplantsfertilizedwith yields matter dry and fresh on influence significant a had inoculation phosphorine with fertilization bio-phosphate with alfalfafollowedbypure alfalfa. mixture by followed berseem, pure in higher significantly was cuts five the for plant per yield green of averages plant. Drillingwasfoundtobe abettermethodforincreasingforageyield. The combinedanalysisindicated that fertilization doseof71kg/haP and phosphorineinoculationaloneweretestedcomparedwithuntreatedsoilrecommendedphosphorus more thanpureberseem.Rye grassvarieties Torero, Wosley andPrimoraweresuperiortootherryegrasses. stand produced higher forage yield than all ryegrass varieties alone. Mixtures of berseem and rye grass yielded four sites,Ismailia,Gimmeza, Sakha andNubariaduring1993-941994-95. All mixturesandberseeminpure et al et al(2002)studiedtheresponseofforageyieldandqualitysomeberseemvarietiestointeractionwith et al (2002) studied the effect of various treatments of NaCl (saline water) on germination, seedling growth, (1995) compared the performance of ten ryegrass varieties in pure and mixed stands with berseem at 2 O 5 /ha whichwererandomlydistributedinthesubplotswithfourreplicates. The th cutbuttheiryieldswerelow andrangedbetween1.59-3.03g/ 2 0 5 , 17kg/haP 2 O 5 genetic relationshipinEgyptian clovercultivars. 120 to14.4KDa.Isozyme and protein analysis using PAGE are suitable for maintaining and determining the superoxide dismutase (SOD) Iband(0%pol)andinprotein II bands(53.2%pol). The protein bands ranged from esterase 2 bands(0%pol)inacidphosphates4 (25%pol)inalkaline phosphates 3bands(66.7%pol)in and proteins exhibited different total bands 28 (42.9% polymorphism, pol) in peroxides 7 bands (28.6% pol) isozymes Five length. radial in cm) (3.30 value significant showed Gemmiza-1 cm) While (5.20 value significant highest gave Serw-1 length shoot in (2.45) value significant exhibited Gemmiza-1 while Fahl cut single in (4.65) value significant highest The (2n=16). diploid were cultivars (SDS-PAGE)respectively.The electrophoresis gel among cultivarswerestudiedthroughnativepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis(PAGE)Polyacrylamide andSDS- days. Three cells ofeach seedling were usedforconstructing the karyotype. Isozymes andprotein pattern variation and FahlweresowninPetridishessixreplicates. Studies wereundertaken on seedlingsafter10, 15and20 type, werebasedoncytology, isozymesandseedprotein.Seedsoffourvarieties, Serw-1, Gemmiza – 1,Giza-6 Zayed Plant improvement dismutase. Itwasfoundthat11 bandswereproducedfromfourEgyptiancloverwhichranged120to144KDa. peroxides, 7bandsinesterase,2acidphosphates,4alkalinephosphatesand3superoxide Fahl. All werediploidwithchromosomenumber2n=16.Fiveisozymesandproteinsproduced28different bandsin Comparison ofcytologicalandbiochemicalstudieswasundertakenonfourcultivars.Serw1,GemmizaGiza6 relationship betweenFahlandHelaly. was variable. Based on SPSS analysis, a high correlation coefficient (0.9) indicated a strong correlation and direct level of molecular variance (24.5%). Intermsofallele frequency (p)level of difference between twocultivars highest showed ISSR used, markers molecular DNAprofiles. Among and generated AFLP ISSR RAPD, as well Molecular characterization of FahlandHelaly hasbeenstudiedonthebasisofseedsolubleproteinpatternas Karyotype studiesshowthatHelalyisadvancedwhereasFahlprimitive. 6 nsm(-)+10nm. 2 wm(+)+2sm(-)+12nmwhileforFahlitwas The karyotypeformulaforwhichwas The karyotypeexhibited differences inchromosomemorphology. Chromosomesnsm(+)wereobservedinHelaly. Detailed cytological studies were undertaken on Helaly and Fahl. The somatic chromosomes of both were 2n=16. The investigationrevealedvariationsamongstcultivarsintheirmorphologicalcharacters. two varieties Sakha 4 and Gemnuiza 1, while the lowest similarity (0.53) wasobservedbetween Giza 6 and Helaly. on fourisozymespageprotein electrophoresis andRAPDanalysesrevealed highest similarity of 0.85between the protein and isozymevariations. RAPD wasconducted using 8arbitrary 10 ruleprimers. Combined analyses based Egyptian clover varieties were studied.Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) wasdoneonnative SDS regimes inEgyptincludemorphological, biochemical and molecular characterization of twovarieties. Five improvement in thecaseofberseem. Aspects ofEgyptiancloverwhichhavebeenstudiedunderbiotechnological base can be very useful in programmes of plant improvement. Biotechnology could be amply used forplant Some characteristics cannot yetbeexplainedsinceinformation at molecular level isnotavailable. This information Egyptian cloverhasmanyinbuiltproblemswhichperhaps,cannotbecorrectedbytraditional technologies alone. Biotechnology incrop improvement yield componentsandfibrequalitytraitssignificantly. the first fruiting branch were significantly affected by organic matter application which did not affect cotton yield, of height the and branches/plant fruiting of number harvest, at height plant Only traits. fibre and components its following crop. The aim was tostudythe effect of organic manure and number of berseem cuts oncotton yield and Abbas 114.83 t/ha.,berseem+ryegrassproduced117.85 t/hawhileBerseemsoloproduced114.30 t/ha. produced 79.78 t/ha., berseem + barley Giza 123 produced 127.28 t/ha while berseem Giza 2000 + barley produced In caseofberseem,cvGiza123andcv. Giza2000producedatotal of 47.38and44t/harespectively. Ryegrass Helmy et al(2012)compared cytological and biochemical studies amongfour clovercultivarsreferringtocutting et al et al(2011) evaluated forage productionpotential of barleyandryegrassgrownaloneorwithberseem. (2005) studied the negative relationship between number of berseem cuts and yield of cotton as a

Egyptian Clover 15 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 16 (Trifolium alexandrinum) respectively. The realized heritability and expected selection advance for1 first the of gains The generations. and secondcyclesofmassselection for the fresh forage yield were 8.43and10.71%ofthe original population, two for determined was yield forage fresh for selection family and mass of Bakheit (1985) studied the effect of massand family selection on productivity of Egyptian clover. Effectiveness testing forcombiningabilityseemsagoodapproachtotheimprovementofforageyieldEgyptianclover. from 3.8to11.2 andatGimmezalocationrangedfrom5.9to15.0percent.Selection from farmers’ seedlotsand consistency betweenpredictedandrealized genetic gaincombining ability index forlotsselected at Gizaranged showed that lots evaluated six the of group one only was There significant. also was interaction lots of location was highlydifferent from original seed lotsinonelocation and inthecombined analysis. Consequently, the lots farmers’ seed 331 of progeny the of performance the that indicated comparisons orthogonal The significant. that differences betweenperformanceoforiginalseedlotsandproducedbyopenpollination were highly showed comparisons Orthogonal lots. selected among differences significant indicating significant were groups was made at 33 kgseed/ha. Three cuts weretaken at each site. At Giza differences among sub groupsandwithin pollinated progenies was grownin adjacent rows. Local cultivar Giza-1 of Meskawiwas sown asacheck. Sowing farmers. Two morelotswereadded;anIndianintroduction and aFAO strainM.38086.Each lotanditsopen seed lots. The material comprised of 58lotsselected for seasonal green forage yield from apopulation of 331 Radwan mass selectionshowedsuperiorityinthefieldofeachcutexceptthirdwhichbothmethodsweresimilar. variability (54.3 percent) subsequent cuts values ranging between 71.0 to 72.5 percent. In the second year modified plants from open pollinated and selfed seeds. The first year revealed that first cut recorded the lowest coefficient of plants werebulkedforfutureuse.Forrecurrentselectionmethod,seedscollectedfrombestyielding50 selection methodthehighestyieldingtenplantswereselectedfromeachplot.Fivegramsofseeds main modified the For cycle. subsequent the for required seed the maintain to bulked were plants selected these of allplants,ingreenyieldandnumbertillers,werealwaysselected.Fivegramsopenpollinatedseedsfrom different regions. A spacednurseryof3600plantswasestablishedin36plots.Formassselectionthetoptenpercent variety Meskawi.Seedcompositeswereobtainedbybulkingequalquantitiesfromseedlotssampledthree on clover Egyptian in selection recurrent and mass of efficiency comparative the investigated (1971) El–Shawareb division whichwashigherinFahl. revealed that Helaly is advanced whereas Fahl is primitive. Chromosomal abnormalities were observed at mitotic Helaly hadhighest and A1 A2 whereasFahlhadhighest TF %,S%,SylindexandRecindex.Karyotypeanalysis karyotype formula for Helaly was 2nsm(+)+(-)12nm. For Fahl 6 nsm(-)+10nm were recorded. analysis showeddifferences inchromosomemorphology. Chromosomensm(+)wereobservedinHelaly. The chromosome number and karyotype analysis. The somatic chromosome number of both was 2n=16,karyotype Soliman dry yield insinglecutthanmulticut berseem. Improvedpopulation of (singlecut)increased dry yield by 31.7 fibre percentage, oil and fat percentage concluded that visual selection was moreeffective in increasing green and crude percentage, protein crude height, plant ratio, leaf/stem yield, dry and green on Results populations. Younis Means insyntheticF2werenotdifferent. 3.7 percentinforageyield,4.4dryyieldand6.3 percentinproteinyieldcomparedtothecheckGiza-1. selection recurrent of respectively, cycle over second the base and population. first The firstthe generation ofin the syntheticyield (F1) showedprotein an increasefor over parentspercent of 22.9 and 14.0 and yield forage dry and their parents. The realized gains were13.9and21.7percent forfreshforage yield, 14.8 and 23.8percent for accessions selected for both high forage yield and combining ability were compared to the commercial cultivar yield werecomparedtothebasepopulation. Also, twogenerations of asynthetic variety made bycompositing six selection and synthetic varieties. Two cycles of recurrent selection in thecultivar Giza–1 forincreasing forage synthetics inberseem. The objective wastoexamine the responseofforageyield to methods ofbreeding recurrent (0.57) wasnotgreat.Bakheit (1989) furtherstudiedtheeffect ofrecurrent selection and performance of seed between the twomethodsofestimating heritability, parent – progenyregression(0.484)andvariance component produced a response of 15.5% of the unselected base family mean after one cycle of selection. The differences were 0.38,0.04,31.8and3.94%respectively. Family selection was more rewarding than mass selection and 18) tde te fiiny f iul eeto udr opttv cniin infiveberseem conditions competitive under selection visual of efficiency the studied et al(1986) et al(1983)studiedthepossibilities of improving forage yield in berseem through selection from farmers’ et al (2010) compared two cultivars of Egyptian clover, Helaly and Fahl cytologically; studies including st andsecondcyclesofmassselection (agent-tripping) waspresentin thevarietiesstudied. fertility and modeoftrippingseemtobeunderindependent genetic control and3)genetic variation in MT-fertility low genetic load andtheir progenies contain a higherfrequency of SFgenesthanprogeniesrandomSoplants,2) linear increase in OP fertility. Results suggest that 1) genotypes of more self-fertile plants in a population have a exhibited generation selfing each from SF for selected plants OPof compositing seed by formed sib-populations, OP- selfing. of generation with MT-fertility OP-fertility in and increase linear significant a exhibited variety one from SF for selection and selfing of generations S5 to S1 representing populations inbred conditions, same the synthetics showed higher fertility under open pollination (OP fertility) over OP progenies and S1 synthetic. Under direct selection. Synthetic populationscombiningS1orS2linesselected for SFshowednoincrease inSFbutS2 (STfertility). tripping spontaneous SFfrom Selection for MT-fertility for decreased ST-fertilitynot while selection for ST fertility increased MT-fertility as much as but (MT-fertility) tripping by manual determined selfing) more self fertile So plants from twovarieties responded toselection for self–fertility SF (percentage seed setunder Radwan index. These arenotessentialwithindependentculling. selection aresomewhathigher, besides,thebreederhastowaittillallobservationsarerecordedconstructan index, dry weightofnodulesandleaf/stem ratio relative to the base population. The efforts required for index 4.47 percentfromsingletrait recurrent selection for total green forage,dryproteinandseedyields, 17.20, 28.50,14.10,17.90and8.55percentfromindexselection werevs.6.58, 5.96,3.79,10.27,7.87,5.05and Selection for multiple traits was significantly more rewarding than single trait selection. The gains of 12.20, 17.40, the second generation of randommating for a seed synthetic composed from 23 farmers seed lots of Meskawi. for theimprovement of berseemwereobtainedfrom100polycrossesisolated abasepopulationrepresented forage yield,dryweightofrootnodulesandseedyield)byusingindependent culling levelsofindexselection trait of selection (total green forage yield) via combining ability test with multiple trait selection (total green Ahmed (2000)made a comparisonofsingle trait with multiple trait selection in berseem. Comparison of single esterase oracidphosphataseindiscriminationbetweendroughttolerantandsensitiveaccessions. a maximumof showed either than effective less far was system patterns peroxidase The accessions. studied the of isozyme profiles the among bands four Theperoxidase accessions. studied the of profiles the among bands among droughttolerant and sensitiveaccessions. The peroxidase isozyme patterns showed amaximum of four with a wide variation in their densities and intensities. This system provides good markers for the discrimination five acid phosphatase bands identified the profiles of six berseem accessions for three cuts under the two treatments accessions. The esterase system was effective in distinguishing between tolerant and sensitive accession. A total of drought tolerance. The esterase isozymes revealed a total of eight bands which were not necessarily present in all bands which were not necessarily present in all accession. Some bands were more informative as indicators for i.e, control and severe drought (irrigation after every 30days).SDS–PAGE ofwatersolubleprotein showed 30 (RAPD) were used to determine the genetic variations among six accessions under two levels of drought stress DNA polymorphic amplified randomly and isozymes phosphatase acid and peroxidase esterase, protein, – SPS as Fahmy drought tolerantaccessions. vitro as well as under field evaluation. This suggests the possible use of cell culture as a useful tool for identifying in- drought to intolerant were 27 and 6 accessions while evaluation field and in-vitro tolerance drought showed growth wasbetter than the sensitive accessions (1, 6)and27).Detailed studies revealed that accessions 11 and26 tolerant accessions (11, 26,66)weresensitive to higher levels of water stress, exhibiting growth inhibition but their stress. Finalfreshanddrycallusweightamongaccessionsrespondeddifferently to waterstresslevels.Drought and dichlorophenoxy acetic acid and Difco agar. callus growth declined sharply because of elevation of water planted in culture tubescontaining 20mlofMSmedia supplemented with napthaleneacetic acid, Kinetine, 2.40 in culture jars containing 250 ml MS basal medium. 21 daysold shoot tips were cut into small segments and surface sterilized by immersion in ethanol 95% for one minute and rinsed in double distilled water, then germinated El-Tawab percentage decreased. fibre and increased percentage protein crude Similarly,populations, populations. improved ini et al(1997)undertookmarkerassistedselectionfordroughttolerance in berseem.Molecularmarkerssuch et al(2006)madeselections for selffertility. OpenpollinatedandS1progeniesoftherelatively (OP) et al (1997)undertookinvitro selections in berseem for droughttolerance on sixaccessions. Seed were

Egyptian Clover 17 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 18 (Trifolium alexandrinum) on sameplant. Selection for (MT)waseffective in SFall populations in all generations over original parents seeds (OP) pollinated open and flowers bagged of (ST) set seed spontaneous and (MT) on collected were Data flowers). 100 per (seeds SF 25% with flowers plant (MT) tripped manually on done was Selection populations. and selectionforfertility. The investigations were conducted on twovarieties 579 and Ahaly and theirderivative Abdalla of individualmorphologicalcharacters,heritabilityandgenetic advancehavebeendiscussedindetail. Fahl femalerecordedoppositeperformanceforalltraits. Performance fresh anddryfodderbutHpheterosisofF2, and Bc of Meskawiand Fahl female. Heterosis over better parent (Hp) showed high performance for total cuts of effects demonstrated the same performance of traits related to the female characters in both directions of F2 cross Maternal varieties. both of yield dry and fresh total and tillers of number height, plant for differences significant during the season for multi-cut variety and only one cut for mono-cut variety. Analysis ofvariance showed high, and reciprocals along withtwoparentswereevaluated in RCBDwithfourreplications. Three cuts weretaken F2, andBccompared with thesameparentsinadvanced generations fromtwodirections. The F1,F2andBc parents. Multi-cut Sakha I was reciprocally crossed with single cut Fahl (P-2) to study the performance of F1, vigour. Crossesbetween multi and monocut genotypes showedbetter agronomic characters compared to their multicut and monocutEgyptianclover. Performance was recordedinrelation to agronomictraitsandhybrid Abou–Fateih ranged from44.81to87.38percent. 13.77% respectively. The broad sense heritability estimates of fresh forage yield differed among accessions and selection over allfamilies as apercent increase from the base population mean and check amounted to 14.14and base respective population. Seventeen selected families significantly outyield the check variety their Giza–1. The estimated gains from outyielded significantly families selected 15 respectively. 13.1% and 12.00 were seasons andinsignificantly stable two were over variation of co-efficient Six genotypic and Phenotypic years. two over Giza-1 variety amongaccessions. check the outyielded yield forage in fresh variations significant were There studied. also was accessions superior six in yield forage fresh for selection pedigree of efficiency The seasons. farmer’s seedlots. Thirty-three collections of Meskawiwerescanned for variability among collections over two Bakheit and Mahdy (1988)investigated improvement of berseem through pedigree selection among and with effects ofdominanceandepistaticgeneaction. Accordingly, the superiority of the F1 hybrid over the mid- parent and high parent could be significant. due to the combined not were parameters heterosis while significant, were action gene epistatic and dominance additive hybrid overthemid-parent and highparentwas30.7723.71%respectively. Geneticanalysisrevealed that The noticed. was parents inbreeding depression ofFahlwasmorepronouncedthanthat of Meskawi.Moreover, of thesuperiority of theF1 selfing on depression inbreeding An populations. F2 and Bc F1, S2, S1, their and was analysed. A proposed model of Eberhart and Gardner (1966) was usedonthe parents, Fahl and Meskawi Mahdy andBakheit (1985) studied inheritance of forage yield. Quantitative genetic action controlling forage yield discussed indetail. are breeding berseem on findings these of Implications relationships. progeny parent and plant the among ability conducted. Data obtained provides information pertaining to the heritability of forage yield variation in combining find To ability. combining in high genotypes represent such genotypes,testsinvolving open pollinated progenies ofphenotypically desirable So plants were regularly must synthetics these in used Plants yields. seed and Radwan et al gain perseasonandhighestreturnsoninvestment. Taking intoaccount both cost/unit gain andlength of time required S1 families selection had thehighestrate of of 0.805t/hapercycle (34.74%). H.Sfamily selection gave thelowestgainof0.392t/hapercycle (16.94%). 0.145 t/ha, per cycle (37.32%) but was not significantly different from the realized response for S1 family selection of response of magnitude highest the had selection family significantly; yield protein for performance population responses onfreshforage,dryseedyieldandleaf/stem ratio. All methodsweresuccessfulinimprovingthe intensity wascommoninthethreemethods.Responsetoselection was measuredforproteinyieldandcorrelated and S2families selection. Selection for all parameters was basedonprotein yield (t/ha). A 20percent selection cycle of selection was conducted for eachmethod: half –sibwithS1asrecombiners (H.S), S1families (S1) Ahmed (2006)investigated the responseofthr et al (2008) studied inbreeding and fertility in Egyptian clover and explained the enigma of compatibility et al(2010)studiedtheperformance of F1,F2,andBCgenerations of inter-varietal hybrids between (1971) undertook progeny testing in berseem, aiming to create synthetic varieties with better forage and thepresence ofbubblesonstigma. Molecular characterization revealed polymorphic differences between 1 but needstrippingtostimulate self seeding. This ismainlyduetotherelative position ofmaleandfemale organs outlined to producenewcompositeswithhighseedsettingandgoodforageyields.Berseemisself–compatible for seedproductionwasmainlyduetomoretillers/plant and tolessdegree,plantheight. An approachhasbeen to develop new composite varieties characterized by highseedfertility and highforageyield. Improved selection for high MT seedset could be accompanied by selections for goodforage yield. An approach has been suggested This was explained as inbreeding tolerance, due to selection for good vigour accompanying inbreeding. Selection materials. The enigma of fertility, sterility and absence of inbreeding depressions in berseem has been discussed. pollinated (OP) populations. Self seedset(ST)wasverypoor. Someindividual selections set seedsupto88%inMT fertility (SF) in all populations and generations over original parents. Selection for MT was accompanied by open Abdalla andZeinab(2012)reportedthatselection for manualtripping(MT)waseffective in improvingself- may beoperatingandaffecting seedset. structures floral self-compatibility,and for self-incompatibility,incompatibility,rejection genes unilateral female explanations and hypothesespresented in aneffort tounderstand controversial results inthe literature. Different that has been forced to inbreed. The enigma of fertility and sterility in berseem has been discussed and several fertilized assumedtobeaself-incompatible and requiringtrippingtoresultinselfseedset.Berseemwasspecies found onlyin(OP)andthe four check varieties. The materials used may be considered self -Compatible but cross- set (ST)wasverypoor. Someindividual plants set seedsupto88%in (MT) materials. Self-sterile plants were accompanied followedbyMTby improvingfertilitypopulation.Seedsetwashighestunder(OP) of (OP) butseed and 4checkvarieties. Advanced inbreeding generations were morefertile than earlyones.Selection for (MT)was and selectedinbred. o

Egyptian Clover 19 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 20 (Trifolium alexandrinum) the first year.first the 20 of case In yielded aseedproductionof361.61kg/haand352.11 kg/haincaseof Wafeer andMeskawirespectivelyduring and forsecondyear20 kg/ha wasachievedin10 adopted. FourNandP fertilizercombinationsweretestedandtheseN0+71kgP Two levelsofphosphorus,15and30kgP barley, 71.42and119.04 kg/haandfourseed ratesofFahl0,22,45and67kghawerecombinedusedforthestudy, Radwan 20 were year first during dates Sowing Meskawi. and Kandil andShalaby(1983)studiedtheeffect ofsomeculturalpracticesonberseemseedyieldscultivars Wafeer many farmersbutproduction,storageandmarketingarestillnotverywellorganized. farmer leave crop forseed.Increasingexportsofberseem seed haschanged this and theseedisnowproduced by during theentire winterfromOctobertoMay;itisrarely grown withtheintention of seedproduction. Sometimes mid June. Bythistime it is too late to sow the next crop so fewfarmers produce their own seed. Berseem grows by available is which seed produce it let to February-March after uncut be to have fields berseem crop, seed good get themaximumcutsfarmerstrytoprolongitsgrowthandsomeuselastphaseforseedproduction. To obtaina are fedtoanimals.Duringitsvegetative phase thecropisharvestedseveraltimesandusedasforage.Inorderto Berseem is an unusual crop since its vegetative growth is the part used. Its foliage and tender stems of the plants time forsowingasecondcrop. have tobeestablished. The seed productionofmostcropsdemandslongerthanfarmerscannotwaitsincetheylose quantities of crop seeds fortheir ownusebut for large scale production well organized seed production systems cytological, environmental and other factors may hamper normal seed production. Farmers, usually, producesmall require interventions for optimum pollination, fertilization and seedproduction. At thesametime, physiological, agricultural crops andotherplants is aninherent character, butmaximum production is notalwaysassuredandmay adequate supplyofqualityseedshastobeassuredmakeanyagricultural An systemasuccess.Seedproductionin Chapter V. SEEDPRODUCTION seed yield. Four phosphoruslevels applied were 0, 35, 71 and 107 kg P Abdallah Hussein et al (1983)studied the effect on berseem of phosphorusfertilization and seedrate on forage and yield ofbarley. increased withincreasingphosphoruslevels.Intercroppingofberseembarelyhasnonegativeeffects ongrain barely grainproduction.Berseemseedyieldcomponentsi.e,numberofseeds/head,indexand/ha reduced application Phosphorus traits. production on effect significant no had rates seed The intercropping. berseem P average number ofseeds/headtended to behigherinearlysowncrops. The numberofseed/head was higherin seed heads/plant was significantly affected by sowing date and these were significantly lower in broadcasting. The of number average The visible. trend definite no was there again but mixtures by affected significantly was plant during secondyearitwashigher inbroadcastsowing;noparticular trend wasexhibited. Average numberofstems/ mixture of both. Forage yield under different methods was not stable being higher in drilling during first year while done intwomethods,broadcast and inrows40cmapart. Sowing wasdoneforsoloberseem and barley and a50:50 clover seedyield. Three planting dates,mid August, midSeptember and midOctoberwereadopted. Sowing was Kandil and Shalaby(1985) investigated the effect of planting dates, sowing methods and plant density on Egyptian number ofseedperheadincreasedbyincreasingP P rate of56kg/hagavethebestfreshanddryforageyields. Total digestible nutrients alsoincreased with increasing seed rates.SimilarlyincreasingN+P applicationincreasedthenumberofseedsperhead.20 to decline inlaterplantingdates. The averagenumberofseedperheadincreasedmarginally underincreased Wafeer producedhighestseedyieldof295.38kg/hain20 when year second the in similar was year.respectively,Wafeer trend cvs. first Meskawi The of during and case in to 107kg/ha.Howeverthedifference betweenapplication of 71and107kgP up application phosphorus increasing with significantly increased yields forage dry and Fresh kg/ha. 8 and 56 28, 2 2 O O 5 5 , 47kgN/ha+71P application upto107 kg/ha.Seedyieldanditscomponents likenumberofseedheads,weight and et al(1983)investigatedtheseedproductionofberseemcv. Fahlintercroppedwithbarely. Two seedratesof th September, 10 th OctobersowncropunderN0and71kgP th 2 Novembersowncropseedproductionof145.09kg/haand145.69wasrecorded O 5 /ha and111 kgN/ha+338P th Octoberand20 2 O 5 /ha were applied. Barley grain yield/ha was not significantly affected by affected significantly not was yield/ha grain Barley applied. were /ha 2 O 5 applicationupto71kg/ha. th September, 10 th th November. Three seedratesof28,57and85kg/hawere Septembersowingdate.Maximumseedyieldof357.02 2 O 5 /ha. Average percentagesofgerminationtended 2 O th 5 October, 30 . 2 O 5 /ha and three seed rates adopted were 2 O 5 /ha was not significant. The seed th Octoberand20 th 2 Septembersowncrop O 5 /ha, N0+142kg/ha th November and 110.71 kg/haP dates (Oct5,20andNov.imposed includedthreesowing fertilization 4),threephosphoruslevels,(36.90,73.80 phosphorus application and bio-fertilization on seedyieldofEgyptiancloverundersprinklerirrigation. Treatments 8.19% and 14.74% over late (20 Oct & 4 Nov.) sowing during first year and 8.19% and 14.74% during second during 14.74% and 8.19% and year first during sowing Nov.) 4 & Oct (20 late over 14.74% and 8.19% weight/10 plants,1000seed weight andstrawseedyield. The superiorityofearlysowinginseedyieldwas sowing. Early sowing (Oct. 5) increased significantly the number of stems /plant, number of heads /10 plants, seed used underbroadcast regime. In each treatment, berseem was cuttwice in each season after 60 and105daysafter were higher after imposition of three cuts. The highest application of110.7 P cultivar by 18.26, 14.90 and 19.39% during first year and by 17.04, 14.18 and 16.45% during next year. Seed yields traits. As farasseedyieldisconcerned, Synthetic Sids 6,cultivar was superior overSakha4,Giza15andlocal production and morphological all in these exhibiting cultivars all in differences significant were There provided. seed yield was significantly higher in case of early plantings. The highest seed yield amounting to 268.61 and 268.61 to 256.11 amounting kg/haduring1 yield seed highest The plantings. early of case in higher significantly was yield seed production was allowed after 3 of Egyptian clover. Fourcultivars, Sakha 4,Synthetic Sids 6,Giza15andalocal cultivar were tested. Seed Gaballah (2001) combined number of cuts and phosphorus fertilization and observed their effect on some cultivars Potassium fertilizationwasappliedunderthreeregimes(control,119 kgand238K of 2cuttingsystems.SixcultivarsBerseem(Sakha3,Giza6,15,Sakha4,10andlocal)weretested. by cuttingsystemandpotassiumfertilization. The experimentincluded36treatmentswhichwereacombination influenced as cultivars clover Egyptian six of production seed on study a undertook (1990) Rammah and Geweifel seeding methods and plant density on seed and straw yields. The treatments were the same as for1 drilled crop during the second part of this study. Kandil and Shalaby (1985) evaluated the effects of planting dates, provided 12.3 and 28.5 % lower seed yields. Seed yield was significantly higher in broadcast during 1 it washighestindrillingduring2 open pollinatedconditionswasmorethantwicetheseedsetundercagedandhandtrippingconditions. pollinated conditions (34.2%and51.9%).Experiment III indicated thatseedsetinallgenotypesundernatural open natural under higher significantly were genotypes all in set seed Number of set. percentage seed and seeds/inflorescence of of percentage and seeds/inflorescence of number for significant highly all were interactions order second and first and genotypes pollination, of mode years, that showed II Experiment pollinated. self were population of520plantsonly93exhibited single cuttraitofFahlcultivar which meantthatonly17.9%ofplants trait. The percentage of crosspollination in Egyptian clover under openpollination conditions was 82.1%.Ina of onlybeeswasdetermined for thesetwoplants. Their progenywastestedinnextseasonforsingleormulti-cut each ofMeskawiandFahlwassetoutintwositesisolated from otherberseem. The percentage seed setinpresence plant one III, experiment In index. fertility and set seed percentage seeds/inflorescence, of number the estimating by bagging with fine muslin before blooming. At harvest, 10 inflorescences per plant for each sector were used for pollination self 3) flowering, at tripping hand by followed blooming before muslin fine with caged 2) (un-caged), was divided into three sectors and each sector was subjected to one of these treatments, 1) natural open pollination thrice in arandomized complete block design.Fiveplantswereearmarked from each plot atrandomandeach plot and FahlfromtheForageCropsInstitute, Giza wereused.Eachentrywasgrowninsinglerowplotsandreplicated II, 29seed lots of multi-cut Meskawi type seeds collected from different governorates and two varieties Meskawi experiment In (multi-cut). fertilization cross or cut) (single selfing from derived been had seed whether indicated into wastaken varieties between of Fahlplantswassown. At harvesttime the developing plants werescoredformulti cut orsingletrait. This dates flowering in difference consideration. At harvest only the seedsfrom individual Fahl plants were collected. During secondyear the progeny the and (un-caged) conditions pollination were laid.Inexperiment 1, twovarieties,inalternateundernaturalopen Meskawi andFahl,weresownrows Bakheit (1989) madeaninteresting study onpollination and seedsettingindifferent genotypes. Three experiments respectively. CultivarSakha 4harvestedafter3cutsproducedthehighestamountofseed,713.61kg/ha. after 3 of seed.Synthetic Sids 6,Sakha4,Giza15andlocalcv. produced606.90,553.57,567.61and559.76kgseed/ha 119 kg. ofK variety. local the to compared respectively seed more % 29.37 and % 43.6 produced cultivars both season first the Giza 15 producedmuchhigherseed/haandwasbetterinseedproductionattributes comparedtoothercultivars.In rd cut.GaballahandKotb,M,(2006)furthercontinuedtheir studyandobservedtheeffects ofsowingdates, 2 O/ha application increased seedyieldby 35.37% and24.57% over control during 1 2 O st 5 and2 ) andbio-fertilization (untreated and treatedSeedrate of71kg/hawas with phosphorus). nd yearwasobtained from mid August planting. Mid September and Octobersowings rd and4 nd year, inbothyearsEgyptianclover producedmostseedwhengrown alone. th cut. Three phosphorus levelsof36.90,75.71and110.7 kg./ha P 2 O 5 kg/ha produced the highest amount 2 O/ha.). CultivarsSakha4and st andsecondyear st study. Average st yearwhile 2 O 5 were

