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Ways of ment. In this it is, of course, no different than the s¯utras themselves. Enlightenment Survey courses are going to present s¯utric readings among the prima- Buddhist Studies ry texts, but usually they first give an overview using modern at Institute Western scholarship. Without the overview, it is hard to make sense out of the scriptures. But each generation Buddhist teachers write overviews for their dis- ciples as well, because the disciples have the same problem as college BERKELEY: PUBLISHING, 1993 students—they cannot read the traditional texts without some back- 371 PAGES ground and interpretational assistance. I am merely suggesting that college professors use one of those emic, in-tradition overviews. It will lead more directly to the matter of the native readings. n recommending this book for classroom use, I am breaking Ways of Enlightenment is such an overview. It addresses its readers with an established custom in Western academia. I would as if they were already Buddhists—Buddhists who, having begun to like to propose that professors surrender a certainly scholarly practice meditation and perform religious ceremonies, would now distance and actually use a Tibetan survey of Buddhist teach- like to develop a more intellectual understanding of their path. ings as the central reading for a Survey of Buddhism course. The Therefore, it presents its material in a literary style related to Tibetan book is Ways of Enlightenment, an outline of Buddhist philosophy poetry and Buddhist discourse-esthetics. Although written by and practice written by American Tibetan Buddhists under the direc- Westerners, it deploys the figures of Asian Buddhist rhetoric; it pur- I posefully evokes the grand, formal, sweeping, monumental style of tion of a Nyingma , Tarthang . Although the book was designed for practitioners at American meditation centers, it could as Buddhist scriptures. well be used as an introduction to Mah¯ay¯ana Buddhist writings in It may seem paradoxical to say this, but although Ways of general. It would overcome the cultural gap we usually find between Enlightenment is full of scholastic erudition, it is in no way an primary and secondary readings in college courses on Buddhism. example of academic prowess. It comes from a tradition of learning Tarthang’s students have written an exceptionally clear and straight- with a notion of scholarly integrity as rigorous as ours, but altogether forward outline. It could be recommended on these grounds alone, different—different rules of proof and evidence, different standards but really its strongest point is stylistic. Because it was originally of excellence, different criteria for truth and reliability, a different designed for Buddhists, it uses a language akin to that of the notion of thoroughness, and most importantly, a different notion of Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. It shows forth in its very style skepticism. Here we do not find the Age of Enlightenment skepticism the premises upon which the religion is based. Since Ways of of the scientist—a skepticism originally designed to free thought Enlightenment rhetorically and stylistically embodies the thing it from superstition and the arbitrary authority of institutionalized reli- studies, it overcomes the cognitive dissonance between primary and gion. Here, rather, is the characteristically Buddhist skepticism—a secondary texts which is typical of “Introduction to Buddhism” skepticism determined not to be fooled by the emotionality of self courses. interest or ontologies associated with materialism. These differences That dissonance is not in itself evil—it is simply the price professors give Ways of Enlightenment powers separate from those of Western pay for presenting the varieties of Buddhist religion scientifically. By discourse, but equal in importance and desirable. using the discourse of the social sciences as the main entrance to Asian scriptures, teachers create, whether they intend to or not, a certain cul- The Multicultural Classroom tural gap—a gap between Buddhist culture and university culture. If I have said that Ways of Enlightenment is free from the cognitive you see that gap as a problem, then this book is one way to fix it. dissonance and intellectual tension which exists between scientific Ways of Enlightenment, although as precise and as scholarly as introductions to religious works and the works themselves. Of equivalent academic works, assumes a position of utter advocacy. It course, not every professor sees this dissonance as a problem. To does not take Buddhism as an object of scholarly examination, nor is many, it is a sign of their integrity as scholars that they stand apart from the primary texts they teach. For example, many professors in it the kind of tailored apology for Buddhist religion exemplified by Religious Studies teach Buddhism as an interesting example of an Daisetz Suzuki’s work and the Walpola Rahula’s excellent What the 1 Asian religion. The point of their courses is to show students some- Buddha Taught. It does not organize its presentation historically or thing about the nature of religion itself, and Buddhism for them is a geographically. It does not highlight the kind of comparatist issues fascinating instance, a fruitful point of comparison. Their central found in Religious Studies departments. In fact, it does not reflect the concern is the nature of religion, not the nature of Buddhism, and so, theoretical agendas of any academic field. Rather, it presents Tibetan for perfectly good reasons, their presentations move at cross-purpos- Buddhism as a personal option, a unified path of spiritual develop- es to the works they study.

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Students, however, do not usually take Survey of Asian Religion dent understand what a certain dialogue probably meant. But the act courses because they are planning a career in Religious Studies. Their of reading itself is not much assisted, because the style of the introduc- interest is less in the theoretic science than in the thing itself. If the tion is unconnected with that of the Platonic dialogue. Actually, sec- aim of a class is to let students know what Buddhism is like as a reli- ondary literature is generally written in a language nearly as alien to gion that people practice, then this book strongly recommends itself. the student as that of the primary literature. When I assign my stu- It shows the key features of the religion through its own eidos, its dents a scholarly foreword, I must spend the next class helping them to own form—in its own person, if you will. understand the foreword itself. At that point, Plato’s words have yet to I am using “theoretic” in a special sense, related to its Greek ety- be actually engaged. The class in which we begin to read the actual mology as a word for “observe.” It involves an almost Aristotelian dialogue requires yet another session of linguistic therapy. My toil has interest in distance and disinterested viewing, a basis for inquiry and been doubled by the introduction which was meant to simplify it. general knowledge gathering. Eidos, of course, is the Greek word for The same is true for Buddhist religious discourse. The discontinuity “form,” and from it we get our word “idea.” But it is also ancestor to in language between the Western secondary and Asian primary litera- the word “video,” for one of its earliest meanings is quite literally ture can be an obstacle to reading. In fact, that is why Ways of “the look of a thing.” To observe Buddhism and follow a theoretic Enlightenment had to be written in the first place, because Tarthang agenda in Buddhological research is one thing, an activity of specula- Tulku’s students, although they had plenty of scholarly summaries tive inquiry native to academia. To get the look of Buddhism is and historiographical surveys available to them, could not read a another. It is the “look” of Buddhism in practice, its native form, that translation of Mipham Gyatso’s Khenjug. is stolen away by the theoretic discourse of the social sciences and could be restored in a pedagogical context by a culturally Buddhist A Buddhist Manual introduction such as this. Ways originated from a project with a very specific goal. In the In this sense, you could say that Ways of Enlightenment possesses 1970s, Tarthang Tulku attempted to introduce his students at the the special explanatory advantages of modern multicultural presenta- Nyingma Institute in Berkeley to Mipham Gyatso’s Summa tions. For it is not an expression of university research culture; it is Theologica, the Khenjug, or Gateway to Learning. Mipham was a culturally Buddhist. In this decade positions of advocacy are allowed nineteenth century encyclopedist and synthesizer. He was a leader in into the university classroom under the rubric of multiculturalism. the Ecumenical (ris-med) movement, a sudden flowering of new Why should this not be, when appropriate, an alternative for Buddhist learning which some people have gone so far as to call a “Tibetan Studies as well? Other disciplines have absorbed this approach into Renaissance.” Mipham’s Khenjug gave a detailed survey of the for- their pedagogy without destruction to their scientific integrity. Today, mal teachings of Mah¯ay¯