Egyptian Clover 21 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 22 (Trifolium alexandrinum) on seed yield of berseem. Treatments involved three sowing dates (1 Bakheit second yearrespectively. was morestable. varieties Giza 15and6exhibitedlessinstability in seedyieldwhilethe Assiut populationusedfortesting seasons. The estimates of phenotypic stability parameters for seed yield showed that the highest seed yielding two Egyptianclover(Fahl)cultivars. Treatments rates(0, 238,357and476kg/haP included fourphosphorus Azab increased seedyieldby31.92and32.77%duringtwosucceedingyearsrespectively. year. Higher P obtained from sowingonthe1 were /ha) t (1.23 yield seed and g) (338 weight seed 000 1 (778%) set seed (49.9) seeds/head and (55.9) florets of number highest The traits. all for varieties among and dates planting between differences significant were There first year and 20.20% and 26.28% during the second year. The combination of 110.7 kg/ha P kg/ha 110.7 of combination year. The second the during 26.28% and 20.20% and year first crops andseedsweresownat47kghaon15 and fourrates of potassium 0, 119, 178and238kghaK heads. Phosphorusfertilization up to357kg/haP during first year but during second year the differences were significant only in number of branches and flowering et al (2010)studied the effect of different rates ofphosphorusandpotassiumfertilizers on seedproduction of (2012) investigated the influence of temperature, genotype and genotype x temperature interaction temperature x genotype and genotype temperature, of influence the investigated et al(2012) 2 O 5 application (75.71 and110.7 kg/ha)providedhigherseedyieldsby19.79and26.12%during st October. The Giza15cultivar outyielded (1.10 t/ha)othervarieties over both th and 17 2 O 5 increased seed yield by 23.55 and 14.62 percent in first and first in percent 14.62 and 23.55 by yield seed increased th November. Bothcultivars exhibited significant differences 2 O. Onelocal and onecollected cultivar were usedastest st Oct, 1 st Nov and 1 st Dec) and five varieties. five and Dec) 2 O 5 and phosphorus 2 O 5

provided under1500ppmsalinityin3 was CP maximum cut second in salinity, maximum under cut first in 22.76% of percentage (CP) protein provided crude 15 Giza fibre. crude maximum provided four cut and percentages protein crude higher yielded levels contained minimum protein. Sakha 4 yielded maximum protein while Helaly yielded the least. Higher salinity 23.26% (7 Gammaiza 1 was26.11, 28.40, 27.31,28.58 and 22.50 respectively in 4 minimum CF as compared to other cuts. The crude fibre content in cultivars Giza 15, Sakha 4, Helaly, Serw 1 and in the7 sowing methods were used: drill Two and protein. broadcast. Crude protein increased progressively from 21.51% in first crude cut to 25.70% on impact significant a had too method Sowing maturity. plant increasing with fall sown and cut crop. The differences in the nutritive value of first, second and subsequent cuts showed a progressive provided only 19.47% crude protein. This trend was correlated to the accumulation of higher dry matter in earlier cut first The crops. sown later to compared protein of percentages higher provided clover sown Early practices. Kandil and Shalaby (1985) studied the variation in chemical composition of Egyptian clover due tocultural relationships amongstplantgroups. phyllogenetic of establishment the and cultivars various of classification the in helpful also is analyses Chemical depends uponcultivar, climatic conditions, soil nutrients, age ofcrop,cropmanagement and variousotherfactors. various componentsbutthenutritional and digestible components areofprimeimportance. It isdynamicand The chemicalcompositionofacropdetermines its suitability for consumptionbyhumansandanimals.Itincludes Chapter VI. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of 2 000 ppm. The crude fibre (CF) yield exhibited maximum percentages in 4 in percentages maximum exhibited yield (CF) fibre crude The ppm. 000 2 of other cultivars. However, maximum crude protein i.e, 23.95% wasprovided by Sakha under maximum salinity maximum CP wasprovidedunder1500ppmsalinity. The crudeproteinavailability pattern was almostsimilar in silage withorwithoutadditives arepresentedin Table 1 was 19.26and21.84%withformic acid and molasses. Chemical composition, digestibility and nutritive value of matter (DM) losseswere greaterlosswas18.64%insilagewithoutadditiveswhileit insilagewithadditives.DM 4.62 in case of silage made without additives, made with formic acid and made with molasses respectively. The dry chemical and nutritional evaluation, digestibility trials were also undertaken. The pH values were 4.85, 3.90, and made, 1)withoutadditives,2)with0.4%Formicacidand,3)3% molasses. Besides Three typesofsilagewas Etman efficient matrixofcrudeproteinpercentagedifferent cutswereusedtogroupcultivars. pattern with cut 3. Crude protein percentage ranged from 16-23% in different cuts. Correlations of similarity co- affinity identical an exhibited days 140 after cut fourth together.The grouped were 1 Gemmaiza and Helaly 15, 3 Gemmaiza 1 and Sakha were placed in one cluster while Giza 15, Helaly and Serw 1 were placed in another. Under cluster while Helaly, Giza 15 andSakha4wereplaced in another. Duringthe studies in second cut after 80 days, In the first cut after 50 days protein profiles showed certain affinities and Gemmaiza 1and Serw were placed in one SDS PAGE ofproteins from the seeds to classify the cultivars Giza 15, Sakha 4, Helaly, Serw1and Gemmaiza 1. identify these cultivarsandclassifythem. A greenhouseexperiment studiedthepossibleuseofprotein analysisand Tag El-Dinet al (2001)undertookstudiesonprotein analyses on5cultivars of Egyptian clover which would levels anditrangedfrom7.32to11.04 percentincultivarsunder maximumsalinityof2000ppm. was significantly affected by salinity levels, varieties and their interactions. Similarly crude fibre, ash and oil and ash fibre, 4 the while crude protein crude highest the contained affected. cut significantly third also The were extracts) (ether Similarly interactions. their and varieties levels, salinity by affected significantly was percentage protein Crude (NIRS). Spectroscopy Reflectance Red Infra the using cuts four the all in determined were extracts ether and ash fibre, crude protein, Crude varieties. all on taken were cuts four and irrigation in used of varieties five of composition chemical Egyptian clover: Giza 15, Sakha4,Helaly, Serw1and Gemmaize. 500, 1000,500and2000ppmofNaClwere on salinity water of effect the studied (1995) Mahmoud and Nabila rd cut which was after 110 days the affinities had changed and Serw 1 was separated as a single cluster and Giza and cluster single a as separated was 1 Serw and changed had affinities the 110after days was which cut (1995) profiled the nutritional status of silage made from Egyptian clover with or without additives. without or with clover Egyptian from made silage of status nutritional the profiled et al(1995) th cut when the crop was drilled. In the broadcast crop crude protein increased from 20.39% (first cut) to cut) (first 20.39% from increased protein crude crop broadcast the In drilled. was crop the when cut th cut). rd cut 23.59%CP wasprovidedundermaximum salinity whilein4 th cut. Total ash declined at higher salinity th cut. CultivarGiza15contained th cutthe th cut

Egyptian Clover 23 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 24 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 2.56. Correlationcoefficientsbetweendryyield(t/ha)andCP%,CF%, between 24.01 -26.71%,ashpercentage ranged between 13.21-14.66 and EE percentage ranged between 2.13- ranged fibre crude 17.09-19.94, between ranged cuts) three of (mean percentages protein crude The populations. 5.71-7.45 t/ha. Highly significant differences were observed in CP%, CF%, ASH% and EE% among cultivars and of fourcuts)rangedbetween4.09-4.73t/hawhileduringsecondyearthemeanyieldcuts (mean yields dry year first During significant. were Varietiesinteraction populations. cuts and x cultivars among yield dry in observed were differences significant Highly only. season second the in composition chemical and of Egyptian clover. They evaluated 18varieties and selections fortheir dry fodderyield (t/ha) in twoseasons Ali MohamedandMahmoud(1995)studiedtheeffect ofvarieties andcutsondryyieldchemical composition Table 1.Chemicalcomposition,digestibilityandnutritivevalueofsilagemadefromEgyptianClover DCP SV TDN Nutritive Value(%) OM NFE CF EE CP DM Digestibility Coefficients(%) OM NFE CF EE DM Composition(%) Dry matter% Aspect Without additive 42.46 53.73 62.38 68.84 46.50 40.62 67.70 60.42 83.21 49.16 17.59 18.47 9.53 2.38 14.0 With Formic Acid With Different Silages 41.53 53.59 64.86 63.95 48.78 65.95 63.66 62.85 86.25 50.74 19.19 14.66 21.40 9.33 1.66 ASH% andEE%werenotsignificant. With Molasses 25.30 41.27 60.04 44.82 40.22 34.71 56.63 58.28 88.94 45.33 26.14 14.94 16.79 8.46 2.53 with properinversionofthesoil andthereafterplankingshouldbecarriedouttobreakclods andleveltheland. During landpreparation,laying outofirrigationchannelsetcshouldbedone. The landshouldbeploughed3-4times operations likesowingandharvesting. Proper levelling isessentialforuniformdistributionofirrigationwater. stumps, old vegetation and termite mounds should be removed. Land should be properly levelled to facilitate The landmustbepreparedproperlyandputintoasuitable stateforsowingandestablishmentofthecrop.Stones, Land preparation growing wellinlight-mediumacidicconditions. This cropperformspoorlyoncompact,heavy soils. retention capacity. It, generally, growswell in soils having pH between 7-8. Egyptian studies found populations berseem does notgrow well on acidic soils butcan perform well on alkaline soils whichhave good moisture preferred. Forbestgrowthsoilsshouldcontain adequate quantities of phosphorus,calcium and potash.Generally, sands. Itcan grow well on loam orclay soils provided they are not waterlogged. Medium to heavy loams are Berseem grows extremely well infertile and welldrained soils. Itcangrowonavariety of soilsexcept very light Soils under orchardsinEgypt.Itisbelievedthathighsoilphosphoruslevelsenableittowithstandshade. damage the crop immensely but production of biomass is adversely affected. It can tolerate shade and isgrown found to be most suitable for optimum growth. However, in India and Pakistan temperatures up to 35°C may not best below 650 m of elevation with an annual rainfall of 300 mm or less, Temperature range of 18-25 ˚C has been less than6-7°Cin winter. The autumn sown cropswithstand subsequent frost well. Irrigated Egyptian clover does Egyptian cloverrequiresmildsummer, aswellas,mildwintertogrowwell.Itshouldnotbegrowninareaswith Climatic Requirements The importantcultivationpracticesofthecrop are describedbelow to Egypt in about 6 of berseemislostinantiquity. Aintroduced schoolofthoughtpostulatesthatthiscroporiginatedinSyriaandwas Berseem was domesticated in Egyptwhereit has been a major winter crop forthousandsofyears. The exact origin provides bulkforageofveryhighqualityandimprovesthesoilbyfixinglar Egyptian clover has proveditssuitability as aforageincropproduction systems, the world over. Itiseasytogrow, the availabilityoffodderbuthelpalternativecropsifleguminousforagesaregrown. it isimperativebecomeanimportantcomponentofcroppingsystems.Integrationwilladdto so thatforagecrops as animportant and integral component of agricultural systems. Itisnotpossibletoincrease the area under fodder resources tosuchanextent that theyarenomorealivestockrearingbaseandthealternative is foragecultivation grazing diminished have degradation ecological and urbanization un-planned use, land unscientific and natural attention from farmers,plannersandextension workers. The incredible increase in humanpopulation, the un- Livestock products are as important in ourfoodchain as cereals. Still, forage crops have never received priority Forages areasimportant as anyotheragricultural crop andrequireasmuchinputs,care,management. Chapter VII. BERSEEMCULTIVATION it isamajorcultivatedfoddercroponmillionsofhectaresaroundtheworld. India and has,now, spreadover almost half of India and has become the preferred winter fodder in Pakistan. Now adapted toconditionsandfarmingsystemssowellthatitspreadrapidlythroughouttheirrigated tracts ofnorthern introduced as asummer crop. Duringthe early twentieth century itwasintroduced to Sindh(thenIndia)whereit European countries it is grownasa summer crop and similarly in some areas of Afghanistan it has been recently This coolseasonfoddercropisnowwidelyspreadintheMediterranean and hastrulybecomeglobal.Insome Berseem plants are erect, rather hairy annual with a deep root system and trifoliate, elongated and oblong leaflets. 1918. Itwasplantedin Texas in1916andFloridaaround1950. th century. In1896it was introduced to the USA and was successfully grown inCalifornia in ge quantitiesofnitrogen.

Egyptian Clover 25 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 26 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Farmers inmostberseemgrowing countrieshaveshiftedtomixedsowing. The favouritecropcompanionsaremustard, Mixtures: irrigated andseedspreadover thestubble. is field harvest. The rice after sown be also can seed soil. The the into seed of embedding and spread uniform for Berseem can be directly broadcast over rice without ploughing. However, agoodirrigation should be provided Sowing instandingrice farm yardmanureismixedandseedsaredrilledinlines10-15 cmapart. levelled, and ploughed are Fields possible. not are operations manual where fields large for suitable most is This Dry drillinginrows soft but a heavily irrigation. needs field The soil. of layer thin a with covered and field the into directly broadcast then is and harrowedtoachievetherequiredtilthfarmyardmanureisuniformlyspreadmixedwithsoil.Seed Dry broadcasting can be used in small farming systems where soils are clay or clay-loam. The fields are ploughed Dry sowinginborders which areuprootedorburiedduringpuddling. The cropcanopyisuniform. irrigated and theseedisbroadcastdirectly on thepuddledmuddysurface. This method eradicates many weeds spread and mixed into the soil. The land should be levelled and border bundsestablished. The plot is heavily have adoptedit.Fieldsareploughedandharrowedtoachieve the requiredtilth. Farmyard manureisuniformly This isbestsuited for asmall farming system in loamy or sandysoilsandmostfarmers in berseem growing areas Broadcasting inasoftpuddledfield described below: and themethod has tobechosenaccording to terrain, topography andresourceavailability. These methodsare Seeds shouldbesownatadepthof1.5to2.5cmwithlightsoilcovering. There areseveralmethodsofsowing Egyptian clover performs best if sown in a well-prepared and levelled seedbed that has a good depth of subsoil. Sowing field previously berseem should be added to the new field. For uniform spread seed may be mixed with sand and soil. seeds. Letitsemidryforaboutanhourandtheseedisreadysowing.Ifrhizobiumnotavailable,soilfroma withrhizobium, drain off seeds thewater. Take outtherhizobiumfromitscontainerandmixwith10%ofjaggery. treat Mixitwellwiththe should to floor under berseem on seed the spread been soaking, overnight. After water in seed soaking by done be never can This Rhizobium trifolli. have which fields in crop this growing Farmers Seed treatment which havesettledshouldbesown. in 5% salt solution before sowing. Light seeds float on the surface. These should be removed and only heavy seeds kg/ha is the most suitable rate for Berseem. The seed should be absolutely weed free. The seeds may be immersed The seedrate depends uponfactors like the typeofland,soiltexture,fertility, seedsizeetc. However, 20-25 Seed rate of lowtemperature.Undermostclimaticconditions,farmershavetheirowncropcalendarsbasedonexperience. lead toproblemslikehighrainfall,temperaturemayface and weedinfestationwhilelatesowing, tropical condition, autumnsowingisbest.Neitherearlynorlatesuitableforthecrop.Earlycan location and climate. At higheraltitudesinMarch-April.Undersub-tropicaland it isgrowninsummerandsown Generally berseem cropshouldbesownfromlate September to theendofOctober; however, thismayvarywith Sowing time harvest betaken50-55daysfromsowingandsubsequentcutsatintervalsof25-30days. first that recommended is It needs. livestock and pattern cropping the on depend largely schedules Harvesting; during thelifeofacrop. January, 10-12daysduring February-March and 8-10 daysduring April- May. Thus 12-15irrigations are required The general pattern ofirrigation may be after 10 daysinterval in October, 12-15daysinterval during November- is recommended that the first irrigation reaching 4-6 cm of the soil depth should be provided 4-6 days after sowing. Irrigation depends on climatic and soil conditions and recommended schedules may change at times. However, it Irrigation in splitdosesasandwhentheyfeeltheneedtodoso. should beapplied toachieve a verygoodcrop.Somefarmers,accordingtotheirexperience, add thesefertilizers being used first time for berseem. Thereafter, a basal dose of 20 kg Nitrogen+ 60 kg Phosphorus+ 40 kg Potash/ha fields on essential is This /ha. t 20 at applied be should manure yard farm decomposed well preparation field At Fertilizer seeds ofannualryegrassmaybemixed.Incaseoatsandbarley15-20kgseed/ha in animals.1.5-2kg/haofmustardseedscanbemixedwithberseemforsowingthecropmixture.Similarly2-3 initial cutsthesecropsprovidehigherquantitiesofforageandsuppressweed. They alsoreducethechancesofbloat support toberseemwhich makes thecropgrowerect;they provide earlybulkandimprovecool-seasonyield. During physical like benefits of number a provide crops These used. also are barley and Triticaleoats. and ryegrass annual

Egyptian Clover 27 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 28 (Trifolium alexandrinum) for determiningthecompetitivenessandpreferencesstudiedcrops. (iii) to determine the nutritive value of fodder and (iv) to calculate forage production costs and their net profit / ha soils and saline water in north Sinai, (ii) to estimate water use efficiency for berseem comapred with other forage, lands andexplorethe possibility ofproviding higher quantity and quality feed with high palatability under sandy The objectives of thisstudywere:(i)toinvestigate the roleofEgyptian clover in agriculture development in desert crops canvarysignificantlydependingonchangesinyieldsandinputuselevels(KARA methodology. forage of profitability and costs production farm, to farm from even or district to district Therefore, Estimation of production costs in north Sinai farms is difficult due to structural farm problems and cost calculation Graves etal from underground water, rainfall, or both. Rainfall has decreased in recent years and this has led to a fodder deficit. of their water resources. It is crucial that growers get the most out of every litre of available water whether it comes efficiency maximize supply.to limited inputs of conditions of management better energyneed in prices Increases Increasing waterproductivity is animportant strategy toincrease food production(Rosegrantetal.2002a)under al, 2010). average yields for mostmajor crops bymore than 50% (Wang etal,2001; Ashraf,et 2004;Qadir al. 2008;Nazet decreasing growth andproductivity of plants. These factorsarethemajor causes ofcroplossworldwide,reducing and growth plant limiting factor abiotic significant development. So, droughtandsalinityarethemostimportant environmental factors inhibiting photosynthesis and most the probably is salinity and/or drought to due stress and diminishing water availability pose serious challenges to agriculture (Mittler and Blumwald, 2010). Water North Sinai-Governorate is in north-eastern Egypt between 30.5 N Magdy M.Mohamed,Mohamed A. El-NahrawyMohamed A. Abdu andSamy A. Shams development indesertlands,NorthSinai-Governorate,Egypt. The RoleofEgyptianclover (Trifolium alexandrinumL.)inagriculture RESEARCH Chapter VIII. NEW VISTAS INBERSEEM description oftheareaispresentedintable1. pearl millet follwed byEgyptian clover, barley, oatandfodderbeet in winter. The plotarea was 1050sqm. The forage crops; alfalfa and Rhodesgrass three plots weresowntosummer crops; cowpea, Sudan Grassand to perennial seeded were plots plots. Two five into divided ha 0.56 was field each of area The used. were fields and winter season; 2012) to investigate the role of Egyptian clover in agriculture in desert lands in north Sinai. 523 The investigation wascarried out during two successiveyears;(summer;2010,winter;2010-11, summer;2011 Material andmethods is about14/km Table 1.RangeofelectricalConductivity(Ecw)andTDS,totaldissolved salts(ppm)forusedUndergroundwaterinnorthSinai. . (1987)reportthatEgyptianclovertoleratesmoderatesalinity. 2 S.no . The ever-increasing humanpopulation, concomitant with lossofcropland(duetourbanization) B A 1 2 4 3 Rummana North Sinai-District Rafah El-Sheik Zewayed Bir Al-Abed Al-Arish Bir Al-Abed o 33.6 E 2.20 –3.60 3.30 –4.20 3.80 –4.50 4.80 –6.20 6.60 –8.40 Ecw o . The population is 395 000 and density etal , 2008). 2432 –2880 1408 -2304 3072 -4960 5280 -6720 2112 -2688 Ppm* each year. *: The numberofcutsforalfalfa andRhodesgrasswascalculatedasaveragemeanfortwoseason;summerwinter quality parameters,sampleswereovendriedat70˚Cfor72hours. traits (FFY and FDY) and WUED-water use efficiency based on dry matter. In addition, Y x D interaction was, interaction D x addition, Y In matter. dry on based efficiency use WUED-water and FDY) and (FFY traits highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) differences effects of Y x C and D x C interactions were noted for studied forage yields and investigated forage crops(C)forthe quantitative forage yields and their quality under investigation. Likewise, (D) districts (Y), years among detected were differences 0.01) (P ≤ significant highly traits, (DCP) protein crude from north Sinai. Statistical analysis revealed that, with exception ofdrymatter percent (DM %)and digestible The forageyieldsandqualityforEgyptianclovercompared witheightforagecropswererecordedovertwoseasons Forage yieldandquality Results anddiscussion (1986). Distribution of forage production costs and their net profit /ha was estimated according to El-Shorbagey (1992). by theL.S.D.valuesat1%and5%levels(SnedecorCochran, 1968)usingMSTAT-C ComputerProgram V.4 Analysis wascarriedoutbystandardanalysisofvariance(ANOVA) ofthesplit-split-plotdesign.Meanswerecompared (kg/m wasbasedondryweightandcalculated according to Ehdaie and Waines (1993) formulaasaratioofdryyield Water UseEfficiency(WUED) air driedthenovenat105 estimated by harvest of fixed plot area (1 m x 10 m) and four replications through both weighed. Subsamples were factors were: two years as main plots, seven sites as sub-plots and nine forages as sub-sub plots. Fresh yield was A threefactor experiment in arandomized complete block designinsplit-split-plots and fourreplications. The Experimental design differed fromdistrictto aspresentedin Table 2. high very was fields (523-fields),of so datanumber wereThe collectedlines. from someirrigation fields whichthe continuedof for twosides successiveboth years. Theon numbercm of cuts 50 to 30 over broadcast was Seed *ppm =(EcwX800;EC:>5.0dS/m) *ppm =(EcwX640;EC:0.1to5.0dS/m) Table 1.RangeofelectricalConductivity(Ecw)andTDS,totaldissolvedsalts(ppm)forusedUndergroundwaterinnorthSinai. Nekhel El-Hasana Rummana Abed Bir Al- Al-Arish Zewayed El-Sheik Rafah Sites Table 2.Numberofcut/seasonovertwoyearsforcultivatedforagecropsinnorthSinai-districts,Egypt 3 ) to total water consumed (TWC) by the forages as follows: WUE kg•m WUE follows: as forages the by (TWC) consumed water total to ) Alfalfa* 6 5 3.0 3.0 6.3 5.5 5.3 4.3 4.0 Rhodes Grass* 3.0 2.0 6.0 5.3 5.1 4.2 4.0 o C for48hoursandweighed. Nekhel El-Hasana Cowpea 1.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.2 Pearl Mil 2.0 2.0 5.6 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.1 let - Sudan Grass Analysis followed A.O.A.C. (1980)methods. 10.80–12.60 11.20–12.80 2.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.3 Egyptian Clover 3.0 3.0 6.5 6.1 5.0 4.0 4.2 -3 ) = Y/TWC. Fordetermining Barley 8960 –10240 8640 -10080 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Oats 2.0 2.0 4.3 4.0 4.1 3.0 3.2

Egyptian Clover 29 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 30 (Trifolium alexandrinum) times, whichproduced104.14 and19.48t/ha lower WUE of326.5kgDMha to 104.14and19.48t/ha (Dy) yields dry and (Fy) fresh increased significantly cuts between applications irrigation three that found (2002) ranged between11.40 and15.80%,while,thetuberscontained between 4.50and9.80%.InadditionEl-Bably calculated energy content of fodder beet (tubers and leaves) was about 61.00%, TDN and CP content of the leaves highest value of DCP (21.20%). The same conclusion was outlined by Nadaf (14.50%). Incontrast,Bir-Al-Abd-district recorded lowestvalue of TDN (62.00%) andNekhel-district recorded district. Rafah-district recorded highestvalueof for Egyptianclover(63.30%) andlowestvalueofDCPTDN Nekhel- in 27.00% to Rafah-district in 23.10% from ranged (CF) fibre crude the Equivalently, Nekhel-district. In termofforagequality for berseem,thecrudeprotein(CP)rangedfrom19.30% inRafah-district to 26.60%in increased salinity andthishasbeenregardedasachronicfactorindisplayingpoor growthanduneconomicyields. in water north Sinai-districts as shownin Table irrigation 1. Zeng and Shannon (2000) attributed this reduction to crop sensitivity to used in levels salinity increased with efficiency use water and yields forage for evident was Egyptian clover and fodder beet. Both produced highest values of forage yields and TDN. Generally, a reduction its ability to selectforagecropsaccordingdroughtandsalinity stressesresistance. This isveryclearincaseof (Table and nutrients 3) digestible TDN-total and yields forage with correlation significant highly and positive its for screeningdroughtandsalinity tolerant forage cropsundernorthSinai-conditions. This seemslogical based on From previous results we can conclude that water use efficiency based on dry matter (WUED) are suitable criteria cuttings couldbeuseful,because,itproduced91.97and16.75 t/ha irrigation time(s) between cuttings, respectively. Undershortage of irrigation water, single irrigation between that, waterconsumptive use valueswere59.62,48.98,and37.98cm,overbothseasons,forthree,two,one while thewateruseefficiencybasedondrymatterinNekhel-districtwas0.70kg/m district. Furthermore, andinthesametrend,Egyptian clover produced 4.60kgofDMm recorded 265.23and33.57t/harespectively in Rummana-district and28.575t/harespectively in Nekhel- irrigation water (Table 1). Inaddition, the level of soilfertility added tothisvariation in production. Fodder beet This means that the response offorage crops varied from location to another due to, mainly, the level of salinity in district (147.38 and27.38t/harespectively) and lowestinNekhel-district (15.71 and4.28t/harespectively). districts during two seasons. Onthe basis of mean values of fresh and dry yield berseem was highest in Rummana- clover wasrankedthesecondwinterforagecropafterfodderbeet among other foragecropsinvarioussitesor productivity foranimalfeedingundernorthSinai-condition.thebasisoffreshanddryforageyield,Egyptian On in theforagecropsinvestigated. These results wouldbeusefulinchoosingforage crops touseandimprove their production costs and their net profit / ha and other parameters were used; there was considerable variability present the superiorityofsomeforagecropsoverothers. These twelvecharacters involving distributionofforage performances of nineforagecropsacrosssevensitesfortwelve characters studied provideaclear indication of crops and this was also affected by environmental condition and their interactions. Therefore, the comparative district to another(Table 1) accompanied with lowestrate of total rainfall impacted the performances of forage Regarding mean performances, the contrast reality in the salinity levels of the used irrigation water from one years toascertaintheirstabilityforuse. of theabovementioned traits. This emphasizes the importance of evaluating forage cropsindifferent sitesoverthe characters five in observed (FDY, were CP,WUED, values the influenced that sites seven the in conditions environmental that suggest DCP) and TDN squares mean interaction D x Y of effects significant The environments. forage and crops didnotperformsimilarly in alldistricts. There wasenoughvariation between foragecropsaswell ramifications many in similar not were crops forage nine using sites seven in years, two the among Significant mean square values obtained for years (Y), districts (D) and forage crops (C) indicated that, conditions investigation i.e,CP, CF, TDN andDCP, aswellas,FDY andDMpercentage. DM % and CF traits. Abreast, the Y x D x C interaction had non-significant effects for all forage quality traits FFY, for under insignificant contrary,was the interaction On this characters. (DCP) protein crude digestible and (TDN) also, highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) difference effects for FDY, WUED, crude protein (CP), total digestible nutrients (170 d) -1 ; andgavehigher WUE of440.9kgdrymatter ha 1 respectively. On the other hand, it decreased water use efficiency (WUE). He added He (WUE). efficiency use water decreased it hand, other the On respectively. -1 cm -1 waterconsumedoverbothseasons. 1 FY andDY, respectively consumed 59.62cm(170d) -1 cm -1 waterconsumedcompared with irrigation three 1 FY andDY, respectively, consumed 37.98cm et al. (1998b) who reported that the 3 . -3 inRummana-district, -1 ; andgave *and **:Significantat0.05and0.01,respectively. calculations. Itmaybeconcluded thatprofitabilityofforagecropsproductionishigher thanpresented. for livestockproduction,as well as,theirpositiveimpact on theenvironment were nottakenintoaccountin district to 648.50L.EinNekhel-district. In thisstudy, theimpactoftheseforagecropsand theirimportance crop because it recorded the lowest per ton cost among summer forage crops and ranged from 107.20 L.E in Rummana forage profitable and important most the is production millet pearl that enough clear is it season, summer under northSinai-condition. Similarly, takingintoconsideration theextremely increasing fodderpricesduring winter foragecrops,Egyptian clover andfodderbeet are the two bestoptionsforsupportinganimal production it shouldholdtrueforEgyptiancloverstable forallcropsandso also.Consideringaoptimumproductionamong in respectively L.E Nekhel-district and 1031.80 L.E and 6.50 L.E. respectively in Rummana district. Furthermore these factors as 0.14 and L.E. 98.80 were pound investor and production ton per from profit the estimates, net profit /ha, ranged from 595.23 L.E in Nekhel-district to 28 452.00 L.E in Rummana-district. Based on previous L.E. (Egyptianpounds:$1=6.5-7LEJune2013)inNekhel district to 168.20L.E.inRummanadistrict and the from 1101.20 ranged clover Egyptian for ton per cost the crops, forage winter among that, noticed was It profits. conditions is advisable economically in some districts such asRummana. This district earns maximum per ton structure and croprotation. The feasibility study supportsthe fact that growing foragecropsundernorthSinai- Economic returnsofanycropdependonfactorssuchaspriceexpectations, labour andinputavailability, soil Economic evaluation and TDN. Whilst, negativeandsignificantcorrelationwasdetectedbetweenCP andFFY. CP and (DCP) protein crude digestible between significant and positive were correlations phenotypic Likewise, total digestible nutrients (TDN) were positively and strongly correlated with WUED and crude protein (CP). perform selection inthedirection of asimultaneous increase in DM%,forageyieldsand WUED. Commendable (Table to and WUED difficult yields it forage makes (%), 3) matter dry the between correlation negative existing The %). (DM percent matter dry with correlation significant highly and negative contrary,had the WUED On 3. in shown as yields forage dry and Table fresh with correlation positive highest had (WUED) efficiency use water negative as themean value of onecharacter goes up,the value for theother character goes down.Consequently, the as breederschangethemean of onecharacter towards thehigherside,otheralsogoesupwithit,while,in coefficients, which show how one variable changes as the other changes. Therefore, positive correlations show that stress under genotype the condition. So, the interrelationships between characters are expressed in statistical term, as phenotypic correlation of fitness adaptive the with commensurate is which value mean optimal own its has Table 3indicates thatsomecharacters oraspectsofthesecropsaffect othercharacters. Each ofthesecharacters Two YearsinNorthSinai-Governorate,Egypt Table 3.PhenotypicCorrelationCoefficientandStandardError(inbrackets)forEightForagecrops'YielditsQualityover WUED DM% TDN FDY DCP FFY CF CP FFY -- (±0.002) 0.948** FDY --- -0.371** -0.517** (±0.061) (±0.009) DM% ---- -0.293** (±0.017) (±0.008) (±0.002) 0.956** 0.856** WUED ----- (±0.059) (±0.151) (±0.088) (±0.015) -0.022 0.099 0.090 0.066 ----- CP -0.325** (±0.057) (±0.046) (±0.158) (±0.090) (±0.014) 0.397** -0.058 -0.199 0.064 ---- CF (±0.029) (±0.020) (±0.017) (±0.070) (±0.042) (±0.007) 0.623** 0.312** 0.238* 0.235* 0.145 0.117 TDN --- (±0.135) (±0.200) (±0.098) (±0.087) (±0.345) (±0.200) (±0.033) 0.291** 0.510** -0.001 0.102 0.012 0.064 0.063 DCP

Egyptian Clover 31 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 32 (Trifolium alexandrinum) kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, p-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic acid and ferulic acids. While, in rice, Noguchi Ali (2005) mentioned that tuber and foliage contained different flavonoids and phenolic compounds such as rutin, highest amounts in the water and EtOAc fractions, respectively (Chon, 2004). In nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus), High-performance liquid chromatography, chlorogenic acid and trans-cinnamic acid were quantified as having the most active compoundsinrice hull extracts which haveinhibitory effect onthegrowth ofbarnyardgrassseedlings. bis (2-ethylhexyl) ester. Also, Chunget al (2002) demonstrated that p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric acids werethe carboxaldehyde, 1 H-indole-3-carboxylic acid, 1 H-indole-5- carboxylic acid and 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid identified by the bioassay-guided isolation method. Its allele-chemicals are azelaic acid,with biological activity. P-coumaric Whereas, Rimando et al. (2001) foundthat Taichung acid, Native 1, allelopathic rice; have been 1 H-indole- such assterols, benzaldehydes, benzene derivatives, long-chain fatty acid, esters, aldehydes, ketones and amines plant species.Kimetal. (2000) identified several compounds by Gc/Ms analysis from rice cultivar Kouketsumochi cultivar Rexmund. All these chemicals are phenolic acids which have been described as allele-chemicals in many acetic acid (4 HPAA) in water from allelopathic rice cultivars when compared with water from the non-allelopathic phenyl 4-hydroxy identified tentatively and DHHCA) (3.4 acid 3.4-dihydroxyhydro-cinamic and HBA), (4 acid Mattic acids. Also, water-soluble auto-toxic compound hadcharacteristics indicative of phenolic compounds. Also, separation indicated thattheauto-toxic compound hadreadingfraction (RF) characterization similar tophenolic water-extractable alfalfa fraction was not the direct result of microbial activity. Ascending paper chromatographic Through laboratory studies, Hall and Henderlong (1989) found that the auto-toxic compound contained within the phenols, phenolic acids, resorcinols and stigmastanols in rice and considered these as growth inhibitors in rice. oryzalexins, B), and (A momilactones indoles, glucopyranosides, flavones, acids, fatty diterpenoids, cytokinins, parsley, potato, tomato, maize, rye, barley bean, and rice. In addition, Khan etal.(2007)foundnumerousphytotoxins such as as such species, plant different in flavanoids and phenylpropanoids of accumulation the induces compounds underenvironmental stresses havebeenwelldocumented, for example, enhanced UV-B- light particularly phenylpropanoid and isoterpenoid metabolism. The increase of allelopathic phenolic and terpenoid that until recently, many studies verified the mechanisms of a self-defence system, including allelopathy in plants, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids and glucosinolates present in allelopathic interactions. Kim and Shin(2003)reported flavonoids, acids, phenolic the reported have (1993) Lovett and Liu products, natural the among quinones. Also, phenolics likecinnamic, benzoic acids,coumarines,tannins,flavonoids,terpenoids, afewalkaloids,steroids,and globules, showingfoodreserves.Leather and Einhellig (1985) stated that the common allele-chemicals include damages to the cell walls, disorganization of organelles, increase cell vacuoles and the appearance of lipid and Rasmussen reaching 9.56m LSC intreated than in control plants were obtained in D.acris, Plantago phaeostoma and Tricodesma africanum became more obvious when the leaf area was involved in leaf specific conductance (LSC) and significantly higher in Diplotaxis acris control plants. Moreover, the influence of mulching on the hydraulic conductance of the petiole that theratiosofpalisadetospongytissueweresignificantly higherincontrolthantreated plantsreaching5.36 the cortex,whilst,inEgyptian clover theexpansionwasevident in thevascularcylinder. Hegazyetal(2005)found meets the vascular bundles. In chickpea Abd El-Wahed (1996) found that the haustoria of Cuscuta spp. expanded to haustoria (Pressetal;1990). This investigation added thatasinglecell hyphen elongates withinthehosttissueand develops haustoria within a fewdaysdue to thigmotropic responses and chemical recognition of the host plant to the cells remains within the haustorial cortex (Lee, 1985).Dodder adheresitshostwithacementing layer of pectin and formed bytheexpansionofepidermisandcortexstematcontactsideagroupmeristematic is host the with contact haustorium The grasses. in 2002) El-Hassan, and (Farah cells hypodermal lignified and (Joel grasses in bundle vascular the unsheathing cells lignified 1991), and(Al-Menoufi tomato (Dorr,in rose reaction Ashton, China hypersensitive in 1987); cells cambial of initiation of foragenegatively. Anatomically, resistance/tolerance to doddercouldbeattributed to anumberoffactors,viz, quality and productivity affect spp.) (Cuscuta dodder with contaminated seeds local uncontrolled and uncertified Egyptian cloverorberseem(Trifolium alexandrinumL. ) isawidelygrownfodder, hayandsilage.Unfortunately, El-Refaey, R. A, E.H.El-Seidy, Samira A. FouadandShereen M.El-Nahrawy Egyptian clover. Anatomical mechanismsofresistance/tolerance tododder (Cuscutaspp.)of . (1997) showed significantly higher levels of 3-hydroxy benzoic acid (3 HBA), 4-hydroxy benzoic 4-hydroxy HBA), (3 acid benzoic 3-hydroxy of levels higher significantly showed (1997) et al. et al,(2004)explained that the roottipcells subjected tothealkaloids gramine and hordeninecaused 2 Mpa -1 s -1 x10 -20 and0.82m 2 MPa -1 s -1 x10 -20 intreated and controlplantsofD.acris.Furthermore, et al,1996)andthickened epidermal cells After phenolic acids liberated by alkaline hydrolysis, samples were acidified with ice cold 6 N HCl to reduce pH reduce to HCl N 6 cold ice with acidified were samples hydrolysis, alkaline by liberated acids phenolic After centrifuge tubepurged withnitrogenandshakenfor2hindarkawrist– action shaker. Approximately,was addedfor200 mlofeachconcentration 15mlof4NNaOH of waterextract in 50mlPyrex which foundinglyconformwereextracted as describedbyMckeehen Water extract of eachdonorplantshootwasprepared,thenphenolic extraction of phenolicsinthewaterextract alexandrinum L.)toaparasitichigherplant(Cuscutaspp.). to investigate into the cellular and biochemical events involved in the resistance/tolerance of berseem (Trifolium the neighbouring environment from ricerootsthroughoutitslifecycle. Therefore, theobjective of thestudywas The inhibition increased with increasing concentrations of momilactone B. Momilactone B whenreleased into Stem samples were taken from for forageyieldanditstolerancetododderinfestation(Cuscutaplaniflora)asdescribedbyEl-Nahrawy(2012). winter seasons;2008/09,2009/10and2010/11 toinvestigatetheperformanceofsomeEgyptianclovergenotypes (FCRD), FieldCropsResearchInstitute(FCRI), Agricultural ResearchCenter(ARC),Egypt,duringthreesuccessive Three field experiments were carried out at Sakha Agricultural Research Station Farm, Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate Material andmethods Momilactone B inhibited the rootandshootgrowthofcressseedlingsatconcentrations greater than3nmolmL by spectraldata as3,20-epoxy-3alpha-hydroxy-9beta-pimara-7, 15-dien-19,6beta-olide (momilactone B). culture solution and purified with several chromatographies. The chemical structure of the inhibitor was determined and Ino(2005)foundtheputative compound causingtheinhibitoryeffect ofriceseedlingsisolated from their Phosphoric acidbuffer wasmadeusingHPLCgrade NH purity by highpressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC grade water and MeOHwereusedforall analyses. ferulic, syrungic, p-coumaric, p-hydroxypenzoic, caffic, gaalic acid and protocatoic were subsequently checked for soluble phenolic compounds werecalculated as mg/gfreshweightusingstandardcurvewithpyrogallol. Vanillic, spectrophotometer.colour wasmeasuredat650nmagainstareagent 240 UV/VIS blank usingSHIMADZU Total 5 mlbyaddingdistilled water, shakenwell, andthenkeptinaboilingwaterbathfor5minutes. The developed 1 mlofFolin-Ciocalteau reagent and1.5 ml of14%sodiumcarbonatewereadded. The mixture was madeupto with 10 dropsofconcentrated hydrochloric acid, heated rapidly in boiling water bath for 10minutes, cooling, then Snell and Snell (1953) usingFolin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent. For estimation, 1 ml of ethanol extract was mixed phenol acids. Total phenolic compounds weredetermined calorimetrically according to themethodreportedby Dry samplesofclover plants at 40 daysage from the 1 with electricmicroscope(LeicaDMLS)digitalcameraDC300)andthenphotographed. Canada Balsamandpreparedformicroscopic examination (Ruzin, 1991).Fivereadingsforeachslideweretaken Sections were stained for 1minute in ajar containing 1% light green; they were cleared in xylol, mounted in for 5minutes. Then werestainedfor10minutesinajarcontaining 1%Safraninandtheexcessstainwaswashed. minutes. Sections were plunged in close series of descending dilutions of ethyl alcohol ranging from absolute to 5% in placed were two changesofxylol 10 times, and transferred to a jar containing equal parts ofabsolute alcohol and xylol for 5 slides staining, Before 50˚C. at hours 24 for dried completely were Slides albumin. with slides to affixed were sections Paraffin apparatus). 2125 RM (Leica Microtome Rotary with done were thick) microns (10-12 water. Sections cold with rapidly cooled then and trays, paper embedding in Paraffin melted in embedded saturation within 12 hours, two changes of Paraffin were done to get rid of all until samples the contained reagent shavings Paraffin 75%. and 50% 25%, of percentage the in alcohol absolute by threechanges ofabsolute alcohol for fourhoursandeach sample was passedthrough a mixture of xylol and was donebypassingthe samples in aseriesofthe following ethyl alcohol concentration (75-100%) followed ethyl alcoholabsoluteand35.00mldistilledwater).Sampleswerewashedtwicein70%alcohol.Dehydration ml 50.00 acid, glacial ml 5.00 formalin, ml in (10.00 FAA hours 48 for fixed were samples The plants. berseem 2 nd cut in 2 nd season (1.00cm long) from the sub apical part of moderate stem tip of 4 st H cut were taken to determine total soluble phenols and 2 PO 4 andH 3 PO 4 . 19)ih oe modifications. some et al(1999)with traces of xylol. Samples weretaken, -1 .

Egyptian Clover 33 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 34 (Trifolium alexandrinum) appearance ofnecrotictissue. The substance covered thewholetissueandlookeddarkbrown,almost black in thick sections, resembling the the penetration pathway ofabortivehaustoriainboththecortexandvascular cylinderofthehoststem. illustrated (Fig. 1and2). These sectionsinclude accumulation of abrownsubstancethatwasobservedaround Different reactions ofhistological studies performed on sectionsofinfested stems ofberseem genotypes were tissues whichdrawnutrients. haustorium contacts the stem sides then penetrates and expands and sends minute haustorium suckers into host which couldbeassociated to specificberseemgenotype.Cuscutaplanifloracoils aroundthestemsofitshosts.Its and Genotypesno.51,35,74,65,66,14,9529)investigate if there areanyhistological differences (Helali genotypes; berseem nine on planiflora Cuscuta of parasitism of site the identify to aimed experiment The Histological studiesonberseemgenotypesattachedwithdodder Results anddiscussion The phosphoricacidbuffer consistedof10mMNH consisted ofMeOH(A)and10mMphosphoricacidbuffer,3.5 (B),operatedatfollowingrateof1.50ml/min. PH systems solvent two to injection. The prior filter (PTFE) (tetrafluoroethylene) poly µm 0.2 a through filtered next phosphoric acidbuffer (pH 3.5) tothesameconcentration as initial mobile phase(15%MeOH).Sampleswere (RP-18). coated withODS, Co, USA) diluted with10mM was aliquot ofthesamplesuspendedinMeOH An visible/UV detectorat 280nmandstainlesssteelcolumn(25.0cm×4.6mmi.d.)(Phenomenex (model,SPD-2AS) Phenolic acids were separated by Shimaduz (Kyoto, Japan) HPLC apparatus (model, LC-4A) equipped with of MeOHandstoredindarkpriortoseparationquantificationbyHPLCwithin24hoursextraction. using arotaryvacuumevaporator at 35°Ctodryness. The phenolic acids richresiduewasre-solubilized in 2.5ml The phenolic acids rich ethyl acetate fraction was dried by addition of anhydroussodiumsulphate and concentrated re-extracted supernatant waswithethylacetate (30 ×50ml)asbeforeandallethylacetate fractions werepooled. pellet was diluted with 15 ml of distilled water, vortex distributed and re-centrifuged at 3 000g. The second allowed to settle for5minbetweenextractions. Ethyl acetate fractions were collected and pooled. The remaining funnel. The supernatant was extracted with ethyl acetate (3 × 50 ml) with shaking for 10sand the mixture was to between 1 and 2. Samples were centrifuged at 3 000 g and the supernatant was decanted into a 250 ml separator A: Haustoriumofthedodder. B: The hosttissues. Fig 1.Histologicalreaction toCuscutaplanifloraofberseem (Helalicv.). B 4 H C 2 PO 4 adjustedtoPH3.5with10mMH A 3 PO. cells reachedthecentrecylinderandhostvasculartissue(Fig.56)incomparison withthecontrol(Fig.7). In contrast,onthestemsofsusceptibleberseemgenotypes,infestationdevelopednormally, withtheintrusive seemed topreventpenetrationoftheparasitestemvascularcylinder(Fig.3and4). sheath have been observed in incompatible interactions between berseem genotypes and Cuscuta planiflora, which starch and pericycle host of lignifications but epidermis, the pierce to able scarcely is parasite the cases, some In parasite arestoppedinthehostcortex,beforereachingstarchsheathwhichisevidentfromFig.1and2. the of cells intrusive the 51), no. Genotype and (Helali genotypes berseem tolerant the with plantiflora Cuscuta of that stop or blockthe development of the parasite. With moredetailedobservations during the incompatible interaction symptom. This getsdevelopedasaresultofvariousoperationsdifferent typeofresistance/tolerancemechanisms The dataindicatesthatdifferent mechanismsexistedanditissuggestedthatthedarkeningoftissueasecondary A: Haustoriumofdodder. B: The hosttissues. Fig 3. Histological reaction to Cuscuta planiflora of berseem (Genotype no. 35)A: Haustorium of dodder B: The host tissue Fig. 2Histologicalreaction toCuscutaplanifloraofberseem(Genotypeno.51). B B C A A

Egyptian Clover 35 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 36 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Fig 5. Histological reaction to C. planiflora of berseem (Genotype no. 94).A: Haustorium of dodder B: The host tis Fig 4.Histologicalreaction toC.plantifloraofberseem(Genotypeno.74). A:Haustoriumofdodder. B: Thehosttissue. Fig 7.Histologicalreaction toC.planifloraofberseem(Control/non-infested) Fig 6. Histological reaction to C. planiflora of berseem (Genotype no. 29).A: Haustorium of dodder. B: The host tissue. A D B C C B A sue. present inhighamountsasfoliardryweight. were protocatechuic and caffeic i.e. acids phenolic respectively.two weight, The dry foliar mg) µg/100 9.50 and (14.67 acid benzoic P-hydroxyl and mg) µg/100 7.82 and (4.71 acid vanillic mg), µg/100 9.56 and (10.99 acid in a descending order; ferulic acid (1.22 and 1.56 µg/100 mg), P-coumaric acid (2.68 and 3.58 µg/100 g), syringic Concerning susceptible varieties (Genotypes no. 94 and 29), in all five phenolic acids were present in trace amounts present intraceamountsasfoliardryweight. amount of P-coumaric and syringic acids, Vanillic, P-hydroxyl benzoic, caffeic and protocatechuic acids were which was relatively high (784.60 and 735.38 µg/100 mg) as foliage dry weight acid of ferulic sufficient berseem had associated dodder with to a tolerance lesser moderate retain to considered are which 74 and 35 no. Genotypes other twoP-hydroxylbenzoicacidandcaffeic acidwerepresentintraceamount. respectively. The amount of syringic,protecatechic and vanilic acids arepresentinlesseramounts.However, the weight, dry foliar mg µg/100 130.25 and 782.91 cv.and Helali in mg µg/100 191.35 and 864.65 by represented it couldbeshownfromthedatathatamountofferulesacid,andP-coumaric acid isrelatively high whichwas respectively). weight, dry mg Also, µg/100 419.46 and (385.42 amounts trace in found were these acids phenolic While in Genotypesno.94and29whichcould be considered susceptible varieties to infestation with dodder tolerance to infestation with dodder and these were present in lesser concentration (784.6 and 735.38 µg/100 mg). the infestation of C. planiflora. The phenolic acids in the genotypes no. 35 and 74, to some extent, retain moderate mg offoliage dry weightforgenotypes(Helali and no.51. Therefore, these varieties could retain some tolerance to in table 1. It could be deduced that the amount of phenolic acids were relatively high; 1111.65 and 965.24 µg/100 Genotype no.65,14,94and29,forphenolic compounds arepresented Chemical analyses ofeightBerseemgenotypes;Helali,Genotypeno.51,35,74, Allelo-chemical compoundsinberseemgenotypes varieties (Genotypesno.35and74)thevascularcylinderinsusceptible9429). the hostexpandedepidermisintolerantvarieties(HelaliandGenotypeno.51),cortexmoderate and seemtooriginatefromboththehostparasite. The haustoriumstematthesideofhostcontactswhile roles different play may that interaction genotypes berseem planiflora C. the in substances several differentiate to Usually, thesesubstancesareregardedasdefensivematerialsormechanismsforthehost,butitwouldbepossible foliar parts of Cyperus rotundus contained different flavonoids and phenolic compounds such as rutin, kaempforol, rutin, as such compounds phenolic and flavonoids different contained rotundus Cyperus of parts foliar ferulic acid,vanillic,hydrorybenzic,P-coumaric,trans-cinnamic acid,caffeic acid. Ali (2005)statedthattuberand Miller (1995) mentioned thatwater–solublechemicals inalfalfaare mainly cinnamic acidand its derivatives such as ferulic acid,vanillicacidandsyringicacid;theirconcentrations differed fromone genotypetoanother. Chungand HPLC analysis revealed the presence of protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, P-hydroxyl benzoic acid, coumaric acid, Table 1.Phenoliccompoundsinberseemvarieties P-hydroxyl benzoicacid Phenolic compounds Protocatechuic acid Coumaric acid Syringic acid Vanillic acid Caffeic acid Ferulic acid Total 1111.65 864.65 191.75 Helali 16.40 10.77 16.32 8.58 3.18 282.91 130.25 no.51 965.24 16.24 10.32 11.80 11.05 Gen. 2.67 Concentration (µg/100mg)foliardryweight 636.44 no.35 58.40 25.75 13.34 13.30 15.05 12.32 784.6 Gen. . no.74 735.38 611.65 83.68 18.64 6.34 9.15 3.40 2.52 Gen no.65 560.14 411.53 54.23 13.75 34.46 12.46 24.13 Gen. 9.58 401.77 579.90 no. 14 73.47 48.22 32.32 11.66 Gen. 6.32 6.14 141.90 210.47 386.64 no. 94 14.67 10.99 Gen. 2.68 4.71 1.22 150.89 423.02 240.11 no. 29 Gen. 3.58 7.82 9.50 1.56 9.56

Egyptian Clover 37 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 38 (Trifolium alexandrinum) ones wereevidentinthisstudy. which existed in different concentrations well performed for tolerant genotypes in comparison with the sensitive histological structures among the susceptible and tolerant Berseem genotypes and allelo-chemical compounds the tolerant genotypes due toinfestation with dodder. Indicator's traits which are highly associated i.e, different differences arehighlysupported withobtaininglessreductionpercentages of freshaswelldryforageyieldsfor freshanddry for genotypes berseem evaluated forage yieldreductionduetododderinallcutsandseasonalduringthethreeseasonsweredetected. These the among differences significant highly obtain, to difficult is Even though resistance and/or tolerance among-and-within crop plants to pests,especially for parasitic weeds identified in Xanthium strumarium shoots were caffeic acid, P-coumaric acid, P-hydroxy benzoic acid and ellagic acid. quercetin, myricatin,P-hydroxybenzoicacid,chlorogenicacidandferulicacids.Inametal.(1987)provedthatinhibitors increases inproductivityofdifferent cultivars.Localisolatesgavethebestresults. Inoculation with rhizobia supports growth, yield and yield components of Egyptian clover and recorded significant Conclusion application byabout75%oftherecommendeddose. which ranged between 29 - 66%as compared to un-inoculated, and reduced the amount of mineral N-fertilizer on berseem– rhizobia inoculation clearly showed that inoculation with rhizobia leads to increase in the yield fertility. Egypt soil in and studies yield Several crop both for benefits has rhizobia efficient highly of Application Summary TDN respectively, ascomparedtouninoculatedtreatments. reference strain used. Generally, inoculation recorded higher percentage increase up to 35 and 29% forDCP and inoculated treatment. All localisolatestestedrecordedhighervaluesofbothDCP and TDN comparedtothe to typeofinoculation.Generally, inoculation gave highervaluesforchemical constituents ascomparedtoun- andashcomponents (NFE) Extract response in fluctuate Free to tends cultivars among constituents VariationTablechemical 3. in in Nitrogen shown are obtained (EE), extract Ether (CF), fibre Crude (CP), protein Crude Chemical constituents plant (g weight dry plant both for values higher recorded significantly plants Significant differences due to rhizobia inoculation and cultivar were observed and presented in Table 2. Inoculated Biomass production dry weight.Moreover, the3localrhizobiaisolates(Re2,Re3andRe4)surpassedreferencestrainused (Re1). to 110 nodules per 10 plants and inoculated plants recorded significant increase in both nodule number and nodule The presence of native rhizobia in Egyptian soils isabundant as shownin Table 1. Uninoculated plants formed up Nodulation status started inthe1950's ARC ProductionofBiofertilizersUnit. the plant and rhizobia, 3) suitable environmental conditions. Production of highly efficient and specific rhizobium between compatibility 2) rhizobia, of strains competitive and efficient highly 1) requires inoculation Successful yield, reducingtheamountoffertilizerandincreasingfarmersincome. increasing fertility, soil maintaining to leads rhizobia specific with berseem of Inoculation known. is efficiency increase yieldofEgyptianclover. BerseemisancientinEgypt;presenceofmanystrainsrhizobiawithhigh and growth enhance to importance its reflect years many over association berseem-rhizobia the on Investigations Abotaleb, H.HandNassef,M. A Biological berseem cultivarstested. compared toun-inoculated plants. Generally, localisolate (Re4) gavethehighestfreshanddryyieldsamong3 Rhizobia strain Parameter inoculation withvariousrhizobiastrains Table 1.Numberofnodulesanddryweight(g/10plants)Berseem cultivars45daysaftersowingasaffectedby Control no.nodules nitrogen fixationinEgyptian clover 105 S1 V1 (Sakha-4) 116 S2 111 X¯ 111 S1 V2 (Helai) 108 S2 110 X¯ -1 ) andplant N-content (mg plant 100 S1 V3 (Sids) 113 S2 107 X¯ -1 )

Egyptian Clover 39 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 40 (Trifolium alexandrinum) CV% 16% (V xRe)=1.0 (Re) T =0.7 LSD 0.05(Cultivar) V =0.23 PDW PN-Content Re4 (local)PDW PN-Content Re3 (local)PDW PN-Content Re2 (local)PDW PN-Content Re1 (reference)PDW PN-Content Control PDW Rhizobia strain Table 2.PlantdryweighandplantNitrogencontentasaffectedbyinoculationwithvariousrhizobiastrainsat45daysaftersowing Parameter inoculation withvariousrhizobiastrains Table 1.Numberofnodulesanddryweight(g/10plants)Berseemcultivars45daysaftersowingasaffectedby CV% 17% (V xRe)=23 (Re) T =13 LSD 0.05(Cultivar) V =(9no.nodules) (reference) D.W. ofnodulesRe1 no. nodules (reference) D.W. ofnodulesRe2 no. nodules (local) D.W. ofnodulesRe3 no. nodules no. nodules (local) D.W. ofnodulesRe4 D.W. ofnodules Parameter 139.1 231.8 254.3 239.8 250.3 19.0 13.8 20.0 14.7 19.2 13.9 20.1 14.2 18.9 12.6 175 192 181 189 S1 V1 (Sakha-4) V1 (Sakha-4) 153.6 242.4 268.9 255.6 284.8 19.4 14.9 21.4 15.1 20.4 14.7 20.9 14.8 20.5 13.0 183 203 193 215 S2 146.5 237.1 261.6 247.7 267.6 14.92 19.2 14.4 20.7 19.8 14.3 20.5 14.5 19.7 12.8 179 198 187 202 X¯ 147.0 215.9 249.0 259.6 249.5 20.1 15.0 21.1 15.3 20.0 14.2 22.3 14.2 19.9 13.1 163 188 196 211 S1 V2 18% V x T =29.1 T =17 V =12.2D.W. ofnodules V2 (Helai) 18% V x T =1.1 T =0.8 V =0.4PN-Content 143.1 230.5 255.6 274.2 287.4 ( 20.2 14.9 19.9 15.8 20.3 14.8 20.2 14.9 20.0 13.2 174 193 207 217 S2 Helai ) 145.1 223.2 252.3 266.9 268.5 20.2 14.9 20.5 15.6 20.1 14.5 21.2 14.6 19.9 13.1 169 191 202 214 X¯ 132.5 209.3 268.9 290.1 311.3 21.1 15.7 20.1 15.1 21.1 14.9 20.1 14.4 18.7 13.0 158 191 235 219 S1 V3 (Sids) S2 V3 (Sids) 142.7 234.5 296.7 300.7 294.1 21.3 16.0 21.0 15.6 21.8 15.2 21.4 15.0 19.7 13.1 177 224 227 222 141.1 221.9 272.8 306.0 292.1 21.4 15.9 20.6 15.4 21.5 15.1 20.8 14.7 19.2 13.0 168 208 231 221 X¯ Control strain Rhizobia seasons) Table 3.Chemicalconstituentpercentageofthreeberseemcultivarsasaffectedbybacterialinoculation(averageovercuttingand (reference) Re1 (local) Re 2 Red (local) Red (local) 15.7 15.7 15.9 15.3 15.4 CP CP % Parameter 38.6 39.0 38.3 39.8 38.8 CF % 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7 EE % NFE 27.8 26.6 27.3 26.7 27.3 % 17.0 17.3 17.4 17.4 17.6 Ash % 15.5 15.5 15.2 15.2 15.0 CP CP % 39.9 40.0 39.3 39.8 39.4 CF % V1 (Sakha-4) 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.7 EE % NFE 26.3 25.9 26.7 26.4 27.2 % 17.1 17.7 17.7 17.8 17.9 Ash % 15.3 15.6 15.1 14.6 15.2 CP CP % 40.2 39.7 39.8 40.6 40.6 CF % V3 (Sids) 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 EE % NFE 26.3 26.0 26.4 26.2 26.3 % 17.1 17.7 17.5 17.2 17.8 Ash %

Egyptian Clover 41 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 42 (Trifolium alexandrinum) rate of77g/m day duringagrowingseasonofabout 175 days. This rate represents lessthan 10% ofthe theoretical daily growth multi-cut typesofberseem(El-Nahrawy, 1994). 19.28 to47.38t/hawhencompared atSakha. Widealso notedamongseedlotsofthe variationinproductivitywas Forage yieldof37commercial seed lotsofFahlvariedfrom17.14to32.14t/hawhencomparedatGizaand 3) 2) 1) ascribed tothefollowingfactors(Radwan,1969): al, 1984).Seedyielddecreasedwhen sowingwaslaterthanDecember20andthelastcuttaken afterMarch20. were taken (Radwan cut wasafterMarch20.Seedproduction is affected by thedate of the lastcutting and yield is highestwhenonly twocuts yield was highest when was sown on the first of October; yield decreased when sown later than December 20 and the last gave the highest seed yield (Radwan affected bythedateoflastcuttingandseedyieldishighestwhenonlytwocutsaretaken. Taking twoandthreecuts yield decreased when sowingwaslater than December 20 andthelastharvestwasafter March 20.Seedproduction is the date of the last cut. They also reported that seed yield was highest when berseem is sown on the first of October. Seed Ramadan cultivar, Gammah anewsyntheticvariety, Giza producedthehighestseedyieldwhensowninmiddleofNovember. The season. another in yield seed highest the gave December of first the on Meskawi of variety 79 Synthetic the year. Sowing another in November of middle the on December, and of first the on sowing from the first two weeks of November under Giza conditions. However, in one year the highest seed yield was obtained El-Zanaty (2005) found that the highest fresh and dry forage yields of berseem were obtained from seeding during Sowing date Effect ofmanagement bacteria maydiffer withsoilconditionsandperhapsthevariety. the application of N at rates from 119 to 476 g/ha. These observations suggest that the efficiency of the Rhizobium However,kg/ha. (El-Zanaty,study earlier an from berseem effect of significant yield no protein showed on 1996) 2005). (El-Zanaty, cut first the of Forage yield yield and forage protein content increase were also to significantly increasedfound at eachwas cut byN/ha increasing added Nkg level up40.47 to 242 of dose starting a Adding seed althoughinoculantsareavailableatalowpricewithdealers. furnish therequiredcarbohydratesformultiplication of Rhizobium.Farmers donotusuallyinoculate berseem by Rhizobiumisdependentupon1)Presenceofeffective strainsofbacteria in soiland2)theabilityofberseem to Berseem hostsRhizobiumbacteria inrootswhichfixatmospheric Nandmakeitavailable totheplant.Nfixation Nitrogen fixation In 1969 the major factor limiting the productivity of berseem was identified as the slow rate of growth of 5.6 g/m catch cropbeforesummercrops,andtherestisafull-seasonwinterforsoiling,silagehay. Berseem, Egypt’s main winter forageisgrownonaboutonemillion hectares of whichabouthalfissownfora M. S.Radwan,K.I. Abdel-Gnawed andR.I.El-Zanaty Factors affectingtheproductivity ofberseeminEgypt large variationinproductivity betweenfarmer’s seedlots. The lowqualityofberseemseedalsoplaysamajorroleinlimiting forageproduction. This isevidenced by the 47 kg/harategiveslowerforageyield. production. Farad etal(1968)showedthatincreasing the seedrateofMeskawiberseem above therecommended The use ofseedrates which lead to leaf area indices lower orhigher than optimum for maximum forage The slowrateofleafareadevelopmentbeforethefirstcut. et al(1994)reported that seed production was affected by sowing date and numberofcuttings but mainly by 2 expected from a standard crop canopy. The low efficiency of berseem in dry matter production was et al, 1983). Seed and straw yield were highest when berseem was sownon 1 et al, 1983, Geweifel and Rammah, 1990). Shabban et al (1984) reported that seed st October (Shaaban et 2 / highest seedyieldwasattainedbyGiza15followed Ahoy (Abdel-Gawad,1993) The N. kg/ha 95 adding by yield seed in increase significant noticed (1993) However,Abo-Zeid Zanaty,1996). nitrogen attherateof89.28to357.14kgN/hagavehighestseedandstrawyields( Taneja by adding119 to47kg/haNonnumberofseeds/headandseedweight/10heads(El-Zanaty, 1996). Adding wide variationinplantheight, leafinessandforageyieldamongcommerciallotsofthe singlecut(Fahl)variety Variation in productivity among farmers’ seedlotsofberseemiscommonly observed. Radwan (1970)reported Variation among seedlots (Iannucci seeds of maturity physiological at cutting by increased was but flowering early at and internode sixth the cutting Gawad, 1993a).Plantheightatharvestdecreased by takingthreecuts(GeweifelandRammah, 1990) andby in oneseason,whereas, Khadrawi gave the best protein yield followed by Ahaly in another season (Abdel- 1993 b).Sakha87variety gave thehighestprotein yield followed bytheHardawayandSynthetic 79 varieties Saied days (Abdel-Gawad,1993a),to 175 days(Geri and Bose,1975Radwan The highesttotal fresh anddryforageyield of berseem was obtained by delaying growth periodupto160- 165 Cutting management Zeidan,1976; and (Hefni yield forage in fresh Mahmoud increase significant a caused , N kg/ha El-Zanaty 23-95 by Adding reported (1996). were results Similar cultivars. some of height plant in differences insignificant noticed Ibrahim and Abdel-Aal, 1990 and Abo-Zeid, 1993). However, Mahmoud In Egypt,adding23-95kgN/hacausedanincrease in plantheight (Hefni andZeidan nodules maynotyethavebeenformed. growth (Tisdale &Nelson,1975),because it seldom respondstoNfertilization except at the beginning when It iswellknownthat adding a small dose ofnitrogen (35-54 kgN/ha.) to berseem at sowing improves seedling some improvements inthefreshyield. However, theyseldomadd tothequality and dryyield(El-Zanaty, 1996). Many farmers add nitrogen fertilizer after cutting during the growth cycle of berseem. Such applications gave Nitrogen fertilizer content ofstemsatallcuts. the protein content of berseem leaves while spraying with0.6%Zinc sulphate resulted in the greatest protein berseem forageyield.El-Zanaty and Ibrahim(1993)reportedthatsoilapplication of 20kgzincsulphateincreased increased significantly micronutrients with spray foliar that found (1994) Sorour yield. maximized sulphate Zinc Gupta andDabas(1983)foundthat spraying berseem with asolution containing 5 ppmZinc in the form of Soil fertilityandfoliar nutrition ha Nforheads/m 119 to 476 kg/ha N on protein yield of berseem. No significant differences were observed by adding 95 to 119 kg/ Khadrah etal1994). Abou- However, El-Zanaty (1996) found no significant differences between all N rates from protein percentage andproteinyieldofberseem(Mahmoudetal1984,Taneja Adding Nfertilizer almostdoubledproteinyieldofberseem. Adding 47to119 kgN/ha.gavethehighestcrude Khadrah 1993, Abou- 1993, Abo-Zeid, et al, 1983,Mahmoudet al 1984,Shaaban El-Zanaty, 1996). Dry forage and total yields of Egyptian clover increased by adding 47 to 119 kg /ha N ( Shalaby from 47 to 238 kg/ha. (Shaaban yield (Ibrahim Khadrah 1993, Abou- et al1963). The highestproteinyield wasobtainedby takingfourcuts(Shaaban,1975and Abdel-Gawad, et al et al 2000). et al 1983; Maliwal 1984, Maatouk, 2 and seed index (Abo-Zeid, 1993 and El-Zanaty,and 1993 (Abo-Zeid, index seed and differencesInsignificant 1996). observed were et al1994). However, adding 142-357 kg/ha N caused a significant decrease in fresh forage et al et al et al 1984, Nor-El Din et al, 1986, Abo-Zeid, 1993, Abou- Khadrah 1986, Nor-El Din et al et al 1986, El-Zanaty, 1996). Total fresh yield increased by raising nitrogen et al 1984,Taneja 1994 andEl-Zanaty, 1996). 1986; Ibrahim and Abdel-Aal 1990, Sinha and Rai, 1991, Abdel-Gawad, 1993, Abdel-Halim et al 1991,Abdel-Gawad, et al et al 1975)andto220days( Abou (1984) and Abdel-Gawad (1993) et al1991, Abo-Zeid, 1993and 1976, Nor-El Dinetal1986, et al1991andEl- et al 1994 and et al .

Egyptian Clover 43 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 44 (Trifolium alexandrinum) berseem duringthefirsttwoweeksofNovember. and on November 15 in 2000. it was indicated that the highest forage and seed yields are obtained from sowing 1999 in December of first the on seeding by obtained was var. 79 synthetic the from yield seed highest the that index andthehighestseedyield(Radwanetal1983GeweifelRammah, 1990). El-Zanaty (2005) found m followed bythe Ahaly variety. Seedproduction after twoorthree cuts resultedinthehighestnumberofheads/ 1990). However, Abdel-Gawad (1993 b)obtained the highest seed yield after taking four cuts from Giza 15 variety Aboul-Ela, 1963; Hassan,et al 1968; Radwan, et al important are pollinators factors affecting seedproduction. The highestseedyieldwasobtainedbytakingtwoorthreecuts(Kassemand of availability the and harvest seed and flowering before period growth the of length berseem cultivation isthelowproductivityofseedatendgrowingseason. The numberofcutsandthe facing difficulties major the of One ryegrass. barley,or with rye mixture in sown berseem than lower is berseem decreased inthiscase.Incontrast,SarkiayanandBakhalbashyan (1969)demonstrated that seedyieldofpure with grainbarley or wheat.However, Moursiand Abdel-Gawad (1967)reported that berseem seed yield slightly El-Bulkeiny (1959) pointed out that seed ofthe Fahl andSaidi types ofberseem could be produced by interseeding Seed production the mixturesof3partsberseemto1partrape. al seed ofFahlberseemcanbeproducedbyinter-seeding withgrainbarleywithoutreducingyield.Sharaanet hybrid producehigheryieldsthanpureberseemwithimprovednutritional value. Radwanetal(1983)reportedthat Hefni pure grass(Raafatetal,1963;Ibrahim,1969; Abou –RayaandShehabEl-Din1971;RammahRadwan, mixtures may producehigherforageyield with better and balanced nutritional quality than either pure berseem or it inmixture with foragegrassesandothernon-legume forage crops.Severalstudiesshowedthatberseem/grass growing out carried been have studies berseem, of cut first the of forage in content matter dry low the of Because Mixtures withother crops by the date of the last cut. Taking two or three cuts resulted in the highest number of heads per m Ramadan plant(Geweifel andRammah,1990). (Abdel-Rahim, the highestvaluesfornumberofheads/m 2 (1988) reported that the highest forage yield, especially at first cut was from pure stands of berseem followed by andthe highest seed index (Radwan et al et al,1978;Sourer,that mixtureswithbarley, 1984).Khafagi etal(1984)showed ryegrassorcabbage xrape et al (1994)foundthat berseem seed production was affected by sowingdate, number of cuts, but mainly et al 1984)andincrease in the number ofstems/plant, number of heads/plant and seedweight/ 2 andseedindex(Radwan,etal1983),increasednumberofheads/plant 1983; Geweifel and Rammah, 1990). Taking two orthree cuts gave 1983; Abdel-Rahim, et al 1984 andGeweifel and Rammah, 2 , the highest seed of fiveregisteredvarietiesandthetolerantbasepopulationEgyptianclover producing asalttolerant base population of Egyptian clover in addition to theresultsofkaryotypecharacterization about thecytological stability of thetested germplasm. This paperincludestheresultsofabreedingprogramme for or populationtotolerate nematode andsoil borndiseases.Chromosomalaberrationinformation gives anidea and itsability of adaptation for biotic and abiotic stresses. Breedersgetacquainted with theability of suchvariety Studying chromosomal characterization is an important tool, as it helps to identify the magnitude of cell activity more than6000mg/linsomepartsofnorthernDeltaduetotheseawaterintrusion. reuse drainage and recycled water. Indrainage water, salinity is increased from 1000mg/l in southern Delta to genotypes. El-Nahrawy(2001),reportedthatthegrowingdemand onexistingwater resources,enforcesEgyptto procedures in isolation seem to be a helpful technique to develop a high productive population out of selected reported byOmaraandHussein(1982).Abdel-Galiletal(2008)thatselection and crosspollination Two cycles of selection and cross pollination directed effective gain in forage yield by 20.58%and 5.11% as frequency ofdesirableallelesandgenotypesleadstoproducenewgenotypes. four cyclesofselection increased yield by 11% insweetclover. Selection in crosspollinated crops increases the effective for improving forage yield in multi-cut Egyptian clover. Johnson and Gosforth (1953)reported that and quality of selected populations Younis collecting farmer seed lots fromdifferent environments. Plant breeding should evaluate and improve the quantity Plant breeding should be directed to identify germplasm that withstands stress, especially saline areas, through distinguished withstableperformanceunderdifferent environments. be given to establish a breeding programme to produce varieties tolerant to high level of salinity or populations soil andirrigated waterwhichstronglyaffect theyieldandcomponents.Consequently, attention should 2008). it isessentialforthecroppingpattern,growninareascharacterized As by highlevelofsalinityin (Graves crops subsequent for soil the improves and rotations crop into well fits Berseem Abdel-Galil M.M,R.Khalaf,H.O.Sakr, Abo-Elgoud S. A. andS.M. Abo-Feteih clover Breeding forcharacterization karyotyping inEgyptian salttoleranceand 2011-2012 seasontoberegisteredasanewsalt tolerant variety(Serw3). in propagated was seed Breeder entries. other than higher significantly are which yields dry and fresh for tons/ha mass selectionsurpassedother selected populations andthelocal variety (Serw1)andrecorded74.0611.73 Analysis ofvarianceindicated 3)afteraselfedgeneration andthreecyclesof that selected 108 (Serw seed lotNo. Results anddiscussion the testedentriesofberseemvarietieswerealsostudied. conditions were also studied. Determination of chromosomal aberration as an indication for cytological stability in of chromosome. Inaddition mitotic cell divisions determined as anindication for the adaptability for Egyptian with thearea,length,longandshortarmchromosome,determining centromeric index andcentromeric position population (Serw 3)and the registered varieties (Serw 1,Gemmeza 1, Giza 6, Sakha4andHillaly) to get acquainted conditions. Cytological investigation was carried out tostudy thekaryotypecharacterization of thepromising as anewvariety (Serw 3)tolerant to salinity and exceeding Serw1 andSerw2varieties in withstanding such stress parents and the registered varieties and the highest yielding population was selected and multiplied to be registered of massselection in isolationwerecarriedout. The improvedpopulationswereevaluated against theoriginal populations wereselected. A selfpollinated generation was producedforeachselected population andthreecycles lots andtwovarieties (Serw 1andSerw2)wereevaluated under highlevel of salinity (6 000ppm)andeight The breeding programme was established at Serw Research Station in 2006-2007winter season, where39seed Material andmethods et al (1986) and Michael (1987) reported that mass selection was . et al,1996,El-Nahrawy

Egyptian Clover 45 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 46 (Trifolium alexandrinum) micronuclei wasfoundinHelalli. stickiness, noncompact micronuclei and satellite chromosomes werefoundinGemmeza1 var. andnoncompact Serw 3indicating these entries are cytologicaly stable and could be grown indifferent environments. Meanwhile, Chromosomal aberrationswerenotobservedinthevarieties; Giza 6,Sakha 4, Serw1theselected population Chromosomal aberration environment. mitotic division points outtothe ability to renewdamaged cells when infected with disease or exposuretosevere very active cells withability to adapt to stressandtolerate nematode andsoilborndiseases,whereas,highlevel of Serw1 andthe selected population (Serw3)were the highest entries in mitotic index indicating that they have Mitotic index as aparentwithotherentries. control the characters like yield and it could be used to obtain high genetic variability in the subsequent generations The selectedpopulation(Serw3)recordedthehighestchromosomelengthsoitisagoodsourceofgeneswhich Chromosome length condition. This isexpectedasSerw1wasproducedtobecultivatedunderhighsalinitywithyield. and mechanical repair genesofDNA arefoundinthisvariety indicating that Serw1ismoreadaptable to stress 1 contains the highest quantity of DNA meaning that high number of genes and their frequency is available Variety Serw1recordedthehighestvalue(46um)andSakha4lowest(43.71um)indicating that Serw Chromosome area Table 1.Meansoffreshanddryyields(tons/ha)forselectedpopulationsregisteredvariety Figure 1 Populations LSD at5% 108 Serw3 Serw1 106 120 113 114 85 A.Chromosome Fragment Fresh yield 56.35 47.84 51.75 57.73 64.17 60.49 74.06 1.8 B.Compactmicronuclei Dry yield 0.560 11.73 9.66 5.52 8.74 9.43 9.89 9.66 Figure 2. Types ofchromosomal aberration inBerseemClover C. Noncompactmicronuclei D. BinucleateCells E. Chromosome Stikiness

Egyptian Clover 47 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 48 (Trifolium alexandrinum) sown within four rows. Row spacing was 30 cmwith1.50mbetweenplots. Row spacingwas within fourrows. sown The sowingdatesoftheexperiments were genotype each of seeds The rows. four contained which m 2.0 x 1.2 was size Plot infestation. artificial the berseem seedsofeachplotweremixedwithdodder in rate of5%berseemseeds(Soliman,2002)toachieve but one first the to way similar a in out carried was layout second The seed. dodder of infestation without design within each set andsetswererandomly distributed within each replicate of the four replicates in in-complete block the 100 genotypes, divided into five sets and each containing 20 genotypes. Genotypes were randomly distributed preparing good seed bed, adding NPK fertilizers, cutting and irrigation were applied. The first layout accommodated Simultaneously, twoadjacent as wellsimilarlayoutswereconducted.Recommended cultural practices such as Season 1(2008-2009) were commercialcultivars;Helali,Sakha-4,Sids-1andSerw-1. collection of farmers’ seedlots(landraces)throughasurveycarriedoutovermost ofthecountryandotherfour One hundredgenotypeswereusedinthisinvestigation. Ninety sixgenotypeswere chosenrandomlyfromawide the performance of some Egyptian clover genotypes for forage yield and their tolerance to dodder infestation. Center (ARC), Egypt,duringthree successive winterseasonsof2008-09,2009-10and2010-11 toinvestigate Forage Crops Research Department (FCRD), Field Crops Research Institute (FCRI), Agricultural Research Three field experiments were carried out at Sakha Agricultural Research Station Farm, Kafr El-Sheikh-Governorate, Material andmethods tolerant genotypesunderartificialinfestation. In addition, it wasenvisaged to estimate the lossesoccurring due tododderinfestation and toidentify the most available berseem germplasm; commercial and high-yielding developed cultivars as well as farmers’ seedlots. & Kogan,2005). The main goals ofthisstudyweretoassessthe effect of dodderongrowthanddevelopment of rarely obtained. Dodder control will require an integrated approach conducted over a period of many years (Lanini yield. Several herbicides have successfully shown selective suppression ofattached dodder butcomplete control is distribution of thisparasite (Parker &Riches, 1993).Itlivesentirely on thehostthereby reducing growth and and attack manydifferent hosts. International trade, mainly with contaminated crop seeds,hasled to the wide can remain viable in the soil formany years (AbdEl–Wahed, 1996). Dodderspecies are distributed worldwide alone withoutattachment to ahost.Itmustattachitselfwithhostplantby its suckers.Hardseedsofdodder forage yield and nutritive value. Doddercan germinate alone if the weather is conducive but, it cannot survive and causeslossestothecrop.Berseeminfestedwithdodderleadsreducedproteincontent, fresh aswelldry affects bothproductivity and qualityofproducedforage.Dodderaffects thegrowthandyieldofinfestedplants Recently, an increasing number of farmers (85%) have been reporting trouble due to dodder in berseem which of itiscontaminatedwithweedseeds,especially, dodder(Cuscutaspp.). or purchased their needs from local markets, local seed is uncertified and uncontrolled, its quality is poor and most seed certified available to growers.Unfortunately, thisisnotthe case for berseem. Farmers traditionally produced their own seed making and cultivars high-yielding of development the to due mainly is 2009) in MT million 22 The remarkable increase incerealproductivitythelasttwodecades(from8millionMT in1980tomorethan much attention compared to cereals (The Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Development Towards; 2030). 1925; Abd EL-Hady, 1993;Gravesetal,1996).Berseemisanimportant sources ofhoneybuthasnotreceived & Mackie, (Kennedy Egypt in N annually atmospheric of tons 000 714 than more fixes it since potential fixation (El-Nahrawy, 2009a).Berseemisindispensableinrotationwithcottonandothercropsduetoitshighnitrogen isthefertility It 2008). needs(ACSAD, protein the animal foundation of agriculture in the Nile Delta and the valley playing a vital role in sustaining Egyptian agriculture of most satisfies it because winter in berseem on Berseem occupies about 1.5million ha (El-Nahrawy, 2009b).Livestock development is mainly dependent Shereen M.El-Nahrawy, R. A. El-RefaeyandE.H.El-Seidy Relative toleranceofEgyptianclover genotypestododder infestation to Comstock&Robinson(1952). Cochran (1971) foreach experiment (infested and non-infested). Variance components were calculated according fresh aswelldryforageyield wereestimated. Analysis ofvariance was carried out accordingtoSnedecor& seed production in isolated area and honey beehives were provided during flowering. Percentages of reduction for 70 atthe3 and Gemmiza-1 were evaluated on a RCDB with four replicates asin the 2 fresh forageyield outofthe100genotypesunderevaluation. After the4 no. 32atthe2 where, itgave61.9at4 genotypes washarvested,separately, atmaturity. selected 25 the of each of Seed genotypes. selected the among pollination intercross ensure to period flowering and providinggoodisolatedareafortheselected genotypes. Three hivesofhoneybeeswereprovidedduringthe for opencross-pollination and therestofgenotypeswerediscardedtoeliminate the possibilityofproducingpollen for genotype no. 108 at the 1 for allcutsandseasonalyieldwereobtained Table 1.FFY R %rangedfrom4.75forgenotypeno.111 toabout54.0 Highly significant differences among the 100 genotypes under evaluation, interaction between the sets and genotypes 1 Results anddiscussion selected in the2 Seeds oftheselectedsixgenotypeswhichrepresentparentsaswellseedssamewere Season 3(2010-2011) sensitive to dodder in the 1 Seeds of the selected 25 genotypes along with two lots; genotypes nos. 29 and 94, which were identified to be very Season 2(2009-2010) At theendof1 forage weightoninfestedcrop. Topps & Wain (1957)formula as R%=(A –B/ A) x100. Where A: Freshforageweightonnon-infested, B: Fresh experiment. Percentage ofreduction(R%)inforageyieldduetododderinfestationwascalculated according to was weightedinthenon-infestedexperiment and afterseparating dodder material from forageintheinfested were October20,15and18forthethree seasons, respectively. Fourcutsweretaken. Fresh forageyield/plot and sensitive. Also, percentageofreductionfortotalchlorophyllwasestimated. value) for 10genotypeswhichrepresentfourdegreesofdodderinfestation tolerance; high, medium, low tolerance content was determined from 10freshberseem plants mechanically by usingchlorophyll meter content (spade were harvested,separately. Reduction percentages for freshanddryforageyieldwereestimated. Total chlorophyll dry forage yield out of the 25 genotypes under evaluation. Seeds of each genotype of the six selected genotypes reduction in descending order. Sixgenotypeswereselected based ontheleast value of reduction of thefreshand in the 1 The plot size, number of rows within the plot, the distance between plots and number of cuts were similar to that except at1 general, genotypeno.51hastheleastreductionvalue(R%) amongallthegenotypesatcutsandseasonalyield Regarding seasonal forage yield, R% value ranged from 11.44 for genotype no. 51 to 47.9 for genotype no. 32. In R %at4 no. 74,where,itgave5.26%.Moreover, theaverageofFFY R%acrossthecutsincreasedinascending orderi.e. st season(2008-2009) st season. At the end of2 th cut<3 rd st cut. While, FFY R%rangedfrom14.03forgenotypeno.51to61.913inthe4 cut,where,itisprecededbygenotypeno.111 whichgave4.75%forFFY thenfollowedbygenotype st nd season,25genotypeswereselected based ontheleastvalueofreductionindescendingorder cut. Inaddition,FFY R%rangedfrom8.93forgenotypeno.51toabout46.35 forgenotypeno. nd rd season representingtheprogenies oftheseparentsandtwocheckcommercial varieties Giza-6 cut<2 th cutandgenotypeno.94where itgave50.56regardingtheseasonalyield. nd cut <1 st season were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. st cut. Moreover, FFY R % ranged from 10.2 for genotype no. 51 to 54.6 for genotype nd st season, selection was conductedforthe genotypes that had the least percent of cut.However, thehighestFFY R%valuewasmanifestedbygenotypeno.13, th cut,the25genotypesselected were left nd season. The materials were left for th cut.

Egyptian Clover 49 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 50 (Trifolium alexandrinum) for theseasonalyieldin2 It isevidentfromtherecordeddatathatgenotypeno.29had thehighestFFY R% (44.0%)duetododderinfestation R% duetododderinfestationofbothfreshanddryforage yields in2 Highly significant differences are shown (Table 2) among evaluated genotypes at all cuts and the seasonal yield for **: Significantatthe0.01levelsofprobability. the 2 The mean squares offreshaswell as dryforage yield reduction percentages at different cuts and seasonal yield in 2 parasite-host relationships. farmers seedlotswhichretains some tolerance to dodderinfestation is alsoexpected due toco-evolution among among 51 no. genotype of Presence area. study their in dodder with infested are fields farmers of 85% about that comparison withothermaterials underevaluation. Moreover, itis reported(AbdEl-Hamid & El-Khanagry, 2006) to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, to be less affected due to dodder infestation it could be expected in cultivars. It was bred for relatively high ability for rapid re-growth whichmay be associated with good tolerance Genotype no. 111 isa commercial cultivar. Helali cv. has high potential and high-yielding ability compares to other **: Significantatthe0.01levelofprobability. by genotypeno.51whereR% =10.3forthesametraitanditisshowntoretaingoodtolerance tododderinfestation. in Table 1.MeansquaresofFFYR%forEgyptianclovergenotypesinfestedbydodderatdifferentcutsandseasonalyield der atdifferentcutsandseasonalyieldin Table 2.MeansquaresoffreshanddryforageyieldsreductionpercentEgyptianclover-genotypesinfestedbydod nd Genotypes(G) Genotypes(G) 1 season (2009-2010) Genotypes Genotypes st nd

Sets (S) Reps/S season (2008/09). S. O.V S. O.V season (2009-2010)arepresented Table 2. S xG Error Error Error d. f. d. f. 258 76 19 78 26 78 26 19 7 4 nd season (2009-10).Ontheotherhand,genotypeno.111 hadtheleastR%(10.1%)followed Mean squaresofreductiondryforageyield(DFY R%) 538.991** 961.623** 961.623** 216.47** 277.81** 120.271 104.118 1 8.485 11.92 Cut 1 st 2.88

Cut Mean squaresofreductionfreshforageyield(FFY R%) 2 nd season (2009-2010). 274.575** 388.440** 353.056 333.257 388.440** 10.870 200.41** 129.88** Cut 2 2 12.99 nd 2.23 Cut 252.966** 292.503** 868.245 847.456 10.877 Mean squares Cut 3 292.503** 581.65** 608.31** 3 rd 17.73 2.03 nd Cu3 season (2009-10). 864.297** 461.00** 1331.266 1309.798 3.920 Cut 4 864.297** 650.92** 720.17** 4 15.88 th 3.50 Cut Seasonal yield Seasonal yield 283.900** 411.520** 353.217 341.716 411.520** 365.91** 4.768 269.5** 0.776 4.47 - well asdryforageyieldR%duetododderinfestationin3 as fresh for yield seasonal and cuts all at genotypes evaluated among differences significant Highly Table-6. in among theevaluated genotypes at all cuts andtheir mean for R%oftotal chlorophyll content in 2 Mean squaresoffreshanddryforageyield R %duetododderinfestation in 3 3 reduction forthetotalchlorophyllcontent. had the lowest R%(7.2%)andit was followed by the genotype no. 35and51,wherethey had 7.9%and8.7%of Genotype no.29hadthe highest R%(22.3%)oftotal chlorophyll by dodderinfestation while genotype no. 111 **: Significantatthe0.01levelsofprobability. the 1 due tododderinfestation. Similarly, theDFY R%bydodderinfestation existed. Itsgrandmeanincreased from R% for yield dry seasonal and cuts all at differences significant highly manifested investigation under genotypes Likewise, genotypeno.111followed bygenotypeno.51whichhadR%=14.6%ofDFY. was Ingeneral,berseem (14.5%) anditmaybeconsideredmosttolerantgenotypeunderthedodderinfestationamongtestedgenotypes. It isevident that genotype no. 29hadthehighestDFY R%(50.90%). While genotype no.11 hadtheleast R% 2 Mean squaresofR%total chlorophyll content due to dodder infestation at different cuts andtheir mean in 41.5%, 29.8%,and31.1%,respectively, while,R%forseasonalyieldare32.4%. 2010) and3 Replications Reduction ofDryForage Yield (R%) Error Genotypes Replication S. O.V seasonal yieldin3 Table 4.Meansquaresoffreshanddryforageyieldreduction(R%) berseemgenotypesinfestedbydodderatdifferentcutsand Error Genotypes Replications S. O.V different cutsandtheirmeansin Table 3.Meansquaresoftotalchlorophyllreductionpercent(R%)Egyptianclover-genotypesinfestedbydodderat Genotypes 3 Error nd rd rd season (2009-2010)and 3 Season(2010-11) season (2010/2011) st cut to 2 rd season (2010-2011). nd cut then decreased in the 3 rd season(2010/11). d. f. d. f. 78 26 78 39 13 26 3 3 3 rd season (2010-2011) are presented in (2010-2011)Tablepresented season differencesare existed significant Highly 4. 2 nd 345.61** 13.07** 65.80** season (2009/10)and 1 1 0.548 1.731 8.373 0.539 st 4.91 st 3.67

Cut Cut rd cut and start to increase again in the 4 Reduction ofFreshForage Yield (R%) 301.32** 15.29** 2 69.56** 2 10.611 2.340 1.631 2.650 nd nd 6.22 6.54 Cut Cut 3 rd season (2010/2011). rd 2 season(2010-2011) havebeenrecorded. nd season (2009/10) 294.76** 111.56** 27.62** 3 3 1.138 1.009 rd 1.824 1.139 rd 5.07 4.54 Cu3 Cut rd season (2010-2011) arepresented th cut starting with R % = 20.1%, 547.40** 21.88** 4 82.29** 4 46.285 0.459 1.553 0.593 th th 6.99 8.87 Cut Cut nd season (2009- Seasonal Seasonal 327.47** 65.12** 9.77** 0.835 0.164 yield yield 7.710 0.793 1.43 1.86

Egyptian Clover 51 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 52 (Trifolium alexandrinum) and dryforageyieldreductionduetododderinallcutsseasonalduringthestudywereobtained. fresh for evaluated genotypes berseem the among differences significant highly obtain, to difficult is dodder like To conclude, even thoughresistance/tolerance among andwithincropplantstopests,especially for parasitic weed R %thenfollowedbygenotypeno.1110 andgenotypeno.510whereR%valueswere5.25.5,respectively. Giza 6hadthehighest(9.4)total chlorophyllR%,while,genotypeno.111 hadtheleast(4.8)totalchlorophyll Highly significant differences among all the genotypes under evaluation at all the cuts and their mean are manifested. -2011) weredetected. for FFY wererecordedin3 was recorded for genotype no. 111 (parent) which is followed by genotype no. 111 (progeny) where R % = 11.3% Genotype (Giza 6) had the highest R% (43.3%) ofthe seasonal yield. On the other hand, the lowest R% (11.1%) **: significantatthe0.01levelsofprobability 6. Highly significant differences of R % among genotypes at all cuts and the seasonal yield in 3 in yield seasonal the and cuts all at genotypes among % R of differences significant Highly 6. evaluation followed byno.111 whereitsR%is12.4%.However, the highest R%(46.5%)wasobtained by Giza- Error Genotypes Replication S. O.V seasonal yieldin3 Table 4.Meansquaresoffreshanddryforageyieldreduction(R%)berseemgenotypesinfestedbydodderatdifferentcuts rd season(2010/11). d. f. 39 13 3 rd season(2010-11). Genotypeno.51hadthelowestR%(11.9%) amongthe14under 327.81** 1 17.70 st 5.32

Cut Reduction ofFreshForage Yield (R%) 332.21** 2 23.68 nd 7.11 Cut 317.85** 3 rd 5.62 5.70 Cut 573.62** 4 53.42 th 8.87 Cut rd season(2010 Seasonal 355.90** yield 2.40 7.59 drought tolerancetoselectamong alarge numberofgenotypes underwaterstress. MPa. Dataunderstressforthese accessionsmight be related to tissueculture as anearlyscreening technique for levels, andthegrowthofcallus sharplydeclined as aresultoftheelevation of waterstressinthemediumupto1.0 potential. Furthermore, final fresh and dry callus weights of these accessions responded differently to water stress performance of thestudied accessions regarding yield and itsrelated traits, photosynthesis parameters and osmotic Six accessions were chosen and classified into a relatively tolerant group and sensitive group based on the combined accessions towithstandwaterstress(Belal, Solute accumulation and ioniccontentsabsorbedbylarge andlongerrootsystemassistedthesedrought-tolerant osmotic potential for water stress treatments was due to the high accumulation of solute concentration within cells. reduced stomatalconductancestress butosmoticpotential increased withincreasingthewaterstress. The increased and 31%,respectively. There weredifferences amongaccessionsandtreatments in stomatal conductance as water increasing water stress inall accessions compared with control. The reduction of MDandSDwereabout18% and SD treatments reduced the dry yield by about 15% and 28%, respectively. Photosynthetic rates declined with Generally, all accessions recorded higher freshanddryyields under thecontrol than at drought treatments. MD ratio, crowndiameterandnumberofbranchesforallaccessions,whileleaves/stem ratio wererelatively higher. stem/root lower showed data treatment (SD) In treatments. differences between significant and accessions among In experiment 2, data of morphological and physiological parameters related to drought tolerance revealed genotypes showedsimilarityinonlyonesystemamongthestudied(Abdel-Tawab, etal 19 genotypesaccordingtothesimilarity in twoorthree systems. However, theotherthreegroupsinvolved 10 of theminvolved on threetogether(salineproteinfractions,esteraseandperoxidase).Elevengroups systems based groups similarity genetic 14 into classified were genotypes berseem 29 that noticed was it 1, experiment In Results anddiscussion in seedlingsandcallitissue. determination. Potassium, sodium,calcium and magnesiumweremeasured. The prolinecontentsweredetermined with different concentrations (0, 5,7.5and10bar)tothemedia. The driedcallipreparedforcation tissue was In drought stress studies, the effect of water stress onthe growth ofthe callus was studied by adding mannitol isozymes andRAPDanalyses. yield-related traits and somephysiological parameters under control and treatments were taken for SDS-protein, severe drought(SD).Leaf samples ofsixberseem accessions werechosenaccording to their performance for every 15daysascontrol(C),irrigated every 21daysasmoderateand irrigated drought(MD)every30daysas 72 farmer seed lots collected from different governorates. Three treatments were applied as follows: irrigation morphological and physiological parameters related to droughttolerance among elevenaccessionsselected from Experiment 2.Fieldexperimentstoinvestigate wereconductedduringthreesuccessivewinterseasonssome major Egyptgenotypes. saline protein fractions, esterase and peroxidase isozymes was carried out tocontribute a national index of some on patterns electrophoretic their to according berseem of genotypes nine twenty of Identification Experiment 1. Material andmethods are alsoconsideredreliablemethodsforcultivaridentification(Barratt,1980and Williams, etal.1990). markers arequiteusefulinplantbreedingprograms,studiesofdevelopmentandtaxonomicrelationships. They have beenusedtomeasuregeneticdiversity. Electrophoreticanalysesofproteins,isozymesandRAPDasgenetic regions whereirrigationwaterisscarce. With thedevelopmentofmolecularmarkertechniques,DNA polymorphisms development ofdroughttoleranceinberseemwillleadtotheexpansionitscultivationmarginal andsandy Water stress ismajorharmfulfactorinaridandsemi-aridregionsworldwide(Royetal,2006).Successthe Wafaa M.Sharawy, F. M. Abdel-Tawab, EmanM.Fahmy; A. M.Rammahand A. H.Belal clover (Trifolium alexandrinumL. Biochemical geneticfingerprintingandeffectofwater stress onEgyptian et al . 1998). ) . 1990).

Egyptian Clover 53 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 54 (Trifolium alexandrinum) improving Egyptianclovertowithstandwaterstressanditsproductionability. and discriminating between sensitive and tolerant accessions underdroughtstress. These data will be usedin fingerprinting genotype in useful are markers molecular and Biochemical Furthermore, characters. physiological Drought-tolerant and sensitive berseemaccessionscouldbedifferentiated based onmorphological and Conclusion DNAs fromdrought-tolerantanddrought-sensitiveaccessions(Fahmy, etal accessions. Also, RAPDsgenerated by six10-mer primers were successfully used todifferentiate between bulked esterase and acid phosphataseprovidegoodmarkersfordiscrimination among drought-tolerant and sensitive all accessions. However, proline accumulation was relatively higher in seedlings than callus tissue. SDS-protein, Both seedlingandcallus tissue recorded higher proline content underwaterstresscompared to thecontrol for Esterase isozymeprofiles for Trifolium L.cultivars alexandrinum Electrophoretio patternsofseedprotein fractionsfor 29Trifolium alexandrinumL. 4= D3primer 5=D7primer 6=D10primer 1=C 18primer 2=C19primer 3=C20primer represent bulkoftolerants (T)andsensitives(S)parents, respectively DNA polymorphismusingrandomamplifiedpolymorphicDNA linesfrom righttoleft . 1997). mountainous land. The arable area isabout7900km and qualityinlivestockproduction, especiallyinwinter. feeding, vaccination, and signsofillnessorepidemics. Poor nutrition is achronicproblemfor achieving quantity lack information andknowledgeaboutimprovedmethodsof are alsoduetoalackofbulls. Livestockowners and many animals become weak, which affects milk and meat production as well as birth rates. Poor calving rates winter cold bitterly the during available not is feed quality Sufficient services. essential other and credit to access Livestock production suffers frommany problems such aspoorhealth, shortage of feed and poornutrition, lack of income. Mostlivestockareindigenousbreeds;someexotic blood hasbeenintroducedincommercialdairycattle. draught (buttractorploughingisincreasingrapidlyonsuitable terrain)andmilkisimportantforbothsubsistence farm of source main the are Cattle system. specialized a in sheep Karakul million five are there north the In sites. Most small ruminants are raised in mobile systems with regular movements between summer and winter grazing main sourceoffarmpowerandprovidesubsistencedairyneeds. and horsesarealsoimportant; there are afewyaksandbuffalo insuitable climatic environments. Cattle are the sedentary villagers and transhumant (Kuchi) systems.Cattle, sheep andgoatsare the main livestock, camels, asses dairy products) forboth the urban andrural population. There are two livestock production systems, thoseof Livestock plays animportant role inthenational economy by supportingdomestic income generation (milk and Livestock sativa) areanimportantcomponentofmostproductionsystems. for sale; melons are a major summer crop. Fodders, mostly clover (Trifolium resupinatum) and lucerne Medicago ( constitutes about 40% of agricultural exports. Vegetables are grown everywhere for subsistence and near towns, pistachio, walnuts, andchilghoza (pine nut) arethemostimportant horticultural crops. Driedfruit,mainly raisins, oil seeds, vegetable, fruits and fodders. Apricots, mulberry, pomegranate, grapes, apples, plums, peaches, pears, value crops near the homestead. The primary crops are wheat, maize, barley, rice, cotton, sugarcane, sugar beet, year. When alimited supplyofpermanentwaterisavailable it isusedforhome gardens,orchardsandotherhigh- fed byrainorsnowmeltfromfaroff hills,orKarezsystems.Mostarable land canonlybewateredforpart of the for very extensive cereal growing. Mosttraditional irrigation systems have a sporadic supply - either spate irrigation Crop production is limited to irrigated lands, except in the northern plains where there is justenoughprecipitation Crop sector the southbyPakistanandonwestIran.Ithasanareaof645500km Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; on the east by China and Pakistan (including the disputed territory of Kashmir), on and 61°75°E,islandlocked Afghanistan liesbetween29°and38°Nisboundonthenorthby Turkmenistan, Mir MohammadBashir Fodder production in Afghanistan. AFGHANISTAN Chapter IX.COUNTRY PAPERS 290 000km production systemsvarythroughthecountry’s widerangeofaltitudesandclimates Crop production, livestockrearing;horticulture and forestryarethemajorfarmingactivities. Crop andlivestock agriculture (livestock and crops), with livestock making a contribution to livelihoods of about 80% ofhouseholds. land; the rest is grazed extensively, isdesert or under permanent ice. Some 85% ofthe population is engaged in of irrigable land, withsomerain-fedareasinthenorthandathigh-altitudes. Crops coverlessthan10%ofthe 2 andtheforestedarea 13 000km 2 . Afghanistan issemi-arid to desertandmostfarming is inpockets 2 , about50percent is cultivated. Permanent pasture covers 2 ofextremely steep, ruggedand

Egyptian Clover 55 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 56 (Trifolium alexandrinum) variety wasgrownsuccessfullyinallthetestedsites(Figure-1). cultivar Agaiti wasavailable in large quantities and wastherefore, tested in all sites. Agaiti as anearly maturing demonstrations of berseem wasintherangefrom52.0t/haPaktiaupto105.0Balkh.SeedofPakistani shaftal resistscoldweather, soilsalinity, grazingandprovidesexcellent hay. Greenfodderproductionfrom shaftal isveryslowinearlygrowthandprovidesonly1-3 cutshence,produceslessfodder. Ontheother hand, Berseem, asanalternative to localshaftalforwarmersites,wasintroduced through demonstrations with farmers; Introduction ofberseem sainfoin &Mottgrasswerecarriedout. sorghum, 3varieties of hybridsorghum, 6varieties of millet and materials of shaftal, fodder beet, red clover, vetch, and Badakhshan. Testing of 20varieties of lucerne, 5 varieties of berseem, 7 varieties of oats, 4 varieties of Kunduz Mazar, Jalalalabd, Kabul, Kandahar, Farah, in fields experimental on staff by tested were varieties New fodder programmewasinmostsiteslarger thanforcattleextension. in Kandahar, Kabul,Mazar, Kunduz,HeratandNangarharprovinces. The numberoffarmerscoveredbythe activities were coordinated with those oncattle production, especially for members of the integrated milk schemes were supportedwiththeimproved seedagainst cash payments, if requested. As faraspossiblefodderdevelopment fodder demonstration were carried out during two seasonswith the same farmers and the farmers in the old villages field days ensured the successes of the demonstrations and a wide dissemination of the results. In all selected sites provided landandlabourwhiletheproject provided seedsandfertilizer. Directtraining of selected farmers and Demonstrations ofnewcropsandvarietiesestablishedfodderswerecarriedoutwithselectedfarmerswho FAO fodder developmentprogramme implementation technology alwaysleadtoanimbalancebetweendemandandsupply. extensive forage productionandtheseconstraintslikeshortageofland,irrigation, seed andignorance about the seed oftraditional fodders isofinferior quality and contaminated with weeds. There are numerousconstraints in Most fodderseedin Afghanistan probablycomes from on-farmproduction or farmer-to-farmer exchange but root system superficial their of disturbance through trees young on effect deleterious a have could crops field with cropping Intercropping of orchardswithfoddersiscommon and isparticularly useful duringtheestablishment years where densely andthinnedforstockfeed,apracticethatisverywidespreadinmostofthecountry. vegetable. There are large areas of commercial fodder near Jalalabad and Kandahar. In summer maize is sown very popular inrecent years duetoitshigherproduction; however, unlike shaftal,itisneither suitable for haynorasa high altitude areas. Berseem(T. alexandrinum)isgrowninafewrelatively frost-free areasandhasbecomemore is alsousedasavegetable. Vetch (Vicia spp) andgrasspea(Lathyrussativus)aregrownasrainfedcropsinsome gives two hay cuts in spring. Excellent landraces of shaftal are available, suitable for both low and high areas; it where there is year-round irrigation. Persian clover or shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) isa winter annual which into haytosupplement crop residues.Lucerne(Medicagosativa)isthemostwidespreadbutcanonlybegrown between 3%and10%according tolocal conditions and farmers’ needs.Fodderispartlyfedfreshandmade country andisusuallygrownclosetothehomestead. The proportionoffodderintherotation varies; itisprobably the throughout traditional very is legumes from fodder Sown quality. and quantity in deficient is feed however, is usedtosupplementstrawsandstovers. Transhumant herdersbuygrain,mainlymaize and barleyaswinterfeed, Much ofthe livestock diet is roughgrazing and coarse crop residues. In agricultural areas some cultivated fodder Feeding system but stoppedgrowthwhenthe weatherwarmedupanddidnotproducemorethan Agaiti (Figure-3and4). field under Agaiti conditions althoughslightlyless incontrolled trials. Berseemseedfrom to Australia producedwell fortheearlycuts, results similar produced Nangarhar in district a from purchased “Khewa” variety local A could therefore,notbeconsideredasanalternativeto Agaiti (Figure-2). and Balkhprovinces.Productive performance and thelate characteristic however, werelessthanexpected and S2 was supposedtogrowlonger into summer, a characteristic that was especially requested by farmers in Nangarhar The “newer”cultivarS2providedbytheFodderResearchInstituteSargodha, Pakistanisalatevarietywhich Figure-1. Berseem VarietyBerseem Figure-1. Agaiti Figure-2. BerseemvarietyS2

Egyptian Clover 57 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 58 (Trifolium alexandrinum) • • • • • • • Conclusion contract farmers. therefore, started seed production of the “Agaiti” variety in Jalalabad, Farah and Balkh province through Availability of goodquality seed isamajor constraint for thecontinuation of theprogramme. The project especially, atthe earlygrowthstageandalsoproducedhighergreenfodder yield. prefer mixed cropping of berseem and oats which grew verywell and evaded frost injury and bird attacks, Comments from farmers insomecoldareaslike Paktia, Logar, MaidansharandKabul provincesisthat they producing varietiesmightbebettertocoverfeedshortage periods. Comments from some farmers in Nangarhar, Farah and Balkh provinces indicated that availability of late Berseem “S2”alsogrewfastatthebeginningand “Australian”wasmediumlatevariety. Berseem “Agaiti”isanearlyvariety, fastgrowingduringtheentiregrowthseasons. very successfullyinmostofthesites Afghanistan. The overall results from field trials and farmers demonstration plots clearly indicated that berseem can be grown and numberofcuts. The lowerproductionwasclearlyaresultoftheshortperiods andfewercuts. Green matter production from berseem demonstration plots was mainly influenced by the length of growing season Figure- 4.Berseem(Agaiti) seedmultiplicationplotsonfarmerslands Figure-3. Australian demonstrationplotinBalkhProvince fresh yield,numberofcuts,heights percut,andoverallplantvigour. local2011. the to to superior significantly were varieties clover in Egyptian varieties, introduced five Afghan The 6, and Serw at Shishem Bagh Agricultural Research Station in Jalalabad, in the winter growing season of 2010 evaluated in a comparison trial with the five introduced Egyptian clover varieties: Hellaly, Sahk-4, Gemiza-1, Giza- of tillers, andleaf features;theyareshortvarietieswiththinstemsandverysmalldarkseeds.Both were Nangarhar fromneighbouringPeshawarinPakistan.Both are similaringrowthhabits,structure,heights,number In Afghanistan, there are two local varieties; “Missry Shaftala”. and “Peshawari” clover which was introduced to Clover varieties reach 35˚C,andlowtemperaturescandelaygermination resultinweakgrowth. temperatures when reduced sharply is germination ˚C; 18-25 between ranges growth its for temperature optimal best below750m(2,500ft)elevation. Miskawi isbestadaptedtoregionswithmildwintersunderirrigation. The some partsoftheworldandasummerannual in others.Mostcultivars cannot standfrost.Egyptian clover does summer weather. However, Miskawi appears to be the most cold resistant of the varieties. It is a winter annual in gives areducednumberofcutsduetoinjuryfrom Miskawi doesnotdowellwithintenseheat,andlatesowing general, Egyptian clover sown earlyinautumn resists frostmuchbetter than ifit is sownlate. Egyptian clover (McLeod, 1982).Itshouldnotbegrowninareaswherewintertemperatures are commonly6°Corlower. In Egyptian clover doesnotwithstandextreme heat orcoldandistheleastwinterhardyofcultivated clovers rotation, improvesoilfertility, andprovidehigh-qualityfeedforlivestock. the Ministryof Agricultural Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) bytheauthortobreakcycle of wheat/rice crop Six Egyptian clover varieties (Hellaly, Sahk-4, Gemiza-1, Giza-6, Serw-1, and Fahl) have been introduced through as KhostandNangarhar, wherewintersaresufficientlymildsinceitonlywithstandslightfrost. alexandrinum) orberseem, a cropofrecent introduction, via Pakistan. It isgrowninsomeofthelower areas,such reported that the mostimportant fodder cropinthehotter areas ofeastern Afghanistan isEgyptian clover (Trifolium and barleyinwinter;withmaize, cotton, pearlmillet, vegetables, andSudangrassinsummer. FAO (2000) In Afghanistan, if it establishes well, Egyptian clover can make an excellent cover for crop rotation with wheat kg ormoreofnitrogenperhectare. 225 to fix 115 can it up, used are reserves soil Once cycle. its in early nitrogen soil down draws clover Egyptian from five cuts under irrigation. It is a heavy nitrogen producer and the least winter-hardy of all true annual clovers. Egyptian clover isafast-growingwinterannual.In Afghanistan, itcanproduceupto90tons/hafreshgreenforage primarily by smallholders. It isalsogrowninthe U.S, andinsouthernEurope as both awinter and summer crop. may makeitthemostrapidspreadofacropinrecenttimes,thisisallmorenotableforitsbeingcultivated (Roberts & Singh, 1951).It is nowthe major cultivated fodder on millions of hectares around the world, which conditions and farming systems so well that it rapidly spread throughout the irrigated tracts of northern India introduced toSindh,Pakistan,whereitadaptedthe In theearlyyearsoftwentiethcenturyberseemwas Hamdy Oushy Berseem in Afghanistan- Countryreport. garhar Province, Afghanistan. Nangarhar Figure-1 (A &B).SixEgyptianclover varieties at MAIL/ShishemBagh Agricultural Research StationinJalalabad, A B

Egyptian Clover 59 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 60 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Nangarhar Province-inadditiontoaresearchsiteatBalkhUniversity(Figure-3and4). in Jalalabad at20demonstration plotson 20farmsinfourdistracts-Kama,Behsood,Chaparhar, andKewain Bagh Agricultural Research Station, Nangarhar University, Nangarhar Valley Development Authority (NVDA) Demonstration andseedproductionsitesforthesixEgyptianclovervarieties were establishedatMAIL-Shishem reported thattherearefourdistinctagriculturalvarieties;Miskawi,Khadrawi,Saidi,andFahl. Egyptian landraces of berseem include Miskawi, Saidi, and Fahl (Graves clover varietiesbythehigh-yieldingimprovedofEgyptian(Figure-2). of theoverall agricultural production system in Afghanistan throughthereplacement of theinferiorlocal Afghan inJalalabad, been outstanding improvement for potential significant a is there that have indicate results in These Afghanistan. Nangarhar,conditions varieties introduced five of adaptation and establishment the addition, In Figure-4. Afghan workerscarriedoutberseemtrialsatMAIL/ShishemBagh inJalalabad,Nangarhar Province. (Right) Datacollectionatother Egyptianclover demonstrationplotinKamaDistrict,Nangarhar province, Afghanistan . Figure-3. (Left) A farmer inBehsoodDistrict,Nangarhar Province ishappywithhisimproved Egyptianclover Hellalyvariety. photo atShishemBagh Agricultural Research StationinJalalabad,Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan. Figure-2. Local Afghan clover “MissryShaftala”isinfront; andEgyptianclover Hellaly is showninthebackof et al, 1989). Kennedy and Mackie (1925) In a large farming systems Egyptian clover hay can be produced using mechanical mowers, suncuring, and balers. should beconnectedusingsometools,asinphoto3Figure5. House Hay 5). The Figure in 8 photo (see forage the hold to floors three the on established be should nets Plastic 2). inFigure 2 photo (see floor third the for mlong 1 floor, second and the for m long floor,2 first the for long m 3 follows: as are floors three the of measurements floor. The each for bars wooden three and skeleton the build three triangle-shapedframe usesformsofdifferent sizes.Italsorequiresthreewoodenbars(each4mlong)to making hayfromEgyptiancloverisclean,fast,requireslittle labour, andresultsinlowmechanical losses. The Hay House • • • • • • Egyptian clover haymakingsteps in Afghanistan. “Hay House”(HH),developedfor smallfarmingsystems the in step-by-step haymaking, clover Egyptian 5. Figure the wallsoffarmsinBalkhProvince, Afghanistan . Figure 6. The oldway of makinghayfromlocal clover alfalfa and on bydrying theforageplants Transfer thehaytoastorageplacewhe Turn theforagedailythroughoutfourdaystodryitout. Keep theforageinHayHouseforfourdays. Transfer thesuncuredforageto“HayHouse”(seeFigure5). Sun curetheharvestedforageinrowsfieldforonedayonly Use onlythethirdandsubsequentcutsforhay. n itreaches25%moisturecontent. .

Egyptian Clover 61 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 62 (Trifolium alexandrinum) variety wasgrownsuccessfullyinallthetestedsites. cultivar Agaiti wasavailable in large quantities and wastherefore, tested in all sites. Agaiti as anearly maturing Pakistani the of Seed cuts. of number the and season growing the of length the by differenceinfluenced mainly is production from demonstrations for berseem was intherangefrom52.0t/ha in Paktia up to105.0t/ha in Balkh,the 75-80 t/hagreenfodderyieldin3-4cutsascomparedto40t/haproducedbyshaftaltwocuts. The greenfodder when no green fodder was available. Shaftal gave its first cut at the end of April. Berseem produced on the average Berseem produced twice the green fodder compared to shaftal. The first cut was obtained in December or January double croppingregions. and western regions are replacing local shaftal with berseem which can significantly increase fodder production in cold weather, soilsalinityandgrazingprovidesexcellent hay.farmers inlowerareasofeastern,northern Most weeds. It seems that farmer’ practices of mixed cultivation are well justified and well recommended; shaftal resists growing cereal produces anearly cut and protects the legumes fromdamage by frostandinsectssuppress that berseem can begrownverysuccessfullyin Afghanistan; mixed cultivation has theadvantage that the fast show clearly demonstrations and trails field of results The Balkh. and Kunduz Badkhshan, Nangarhar,Laghman, hay. Agaiti was grownin1997 Herat, Farah, Helmand, Kandahar, Bamayan, Logar, Wardak, Kabul, Pktia, slow in growth and provides only 2-3 but resists cold weather, soil salinity and grazing and provides excellent Sargodha-Pakistan, and 3) Noone from Australia. For milder sites berseem is an alternative to shaftal which is In 1997 Egyptian clover was studied. FAO introduced three varieties: 1) Agaiti, Pakistani variety, 2) S2from Summary ofFAO fodder developmentprogramme in Afghanistan and riseinpriceofanimalproductswithaconsequentimports. Increasing the area under wheat at the expense of berseem could result in a drastic reduction in feed production land and scarce water, the competition between wheat and berseem requires rational decisions by policy makers. meet the demand for animal products, the berseem area increased 12% during 2011. With limited agricultural hectares in 1978 and 670,000 hectares in 2000 (Table 1). However, due to rapid growth in livestock numbers to as theareadevotedtoseedproduction. The full-seasonberseemareaisrelatively stable, varyingbetween751,000 cultivated area inEgyptwinter(between84,000to1,260,000hectares)asa full andshort-seasoncropaswell or silage or madeintopellets and cubesor otherfeedstuffs. (Figure2) Berseem occupies aboutathirdofthetotal high forage yield of exceptional value whether consumed directly as pasturage or green-chop, conserved as hay both livestock and cropproductionforcenturies, in asituation where natural pasture isscarce.(Figure1)Itprovides in theagricultural system;itisanancient crop andabasiccomponentofsustainablecroppingwhichhasenhanced Egyptian cloverorberseem(Trifolium alexandrinumL .), themainforagecropinEgypt,playsanimportantrole of berseemseedwasexportedduring2009. tonnes 30,000 than More crops. field under-fundedother grossly to comparedis research fodder wheat; with land yield per unit area by usingimproved cultivars and better agronomic practices could reduce the competition for which couldgreatlyincrease productivity but little effort hasbeenputintodeveloping their seed supply. Increasing farmer’srotations andisamajorhoneycrop.Most plantberseem landracesbutimprovedcultivarsareavailable of farming in theNile Delta. It isanexcellent plant for controlling weeds, insects, pests, anddiseasesincrop systems formanycenturies; it playsavital role inthesustainability ofagriculture since itisthefertility foundation is exacerbated by rising livestock numbers. Berseem has enabled livestock to be closely integrated with cropping expand area under wheat to increase self-sufficiency which can only be at the expense of berseem; the competition Egyptian clover (Berseem) and wheat compete with each other for limited irrigated land. There is a consensus to Summary El-Nahrawy Mohamed Abu-Zeid Egyptian clover anditsvitalrole inEgyptianagriculture EGYPT Table 1.Trendinareacultivated,greenforageyield/haandtotalproductionofberseem 1978 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 Year Area undercrop(ha) 684,000 692,000 668,000 678,000 717,000 784,000 807,000 828,000 784,000 752,000 738,000 723,000 733,000 751,000 Productivity (tha 62.19 62.14 62.50 61.31 60.71 58.33 58.57 55.00 57.62 57.60 56.40 56.31 57.60 57.60 -1 ) Production (1000t) 42,535 42,985 41,799 41,555 43,514 45,685 47,310 45,514 45,063 43,281 41,586 40,699 42,230 43,256

Egyptian Clover 63 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 64 (Trifolium alexandrinum) not occurinHebrewand Armenian botanicalBossier(1872)indicated works. thatberseemisnot wildinEgypt, indigenous to Egyptandextensively cultivated as fodder andits Arab name is bersym orberzun and itsname does is berseem that reported (1886) DeCandolle heads. flower red of instead yellowish-white has but habit, growth Berseem is atrueclover belonging to thegenus Trifolium and somewhatresembles red clover (T. pratense ); in Origin around 59tonnesha Berseem yields are distinguished by their stability and fluctuate less than cereals. From 1987 to 1997, yields were especially wheat andberseem, will bedetermined by improving yields throughtheuseofhigh-yielding cultivars. There arenoshortormedium-term solutions tothisproblem.Landislimited, so productionofwintercrops, being bestowedonacropthantogiveitcreditforsustaining agriculturalproductioninsuchanancientland. sustaining Egyptianlands.Moreover, Gravesetal. (1996) concluded that it is difficult to imagine a greater honour once the High Dam stopped the silt and nutrients during flooding, there is no doubt that berseem is responsible for soil fertility could have been suspected or confoundedwithother causes beforeHighDamestablishment. But the High Dam which stopped silt and nutrients from enriching the Egyptian soil. The role of berseem in sustaining centuries ofcotton production (Fairchild, 1902). Fairchildsinsighthasbeenvindicated since theestablishment of Berseem isthegreatforageandsoilingcropofNile Valley andisindispensableasarotationcrop during of foodandcommercialpolicychoices. (Table 1). The development of berseemproductionisdetermined by thecompetition with wheatandtheproduction annual production58,666,000tonnesin2002 recordedwas40,699,000tonnesin1980;whilethehighest was to theavailability of certified seedofhigh-yielding cultivars that weredeveloped inthe early eighties. Thelowest Table 1.Trendinareacultivated,greenforageyield/haandtotalproductionofberseem 2008 2007 2009 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 2010 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 2011 Year -1 ; thenproductionincreasedfrom1998upto71.35tonnesha Area undercrop(ha) 1175000 1175000 1175000 1175000 680,672 766,152 695,907 801,000 825,000 838,000 843,000 670,000 774,000 714,000 666,000 693,000 740,000 749,000 690,000 685,000 Productivity (tha 71.35 44.26 70.37 71.17 71.14 70.24 70.00 67.26 68.00 66.43 64.26 61.33 44.26 60.64 59.76 59.48 62.43 62.33 44.26 44.26 -1 ) -1 in2007. This ismainlydue Production (1000t) 53,911 48,555 52,000 49,530 56,946 57,916 58,666 54,655 51,710 51,392 45,885 40,860 52,000 44,214 44,581 43,078 42,697 52,000 52,000 42,011 susceptibility to certain diseases andincreasingpersistence.Phosphate andpotasharerelatively immobile when establishment and goodrootdevelopment.Potashis essentialformaintaining both forageandseedyields,reducing Berseem needsrelatively large amountsofphosphateandpotash. is important Adequate phosphorousforsuccessful effective nodules. kilograms of nitrogen per hectare to help seedlings develop healthy roots. These roots will ensure developing of grassesandweeds.Butinsomecases,soilpoornitrogen should receive an encouraging dose around50-75 not improveyields, quality, orstandvigour. Adding nitrogen may lower yield and/or quality by stimulating growth matter which releases nitrogen as it decomposes. On well-inoculated, established stands, top dressed nitrogen does Berseem typically gets enough nitrogen from its symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium and from soil organic Fertilization the firstrootsdevelop,tobeginfixingnitrogenimmediately. should beinoculatedwithRhizobiumtrifolii, especially on newlands.Effective bacteria should bepresentwhen seed berseem numbers; adequate have fields all not crops, previous from plant. Rhizobium the contain to soils many available While becomes which nitrogen fixes and roots berseem on nodules create bacteria Rhizobium Inoculation on heavysoilthathasahardlayerand/orhighwatertableshouldbeavoided. seedbed should be firm and the optimal seeding depth is 1-2 cm, with a maximum of 4 cm. Cultivation of berseem fixation. The nitrogen efficient stage. for germination salinity,required the to is at Asensitive 6-7 although of pH Berseem can be grownonawiderange of soils,including calcareous andheavy ones. Itismoderately tolerant Soil requirements andseedbedpreparation adequate andthepH6.5orhigher. of salinitybutisnotadaptedtolow, poorlydrainedsoils;maximumyieldsareobtainedwhencalcium (Ca) is the growing season. It dies when exposed to temperatures below 4 C° for several days. It is moderately tolerant areas where winter temperatures are moderately cool to warm and adequate moisture is available throughout Berseemiswidelygrownforfodderandseedaswellinrotationssoilimprovement. It isbestadapted to Distribution andadaptation to 500. The usualgrowingseason inEgyptextendsfromearlySeptembertolateJuly. yellow to red-brown.Some seed may have a purple pigmentation. Number of seedspergram could range from 400 somewhat larger thanredclover andaboutthesamesizeascrimsonclover. They areegg-shapedandcanvaryfrom stem by aleaf-like bract. Petals are yellowish and formalongbasal(corolla) tube. The seedsareabout 2 mmlong, On average, there are about 100 flowers densely crowded in each ovoid head (raceme), subtended from an annual terminals. Flowers arepredominantly self-incompatible and mustbepollinated by bees toproducehighseedyield. stem at heads elliptical in flowers yellow-white round produces It livestock. to palatable very and petiole one on nodules are found on the lateral roots. Leaves are large, numerous, slightly hairy, succulent, consist of three leaflets white pinkish ovoid, small Numerous roots. lateral fine numerous emerge which from roots tap thick and cm) 90 It attains aheightof45to75cmormore if notmownandhasanupright growth habit. Plants develop short (60- decumbent duringwinterandspring.NaturallygrowingEgyptian cultivarsarediploidandhave16chromosomes. Berseem is an annual legume with oblong leaflets, hollow stems and upright growth habit which varies from erect to Description been discoveredinanyofthetombsEgyptanddeniedthatplanthaswild. is alsosub-spontaneous.Fairchild(1902)indicated that nopicture, nameorauthentic seeds ofberseemhadever known from Egypt and Cyrenaica and the true home is uncertain and it is cultivated everywhere in Egypt where it but assuredthat it was wildinSyriaand Asia Minor. Onthe other hand,Muschler(1912)reported that it is only

Egyptian Clover 65 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 66 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 30 Excellent resultscanbeachieved byfeedingberseemsilagetodairyorbeefcattle. be may particularly useful in ensuringadesirable pattern of fermentation. Berseem grown inamixture is easier to ensile. acids organic as such Additives fermentations. undesirable minimize to field the in matter 25-35% dry of a content to it wilt to beneficial is it problems; presents content protein high its but ensiled be can Berseem should beusedtohastendrying. become brittle and arepronetoshattering before thestemsarecured. A crimping or conditioning attachment berseem compared with alfalfa is presented in Table-2. During haymaking, berseem leaves dry relatively quickly, should becutwhenitreaches45to55cm;mayusedasgreenfodder, hayorsilage. The nutritive value of Berseem damage. wheel against crowns berseem the cushion will grass farms big in harvest; first from forage the alone orinamixturewithgrasses. herbage itcanbesown Areduces theriskofbloatespecially companiongrass Berseem canprovidealarge yieldofnutritiousforagewithhighintake.Itisapalatable, high proteincrop. For Herbageproduction, storage,andutilization during thelasttwoharvestsasevaporativedemandsincreasedMayandJune. dry matter peracre-inch during thefourcutting intervals. While WUE droppedtoanaverage of 132kgacre-inch water efficiently. Williams Berseem only reaches its full growth potential when notstressedformoisture. Compared to other forages it uses Waterrequirements that forage yields increase by about30%forplanting on September 20 time before the first cut and fewer cuts. Studies by the National Forage Crops Research Program (NFCRP) indicate Sowing after mid November will cause slow growthdue to cool weather and consequent poor growth,prolonged weed invasion; early sowing hashigher probability for cotton leaf worm infestation as well as lesspersistence. stands aswellpoorforagequality, duetohightemperatures which causeseedlingdeathandencourage summer berseem frommidSeptembertilllateNovember.In Egyptfarmerssow Sowingbefore midSeptemberresultsinpoor Optimum dateofsowingandwaysseeding making itunavailabletoplants.Potashcanleachonsomeextremelysandyandorganic soils. added to the soil. Phosphate bonds tightly on acidic clayey soils (pH< 5.5)and on very high pH soils(pH>7.5) from 15-20%andwatersavingabout20-30%. productivity increase to lead could flooding without seeding direct and levelling laser 15-20%; by productivity cottonand (after berseem increased levelling Laser flooding. landpreparation without directly sown after be can it or drilled; or broadcast rice) be can It corn). (after no-till with land flooded into directly sown is Berseem Source: NFCRP, FCRI, ARC, Giza,Egypt Figures Table 2.Thenutritivevalueofberseemandalfalfa th whileplantingonNovember30 Berseem Alfalfa Forage 1 : averaged over 18berseemcultivarsandexperimentalstrains.Figures 2 1 Ave. Ave. Cut et al. (1991) estimated water-use efficiency (WUE) to be about 175 to 280 kilograms of 4 3 2 1 th Crude proteinin leadtoadecreaseby62%ascomparedwithplantingonOctober15 20.08 16.13 20.06 21.95 22.20 20.70 DM Crude fibrein 23.60 29.64 23.79 20.30 20.68 20.58 DM 2 : averagedover6alfalfacultivarsand17cuts. Percentage th Ether Extract incomparison with planting on October 2.41 1.83 2.76 2.90 2.16 2.30 15.43 12.01 13.74 15.81 20.40 11.50 Ash Dry Matter 14.43 20.83 13.33 12.58 10.98 17.17 th . use andexport.Highyielding varieties that havebeendeveloped through theNational Forage CropsBreeding Farmer-produced seed of landraces such asMiskawi, Saidi and Fahl comprises the majority of seed for both local branching; itcanprovideupto threecutsduringthegrowingseasonanddominatesinUpper Egypt. following the early maturing rice cultivars and corn; Fahl is the most vigorous one. Saidi is both basal and stem is astem-branching type thatcanbecutonlyonceandisdominant asapreceding crop tocottonandrecently wheat crown branching, it can be harvested five to or seven times during the growing season and dominates in Lower Egypt. Fahl basal has Miskawi branching: stem on identified be also can types three These Fahl. named type, cut multi-cut or flowering late the single- or flowering early the and Saidi; named type, double-cut or flowering medium the Misckawi; named type, landraces: Egyptian distinct three from developed been have varieties modern A longhistoryofcultivation in different regions ofthe country has led to the evolution of several ecotypes; most Varieties when necessaryisrecommendedespeciallyintheestablishment phase. insecticides specific with crop Treatingthe midges. seed clover and worm, green worm, cotton weevil, Egyptian Insects thataffect forageyieldandquality, andseedyieldarerootborers,Lygusthrips, clover seedchalcids, bugs, Injuriousinsects cutting willtakecareofdiseasemanagement;inmostcasescontrollingdiseasesbypesticidesisnoteconomical. diseased fields last, and/ or by disinfecting farm machinery after use on infected areas. Once berseem is established, are recommended. Prolong the rotation interval between legumes. Avoid contaminating healthy fields by working recommended. Rotating with non-legumes is of mutual benefit. If serious diseases develop, professional diagnoses to maintain avigorousstand.Usingclean seed ofrecommended and resistant cultivars where available are highly diseases ismoreeconomical than curingthem.Croplossesfrommostdiseasescan bereducedbypropermanagement Fungal diseases are the most important, because they attack foliage, roots, and crowns. Preventing or controlling Diseasesandtheir management dodder, Cuscutasp.which isbecomingawidespreadproblemwhereseeduncertifiedanduncontrolled. Herbicides canbeusefulincontrollingweedsseedlingstands.Oneofthemostdevastatingisparasite and reducedyields. To reducelossesfromannualweeds,pedigreeseedshouldbeusedandsownonly oncleanland. annuals canreducethevigourofcropduringestablishment,causingpoorestablishmentberseemseedlings, most susceptibletoinjuryfromweedsduringestablishment;seedlingsareweakandpoorcompetitors. Aggressive is Berseem herbicides. or means cultural by destroyed and field the of rest the from isolated be can and problem with themandfrequentcuttingpreventsthegrowthofwinterweeds.Persistentperennialssometimesbecomea In strongvigorousstandsofberseem,annualweedsarenotusuallyaproblembecausethecropcancompetestrongly Weed control European countries. of tonnesberseem seed areproduced in Egypt annually for exporttoEastern Asian andSouthern Western seed canbeproducedinfababean(Vicia faba)andwheatfieldsasintercropsbutseedyieldarelower. Thousands processing. Average seedyieldisabout750kilogramsperhectareinpurestandsfor seedproduction.However days. Seed should be dried if the moisture content exceeds 14%. Specialized machinery may be required for further be cutandswathedwhen80-90%oftheheadsarebrown;swathslefttodrymaythreshedin7-10 of the pistil being properly fertilized will last as long as it remains in a condition to receive pollen. Berseem should move back to their original position. A second or third visit by an insect will have the same effect and the chances berseem providesagreateropportunityforcross-pollinationaftereachvisitbypollinator, thepistiland stamens of structure flower the legumes, other Unlike hectare. per colonies eight at field the to introduced are mellifera, pollinated to produceseed;thisisdoneprimarily by bees.Goodseedyieldsareproducedwhenhoneybees, Apis Berseem can be a multiuse crop for both forage and seed production; it is self-incompatible and must be cross- Seed production

Egyptian Clover 67 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 68 (Trifolium alexandrinum) • Berseem hasenabledlivestocktobecloselyintegratedwith croppingformanycenturies,itisalso: Berseem inEgyptianagriculture are highlyadaptedtoUpperandMiddleEgyptwherehightemperaturescommon. Sakha-96 are characterized by highyielding ability in bothNorthernandMiddle Delta. Giza-6, 10 and15varieties are characterized bylongevityuptoearly August aslonghighmoistureisavailable. Sakha-4, Gimmiza-1 and was developed by recurrentselection among andwithinfarmerslandraces. Helalee as wellSakha-3varieties as droughtandsalinity. Serw-1wasbred in Serw Agriculture Research Station, ARC, asasalt-tolerant variety; it in Table -3,thesehavebeendeveloped for highyieldandresistanceortolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses such Program areavailable. Performance ofsomelicensedcultivarsincomparisonwithfarmerslandracesisdocumented berseem cultivarsdevelopedbytheNationalForageCropsBreedingProgramaveragedoverfivecuts. nutritious feedwithhighintakecharacteristics. Table -4,illustrates theproximateanalysisofsevenhighyielding lower incrudeprotein (CP). Berseem hay isquite palatable and highinfeeding value. It can give alarge yield of Berseem foragequalityissimilar toalfalfa,perhapsalittle and alittle higher intotaldigestiblenutrients(TDN) The nutritivevalueofberseem Serw 1 Sakha 3 Gemmiza 1 Giza 15 Giza 6 Sakha 4 Helali Source: NFCRP, FCRI, ARC, Giza,Egypt. Cultivar Table 4.Qualityparametersofsevendevelopedhigh-yieldingberseemcultivarsonadrymatterbasis sons Table 3.Performanceofsomedevelopedberseemcultivarsaveragedover18Provincesduring2008-2009and2010sea Source: NFCRP-FCRI, ARC, Egypt Gemmiza 1 Sakha 4 Giza 15 Hilali Farmers’ cultivar Cultivar high productivityofnon-leguminous cropscouldnothavebeenmaintained. indispensable in rotation with cereals, cotton and other crops. Without growing berseem and other legumes, the cultivated lands everyyear(AbdElhady 1993; Gravesetal.1996).Berseem has, forcenturies, been considered (298-400 kilogramsha A betterchoice for soilimprovement and increasing soil fertility withanability to addhighlevelsofnitrogen -1 17.47 17.24 16.86 17.13 16.81 17.54 17.26 CP% ) (Graves Number ofdata-years 1 1 2 2 2 . 1996); more than 714,000 tons of fixed nitrogen is added to Egyptian to added is nitrogen fixed of tons 714,000 than more 1996); et al. 25.53 25.92 26.31 25.80 25.87 25.02 25.33 CF% 128.69 126.80 127.57 130.29 Mean 69.90 Forage yield(tonnes/hectare Ash% 15.40 15.51 15.38 15.56 15.54 15.43 15.42 100.83-153.76 93.50-163.93 92.55-164.95 97.69-164.95 93.12-143.00 Range EE% 1.88 1.75 1.77 1.73 1.73 1.94 1.73 % superiorityover farmers’ cultivar. 10.89 9.54 7.91 8.58 NFE% --- 39.71 39.62 39.74 40.21 41.01 40.07 40.26 - applying anykindsofweedcontrol. without weeds of free berseem following wheat of fields see to common very is (TableIt bank 6). seed weed the depletes and weeds growing removes season per times seven to five from cutting Repeated wheat. with berseem oats more than 16 times and a decrease in the productivity of wheat about 12.6 times in comparison with rotating seasons from1991/92to1994/95,continuouswheatgrowing resultedinincreasefrequencyofspikeswild with wheat helps controlling wheat pests, especially wheat rusts. Comparing the crop sequence for foursuccessive ha 6). Successivecultivation of wheatforfourseasonsresultedinlowproductivity of wheatgrain(310 kilograms with berseem wheat. Regardlessoftheimportant roleofberseeminsustainingsoilfertility for allcropsingeneral (Tables rotating 5& and land infested the on berseem growing is method control effective and efficient only especially wild oats which is a big problem in wheat. There is a national campaign to control wild oats and the The crop provides one of the most viable ways economically as well as environmentally of controlling weeds, the soilphysicalproperties. secondary nutrients,andmicronutrients. Inaddition,manurepromotesbiological activity in thesoilandenhances nutrients, major the of all almost containing source, nutrient complete a is Manure years. five to three within soil marginal the convert bacteriawill by nitrogen fixed and animal manure as well as berseem fertile to soil poor and land reclamation is toestablish an integrated livestock-crop system. Organic matter incorporated into the land from It is the foundation cropforlandreclamation, especially of desert or marginal land. A general rule for successful • • • • gave higherproductivity of grainwheat;3,929and4,524kilograms ha -1 organic matter. It iswellsuitedasacovercropinorchardsforcontrolling weeds aswellenriching the soilwithnitrogen and honeybees and the main honey source in Egypt. A decrease in the berseem area would affect honey production. for crop foraging major the is It performance. animal in reflected be will consequently and ration balanced a to Berseem isveryrichinproteinandpoorenergy. will lead Therefore, includingitin mixtureswithgrasses ryegrass in mixture with berseem leads to an increase in dry matter content and intake especially in the first cut. have beenusedascomponentsofthesemixtures(Rammah and Radwan,1977; Haggagetal,1995).Including Various berseem-grass mixtures have been tried; barley, annual ryegrass, triticale and oatsindifferent proportions 3) . (figure 2007 in tons 29,000 than more to rose seed berseem Egypt’sof countries. exports Europe annual South exports in1989(Egyptian Financial Group 1991). There ishighdemand forberseemseedfromEast Asian and view duringtheseason.Berseemisamajor seed export crop (7,400tons)representing 86% ofEgypt’s seed with most if not all other crops. It converts cultivated fields immediately to green carpet which reflects pleasant up to 15 mmhos/cm. It is environmentally friendly crop where minimum or no pesticides are used in comparison barley. It is suited for rotations with rice at Serw Research Station in Damietta Governorate where EC reaches winter andLauchli (1982) asmoderately tolerant to salinity, morethanwheatandstrawberrybutless that it is well known forits use in reclamation of salty lands in Egypt. It is described by Lauchli (1984) and Berseem is the best crop for sustainable rotation with rice for salt-affected soils. Graveset al . (1996)reported insects. Itisthebestcropforapplyingno-tillconcept,especiallywhenitgrownafterrice. of a berseem crop except when necessary at establishment so berseem is a very good place to harbour beneficial lifetime the during used biologically. are ones pesticides deleterious No control helps which insects, beneficial chemical properties. Itprovidesadiseasebreakincereal rotations. Itprovidesthebestshelterforrearing organic matter content, especially innewlyreclaimed lands andimprovessoilstructure and physical and Berseem in arotation helps toconservethesoilandpreventswindwatererosionincreases the soil as greenmanureorevengrownforforage. increase inyieldandqualityhasbeenobservedcerealcropsthatweregrownwhereberseemhadused is turnedunder. Thus, the amount of commercial fertilizer added fora succeeding crop can be decreased. An green cropintothesoil.Berseem green manure decomposes veryrapidly and releases nitrogen as soonit Single or double-disk harrows followed or preceded by heavy-duty cultivators can effectively incorporate the plough-down. The cropisallowed togrowapproximately 4-10 cmandisthenincorporated into thesoil. Mown severaltimesforforageandthenincorporated into thesoilasgreenmanure,sometimes referred toas ) whilerotating wheat withberseemseasonallyandthreesuccessive seasonsofberseemfollowed by wheat -1 , respectively (Table 5).Rotating berseem

Egyptian Clover 69 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 70 (Trifolium alexandrinum) developed sothatbothwheatandberseemcomplementrather thancompeteforland. practices to increase yields perunitarea.Newfarmingsystemsandcroppingpatternsshouldbeinvestigated and introduction, evaluation, and selection of highyielding varieties coupled with modern cultural and management infestation with insects, pests,diseases,andweeds.Systematic and consciousefforts areneededforthedevelopment, of berseem would not be viable as it would result in decline of soil fertility, reduction in overall productivity, Berseem in rotations with wheat guarantees high productivity. Increasing the area under wheat at the expense Conclusion which areownedbylandlessandsmall-holdingfarmers. smallholders, formostoftheyear. Shortageofberseemwillaffect farmers'ability to keeplivestock; over 80%of sustainability of Egyptian agriculture. Berseem is the main as well as cheapest source of feed, especially for feed shortages;thiswouldbeawasteoftime and effort andcouldhavebadconsequencesonthestability and the fulfilling without area wheat their increase to farmers forcing through productivity and production wheat the increasing about thinking 2007. is in self-sufficiency million wheat resolving 75 in to problem 1980 major The in has been increased from 25% in 1980 to about 56% in 2007 despite the population increase from about 55 million wheat productivity. of in Self-sufficiency for increase noticeable a in resulted which packages sources cultural optimum and finding to directed is opportunities these of increasing and orimproving feed supply. The Wheat Research Department has developed high-yielding cultivars theme main The system. cropping sustainable and Despite the controversy, real opportunities exist for increasing wheat area without Table 6.Effectofcroprotationonthenumberwildoatsseedsinsoil(seedbank)1995 Adaptad fromElHasananS.andEL H.1996 Table 5.Effectofcroprotationonwild-oatscontrolinwheatfields(1995) from El.HasananS.andEL H.1996 Faba bean Berseem Berseem Wheat 91/92 91/92 Faba bean Berseem Berseem Wheat 92/93 Berseem Wheat Berseem Wheat Berseem Wheat Berseem Wheat 92/93 Crop sequence Crop sequence 93/94 Wheat Berseem Berseem Wheat Wheat Berseem Berseem Wheat 93/94 94/95 Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat 94/95 At planting 22.9 1.8 0.8 0.3

Wild oats#spikes Wild oatsseedsper500gsoil disturbing the ancient, integrated 129.5 33.2 14.1 227 m At harvest -2 60.0 98.3 11.0 8.4 Wheat production Difference kg ha 3891 4524 1179 310 58.2 10.7 75.3 7.6 -1 Figure 3.Seedproduction ofberseem Figure 2.Berseemforagetransportdfor saletofeedurbandairy(Left)Provides jobtofamilymembers(Right) Figure 1.GoatfatteningbystallfeedingfeedingberseeminUpper Egypt(left)andberseemvarietiescomparison(right)

Egyptian Clover 71 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 72 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 2. To know theshiftinareaofberseemwitheconomicimpactafter KVK intervention. 1. To study theimpactofberseemFLDonvarietaladoptionandfarmers’ economy designed withthefollowingobjectives. community through multiplier effect generated by thesedemonstrations.Keepingthisin viewthestudywas The ultimate aim ofthis programme is to accelerate the adoption of berseem production technology by the farming under realfarmsituationanditcanbeusedasfeedbackfor furtherresearch. design location specific technology and strategy. In addition, this helps in evaluation of impact created by the FLDs interact closely with farmers and extension workers. This provides the opportunity to assess the field situation and entomology pathology, and breeding, extension plant agronomy, science, of soil fields the FLD’s,from scientists extension workers from the State Department of Agriculture is an essential requirement. While implementing the The demonstrationsaretobeconducted preferably by extensionists andagronomists. An active collaboration of the constraints ifany, andtoassesstheperformanceoftechnologiesforscientificfeedback. The extension workersoftheStateDepartment of Agriculture andallied agencies to analyze the production 2. Nonbeneficiariesoftheneighbouringareas 1. Beneficiaries the of potentiality the demonstrate to view technologies tothe: a with with fields along farm selected varieties to hybrids/ carried are recommended practices notified/ of latest package full which under research applied of form a is (FLD) workers can plan strategy for implementation of usefulprogrammes of cropproduction. Frontline Demonstration researchers tomodifytheiractivities foraparticular area ofoperation.Inaddition, administrative and extension allow to technology of impact the about knowledge hand first provides This activities. its of one as crops fodder Every year Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Agricultural knowledge centre), Jammu lays out frontline demonstration on country asawhole. latest production technologies from thefarmers for evolving new strategies to increase the productivity in the of fodderandseedberseem.FLDsaredesignedtogetfeedbackontheperformance of improvedvarieties and complete adoption ofimprovedtechnologies, yield barrierscanbesurpassedtomeettheeverincreasingdemand sowing, seedrate,treatment, weedmanagement, plant protection, etc. By popularizing the importance of yield potential of berseemduetopartial and nonadoption of improvedtechnologies like bestvariety, time of Although the increase in production because of berseem cultivation has been spectacular, yet there is untapped first handinformationbaseforresearchsystemstofurtherimproveandtailorfarmerfriendlyactivities. of recommendedimprovedtechnologiesarethebasicrequisitesanFLD. The feedbackfromFLD’s becomes improved varieties and getting the feedback from farmersinvolvedinFLDtrials regarding constraints in adoption seed inthevillage andthuspopularizing the advantages of improvedtechnologies, extending the cultivation of to obtain thequality production and diseasefreeseedmakesFLDmoreresultoriented. This exchange of improved and nonadoptionofrecommended technologies are essential. Frequent monitoring of performance at critical stages down FLD, free supply of all the critical farm inputs and timely guidance by scientific community to avoid partial improved crop productiontechnologies and toharvestthemaximum yield potential in realfarmconditions. To lay The conceptofFrontLineDemonstration (FLD) wasintroduced toimprovetheadoptionbehaviouroffarmers Rakesh Nanda, Vinod GuptaandP. K.Rai District Jammu(J&KState,India) Evaluation oftheperformancefrontline demonstration ofBerseemin INDIA by 55percentofrespondents. than half (58 percent) of non beneficiaries adopted proper dose and quantity of fertilizer followed by seed treatment had adopted proper seedrate followed by 60.00per cent who adopted the demonstrated variety JBL-146. More beneficiaries non of percent Tablethe 65 from that evident 2 was it and demonstrations frontline KVK of impact application, fertilizer like practices adopted beneficiaries broadcasting and weeding the recommended by KVK. Similarly, of adoption behaviour of non beneficiaries revealed all the 2010-11 in that revealed 3 Table Further, seed with5to10percentsaltsolutionbeforesowingofseed. of treatment was Jammu, KVK of intervention significant most The farmers. to provided was 25:60:40) of ratio were not practicing at all. Similarly, the balance dose offertilizer (20-25 tonnes of FYMalong with NPK ofthe using @40-50kg/ ha. Seed treatment with berseem rhizobium (culture) was also recommended which the farmers were farmers otherwise which beneficiaries, to given was seed of ha kg/ 25 Tablethat of result 2 the from found Intervention of the KVK was done at village chak shian with provision of critical inputs to the beneficiaries. It was in 2008-09to2.72010-11 asmultipliereffect ofFLDs. ratio of the beneficiaries was 2.85 and 3.1 respectively, whereas, that of non non beneficiaries also increased from 1.36 and beneficiaries of respectively year the in percent 28 beneficiaries. It was also evident fromand the Tablecent - 2, that in the subsequentper years from 2009-10 to 2010-1139 the B:C of yield in 5.50 increase was an beneficiaries with non ha of t/ yield as where 2009-10, in t/ha 6.20 of yields higher obtained Beneficiaries 11. Similarly, results from Table 2 reflect the comparison of data between beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in 2010- ha ascomparedtolocalcheckfoundbe4.25t/withanincreaseof53percentinyield. Technology-Jammu (SKUAST-J), theyieldofberseemfodderdemonstration plot wasincreased to6.50t/ implementing the complete technology recommended by Sher-e-Kashmir Universityof Agricultural Sciences and BC ratioofonly1.36. Whereas, in2009-10whendemonstrations werelaiddownbyKVKwiththeobjective of Table 2 shows that in 2005 farmers cultivated local berseem and obtained a yield of 4.10 t/ ha of fodder with the average riskbearersandthisindicatedthatthefodderproductionlikeBerseemhasagreaterscopeinfuturealso. followed by 47.50percent who sawtelevision for suchprogrammes. Some 63.75percent of the respondents were KVK Jammu. Similarly, 71.25percent of the respondents regularly listened to agricultural programmes on radio Table 1indicate thatmajority (77.50%) wereawareofthetraining programme on foddermanagement given by that 52.50 percent of the respondent families had land holding up to2.5acresofland(small farms). The results in were educated up to middle school, followed by 20percent each in primary and high school. It was also found middle aged followed by old age (38.75%).It was evident from the Table -1, that 38.75 percent of the respondents and riskbearing ability of therespondents. The resultin Table 1 indicated that 47.50 percent of therespondentswere participation extension contact, media mass holding, land Six education, age, analyzed. as such were identified were programme characteristics FLD of beneficiaries non and beneficiaries the of characteristics personal The Results anddiscussion berseem varietiesinfarmer’s fieldwerecollected. growers, perception of growers regarding berseem demonstration and performance for adoption and economy of of well structured schedule (proforma) developed for the purpose. The data on socio-economic status of berseem help the with farmers the with interaction personal and fields demonstration of monitoring regular by collected Their relationship with theadoptionlevel of respondentswasalsostudiedbycorrelation. The required data were like, age, land holding, extension participation, mass media and riskorientation (Biradhar 1997) wereenumerated. cultivation practices. For thestudypersonalcharacteristics of therespondentswerealsostudied.Parameters for the study. The only drawback of the area was that the farmers were not aware of latest varieties and improved farmers growberseeminwinterandaround40acres. The listofalltheFLDberseemgrowerswasprepared shain of block R. S. Pura of district Jammu. This village was selected because of its irrigated conditions and Jammu laidberseemFLDson10acresatvillage continue In2009,KVKChak with thevillagesleftbyKVK. switches tootherpotential two yearsandlateronKVKvillages after abaseline survey. Follow-upconsultations The KVK Jammu adopted the rotational policy of selecting villages by keeping on supportto those villages for Methodology

Egyptian Clover 73 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 74 (Trifolium alexandrinum) physical vigourandhavemorereceptivitytowardsnewsubjectstechnology. age are enthusiastic and have more working efficiency. Furthermore, young and middle aged farmers possess more age had a non significant relation on the adoption level of respondents. Usually the farmers of the middle and young orientation were positively significant with the adoption level of respondents at 5 % level of significance, whereas, that personal characteristics like education, land holding, extension participation, mass media contacts and risk A correlation between thepersonalcharacteristics of respondentsandtheiradoption was foundfrom Table 7 switch overwas51percentasrevealedfrom Table 6. this and variety berseem demonstrated grow to beneficiaries non of over switch a was there Similarly 2010-11. KVK Jammu in 2009-10 the area under berseem cultivation increased to 69 percent of the total area during winter of intervention the after and percent 48 was village shain chak in beneficiaries of berseem under area 2008-09 In in show as fodder under area of percentage in 5. increase Table significant a was there cultivation berseem Under that ofnonbeneficiaries from different significantly was berseem of beneficiaries of levels adoption that indicated value chi-square The were inmedium (65 %)category and20percent and 15percent each in highandlowlevel of adoption respectively. beneficiaries non- most contrast, In levels. low and medium at technologies new adopted percent 10 and 20 only while adoption %) (70 high had (beneficiaries) growers berseem of half than more that Tablereveal of 4 Perusal provide trainingtootherfarmersofthearea. were now rendering their services to other areas and even KVK Jammu is using them as a paratechnician to While collecting data itwasfoundthatthefarmerstrained in cultivating berseem under improvedtechnologies Risk Orientation Mass media extension activities Participation in Land holding Education Age Characteristics Table 1.Personalcharacteristicsofberseemgrowers(n=80) High Riskbearers>18.6(Mean+ S.D) Average riskbearers 9.1-18.6(Mean+_S.D) Low riskbearers<9.1(Mean-S.D) News paper Television Radio Field visits Trainings Demonstrations Field days Big farms(above7.5acres) Medium Farms(2.5to7.5acres) Small farms(upto2.5acres) Graduate Higher secondary High school Middle school Primary school Illiterate Old (morethan50) Middle (36to50years) Young (upto35years) Categories Number 51 18 20 38 57 24 62 43 22 02 36 42 01 10 16 31 16 06 11 31 38 11 Respondents Per cent 13.75 63.75 22.50 25.00 47.50 71.25 30.00 77.50 53.75 27.50 45.00 52.50 12.50 20.00 38.75 20.00 38.75 47.50 13.75 2.50 1.25 7.50 Fodder No ofCuts tion measures Plant protec Weeding plication Fertilizer ap quantity Fertilizer sowing Method of Seed treatment Seed rate KVK Intervention by Table 3.InterventionofKVKinlayingBerseemFLDanditsimpactsubsequentyears Farming situation:irrigated.N=80(beneficiaries40,non-beneficiaries40) Table 2.PerformanceofBerseemFLDin2009-10 2010-11 2009-10 Beneficiaries 2008 Variety - - Year Non beneficiaries Beneficiaries 400 qtls/ha 04 measures protection No plant No weeding sowing time Only ureaat sowing and ureaat using FYM Partially Broadcasting ment No seedtreat 40-50 kg/ha Year 2009-10n=40(beneficiaries) Local Practicing Farmers were - 610 qtls/ha 06 were recommended plant protectionmeasures was foundandaccordingly Caterpillar andstemrot Attack ofGrasshopper, before sowingseed to 10%ofsaltsolution Treatment ofseedwith5 two splitdoses of sowingandrestNin tity ofP andKatthetime 2/3rd ofNandfullquan 25:60:40 + N:P:Koftheratio 20-25 tonnesofFYM Broadcasting mended berseem cultureisrecom Seed treatmentwiththe 20-25 kg/ha JBL-146 recommendation KVK JBL 146 JBL 146 JBL 146 Variety Local Demo Yield offodder(qtls/acre) 550 620 650 - - - Year= 2010-11 Beneficiaries 620 qtl (n=40) 90.00 83.00 60.00 92.00 75.00 90.00 Local check 100 100 100 430 445 425 410 Non–beneficiaries (n=40) 550 qtl 60.00 38.00 36.00 47.00 58.00 55.00 65.00 60.00 Increase infodderyield% 100 28.00 39.00 53.00 to farmers. providing information as paratechniciansfor vest. They areacting to reapmaximumhar also takingtheiradvice surrounding areaare and farmersfromthe mended bytheKVK tural practicesrecom of alltheimprovedcul- a completeknowledge Now farmerishaving Impact B/C ratio 2.85 1.25 2.7 3.1 - -

Egyptian Clover 75 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 76 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Table 7.Relationshipbetweenpersonalcharacteristicsandadoptionofberseemcultivationpractices Table 6.SwitchoverofnonbeneficiariestogrowberseemFLDvarietyn=40 Table 5.Increaseinareaofbeneficiariesberseemcultivationfrom2008-09to2010-11n=40 Table 4.Overalladoptionlevelofimprovedpracticesamongbeneficiariesandnonin2010-11N=80 *Significant at5%level More than2.5 1.0 -2.5 Less than1.0 (Acre) Land Area More than2.5 1.0 -2.5 Less than1.0 (Acre) Land Area Berseem seedcrop atflower initiationstage S. No S.No 1. 3. 2. 6 5 4 3 2 1 Risk orientation Mass mediacontact Extension Participation Land holding Education Age Personal characteristics Adoption Medium Level High Low 16.00 20.00 12.00 was given(2008-09) Area underBerseem(%)beforeFLD 2.00 11.00 5.00 (2008-09) Number 28 40 4 8 Beneficiaries Percent 70.00 10.00 20.00 100 0.402* 0.371* 0.279* 0.242* 0.385* -0.172* Correlation “r”value Number 18.00 37.00 24.00 given(2010-11) Area underFLDvarieties(%)afterwas 9.00 25.00 17.00 (2010-11) Non beneficiaries 40 26 8 6 Percent 20.00 15.00 65.00 100 Total 36 80 10 34 32.00* χ 2 K available K(154kgha in organic carbon3.2gkg K (Jackson,1973).Microbialcountwasalsorecordedfollowing standardprocedure(OblingerandKoburger, 1975). (Walkley andBlack,1934),availableNSubbiah Asija, 1956),availableP (BrayandKurtz,1945)available harvest ofthesystemandanalysedusingstandardprocedures asdescribedforpH(Jackson,1973),organic carbon protein yield of berseem were computed. Composite soil samples (0-15 cm) from each plots were collected after final samples were estimated after digestion in di-acid mixture using standard methods. Total NPK uptake by each crop and at sowingaspertreatmentschedule.Standardagronomicpracticeswerefolloweduniformlyforallthetreatments. applied asabasaldoseandremainingNwassplittwiceforricewhileberseem afulldoseofNPKwasapplied amount of N as urea with full dose of P as single super phosphate (SSP) and K as muriate of potash (MOP) were transplanting (DBT)/sowingofcrops.GreenmanuringCrotalariajunceawasdoneinsituat15DBT ofrice.Half 27 13N from 2006-07to2008-09at Forage Research Farm, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, situated at The experiment was conducted with transplanted rice in therainyseasonandberseem in winterforthree years Material andmethods needs ofthedaytomaintainsoilhealthandqualityproduce(DuttaBanik,1992). along withorganic manureand biofertilizers(phosphatesolubilisingbacteria,bluegreenalgaeorrhizobium)arethe fertilizers chemical of integration and 2000) Singh, and (Shivey profitable and compatible is system fallow rice- the farmers aswellforsustainabilityintermofcropproductivityandsoilfertility. Inclusionofberseem inthe application ofchemicalfertilizers,organic manureandbiofertiliserareusefulformeetingtheeconomicneedsof type ofcropssuitableundernutrientmanagementprogrammeisalsoimportant.Ithasbeenrealizedthatcombined health andtomeetdailyrequirementsofhumananimalpopulation. Thus, notonlythenumberofcropsbut the applicationofintegratednutrientmanagementinrice-berseemsystemforhighernetreturns,maintenancesoil substantially butcannotsustaintheproductivityaswellsoilfertility. Therefore, thepresentsituationnecessitates productivity andqualityaswellimprovingsoilfertility. Application ofchemicalfertilizermayincreasecropyield food andcommercialcrops.Growingalegumeforageaftercerealinricebasedcroppingsystemsenhancesthetotal In India about 8.3 million hectares are under forage and it is difficult to expand the area due to increasing demand for S. Karmakar, RakeshKumar, B.K. Agrawal andDevkantPrasad fertility Impact ofintegratednutrientmanagementoncrop productivity, soil in theplantsampleswasestimatedafterdigestionH and berseemwerecollected,ovendried,powderedkeptfor nutrientuptakeanalysis(N,P andK).Nitrogencontent recorded anddryforageyieldbasedonmoisturecontentbasis andproteinyieldwascomputed.Plantsamplesofrice Data ongrainandstrawyieldsofricewererecorded.Similarlyinberseem,greenforageyieldatdifferent cutswas recommended fertilizerdoseof100kgN,50P variety Lalat(JunetoOctober)andBerseem Wardan (OctobertoMarch)weregrownintheexperiment. The - 50%N(FYM)+GMbiofertilizerphosphatesolubilisingbacteria(PSB).Mediumdurationtransplantedrice biofertilizer (bluegreenalgaeforriceandrhizobiumberseem) T6 -50%N(FYM)+GMbiofertilizerand T7 manure (FYM), T4 - 50%RDF + 25% N(FYM) + green manuring (GM), T5 - 50% RDF + 25% N (FYM) + GM + T1 -Control, T2 -Recommendeddoseofchemicalfertilizers(RDF), T3 -50%RDF+Nthroughfarmyard The experimentwaslaidoutwithseventreatmentsandthreereplicationsinrandomizedblock. The treatmentswere forage yieldofBerseemand the systemequivalent yield asawhole(Table 1and Table 2).Combined application Integrated nutrient management practices (INMP) led to substantial increase in grain and strawyield of rice, green Crop yield Results anddiscussion 2 O ha -1 o forBerseemwereused.FYMwasappliedaspertreatmentandincorporateduniformlyat15daysbefore and8519E and economicsunder arice –berseemsystem o -1 withanaverageannualrainfall of 1450mm. The soilwassandy-loamwithpH6.15,low ). -1 , andavailable(200kgha N 2 O 5 and30kgK 2 SO -1 4 inautomaticdigestionsystem. Total P andKintheplant ), highinavailable P (20kgha 2 O ha -1 forriceand20kgN,80P -1 ) statusandmediumin 2 O 5 and20kg

Egyptian Clover 77 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 78 (Trifolium alexandrinum) i.e, 227.0kgha protein contentwhichultimatelyremoval. ledtohigherN found maximumin uptake was The totalN T3 treatment in caseofthetotalP andKremoval. The higherNuptakemight beduetohigherbiomassyieldandbeingrichin In general,thetotal N uptake by berseem was higher(Table 2) thanrice, whereas thereversetrendwasobserved and biologicalpropertiesofsoil(Mondal continuous availability of nutrients throughout thegrowingperiodresulting in improvement of physical, chemical along withinorganic fertilizers. al, 1997).Sarwadet.(2005)alsoopinedregarding the yieldadvantage due totheaddition of organic manures in improving physical, chemical and biological environment of soil and contributed towards higher yield (Singh green manureincorporation might haveledtobetterP nutrition(Hundaletal,1988).Organic manuresalso helped INM practices due toapplication oforganic materials which actedasthe source ofslownitrogen release and the fertilizers or organic nutrientsources. The increaseinyieldmightbeduetoeffective utilization of nutrientsunder chemical of application sole to compared as yield equivalent Berseem higher significantly recorded treatments In therice-berseemsystem,equivalent yield under T3 remained at parwith T5 (Table 2). These two remained significantlyhigherthanthatofsolechemicalfertilizerapplicationduringboththeseasons. also increased under combined application of FYMand CF. Underdifferent INMP the yield of rice and berseem dry forageyield of berseem followed almost a similar trend asgreenforageyield. The protein yield of berseem through FYM(T3)followedby T5 treatment (58.2 tha the effect ofdifferent treatment combinations on soilchemical properties (Table 5). The application of 50%RDF, Analysis ofPhysico-chemical and biological properties ofsoilafter3 years ofexperimentation clearly indicated Soil fertilitystatus N, 65kgP observed under T3 and T5. The savingofchemical fertilizers under these twotreatments was totheextent of 60 kg efficiency. was P-use efficiency increasing use thereby K N, and However, and in P-uptake P increase reasonable increased have might this and condition soil acidic in P-fixation of reduction by availability P increased which with organic nutrient sources. Congenial atmosphere was created forthebacteria under organic nutrient sources applied was bacteria solubilising phosphate when recorded was efficiency P-use maximum The period. growth which might be due to minimization of nutrient losses and steady supply of optimum nutrients throughout the crop Table 4 revealed that the combined application of 50% RDF and 50% N (FYM) recorded the highest N use efficiency Nutrient useefficiency (Table 3). The N,P andKuptake byrice recorded underthetreatment T5 (87.6,31.7and94.2kgha Total uptakeofN,P andKbyriceundertheINMpractices led tohighernutrient uptake oversoleapplication of CF Nutrient uptake (T5) recordedthemaximum grain (4.3tha of 50%NPKthroughchemical fertilizers greenmanureandbluealgae along with25%NthroughFYM, forage yield(64.3tha the yearsexcept in 2006where T5, T6 and T7 remained at paramongthemselves. In winter, thehighestgreen organic nutrient sources(T7)whichwasatparwithotherINMtreatments. Such trendwasexhibited during all The highestgrain(4.33tha control. and plot fertilized chemically sole under that than higher significantly was and T3, with par at remained sources andindirectlythroughminimizingthelossofnutrientsfromsoil(Bindra Thakur, 1996). from combined fertilizer application might be due to increased supply ofnutrient through organic and inorganic treatments indicating better nutrientutilization treatment under INMcombinations. Increase inthenutrientuptake underand increased T3 T5 significantly plot treated TotalINM under system berseem rice- Pby N, uptake K and reported earlierbyBhandari The total P and K uptake followed almost same pattern as found in the N uptake by berseem. Similar findings were 2 O 5 and25kgK -1 which was significantly higher than rest of the treatments except treatments the of rest par. than at remained higher significantly they was where which T5 -1 ) ofberseemrecordedundercombinedapplicationand50%Nsupplemented of 50%RDF 2 O ha -1 et al ­) andstrawyield(5.99tha -1 . (1992)andSarwadetal. withoutimpairingthecropyield andsoilproductivityinrice-Berseem system. et al -1 ) andstraw(6.0tha , 2004). -1 ) wasatparwiththe other treatments receiving INMP. The -1 ) wereobservedin T5. This mightbeduetoeasyand (2005). -1 ) yield of rice followed bysoleapplication of -1 , respectively) et US$ =Rs59.7inJune2013)followedby T5 (Rs134460ha addition of more biomass to the soil. The findings are in agreement with the findings of Bindra and Thakur (1996). be duetoincorporation of the organic manure and higherrootbiomassproduction in boththe seasons whichled to for maintaining sustainability of the system. The increased organic carbon content under INM treated plots might content and microbial activity under INMtreated plots indicated improvement of soilhealth which isimportant bacteria and fungi also increased under combined application of nutrient sources. The increase in organic carbon Table 6 revealed that treatment T3 (50%RDF+50%NFYM)recorded highest net return (Rs 136418ha Economics K ofsoil. The highestvalues ofavailable N (254.0kgha 25% NthroughFYM,green manure andblue green algae (T5) increased the organic carbon, available N, P and plot. The organic carbon was foundmaximum in T7 (5.1 gkg The organic carbon content was foundhigher in INMtreated plot as compared to control and chemically fertilized of integratednutrientmanagementonsoilpropertieswasreportedearlierbySarwadetal.(2005). of nutrient lossesandincreasedgrowthoftheplantresultedinhigherrootbiomassitsrecycling.Similareffect Such improvement in soilphysico-chemical properties underintegrated fertilizations might be duetominimization all treated plotswhichreceived nutrients through inorganic or combined sources ascompared to their initial status. decrease in soilpHby0.4unitsfrominitial pH of6.2wasnoted. Available N, P andKcontent of soilincreased in in T5. There was not much variation in soil pH among treatments except in the chemically fertilized plot where a to theextentof60kgN,65P plateau region ofJharkhand.Suchintegrated fertilization system canalsobeeffective in savingchemical fertilizers for receiving higherandsustainedfood-forageproductivity, maintaining soil health with economic feasibility in + biofertilizer + GMmaybeasuitablecombination + 25%N(FYM) 50% Nsupplementedor50%RDF by FYM over the sole inorganic or organic nutrient management practices. Thus, the combined application of 50% RDF + fertilizations (4.09) andsoleapplication of organic nutrient sources (3.37to3.65)indicating advantage of the INM and inorganic sources received a higher benefit-cost ratio which ranged from 4.29 to 4.54 as compared to chemical berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM: Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilising bacteria Table 1.Effectofintegratednutrientmanagementonyield(tha RDF: Recommendedfertilizerdose(100 kgN,50P T3 –50%RDF+N(FYM) T2 –100%NPK(RDF) T1- Control C.D (P =0.05) T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA +PSB T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA + BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)GM T4 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM Treatments 2 O 5 and25kgK Grain 3.42 3.59 1.94 0.47 4.23 4.12 4.49 3.91 2 O 2006 5 and30kgK 2 O ha Straw 4.69 2.64 0.71 4.52 4.48 5.37 5.12 4.11 -1 -1 ) ofrice inrice-berseemsystem. -1 2 ), P (25.8kgha O ha -1 Grain yr 3.49 1.87 0.39 3.74 3.66 4.12 3.98 3.80 -1 -1 -1 forriceand20kgN,80P ) and lowest in control (3.5 gkg ). Combined application of nutrients from organic 2007 Straw 5.02 2.93 0.82 5.42 4.92 6.21 5.65 5.18 -1 ) andK(159.0kgha Grain 3.82 1.69 0.42 3.78 3.60 4.37 4.22 4.04 2008 Straw 6.03 2.74 0.70 5.69 5.54 6.38 6.27 5.98 2 O 5 and20kgK Grain -1 -1 3.63 1.84 0.41 3.91 3.80 4.33 4.04 3.75 ) wererecorded ). Population of 2 Pooled O ha -1 Straw for 5.25 2.77 0.79 5.22 4.98 5.99 5.68 5.09 -1 yr -1 :

Egyptian Clover 79 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 80 (Trifolium alexandrinum) berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM: Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilising bacteria. RDF: Recommendedfertilizerdose(100 kgN,50 Table 3EffectofINMonNPK(kgha Table 2.EffectofINMonyield(tha C.D (P =0.05) C.D (P =0.05) T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA +PSB BGA +PSB T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+ T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA BGA T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+ (FYM)+GM+BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N (FYM)+GM+BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N T4 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM (FYM)+ GM T4 -50%RDF+25%N T3 –50%RDF+N(FYM) (FYM) T3 –50%RDF+N T2 –100%NPK(RDF) T2 –100%NPK(RDF) berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM:Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilisingbacteria. Treatments RDF: Recommendedfertilizerdose(100kgN,50 T1- Control Treatments T1- Control -1 -1 ) ofberseem(greenforage)andrice-berseemsystem(berseemequivalentyield 10.2 76.4 71.7 87.6 82.6 84.4 72.2 33.2 ) uptake by rice, berseem and rice-berseem system(pooledoverthreeyears) ) uptakebyrice,berseemandrice-berseem N Rice 25.1 23.2 31.7 24.3 27.6 24.6 12.0 2.2 P 2006-07 56.4 53.9 58.2 58.6 64.3 56.4 35.5 5.8 P P 2 2 O O 5 5 and30kgK 76.5 77.9 94.2 87.8 88.4 80.6 39.9 and30kgK 8.6 K Berseem Rice-berseemsystem 2007- 64.8 60.4 74.7 70.7 78.6 64.6 32.1 7.4 08 219.4 202.0 233.6 221.4 270.0 206.0 110.6 25.6 2 2 N O ha O ha 2008- 53.9 48.2 64.0 59.3 61.4 46.2 23.6 3.7 09 -1 -1 forriceand20kgN,80P forriceand20kgN,80P Berseem 21.0 17.6 22.1 17.9 21.9 18.2 2.1 7.7 P Pooled 58.4 54.2 65.6 62.9 68.1 55.8 30.4 5.5 65.5 57.4 68.0 63.7 72.9 52.0 29.6 9.6 2006-07 K 10.2 71.2 68.2 74.2 72.9 76.5 69.5 42.7 295.8 273.7 321.2 304.0 354.3 278.2 143.7 34.7 2007-08 N 12.5 78.9 73.9 90.4 85.6 92.7 77.5 38.9 2 2 O O 5 5 and20kgK and20kgK berseem system 48.2 42.4 55.7 44.0 51.3 44.1 20.5 2008-09 3.5 68.4 62.0 80.5 75.3 76.8 61.0 30.3 P 5.9 2 2 O ha O ha -1 -1 141.7 133.3 158.5 151.5 161.3 129.9 for Pooled 14.4 70.4 for 72.8 68.0 81.7 77.9 82.0 69.4 37.4 7.5 K Table 6.Effectofintegratedplantnutrientmanagementoneconomicreturnrice(pooledoverthreeyears) Table 5.EffectofINMonsoilfertilitystatusandmicrobialpopulationaftercompletionthreecrop-cycles Table 4.EffectofINMonnutrientuseefficiency(%)andsavingchemicalfertilizers(kgha T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA +PSB T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM+BGA T4 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM T3 –50%RDF+N(FYM) T2 –100%NPK(RDF) berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM: Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilising bacteria berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM:Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilisingbacteria. berseem), FYM:Farmyardmanure,GM:Greenmanuring,BGA:BluegreenalgaeandPSB:Phosphatesolubilisingbacteria RDF: Recommendedfertilizerdose(100 kgN,50 Treatments Treatments RDF: Recommendedfertilizerdose(100kgN,50 RDF: recommendedfertilizerdose(100kgN,50 T1- Control Initial PSB T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA + T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA (FYM)+GM+BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N T4 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM T3 –50%RDF+50%N(FYM) T2 –100%NPK(RDF) T1- Control T1- Control T2 –100%NPK(RDF) T3 –50%RDF+N(FYM) T4 -50%RDF+25%N(FYM)+GM (FYM)+GM+BGA T5 -50%RDF+25%N T6 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA T7 -50%N(FYM)+GM+BGA +PSB Treatments C.D (P =0.05) 6.2 6.4 6.1 6.2 5.9 6.2 5.8 6.1 pH Gross return P P P 141346 166461 158497 165819 138207 147970 2 76120 17374 O 2 2 O O 5 and30kgK 5 5 Organic C and30kgK and30kgK (g kg 3.2 5.1 4.8 4.9 4.7 4.5 3.8 3.5 -1 ) 2 O ha 2 2 107.9 103.8 175.5 112.1 O ha O ha 92.2 93.7 Avail. N (kg ha Cost ofcultivation N - Nutrient useefficiency 200 255 249 251 245 241 234 216 -1 -1 -1 Economic return(Rsha forriceand20kgN,80P forriceand20kgN,80P forriceand20kgN,80P 21304 27782 30043 29563 31359 31620 31826 -1 ) - 52.6 41.6 34.9 23.3 18.2 31.2 P (kg ha Avail. P - 26.51 24.91 25.48 23.84 24.52 24.72 18.32 20.0 -1 -1 ) ) underrice-berseemsystem 104.9 119.0 72.8 64.2 96.5 94.7 K - Avail. K (kg ha Net return 154.0 158.4 157.1 161.8 164.2 162.6 166.0 141.4 -1 136418 128934 134460 106587 113564 116144 54816 yr 7252 2 O 2 2 -1 O O -1 5 ) and20kgK 5 5 ) and20kgK and20kgK 120 120 60 60 60 N - - Saving ofchemical Bacteria g (x 106 145.9 150.1 116.5 111.9 -1 78.6 89.6 89.6 82.5 fertilizers soil) P 130 130 65 65 65 2 - - O 2 B:C ratio O ha 2 2 O ha O ha 5 2.57 4.09 4.54 4.36 4.29 3.37 3.65 - -1 -1 -1 g for (x 104 Fungi for for -1 59.2 39.2 50.1 73.3 45.6 55.1 44.7 45.6 K soil) 50 50 25 25 25 - - 2 O

Egyptian Clover 81 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 82 (Trifolium alexandrinum) returns tofarmers. InsomeareasofJammu, Punjab andHaryana that large farmers cultivate the crop onlarge This crophasachievedsomuch valueforfarmersthatinsomeareasitisgrownpurelyasa cashcropwithimmediate researchers andtheirownexperiences toachieveoptimumproductionfromthecrop of recommendations the combined efficiently very have farmers The farmer. to farmer and place to place from taken after 40-60 daysofsowingandsubsequentcutsmaybetaken ataninterval of 25-30days.Butthisalsovaries be should cut first the that recommended is It essential. is irrigation regular production better However,for days. days dependingonweatherconditions.Farmersinhillyregions mayirrigate their cropevenafteragapof40-50 15-20 after irrigations subsequent and emergence seedling after irrigation first provide to is irrigation for regime and systemsbasedonresourceavailability, local climatic conditions andtheir convenience. The recommended There are numerous findings on every aspect of this crop’s cultivation but farmers have devised their own regimes used thefieldsgetinfestedwithchicoryandfarmersfeed ittotheanimals. as acombination. In central India chicoryisthemain,inadvertent, cropcombination. Even ifthepurestseedsare oats use farmers Some available. easily not are Lolium of seeds best, the is combination this though multiflorum, the mostcommoncombination is berseem+mustardbut,oflate, this isbeingreplaced by berseem+Lolium case ofberseemandallthesecombinationsprovideconsiderable increaseininitial biomass availability. InPunjab with sand,foreasyhandling.Farmersinthenorthernareashaveevolvedmanyinteresting crop combinations in at 20-25kg/haarebroadcast over thislayerofwater. Somefarmerssoaktheseedsinwaterovernight and mixthese fodder. Before sowing, well prepared fields are irrigated and a layer of standing water is retained in the plots. Seeds flung areas. However, work on this aspect suggests that the rhizobium inoculated seeds produce 36-39 percent more rhizobium culture.Butfarmersrarelyusesinceitsavailability is not easyandassuredinruralfar sown between September-October. Itisrecommended that the seedsshouldbeinoculated with Rhizobium trifolii, gets delayed considerablyandattimesthesowingisdoneinNovember-December. Inplainsthecrop,isgenerally, place to place but generally coincides with the rice harvest. It isonlyinthe hilly regions wherethe sowing date been achieved by basalapplication of 25 kg N+60P have figures production Best uniform. it make to planked then and times 2-3 thoroughly ploughed be to has land and it picks up in spring only. It grows very well in medium to heavy soils and is fairly tolerant of alkalinity. The best growth islimited only up to an altitude of 1100m. Above this growth remains slow anddormant in winter when thetemperature isaround40°C. This cropisgenerally suited to areasbelow1700maltitude though the between 18-21°C. However, somecultivars like BL-22 andBL-42providegreenfodderuptomidJuneinIndia and establishment. The best temperature for sowingshouldbe13-15.5°C.Optimum growth can be achieved Berseem requiresadry, coolclimate. Mild temperatures are essentialforgermination and subsequentgrowth The crop anditsmanagement the hugequantitiesofseedwhichareimportedfromEgypt have ledtoitsgreatacceptability byIndianfarmers.Itscultivation isincreasing day bydaywhichisevident from protein availability, 60-70 percent digestibility of the fodder and high nitrogen fixation are the major factors which Mediterranean and otherregionshastruly become a global fodder. The multiple cuts (4-8),upto20percent only lactating animals tosavethecostonconcentrate feeding. widely spreadinthe This coolseasonfodderisnow by berseem. Small farmers in Himachal Pradesh growverysmall areas because of land constraint and feed it to Because of its high nutritive value, farmers have devised their own methodologies to replace concentrate feeding farmers. the of choice first the it made has buffaloes and cattle in production milk increase to potential its crop, to central and westernpartsbecome the commonest rabi (winter)fodderoftheseareas. The major trait of the up spread gradually has but ago years few a till country the of parts northern the to confined remained crop The trade relations and traders from SindhandPunjabare believed tohave brought the seeds fromEgypt to India. ones living near the Pakistan border insist that this crop was growneven earlier. Egypt and India had very old Egyptian cultivarsMescaviandFahlwereintroducedtoIndiain1903-4butolderfarmersofPunjab,particularly, bowl ofthecountry-whereitisnowcultivated on anestimated 2 000hectares. A common belief is that the Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)hasbecomeakingofcropsinIndia,particularly, innorthIndia-thefood Bimal Misri Berseem production inIndiaanditsimpactonlivestock production 2 O 5 + 50cartloadsofFYM/ha.Sowingtimevariesfrom there arenational toll free numbersavailable 24x7 tofarmersforadvice. This system isthebackboneof Similarly advice. for approach can farmers which on number telephone free toll a has KVK Each affiliates. some projects, Krishi Vigyan Kendras( KVK, Agricultural Science Centres)arelocated in eachdistrictofthe countryand agricultural universities, state agricultural universities (largely funded by central Govt), all India co-ordinated India’s National comprise variousinstitutes,nationalcentres,central Agricultural ResearchSystem(NARS) Research anddevelopmentinitiatives might dryup,theyirrigateotherwiseuseverylittleirrigation, say, only3-4timesinsteadof6-8times. Farmers intheseplantations irrigate onthebasisoftheirvisualassessmentBerseem.Iftheyfeelthatcrop sown berseem in the interspaces of Poplar plantations which have become very popular in Punjab and Haryana. soil moisture which helps berseem which adds nitrogen to the soil for the mango crop. Similarly, farmers have early summercropssobothshouldcomplement growth ofeachother. The shadeofmangoplantations conserves changed the irrigation schedules and brought irrigation to minimum. They believe that both mango and berseem are earnings in other pursuits.Farmersin Punjab have started growing this crop under Mango orchards. They have his damaging without cultivation berseem for areas new absolutely finding is farmer Indian innovative ever The practices andthesearehelpingfarmersagreatdealinsolvingproblemsoffoddershortages. package and practices. These efforts havealready resulted in therelease of varieties and regional packages of suitable and varieties national and specific area develop to universities agricultural and institutions various by in and planning personnel and its cultivation is increasing regularly. Extensive R&D initiatives have been initiated Berseem, the most suitable fodder formany Indian conditions, offers agreat relief to Indian farmers, dairy-men year (ICAR,2010). This imbalance iscomplementarywiththeincreaseinlivestocknumbers. a heavyimbalance budget suggests(Table 1)andshortagesinsupplyofgreendryfodderareincreasingevery cultivated under fodders(Bhalla andSingh,2010).Inspite of theincrease in area under fodder, the national fodder been anincrease of 13.6percent area undernon-foodcropcultivation till 2003-2006 andmostoftheareais enhanced milk production and India continues to be the largest milk producing country in the World. There has fodders, concentrates, optimum use ofgrazing and tree fodder. Establishment of milk co-operatives has greatly Berseem cultivation has greatly boosted livestock economy in India. Berseem is supplemented by kharif (summer) Berseem andtheIndianperspective a chaff cutter and sell chaffed fodder by weight. Stem rot and root rot are two main diseases which afflict the crop. and useitforanimalrearing.Somebuyershaveopenedshopsinperiurbanareastosellberseemfodder. They have be sold.Kanalisthelocal unit oflandmeasurement and itcompriseof5400sq.ft. The buyerharvestsallthecrop areas and sell it before the first cut. Sale is by unit area. For example, in Jammu a kanal of land with berseem will Table 1.SupplyanddemandscenariooffodderinIndia(milliontonnes) 2025 2020 2015 2010 2005 2000 1995 Year Supply Dry 162 157 143 138 126 121 105 Demand Green 405.9 400.6 395.2 399.9 384.5 379.3 411.3 Deficit Dry 488 473 466 451 443 428 421 Supply Green 1097 1061 1025 1170 1134 999 947 Demand Dry 650 630 609 589 569 549 528 Deficit Green 759 728 696 666 635 604 588

Egyptian Clover 83 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 84 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Basal fertilization: Seed Manure Sowing time: rate: 20-25 10-20 Best soilforcultivation: Cultivation kg/ha t are, generally, asfollows: FYM/ha research on berseem. Studies on different aspects in India have led to formulation of package of practices which University, HissarandJawaharLalNehruKrishi Vishwavidyalaya haveemerged asthemostadvancedcentresof Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi; Panjab Agricultural University, Haryana Agricultural of identifyingregionalresearchable issues easy. Foragecrops,particularly, berseem,arenoexception. However, strides madeinIndianagriculture. institutions arespreadthroughoutthecountrywhichmakesjob The NARS whose detailsarepresentedin Table 2. The R&Dinitiatives undertaken by variousinstitutions have resulted in thedevelopment of variousnewvarieties berseem asfemale parentandthree other speciesofTrifolium usingembryorescuetechnique have beendeveloped. with hybrids interspecific three of development and tolerance alkalinity and Salinity for Berseem of ecotypes of narrow genetic base (Malavaya self compatibility requiringtripping,selfincompatibility with broadgenetic base andselfincompatibility with pollination behaviour have been completed. The crop hasshownwide diversity for selffertility and self pollination, related species and 65accessionsofberseem have been undertaken. Cytological studies onhybridprogeniesand gene bank ofNational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. Detailed studies onbiochemical characterization of 25 descriptor has already been published(Royet al, 2009). This germplasm is being maintained at IGFRIandthe genetic aspects of the crop fordeveloping desirable varieties. 526 germplasm lines have been evaluated and a The IGFRI(IndianGrasslandandFodderResearch Institute) group hasundertaken extensive studies onthe • • • • • • • al (2010). According tothemthrustareasofresearchareasfollows: Malaviya by elaborately profiled been have berseem of case in areas thrust future and initiatives on-going The Nematodes :[email protected]/kg Semilooper: [email protected]% Root rot:Seedneedstobetreatedwith Thiram, BavistinCarbofuran@ 2.5g/kg. Avoid frequentirrigation Stem rot: Spray with 0.1 percent solution of Bavistine twice during January and February at 15 days interval. Disease andPestmanagement: Number ofcutsavailable: Harvest: Irrigation: Inoc ulationofseedwithRhizobiumtrifollii 40-45 days after sowing Extending thecroptoareaswhereitisnotnowcultivated. Identification/development oflinesproducinghighdrymatterinearlycuts. Identification oflongdurationlineswhichhavefastregenerationcapacity Breeding/screening fordiseaseresistance,especially, stemandrootrot desirable traits. Use ofmoderntechniques like embryo rescue andtissueculture for generating variability and transferof Transfer ofbioticandabioticstresstraitsfromwildtaxa. Germplasm collectionfromtheareaoforiginanddiversitylikeEgypt, Turkey, Iran,Iraqetc. et al2010).Invitroregeneration among 6speciesofTrifolium, invitroscreening

Essentiallyoneaftereverycut,moreondemand 20-25 kgN+60-80P Mid OctobertoNovember Loam toclayloam 6-8 . 2 O 5

et country. is increasingsubstantially in Indiaandthiscrophasplayedamajorrolesustaining themilkeconomyof 2009).This, amplysuggeststhatareaunderBerseem and theimportwasallowedforentirequantity(G.O.I, import ofonly1800t.(G.O.I,2008). The nextyearthecommittee was approached for importof25,496tseeds Government of Indiareceived 36 proposals topermit import of 24,756tberseem seed. The committee permitted its cultivation has been increasing at an appreciable scale. During 2008, the Exim (export and import) committee of quantities. Some seedwasandisbeingproducedinIndiaaswellbutthisnot sowellorganized. The areaunder bearing uponthisachievement. Ever sinceitsintroduction in India,itsseedsareimportedfromEgyptlarge year andIndiahasretained its globalpositionatnumberoneinmilkproduction. Berseem,itseems,hashadagreat of 263gmduring20112011). (NDDB, Dairyco-operatives alone collected 9.6 million tones ofmilkduringthis of milk per daywas130gm. This hasrisentototal production of116.2 mtandthepercapita per dayavailability (Malaviya and appropriate cultivation technologies. Consequently it is spread over an estimated area of 2000hectares selling fodder ormilk. R&D organizations have equally put intheir efforts todevelop high producingvarieties by both gains economic by benefitted immensely have farmers large and medium and livelihood their improve Berseem is oneofthe most important crops inIndian agriculture. Ithasverypositively helped small farmers to Conclusion Hisar Berseem BL-180 HFB-600 BL-42 Bundel Berseem Bundel Berseem-2 UPB-110 BL-22 JB-3 JB-2 JB-1 Wardan BL-1 Mescavi Variety Table 2.VariousvarietiesofBerseemdevelopedandreleasedinIndia et al, 2010).During 1950-51 the total milk production ofIndia was 17.0mt and per capita availability 2006 2006 2004 2003 2000 1997 1993 1987 1983 1982 1981 1981 1980 1975 Year ofRelease CCS HAU,Hissar PAU, Ludhiana CCS HAU,Hissar PAU, Ludhiana IGFRI, Jhansi IGFRI, Jhansi GBPUA&T, Pantnagar PAU, Ludhiana JNKVV, Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur IGFRI, Jhansi PAU, Ludhiana CCS HAU,Hissar Agency

Egyptian Clover 85 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 86 (Trifolium alexandrinum) cultivated greenordryfodderalongwithconcentrates. at theendofgrazingseason.Insedentarylivestockrearing theanimalsgetalittle or nograzingandarefed stationary andliveatoneplace. Their livestockis takenseasonallyforgrazingtonearbyareasandbroughtback not alwaysplentiful andacuteshortagesofherbageareverycommon.Inthesemi-migratory system herdersare gained through generations. However, forageonthesewellestablished and recognized transhumant routes is transhumant herders. These herdersarewelltrained in animal husbandrypractices because oftheexperience Under migratory systems, sheep and goat herds are taken, seasonally, to places where about 80percentoftheircashincome(Table -1) Animals arerearedunderthreewellestablishedsystems: activity for extra cash generation. However, thisactivity plays akeyroleinthelivesofruralpeople and generates depends, at least partially, onlivestock for livelihood. Livestock rearing can be the sole pursuitoranadditional Livestock is animportant and essential component of farming systems. Morethanhalfoftheruralpopulation Livestock andlivestockproduction times theglobalaverage. rainfall is notconducive to farmingasonly 25%fallsduringthecroppingseason. The evaporation rate is three and thecoldestplacesisgreaterthan50°C. Annual rainfallislowandrarelyexceeds250mm. The spreadof precipitation is about one third compared to global precipitation. Sometimes the difference between the warmest oil exportrevenue. The country hasanaridandsemi-aridclimate exceptforCaspianSearegions. The average It contributesmorethan25%ofGDP andone-third of total employment. It alsoearnsone-third of the total non- Agriculture is a major economic sector with great potential for development and is a key strategic policy area. area isspreadover49.55percent. Both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture are practiced. The irrigated area is about50.45percent while therain-fed irrigation facilities, only 12 percent is under cultivation. Western and north-western areas have very fertile soils. estimates one-third ofIran’s surfaceareaissuitedforfarmingbut,becauseofpoorsoilsandlackadequate factors neverhavingbeenfarmerandfarmingfriendly, agriculture has madegreatstridesinIran. According to ecological Despite Iran. in developed agriculture world to contributions significant are spinach Tulips,and peach one ofthegreatest achievements of Persia’s innovative farmers; thesewereinusemillennia ago andarestill used. century the windmill was invented and putintouseinPersia.Qanat, a subterranean aqueduct for irrigation was Iranian plateau about 10,000yearsback. This ancient agriculture continued evolving andasearlytheseventh years. 10,000 back going Iran in traditionalhistory long, a has Agriculture the domesticatedon first was goat The Azizallah Shabaniand Asadallah Sarshad Forage inIranwithparticular reference toberseem IRAN Eggs Poultry Meat Red Meat Milk Production Table 1.LivestockproductioninIran 3. 2. 1. Non-migratory (sedentary) Semi-migratory Migratory 547.03 941.5 741.6 5877 2002 874.9 6720 2004 1171 645 838.1 1360 7749 2006 676 1605 9556 2009 789 922 10600 1690 2011 790 968 grazing is available, by Annual Growth(%) 7.58 3.28 7.62 4.7 feed resourcesarepresentedin Table 4and Table 5 feed, large quantitiesoffeedgrainareimported. About 60%ofthefeedrequirement is metbyimports.Important Feed supply, soimportant to maintain livestock production, is themajor bottleneck. In spiteoflocal production of country. The presentpoultrystatusofthecountryis presentedin Table 3. Poultry isverywelldeveloped in Iranandduring2010,atotal of 1,600,000tpoultrymeatwasproducedinthe components arecattle,buffalos, camelsandotherslikehorsesetc.livestocknumbersarepresentedin Table 2. Sheep and goats combined form the bulk of the livestock population, sheep being higher in numbers. The other Table 4.MajorResourcesofPoultryFeedsin2011(1000Ton) Table 3.Statusofpoultrysector Table 2.Livestockpopulation(1,000)inIranduring2002-11 1) PE=PureExotic,2)Crossbreds,3)LocalBreeds Line Layer grandparents Broiler grandparents Total Layer breeder Others Pullet Fish Meal Layer Soy Meal Broiler breeder Maize Broiler Feed Sources Category Species Sheep Goats Cattle (PE)1 Cattle (CB)2 Cattle (LB)3 Buffalo Camel Other 51701 25551 2002 2525 4337 1727 683 383 147 1 1 12 3264 19 135 207 35 1483 194 583 2900 17814 Domestic Unit 25656 52115 2004 2839 4039 1727 753 402 150 20 10 500 5339 1256 - 14000 76 73000 1939 21556 3324 301000 Import Capacity (1000) 52271 25883 Years 2006 3438 3624 1551 830 424 152 51958 25679 20011 1009 4690 1817 2711 473 155 per 18month per 18month per 18month 8603 per 18month 135 6 month 111 per 2years 2133 per 18month 6224 5.1/annum Total Remarks Annual Growth 0.062 0.066 0.054 -4.29 4.99 8.59 2.67 0.66

Egyptian Clover 87 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 88 (Trifolium alexandrinum) significant (p<0.05)ofthefeed intakeascomparedtothealfalfacontaineddiets. as comparedtocontrol in whichcaseit was only82g.However, berseem meal up to3%ofthediet resulted in a control. comparedto as (p<0.05) significantly higher intake was its alfalfa mealand g 89.4 alfalfaintakewas The 2% containing diet the excepting groups diet different the among significantly vary not did intake Feed control. the finishing period, the diets containing berseem meal resulted in higher performance (<0.05) as compared to the meal. alfalfa of % 4 and 3 contained feed the and (<0.05) higher significantly At was control to compared as day) (g/chick/ gain weight body period starter the At weeks). (2 finishers and weeks) (3 grower weeks), (2 starter at fed dietscontaining 0, 1,2,3and4percent of berseemandalfalfa meal. Performance parameters were recorded In afeedingtrial on broilers withberseemandalfalfa 900 Aryan broilerchicksweredistributed into 36groups and as poultryfeedwell. The comparisoninnutritivevalueofberseemandalfalfaisgiven Table 6. respectively. Itwasfurtherrevealed thatcrudeproteincontent of berseemismorethanalfalfa and itcould be used south of the country revealed that the herbage contains 18.8% and 0.24% crude protein in green and dry forage Berseem isnowcommonly grown inGolestan,Mazandaran, Gilan andKhuzestanprovinces. An investigation in the shortagesoffodder. value, particularly protein. Feedingthisherbagecouldcompensate forconcentrate feeding. This couldalsoreduce has becomesecondmostimportant cropafterrice.Chemical analysis ofitsforageamplyexhibithighnutritive Research on berseem in Iran indicated that the area under its cultivation has increased many fold in the north and it Research onberseem chemical andbiologicalstatusofthesoils. The incorporation ofberseem in the soil leads to increase in the level of soil humus and it improved the physical, high N demanding varieties of rice. It was calculated that one season crop of berseem can fix about 80-200 kg/ha. differ much from lucerne. Nitrogen fixation by this plant provided half of the required nitrogen by productive and rice cropinrotation. This cropwasfoundtocontainremarkablyhighandbalanced nutritional value anddidnot berseem with its copious growth can that be found used was as it an harvests obstacle to of the number growth a of After increased. weed was in cultivation rice its fields which under assured area better the result a As fields. rice from supperssalis Chilo of infestations pest reducing in role significant a played crop The proposition. profitable climate was found suitable for its cultivation. Berseem sown asthe second crop after rice was found to be a successfully grownasacropalternating with rice.TrIfolium alexandrinum grewwellinnorthofIranandthe The Center. Research Rice Amol’s initial introduction showedveryencouraging results and detailed studies began during 1969-70. Berseem was at was introduction berseem on studies first The Iran. of north the in sown and 1963 in Pastures and Jungles the of Organization the by imported first were seeds Trifolium alexandrinum Role andhistoryofberseemclover introduction inIran Table 6.ChemicalCompositionofBerseemandalfalfa Table 5.MajorResourcesofRuminantsfeed(airdried,millionTons) Total Other resources Forages Straw Pastures Feed sources Alfalfa Berseem Feed 16.5 22.4 CP % CP 64.4 23.50 18.06 9.78 13.01 (allowed) Required 1.2 2 Crude fat% 31.1 21.3 CF % 68.4 21.2 15.2 15.0 17.0 Consumed 4230 4159 Energy Kcal/kg 1.23 1.72 Ca% +4 (lowquality) -2.3 (highquality) -3.04 (highquality) +5.22 (lowquality) +4 (lowquality) Difference .24 .34 P% 3. 2. 1. Recommendations • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The major benefitsofberseem cultivationinIranare summarizedbelow economical. thatalfalfa beconcluded can It others. than or Berseem meal (up to 4%) may be used but using a diet with only 1% ofBerseem addition could be more profitable more was which diet added berseem 1% of exception when comparedtothecontroldiet. Economically no differences wereobservedamongdifferent diets withthe Addition of 1, 2 and 3 percent of alfalfa or 1 to 2 % of berseem significantly improved (p<0.05) the feed efficiency Figure 1. A Berseem field More investigationsandextensionactivit A consortiumonberseemshouldbeestablishedinmiddleandnear-east countries; Increase inberseemcultivation,afavourablecrophighlyrecommendedforIran; Land preparationinadvancecouldbeavoided; Rice fieldsweremoreefficientlyutilized; An incrementinlivestocknumberstookplace; The forageproducedwasequivalenttoalfalfa; Very highquantitiesofforagewereharvested; The seasonalunemploymentofruralpeopledecreased; Agricultural incomeandemploymentgenerationincreased; Very highandfrequentirrigationwasnotrequired; The costofcultivationandlabourinputdecreasedsignificantly; Pests likeChilosupperssalisreducedsignificantly; The nextrotatingcropofricegavehigheryields; There wasasignificantreductioninchemicalnitrogenapplication; Nitrogen levelsinsoilincreasedsignificantly; There isasignificantincrementinhumusandorganic mattercontentofthesoil; Significant soilimprovementtakesplace; ies shouldbecarriedout.

Egyptian Clover 89 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 90 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Figure 4.Cattlebeingstallfedonberseem forage Figure 3.Cattlegrazinginanimproved pasture Figure 2.Sheepgrazingonaproductive pasture cultivars which were testedatJanakpuriandelsewhere.Detailsofthesecultivarsarepresentedin Table 1. which cultivars benefits the demonstrated of farmcultivation and farmersagreedtogrowiteventually evenproducedseed. The projectintroduced10 amply activities extension and research situation; the changed project development Berseem is believed to be introduced from India by rich farmers of Janakpuraround1985. The livestock Berseem inNepal produced locally. This paperaimstoenumerateefforts putintoberseemseedproduction. Seed production efforts are now showing results and a reasonable quantity of seed, especially, berseem is being extensively from Jhapaqdistrict intheeast toKanchanpurin West; itisgrownextensively in thehillsaswell. involving local farmers andbecame quite popular. Though mostpopularinthe Terai, berseem is nowcultivated from Australia, NewZealand,IndiaandBhutan.Seedproductionofforages,especially,initiated berseemwasby regime andeaseofcultivation. The demandforberseemseedincreasedmanifoldandsomehadtobeimported Berseem of all introduced forages became most popularwithfarmersbecause of itshighnutritive value, multicut also started. farms wereestablishedatPokhara,Chitlang, JiIri, Jumla,Panchasa, Ykhola wherefeedandfodderactivities were stylo, kudzu, desmodium etc, were popularized in different eco- zones (Pande 1994). Livestock development was initiated in two phasesunderaloan secured from the Asian Development Bank. Fodderslike berseem oats, stylo andmolassesgrassetc,wereintroducedsuccessfully(Pande1994).In1980alivestockdevelopment project efforts onfodderproduction werefurtherstrengthenedandmanyproductiveforagespecieslikeoats,berseem, began stall feeding instead of open and indiscriminate grazing (Pande, Shrestha and Pradhan, 1994). Since 1970 fodder production started and farmers in the Terai (foot hills) and the hills realized the importance of fodder and increasing demandofmilkandproducts.Consequentontherecommendation of FAO,serious efforts on by FAO in1952. This studywasonvariousaspectsoflivestock rearinganddairyingespecially to meet the were notechnologies available. Planners tookthischallenge seriously andapreliminary study wasundertaken farmers togrowfodderintheircroplandsbuteventually they understoodtheimportance of fodderbutthere of fodderstarted telling upon theagricultural scenario andtheeconomy. Landconstraint initially did notpermit increase in humanpopulation raised thedemand for livestock products andtheimbalance in demand and supply Nepal had notradition of fodder cultivation; livestock were reared on grazing, crop residuesand tree fodder. The Rameshwar SinghPande. Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)seedproduction inNepal NEPAL Table 1.BerseemcultivarsintroducedandevaluatedinNepal Local genotype BL-22 UPB-103 Wardan Mewcawi Syntheticvar-79 Sakha 3 Giza-15 Giza-10 Giza Cultivar India India India India Australia Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Origin

Egyptian Clover 91 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 92 (Trifolium alexandrinum) The mainproblemisanassured market for seeds. Farmers mustlimit seed production. Though, berseem seedisa technology are provided by government. Many farmers are interested to grow berseem seed under this scheme. cultivar, quality of seed,amountto be produced, price and the distribution mechanism. Foundation seeds and quality seedareselected. An agreement between farmersand governmentagenciesissignedregardingspecies/ To promote quality forage seedproduction at private level, the government “ underwhichfarmerskeentogrow Seed production through registered growers kinds offorageseedfromIndiaaccordingtothebuyer’s demand. involved inproduction/marketing of forageseedinNepal.Someprivate dealers atBhairahawimport different than 12ha.Itproduces1500-2000kgseedannuallymainly fordistributiontofarmers. The privatesectorisnot A Government resource centre for berseem seed has been established at Janakpur which growsberseem on more Activities topromote berseemseedproduction andmarketing but alsoseedproduction. The bestgrowthofberseem inthe Terai isat600 m. Average height was 17.7cm at high altitude; at lower altitude it was 45.0cm. Altitude not onlyaffects fodder yield green fodder yield was affected by altitude. At altitudes below 1400mfodderyield was 11.7 t/ha from Mescawi. east towest1400m.StudiesatPAC in1991,theeasternhillsKoshiZoneat1010to650mrevealed that Berseem can be grown in the Terai and foot hills. The potential areas for berseem cultivation in the Terai are from Affect ofaltitudeonfodder yield production isabout100-120kg/haaftertaking2-3cutsoffodder. seed yieldrangesfrom240-783kg/haunderdifferent dosesoffertilizers and irrigation. In farmconditionsseed Berseem is a high seed yielder. The seed multiplication ratio is about 25-30 times more than other forages. In Nepal Berseem seedproduction of each) gm (200 Rhizobium trifoliifordistributiontofarmers. packets produces Khumaltar division, production Inoculum seed. with mixed be could field berseem a previous from soil available, not is inoculum If field. a in time first sown when especially rhizobium) of Janakpur, after eachcut,irrigation is essential for normal growth. Berseemrequiresinoculation with (Trifolii intervals. Seedproductioncouldnotbeobtained in Nepalgunjwithoutirrigation (LDP, 1986).Inusual conditions conditions, 12-15 irrigation may be required for theentire crop duration. Irrigation should begivenat 15-20 days on fodderandseedyield of berseem like Khatri, (1989) andPradhanSilwal (1989). Innormal Nepalese 60 kgP a normaldoseofphosphatefertilizer is recommended. The usualpracticesoffertilization are 15-20kgofNand crop, itdoesnotrequirehighdosesofnitrogenfertilizer for normalproduction.However, forbetter production, is quite popular. Inthis method, berseem is sowninto standing paddy 2-3 weeksbefore harvest. As a leguminous all caseswas21kg/haandfertilizer application was N:P:K@90:60:0kg/ha.Berseemasarelaycropwithrice 110 and 107 t/ha and seed yield was 414, 370, and 240 kg /ha respectively in the above treatments. The seed rate in 134, were yields Fodder significant. not was difference the but yield higher gave sowing line farms Janakpur At the cultivatedland,andrelaycroppingwithrice(broadcastinginstandingpaddywithouttillingland). Different methods of growing berseem have been studied such as: broadcasting on cultivated land, line sowing in Methods ofcultivation Results aresummarizedbelow: Extensive studies havebeenundertaken and continue at Janakpur, Pokhara,Ganghat, Tarahara and Dhankutta. Research onberseem enhanced subsequentpaddyproductionatJanakpurandotherfarms.Farmersweremorethanhappytogrowit. was 240-783kg/ha(Khatri,1989).Besidesprovidingforageinwinter, whennothinggrowsinhills,berseem Of thecultivars evaluated Mescawi wasthebestsinceitproduced134tha(greenfodderanditsseedproduction 2 O 5 /ha for better fodder andseedproduction. Various researchershave studied the response tofertilizer of all agricultural land including paddy fields has been brought under wheat. The remaining 10-20 percent is under However, mostofthelandafterpaddycropleftfallow untilthenextseason. A total of 77000hai.e.21.3percent about 52percentiscultivable. About 61 percentisunderpaddywhichcouldbeusedsuccessfully forberseem. Sarlahi, Rautahat and Bankearesuitable for seedproduction.Inproducing districts,outof686510haonly There is a tremendous potential to produce berseem seed in Nepal along the southern border: Dhanusha, Mahotatri, Future prospects for berseemseedproduction percent (2500kg)atgovernmentfarms(Table 2). Of aberseem seed production of 7720kg,about 68 percent (5 220kg)isgrownbythe private sector and only 32 production. At presentberseemseedsareproducedin11 different districts(Table 2). Now, berseem is nolonger a new crop, farmers are well aware and acquainted with its cultivation and seed Estimated production ofberseem seed berseem seedarelacking. recommendations for agricultural loan, animal health facilities etc. However, organized efforts formarketing of and LDDprovidesupporttomembersintheformsoffacilitation seed bank,theDOADformarketing, training, the ADO hasto contribute an equal amount. Besides, technical support and monitoring assistance to the rural the promotionofseedproductionandmarketing.Ifgroupmembers depositNR’s$ 60.0)inthefund, 3000 (US for fund revolving a create to amount nominal a contribute to have groups Producer officer. agriculture district production formagroupof7-9members.Seedproducers’ groupsaretechnically supervised andassistedbythe initiated by DOAD,Livestock Development Division underwhichinterested farmers/groups involved in forage Besides registration of seedgrowers,topromoteforageproduction,abankprogrammehasbeen Rural forageseedbanks become worthless,neitheritcanbeconsumednorfedtothelivestock/poultry. high value crop andearnsaboutRs69/kg(US$1.25/kg),iftheseedcannotbesoldinforthcoming season, it Table 2.BerseemSeedProductionatGovernmentFarmLevel Private Sector Government Sector S.No 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 1 Sub totalGrand Total Sub Total LFTSM farms,Ranjitpur PTSM farm,Janakpur Dhanusha districts Farms/ Districts Mahotatri Rautahat Surkhet Sarlahi banke Dang Parsa Bara Seed Production,kg 7720 5220 1000 1000 1000 2500 1000 1500 700 500 500 500 10 10 67.6 13.0 13.0 13.0 32.4 13.0 19.4 100 9.1 6.5 0.1 0.1 6.5 6.5 %

Egyptian Clover 93 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 94 (Trifolium alexandrinum) • • • • • • • Recommendations easily produce40thousandtonsofberseemseed. There isavastpotentialforberseemseedproductioninNepal. production which is about 20 000 ha in berseem seed producing districts. Under well managed systems this could winter crops suchasbarley, mustard, sugarcane etc. The remaining 50-60 percent could be used forberseem seed Rules/ regulation to control the quality of produced seed shouldbestrictly amended by concerned organization. seed processingandqualitycontrol; their processing.Farmersoftheseedproducingdistrictsshouldbefacilitated with necessaryequipmentsfor Farmers involvedinforageseedproductionshouldbeprovidedtraining/skillsqualityand fodder cropslikeberseemtosolvethewinterfeeddeficitandalsoimprovefertilitystatusofsoil; Government/ non government efforts bedirected towards theextensiveuseoffallowlandsforproduction specialized qualityseedfarmersassociationshouldbeformedforthispurpose; Possibilities for the extension of berseem seed especially to the SAARC counties should be explored and a fodder forsilage,hayandleafmealproductionetc.alltypesofanimal; should begivenhighprioritywhereasinthefodderproducingdistrictstoproducegreen especially for theruralfarmers.Inthisregard,inberseem seed producingdistricts, quality seed production Berseem production (green fodder/ seed) should be promoted as a potential source of income generation production, processing,qualitycontrolandmarketing; Seed production of berseem should be well organized through a full fledged national level institute to look after seed tomaintainthevarietalpurity; Immediate attention is required to replace existing seed stockavailable at government farms withhighquality T2 (266kg/ha)and T1 200kg/ha). among all treatments. Seed yield was observed significantly higher in T4 (393 kg/ha) followed by T3 (360 kg/ha), yields seed the in (P<0.01) differences significant highly were Tablein There 1. presented is yield seed Berseem Berseem seedyield Results anddiscussion were etc. ripening seed recorded. MeanswereseparatedbyusingLeastSignificant Difference of (LSD)at5%levelofsignificance. dates the and cutting second cutting, first at production biomass yield, seed as such was applied as NPK @ 25:60:30 NPK kg/ha equally in all plots. The different parameters during the experiment Randomized Design (Simple CRD. Test resultsshowedpHlevel 7.0andorganic matter 1.95% ofsoil.Fertilizer 10, 15times)wereappliedatdifferent intervalsanditwasreplicated 3 timesandmanagedin4T ×3RCompletely seed yieldandbiomassproduction. The cultivar ‘Wardan’ wasusedandfourdifferent numberofirrigation (0, 5, of Nepalgunj,Bankedistrict.Itinvestigated the effect ofnumberirrigationsandirrigationintervalsonberseem The study wascarried out at the Pasture and Forage Seed Multiplication Farm, Gaughat which is about 12 km west Material andmethods according totheconditionofsoil,moistureandrainfall. Irrigation is essential for berseemseedand biomassproduction. Generally, itisapplied at 10-15daysintervals management. with inoculated be should Rhizobium trifolii bacteria seeds About 400-500kg/haofseedcanbeproducedundergoodfertilizer and irrigation The direction. crosswise a in uniformly seeds soaked broadcasting and fields Report, 1990-1991). The easiest and quickest method at sowing is flooding to a depth of 4 to 5 cm in well levelled Berseem is sownin October in Terai and hills. Sowing in November yielded low at Koshi hills (PAX Annual 22% CP and80% TDN. maintained on greenberseem alone without anyconcentrate feeding. Berseem has ahighnutritive value around a long season from November to May in five to six cuts. A cow yielding 7 to 8 litres of milk per day can easily be called thekingoffoddercropsduetohighyieldssucculent,palatable and nutritious fodderthatitprovidesover joint vetchandNapieraremajorforagesinthe Terai andmidhilldistricts. Among them,berseemhasbeenrightly Forage seed production has beenincreasing in the last few decades. Oat, berseem, winter vetch, teosinte, stylo, • • • • The majorlimitationsandconstraintsinfeed,fodder. pastureproductionanduseare: many waysforpromotionofbetterforageproductionandfeedingin Terai. Butitisinadequate at thelocal levels. Livestock Services (DLS)havehelped in production of forageseedandplanting materials. DLS assistsfarmersin only toincrease theproductionbuttolowercosts.GovernmentagenciessuchasDepartment of of overthree millions tons per annum (TLDP, 2002).Great efforts have to be made to provide adequate feed not deficit feed face Livestock 1998). Raut, and (Pariyar, 1997 respectively Pande, 54.3% 1993, and 30.8% of deficit whilst 40%comesfromforestandgrazinglands(TLDP, 2002). The fodderbudgetdisplays adryandgreenmatter In Nepalfarm land provide about 60% ofannual feed supply, mainly in the form oflowquality crop residues, S. P. Tiwari &J.P. Yadav biomass production ofberseem inNepal Consequence ofnumber of irrigationsandtheir intervalonseedyieldand Lack oftrainedpersonnelfortheproductionqualityfeedandfodder; Report PFSMF, 2006-2007); Forage seedsareexpensiveandlocalfarmerscannotafford tobuythem,(Rs400/kgforstyloseed, Annual Lack ofqualityfodderinrequiredquantities; Lack ofadequateirrigationandrainfallattheforagegrowingtime;

Egyptian Clover 95 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 96 (Trifolium alexandrinum) applied to the berseem increased the biomass production at first and second cutting. 1m cutting. second and first at production biomass the increased berseem the to applied average biomassproductionis presentedin Table 3. taken forthecalculation of itstotal biomass production.Only3cutswere takenataninterval of onemonth. The Significantly (P<0.01) higher biomass production (1.56 kg /m kg (1.56 production biomass higher (P<0.01) Significantly The effect of number of irrigations and intervals on biomass production at first cut was highly significant (P<0.01). presented in Table 2. is intervals their and irrigations of number different at cutting first at berseem of production biomass mean The Berseem forageproduction important componenttoobtaintheoptimumseedyield. yield is significantly decreased (about 96.65%) in the drought condition or with no irrigation. Thus, irrigation is an It was reported that seed production could not be obtained at Nepalgunj without irrigations (LDP, 1986).But seed conditions theusualseedproductionisabout100-120kg/haaftertaking2-3cutsofgreenfodder(Pande,1995). farmers In yield. seed affect directly irrigations of number The T4. in (96.65%) higher significantly is yield Seed in Table 3.Biomassproduction is highest(3.26kg/m Similarly, average biomass productionofberseematsecondcutting atdifferent numberofirrigations is presented T2 and T1 treatmentsrespectively. with 15times of irrigations with 12daysinterval followed by 1.33kg/m kg/m cut is0.58kg/m²,0.9kg/m Table 2.AveragebiomassproductionofBerseematfirstandsecondcutting Table 1.Berseemseedyield S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 S. NO 2 ), T2 (2.10 kg/m 7 6 5 3 4 2 1 9 8 Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 Mean Probability CV% SEm LSD Value 2 ) T1 (1.63 kg/m 2 , 1.60kg/m Treatments Probability LSD Value Mean CV% SEm T4 T3 T2 T1 2 cutting (kg/m Average biomassproductionatfirst 1.10c 1.20bc 1.33b 1.56a 1.30 0.00 4.97 0.03 0.16 2 and1.kg/m ). The difference between the biomass production at first cut and second and cut first at production biomass the between difference The ). 2 2 ) in T1, T2, T3 and T4 respectively. The numberofirrigations 2 ) inthesecondcut T4 followedbytreatments T3 (2.93 2 ) of berseem was taken in first cut in the treatment the in cut first in taken was berseem of ) 2 , 1.20kg/m cut (kg/m Average biomassproductionatSecond 1.63d 2.10c 2.93 b 3.26a 2.148 0.00 3.49 0.05 0.23 Seed yield(kg/ha) 360b 200d 393a 266c 0.00 0.05 3.14 0.24 305 2 ) 2 , and1.10kg/m 2 areafromeachplotwas 2 with T3, intervals arepositivelycorrelatedwiththebiomassproductionetc. month interval followed by T3 (89.03t/ha), T2 (81.06t/ha) and T1 (64.00t/ha). The number of irrigations and their one at cuts three by t/ha) (98.83 T4 in recorded was production biomass average higher Significantly (P<0.01). significant highly were production biomass total the on intervals irrigation and irrigation of number effectof The Table 3.BiomassProductionofBerseem(t/ha)fresh 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 S.N. LSD Value SEm CV% Probability Mean T4 T3 T2 T1 Treatments 2.67 0.59 1.24 0.00 83.23 98.83a 89.03b 81.06c 64.00d Avg TotalBiomass

Egyptian Clover 97 (Trifolium alexandrinum) Egyptian Clover 98 (Trifolium alexandrinum) this cropcouldbecutinhalfreleasingacreageforthe production ofcropsforhumanconsumption. increase wereachieved,eitherthenumberoflivestockfed on berseemcouldbedoubledortheacreagedevotedto as milkmultiplier. Yield offoddercropscan,nodoubtbedoubledbyusingimprovedvarietiesandmethods.Ifthis farmers duetoitsmerits over otherwinterforagessinceit’s yield ranges from100to120t/ha. Berseem isknown quality (20% crudeprotein), digestibility (up to65%)andhighpalatability. Berseem has wideacceptability among long durationofgreenfodderavailability (November toMay),highgreenfodder yield(>100t/ha),goodforage hectares (Khan et.al,2006,Bhatti and Khan, 1996).Themerit of thecropliesinitsmulticut nature (4 -6cuts), was extended totheirrigateditisamajorwinterfodder grownonanareaof0.71million tracts ofPunjab. Now 1904. in Later, Sindh itscultivation wasstarted inPeshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwaregionin1924fromwhereitscultivation in introduced first was It Leguminales. order and Papilionaceae family the to belongs It loams. ranging from0-35C Egyptian clover orberseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)isanannual multi-cut fodder cropgrown at temperatures Introduction ofEgyptianclover requirements. of thelivestock. In fact it has been estimated that ruminants are only being fed about 50% oftheir dry matter with poorquality straw orothercrop residues. Likewise no effort hasbeen made to maximize forage feeding Unfortunately not enoughgoodforageisavailable so considerable quantities of concentrates are oftenfedalong forage alone.Dairyanimalscanproduce10-12kgofmilkadayongoodqualitywithoutconcentrates. Both small and large ruminantscanmakesatisfactory gains andattain satisfactory productivity on goodquality Production of sufficient quality forage is basic to the development of an efficient and productive livestock industry. shortage oflivestockfeedintermsgreenfodderoccursduringMay-JuneandDecember-January. subsistence conditionsbymaintaining herds of3-4animals(BhattiandKhan1996,Burkietal.2005).Normally increased by 71percent. It isestimated that around 70percent of dairy households inPakistan still operate under fodder production increasedby18.2percentduetoadoptionofhighyieldingvarieties; Livestock population consumption and sale. Although, during the last two decades, the area under fodder decreased by 11.6 percent, Livestockisanintegral part ofmixedfarmingandprovidesdraughtpoweraswellmilkmeatforbothhome in Pakistanagriculture,thereisincreasingrecognitionoftheimportancelivestockproduction. percent foreignexchangeearnings (Economic Survey ofPakistanabout2010). Although cropsectorisdominant working population, it contributes about 21percent to theGrossDomestic Product (GDP),andgenerates over 50 country inthenorthandIndiatoeast. Agriculture isthemainlivelihood of approximately 45 percentofthe is bordered by Afghanistan to the north-west and Iran to the west while the people republic of China borders the ranging fromthecoastal areas ofthe Arabian seainsouthtothemountainsofKarakorumnorth.Pakistan Pakistan is in South Asia. Geographically the landscape spectrum consists of plains, forests, hills and plateaus Sartaj Khan Berseem Production inPakistan PAKISTAN Table 1.Crop-wiseareaandproductionoffoddercropsinPakistan 4. 3. 2. 1. Summer (Kharif)FodderCrops S. No. o Crop Guar S.S. Hybrid Millet Sorghum . Itgrowswell on awidevariety of well drained soils rangingfromsandytypestoheavy Area (mha) 0.21 0.10 0.55 0.23 Production (mtons) 3.05 1.42 0.35 0.14 adoption bythefarmersisvery low. infested seeds. Effective methodologies are available to control these infestations and problems but the rate of their caterpillars and cotton worms arewidespread. Other common problems are berseem root rot, dodder and weed or winter cereals in berseem is that it protects berseem from frost; rape and winter cereals cover berseem. Surface rape mixing of fodder. advantage green Another of scarcity acute an usually is there when cut first the for fodder yield high a provides mixture this and quicker much grow plants Rape taken. is cut first the when shoots few It isgoodtogrowamixture of Brassica species, oats, barley or ryegrasswithberseem since berseem has onlya conditions. required for the entire crop duration. Irrigation should be given as per requirement depending on soil and climatic be may irrigations 12 to 10 of A total sowing. before field the on spread be may field Berseem old an from soil to ensuregoodgrowth. The culture may besmearedonseedsbeforesowing. Where culturesarenotavailable, where berseem is grown for the first time, inoculation with the appropriate Rhizobia bacterial culture is necessary increase yieldsconsiderably. per hectare and molybdenum, in the form of sodium or ammonium molybdate at 10-12 kg per hectare can often In addition tomajornutrients, experiments indicate that micro-nutrients like boron, supplied as 6to11 kgofborax dose ofnitrogen @ 25kgNperhectare at sowing isveryhelpful in improving both the yields and forage quality. Improved cultivars areavailable at researchlevelandhavetobemadeavailable to farmersin ordertoexploittheir Improved varieties Berseem responds well to fertilizers and needsabout 120 kgofP the bedsshouldbeirrigatedoncemore.SowingistodoneinmidSeptember. beds, berseem seeds germinate in three to four daysand as soonthey have struck root (in about a week's time) fodder yieldbecausetheonsetofwinterinterfereswithcropgrowthinearlystages. the waterdriesupin As stunted growthandpooryields.Careshouldbetakenforpropersowingtime as late sowing oftenhampersthe Early sowings give better growth and higher yields, but there is a danger of caterpillar damage; late sowing gives brown andimmatureones. all discarding used, be should seeds yellow, plump Bright, suffices. hectare per kg 20-25 of rate uniform sowing. Aseed ensure to water standing the in broadcast and earth fine of quantity equal an with mixed are overnight soaked seeds, berseem and water of 5 cm about with flooded then are which formed are a beds small and get tilth fine to times six to four ploughed is land The generalize. to difficult so specific location extremely are results Unfortunately, crop management is always a weak point in Pakistan. Agronomic research and the application of Cultural practices Khan et.al, Table 1.Crop-wiseareaandproductionoffoddercropsinPakistan Total 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. Winter (Rabi)FodderCrops 6. 5. S. No. (2010) Crop Other RabiCrops Rape &Mustard Shaftal Lucerne Berseem Other KharifCrops Maize Area (mha) 3.45 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.13 0.71 0.41 0.97 2 O 5 perhectare applied to the seed-bed. A small Production (mtons) 28.09 4.22 0.34 0.81 5.32 2.61 6.12 3.71

Egyptian Clover 99 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 100 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) during lastweekofSeptember, atfirstirrigationofsunflowerin Ayub it Agriculture ResearchInstitute,Faisalabad. in berseem broadcast and September of week first the in sunflower sowed feasibility.They its studied (2004) Hafiz Pakistan. berseem, in cropping crop relay cash for autumn opportunity an an is is Sunflower there As Berseem inrelay cropping withsunflower Source Khan(1996) performance ofvarietiesbothspecies. the season obtained was higher from berseem cultivars compared to shaftal cultivars. Table 4 showsdetails of the more than2000maslin1994-1995and1995-96. Total green fodderyieldatdifferent stagesofharvestduring berseem andshaftalwerecomparedwithlocalforgreenfodderproductionatagriculture farm Skardu In The Northern Areas, localshaftal(Trifolium resupinatumon alargegrown ) is scale;improvedvarietiesof Performance ofberseemathigher altitudes the linesundertesting. The performancecanbejudgedfromthefiguresbelow. berseem breedingprogramistoselect heat tolerant and late maturing lines. Line“Palosi-1”islate maturing among evaluation. Yield performance data sofarcollected (4 cuts)aregiveninthe Table 3. A majorobjectives of the under currently are (A-G) different lines Seven berseem condition. ecological specific a for or cultivation general of foddercropsfromall over thecountry are contributed for testing. The best performing line is released for Agricultural Research Center (NARC) are undertaken under arange of ecological situations. Candidate lines For varietal release, National Uniform Fodder Yield Trials (NUFYT)underFodderResearchProgram,National Peshawari, Cv. SuperLateFaisalabadandCv. Anmole (Figuer1). fodder yields 2-3 times compared to local ones currently used. Some of these are Cv. Agaiti, Cv. Pachaiti, Cv. full genetic potential and meet the requirements of our livestock. These varieties have the potential to increase Shaftal Cv. Local Shaftal Cv. Maral Shaftal Cv. Shaftal Berseem Cv.Berseem Axi Species/Varieties Table 4.Averagegreenfodderyield(t.ha Table 3.NationalUniformFodderYieldTrial(NUFYT)-2011-12 Berseem Cv.Berseem Agaiti Chenab Berseem Name ofvariety/line Sandal Berseem SG-07-1 SG-07-2 Super Late Agaiti Berseem Palosi-I (latematuringline) 1 8.44 Green fodderyield(t.ha 7.78 6.44 6.44 7.56 7.44 8.22 st cut -1 ) ofberseemandshaftalcultivars 9.00 10.50 10.30 10.20 Green fodderundervariouscuts(t.ha 1st cut 14.70 2 17.33 20.44 16.22 14.44 16.00 16.67 14.89 nd cut 10.80 11.75 11.50 11.60 2nd cut 12.60 -1 ) duringthegrowthperiod 3 25.11 28.67 28.67 24.89 27.56 24.22 26.67 rd cut - - - 5.30 3rd cut 5.70 4 32.64 34.27 33.27 32.36 35.82 32.49 34.67 th cut -1 ) 5 12.52 10.02 10.02 10.02 6.68 7.51 36.74 th 19.80 22.25 21.85 27.10 33.00 Total greenfodderyield(t.ha cut (t.ha Total greenyield 96.04 101.18 94.62 88.15 93.62 88.33 121.19 -1 ) et. al, -1

) row spacing.Moreover, thehighestBCRof2.60wasfoundfromsametreatment. monoculture and the maximum LER of 1.73 was achieved in case of berseem relayed in sunflower sown at 90 cm in comparison with soleconventional sown berseemcrop.LERwasincreased to 1.66inrelaycroppingover 10% and sunflower of crop sole with compared as 71% by income gross unit per increased It ha. per 27646 Rs. of income net and 44939 Rs. of income area unit per increased sunflower with berseem of cropping Relay 7. & 6 in Table (BCR) Ration Cost Benefit and (LER) Ration Equivalent Land analysis, economic while 5, Tablein The studywasconductedforthreeyears(i.e.1997-1998,1998-1999and1999-2000). Average yieldsaregiven Table 7.LERandBCRofsunflowerberseemrelaycropping Hafiz et.al Table 6.Economicanalysisofsunflowerandberseemrelaycropping Hafiz et.al, Table 5.Sunflowerseedandberseemfodderyieldasaffectedbyrelaycropping 2. 1. S. No 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. S. No S. No 1. , (2004);1US$-98RsJune2013 (2004) Sunflower at90cmrow Sunflower at75cmrow Treatments LSD % Berseem alone row spacing+berseem Sunflower at100cmapart row spacing+berseem Sunflower at80cmapart row spacing+berseem Sunflower at75cmapart Sunflower at100cmrow Sunflower 90cmrow Sunflower 75cmrow Treatments LSD % Berseem alone Sunflower at75cmapartrowspacing+berseem Sunflower at75cmapartrowspacing+berseem Sunflower at75cmapartrowspacing+berseem Sunflower aloneat100cmrowspacing Sunflower aloneat90cmrowspacing Treatments Sunflower aloneat75cmrowspacing 17.872 - 904.08 c 983.26 b 1042.09 a 903.47 c 999.48 b 1064.69 a Gross returns(Rs.ha -1 Sunflower ) 0.94 1 - 6795.60 6795.60 6795.60 6795.60 6795.60 6795.60 Sunflower Expenditure (Rs.ha Land equivalentratio Berseem 17.872 - 904.08 c 983.26 b 1042.09 a 903.47 c 999.48 b (kg ha Sunflower seed 1064.69 a - 15338 10497.50 10497.50 10497.50 - - - Berseem - - -1 ) -1 ) Total - 15338 17293.10 17293.10 17293.10 6795.60 6795.60 6795.60 Total 0.94 1 7.459 45.21 a 37.98 b 37.09 b 30.56 c - - - (kg ha Berseem fodder - 23842.17 27073.44 27645.98 22188.28 4486.67 5639.34 6496.97 Net income -1 BCR 1.83 1.96 )

Egyptian Clover 101 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 102 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) • • • • • Future research areas chickpea croppingsystemgavehighestprofitfollowedbyrice-Berseem,rice-barley chickpea, lentil inthethirdweekofNovember.and berseemweresown The resultsindicate (Table 8)thatrice- and wheat yields. Berseem is a better choice. Rice Cv. 385 was planted in the third week of July and wheat, barley, late due tolate harvest ofBasmati rice in plains.Furthermore, this rotation has resulted in stagnation of bothrice better wheresoilallowsdeeprootpenetration growing season;wheatgrows(Hobs Wheat is commonly grown afterricebutisinpuddledsoilstomaintain submergence duringthe Rice isacropofgreateconomic value inPakistan,grownon2.88million hectares (Anonymous,2009-2010). Studies have been undertaken on comparative advantage and feasibility of different rice base cropping systems. Berseem inrice-wheatcropping a ensure it will and sunflower sown autumn in considerable increaseinperunitareaincome. relayed be successfully can berseem that concluded be can It Crops Berseem Lentil Chickpea Barley Wheat Asghar et.al, Table 8.EconomicsofAgronomicexpressiondifferentrelaycropsgrownafterrice Hafiz et.al, Table 7.LERandBCRofsunflowerberseemrelaycropping 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. Extending thecroptonorthernpartsofcountry; Improved drydattercontentandseedyield; Long durationtypevarietiestocoverfodderscarcityperiods ofMay-June; Breeding/screening fordiseaseresistanceespeciallyrootrot andstemrot; Germplasm enrichmentthroughexplorationatcentresofdiversitysuchasEgypt, Turkey, Iran,Iraqetc; (2004) Berseem alone Sunflower at100cmrowspacing+berseem Sunflower at90cmrowspacing+berseem Sunflower at75cmrowspacing+berseem Sunflower at100cmrow (2002) Grain yield(tha - 1.20 2.09 4.46 3.47 -1 ) 63.94 2.23 2.82 7.69 4.95 t ha Straw/forage yield -1 ) (Rs. ha Gross Income 51152.00 30557.50 47730.00 44522.50 32212.50 0.85 0.92 0.98 0.85 -1 - ) (Rs. ha Total Expenditure 13306.51 11487.42 11981.42 16105.95 13867.46 0.84 0.82 0.68 1 - -1 ) , rice-lentilandrice-wheat. et al,1987). Wheat issown 0.85 1.68 1.73 1.56 1 (Rs. ha Net Income 37845.49 19070.08 35748.58 28416.55 18345.04 -1 ) 2.55 1.66 2.57 2.60 2.28 3.84 2.66 3.98 2.75 1.32 B.C.R Figure1. Highyieldingvarieties ofberseemevaluationtrials(leftandright) Berseem variety Agaiti atHafizabad(Left)andIslamabad(right)

Egyptian Clover 103 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 104 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) homogenous areas(Figure2). The landareais769630km km production of0.5-1t/ha(Altin plant cover and biomass yields of these pastures are very low ranging from 10-30 % plant cover and biomass management. As a result, these lands are utilized at 90-92 percent (Tukel, 1984). Dueto indiscriminate misuse, state has given the rights to use these lands to villagers but without regulations or technical enforcements for Animal husbandryisbasedonextensivegrazing. This naturalresourceispublicland ownedbythestate. The 57 milliontonswhichiscoveredbystrawsandresidues. about of deficit roughage a is there So silage. hay,or for forage grown green crops forage from tons million 21.2 Quality roughage production is 32.9 million tons 11.7 million tons of which come from meadows and pastures and Roughage needs of ruminants (about 11.2 million AU) are estimated to be 89.9 million tons (Alcicek Forage production of Marmara (Figure 1);itcovers785000km Turkey liesbetween36º-42°Nand26°-45°EformingabridgeEurope Asia dividedbytheSea Rustu Hatipoglu Berseem production in Turkey TURKEY numbers have not changed significantly in the last 30 years, while sheep, goat and buffalo numbers decreased numbers buffalo steadily inthesameperiod. and goat sheep, while years, 30 last the in significantly changed not have numbers Turkey’sruminant resourcesin2011 were12.4million cattle, 25.0 millionsheepand7.1goats.Cattle grazing system. raise animals without any crop production. They are landless migratory families having large herds in a mobile goats. They live in the villages and their animals graze community pastures in a sedentary system. Finally, 0.5% % operate as crop-animal enterprises raising animals and crops together. They keep 1-2 cows and/or 4-5 sheep and 2012). 62.3 (TUİK, About crops forage no or little very produce they animals no raise they since and production enterprises in Turkey. those, 37.2%aresolelyinvolvedwithplant The averagefarmsizeis6.1haofland.Of in agriculture in 1988,but this has declined to 25.5 %in 2011 (TUIK,2012). There are 3 million agricultural population growth rate was 1.35%. The agricultural population is declining. 46.5 %ofthe population was involved According tothe Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK),population wasestimated as 74724000in2011 and dry insummerbuthumidityishigherthaninnerandeasternpartsofthecountry. west andsouthcoastsareneartheseatheyreceive less rainfall then theBlackSeacoasts. These regionsarevery highlands ofthisregion. from NovembertoMarchor Almost theentireareaisundersnow April. Although the In theeastrainfallisinspring;wintertemperatures are muchlowerthantherestofcountry, particularly in the Anatolia, rainfall occursmostly in spring. Throughout much of the area snow lies in winter at and above 1 000m. of rainfall steadily decreasesinaneast-westdirection from 2000to600mm/year. IntheinteriorandSouth-eastern Mediterranean and Aegean coasts. The Black Sea coasts receive rain throughout the year. Inthis region, the amount by drysummers. Autumn isthestartof rainyseason,whichcontinuesuntillate spring ontheMarmara, continental climate characterized by rainy weather throughout the year and to a subtropical climate distinguished precipitation show great variation between regions, as the topographical features do. Turkey is subject to both a Average elevation is1100mandannualprecipitation 600 mm.Boththeamountanddistributionpatternsof million haofthearablelandissownand4.3liefallow. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivated on 558553ha is the most important forage followed bycommon vetch and prefertogrowcropsfordirect consumptionorwhichtheycanselleasily. over 6.9%ofall 63.2 %ofenterprises have their land splitinoverfourplots.Farmerswith small farms unwilling to growforages isslightly which forages, ha under area everyyear.cropland and9.9%ofthesown million Over78%ofenterpriseshave lessthan10hectares. Additionally,of 1.5 total a showed in 2011 statistics Official 2 ofwhich213510km 2 arearable,2943km et al, 2011). 2 arepermanent crop and146170km 2 consistingofsevengeographical regions and37ecologically 2 (FAO, 2009). Total agricultural land areais38,911 2 meadowsandpastures.15.2 et al, 2010). of Turkey aregivenin Table 1. it could be grown in almost all parts of the country. Some of the results on hay yield of growing in different regions Many investigations havebeenconducted on different aspectsofgrowingclover. According totheseinvestigations, (TUBIVES, 2012). berseem growsnaturally in someareasofNorthandSouth Anatolia, aroundtheprovincesofDuzceand Antalya, of berseem grow naturally along the rivers ofEuphrates and Tigris. According to the Turkish Plant Data Service, Berseem, isbelieved tohaveoriginated in Asia Minor(Genckan,1985).Boeker(1963)reportedthatwildforms Berseem asapotentialforagefor Turkey ha and434respectively. var. rapaceaKoch.)andcloversbeingcultivated at areaof475476ha,31279515364569032540 (Vicia sativaL.),maize (Zea maysL.),sainfoin,bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia L. Willd. İzmir Samsun Antalya Adana Ankara Erzurum Region Table 1.HayyieldsofberseemcloverindifferentregionsTurkey Adana tion of630mm mate anannualtotalprecipita 20 m ASL, Mediterraneancli tion of692mm with anannualtotalprecipita 4 m ASL, BlackSeaclimate 1043 mm annual totalprecipitationof Mediterranean climatewithan total precipitationof650mm ranean climatewithanannual 23 m ASL, typicalMediter tion of435mm with anannualtotalprecipita 860 m ASL, continentalclimate precipitation of460mm climate withanannualtotal 1 700m ASL*, Continental Characteristics oflocation tion of650mm ranean climatewithaprecipita 23 m ASL, typicalMediter ------Pinias Kastilia Tabor Population Carmel Population Meteor Meteor Pinias Castalia Lito L-1714 (USA) Lito Carmel M-2746 Tetraploid (Portugal) Cultivar tested Lito Sac L-1905 Tabor Pinias Hay yield(t/ 6.2-6.4 1.5-2.2 5.1-5.4 5.9-6.2 6.2-7.7 6.6-8.7 5.7-6.5 5.5-6.6 4.5-9.3 5-9.6 16.4 14.8 15.1 15.3 15.2 13.7 13.9 15.8 12.9 14.5 ha) 7.1 Number of cutting ) foragebeet(BetavulgarisL. 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1997 Celen andSoya, Yavuz etal cen, 1999 Cakmakcı andCe 1986 Saglamtimur cak, 2005 Hakyemez andSan Tosun etal, Reference 2011 Turkeri andKarakoy, , 2006 1979 et al - , -

Egyptian Clover 105 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 106 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) ratio ofhay(Table 2). (Avcıogluhay of quality and yield both affected time cultivar cutting Tabor, the with region Aegean in investigation an In flowering. the better quality(Table 4). Berseem can be grownpureorinmixtures with annual ryegrass orcereals. Mixtures canprovide more hay of Intercropping quality asotherannualforagelegumes(Table 3). According toresearchindifferent regionsof Turkey, berseemcangiveasmuchorhigherhayyieldsand that 80 kg/ha P Sowing rate is at 30-40 kgseed/ha broadcast and at 25-30 kg/ha under row sowing(Soya,2009).It is recommended conditions, itisgrownasmaincropandcut3timeswithatotalhayyieldof5-9t/ha( Table 1). Anatolia withacontinental climate, it mustbegrownassummercropunderirrigation; sown in April. Underthese soybean, itcanbecut3times and ahayyield of 14-16t/ha can beachieved. In the interior Anatolia and East especially the amountofprecipitation (Tableof secondcropcornor till thesowing 1).Ifberseemisgrown be harvested once or twice, and it can produce 1.5- 10t/ha hay depending on cultivar and climatic conditions, main summer cropssuchascorn,cotton, soybean, peanut, depending on regionand croprotation. Berseem can without irrigation. Sowing time is generally 15 October-15 November. It must be harvested before the sowing of Region with a Black Sea climate are most suitable for berseem. In these regions, it can be grown asa winter crop Therefore, regions suchas Aegean and Mediterranean with aMediterranean climate as well as the Black Sea Berseem,acool-seasonforage crop, isbestadapted as awinter annual in regions withMediterranean climate. Agronomy ofberseemin Turkey 1)Yavuz etal, Table 3.HayyieldsandcrudeproteinratiosofsomeannualforagelegumesunderdifferentsitesTurkey Table 2.Effectsofcuttingtimeontheyieldandqualityhayinberseemclover Pea Persian clover Gelemen clover Berseem clover Grass pea Narbonne vetch Hungarian vetch Hairy vetch Common vetch Annual LegumeSpecies At theendofflowering At earlyflowering At beforeflowering Cutting time 2006;2)Celen 2 O 5 and 120-150 kg/ha K et al, et al,1999).Delayingcuttingtimeincreasedhayyieldbutdecreased thecrudeprotein 1997;3)CakmakcıandCecen,1999. Samsun(1) Location Hay Yield(t/ha) 4.31 4.12 6.31 2.93 3.26 4.21 5.05 5.8 - 9.63 3.64 1.69 Hay yield(t/ha) 2 O be provided at sowing. Recommended cutting time is at beginning of İzmir 2) 6.16 4.82 6.27 6.28 6.0 - - - Antalya(3) 2.15 2.27 4.04 2.46 2.86 1.9 3.6 - - Location Crude ProteinRatio(%) Samsun(1) 17.79 18.15 17.72 16.97 17.69 19.37 19.11 18.6 - 14.4 16.3 28.4 Crude proteinratio(%) İzmir(2) 20.13 16.95 20.65 21.09 23.66 - - - - Antalya(3) ------as comparedtoothergreenmanures(Table 6)(Figures 1&2). Berseem can be usedasagreen manure. In Adana, berseem green manure for maize resulted in higher grain yield crops (Table 5). and maizefertilization grownwithorwithoutNafterberseemgavehighergrain yieldcomparedtootherprevious In Adana with Mediterranean climate, berseem Planted before maize provided nitrogen through harvest residues, Berseem rotations Hairy vetch+oats Mixture Barley (B) Berseem clover(BC) Berseem clover+barley Persian clover+barley Grass pea+barley Cyprus vetch+barley Berseem clover+oats Pea +oats Grass pea+oats Hungarian vetch+oats 25 %BC+75 ARG 50 %BC+ ARG 75 %BC+25 ARG 25 %BC+75B 50 %BC+B 75 %BC+25B Fenugreek Berseem clover HB+ vetch Horse bean(HB) Table 6.Grainyieldofmaizegrownaftersomethegreenmanurecrops *) Anlarsal Previous crop Table 5.GrainyieldofmaizegrainwithorwithoutNfertilizationaftersomeannualforagelegumes(*) Table 4.Hayandcrudeproteinyieldsofmixturessomeannualforagelegumeswithcerealsorryegrass vetch HB +common Horse bean(HB) Crop Green Manure et al, 1996 7.53 8.26 (t/ha) of greenmanure Dried biomass 7.98 9.07 7.85 6.89 fertilization Maize yieldwithoutN Hay yield(t/ha) 275 312 manure (kg/ha) N fromgreen Provided total 8.62 4.37 8.02 7.55 7.63 7.51 6.70 6.12 7.7 5.3 5.4 6.1 7.0 7.7 7.8 7.4 7.0 10.33 11.47 11.09 10.52 ha (t/ha) Maize yieldwith120kgN/ 9.84 9.15 fertilization maize withoutN Grain yieldof Crude Protein(kg/ha) 1251 1274 1342 1019 1196 956 746 706 818 999 977 971 - - - - - 11.41 11.24 kg N/ha maize with120 Grain yieldof Reference Silbir etal,2000 2011 Degirmenci and Avcıoglu, Tukel andHatipoglu,1987 Silbir etal,2000 12.24 12.16 12.91 11.0 ha (t/ha) Maize yieldwith240kgN/ 12.20 11.45 kg N/ha maize with240 Grain yieldof

Egyptian Clover 107 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 108 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) humans andfeedforanimals. for food of production sustainable for systems farming mixed of establishment the in result will diversification family needs andagricultural production. This might lead to farms specializing in livestock production. This size inthenextdecade. Then, itispresumed,theagricultural enterprises willbeeconomical units forsupporting just supportthe farmer’s family needs.Itisestimated that declining agricultural population will increase farm through governmental support inthelasttenyears.Most Turkish agricultural enterprises arestillverysmalland significantly increased has forages of area the However, level. desired the behind far is crops forage of growing Berseem hasagreatpotential as anannualforagein Turkey. Duetostructural problems of Turkish agriculture, Conclusion Seed yieldofberseemincreasedfrom252.3to700.2kg/hadependingonthecultivarandlocation(Table 7). Seed yieldofberseem Table 7.SeedyieldofberseeminTurkey Table 6.Grainyieldofmaizegrownaftersomethegreenmanurecrops Population Cultivar Fenugreek Berseem clover Carmel Population Sac Lito Carmel Meteor Tabor Pinias Population Pinias Tabor 8.60 10.41 430.0 -700.2 Seed yield(kg/ha) 318 338 307.8 285.0 –524.0 791.8 588.0 592.7 960.7 515.5 627.5 294.9 252.3 372.9 9.28 9.29 Saglamtimur Reference 11.22 12.07 Deveci Cakmakci Silbir, 2001 et al, et al, 2009 et al, 1999 1986 12.28 13.15 Figure 2.Harvestingofberseemclover (cv. Alex) inafieldexperimentat Adana(Nedirli,2010) Figure 1. A viewofafieldexperimentberseemclover (cv. Alex)at Adana(Nedirli,2010)

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Egyptian Clover 123 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 124 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) Botanical Name Zea maysL. Vitis vinifera Vigna sinensisL. Vicia faba Trifolium resipunatum Triticale (× Triticosecale), triti'keil: Trifolium lantagophaeostoma Trifolium fragiferumL. Trifolium alexandrinum Triticum aestivumL. Thell. Common Name Maize Grapes Cowpea Faba bean Missry Shaftala Triticale Peshawari Shaftala Strawberry clover Berseem Wheat Maize Lobia Egyptian clover Common Synonym(s) Crude protein(CP) Crudefibre(CF) Cross pollinated Cowpea Coumarines Combining ability Cinnamic acid Chromosome Chromosomal aberrations Chromosomal aberration Chisquare value Chilghoza Diorthophosphate Calcium tetrahydrogen Caffeic acid Bluegreenalgae Biotechnology Bio-fertilizer Bio-chemical studies Bio-chemical characterization Berseem Benzoicacid Benzene Benzaldehydes Barnyard grass Barley Azelaic acid Apricots Apples Annual Rye grass Analysis ofvariance Amplified polymorphicDNA Amines Alfalfa Alfalfa meal Aldehydes Alar AFLP generatedDNA profile INDEX 10, 12 127 110 113 113 61 61 31 15 53 33 53 30 70 67 86 26 59 29 30 30 53 54 54 15 14 54 86 86 14 35 33 54 15 54 19 30 Heritability Hay house Haustorium Grapes Gibberellic acid Genotype Genotype xtemperature Gene Bank Gc/Ms analysis Fresh forageyield Foliar nutrition Fodder maize Fodder beet Flavonoids Fingerprinting Ferules acid Faba bean Evaluation ofberseemvarieties Etherextract(EE) Esterase isozymes Epicoccum Enigma offertility Ellagic acid Elephant grass Electrophoresis Egyptian clover Echinichloa Dry sowing Dry forageyield Dodder Dihydroxyhydro-cinamic acid Difco agar Dichlorophenoxy aceticacid Desmodium Descriptor ofBerseem cytological stability Cytological evaluation Folin-Ciocalteauphenol reagent 122 130 122 54 35 94 58 86 19 29 40 54 24 56 64 15 15 53 83 58 14 28 61 33 21 36 59 15 31 12 15 24 24 19 32 32 67 30

Egyptian Clover 125 (Trifolium alexandrinum) 126 Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) Multiple traitselection Mulberry MS media Mot grass Morphactin Molecular variance Molecular characterization Mitotic index Mineral nutrition Medicago sativa Mass andrecurrentselection Mass andfamilyselection Marker assistedselection Manual tripping Lolium multiflorum Lathyrus sativus Land equivalentvalue Kudzu Kinetine Ketones Karyotypr characterization Karyotype Karakul sheep ISSR generatedDNA profile Isozyme Irrigation regimes Irrigation frequency Integrated nutrientmanagement Inoculants Spectroscopy Infra RedReflectance Inbreeding depression Inbred populations In vitroselections Hydroxy phenylaceticacid Hydroxy benzoicacid(4HBA) Hydroxy benzoicacid(3HBA) H-indole-carboxaldehyde H-indole-5- carboxylicacid H-indole-3-carboxylic acid 23, 24 130 113 33 86 32 88 19 30 30 69 26 86 31 32 33 36 16 87 27 32 54 67 30 86 30 30 24 23 41 36 34 32 54 54 54 54 54 54 Recurrent selection RAPD generatedDNA profile RAPD analyses Raised beds Quinones Protein band Proline accumulation Progenies Productivity Potassium sources Pomegranat Electrophoresis(PAGE) Polyacrylamide gel Plums Plantago phaeostoma Plant improvement Pistachio Physiological maturity p-coumaric acids p-hydroxybenzoic P-hydroxybenzoicacid Photosynthetic rate Phosphorus fertilization Phosphate solubilisingbacteria Phoma phenolic acid Peroxidase isozymepatterns Pedigree selection Pears Pearl millet Peaches P-coumaricacid P-coumaricacid P-coumaricacid Osmotic potential Orthogonal comparisons Oat NitrogenFreeExtract(NFE) Napthaleneacetic acid Mustard 113 31 30 30 24 54 30 84 31 24 26 86 30 86 54 30 86 65 54 59 59 23 25 21 58 33 34 86 15 86 59 58 54 23 31 14 61 32 16 spectrophotometer SHIMADZU 240UV/VIS Self fertility Seed rate Seed production Seed bankprogramme Electrophoresis(SDS-PAGE) SDS-Polyacrylamidegel Salinity concentration Salicylic acid Sainfoin Safranin Roughage needs Rough pea Rotary Microtome Rice-wheat rotation Rice-lentil rotation Rice-chickpea rotation Rice-berseem system Rice-Berseem rotation Rice-barleyrotation Rhodes grass Rhodes grass Rhizobium Rhizobium trifolli Relay croppingofBerseem 132 143 142 142 142 142 142 141 116 56 33 26 37 30 24 21 88 55 15 55 48 48 23 45 Wheat Wet sowing Water useefficiency Water useefficiency Walnuts Vanillic acid Triticale Trifolium resupinatum Trifolium alexandrinum Total digestiblenutrients Terpenoids Taxonomic relationships Tannins System equivalentyield Syringicacid Synthetic varieties Sweet sorghum Surface irrigation Superoxide dismutase(SOD) Sudan grass Strawberry clover Sterols Spontaneous tripping Somatic chromosomenumber Silage madefromEgyptianclover 10, 12 21,22 114 14 24 48 25 86 59 14 86 50 53 83 53 59 32 23 30 15 14 54 33 31 42

Egyptian Clover 127 (Trifolium alexandrinum)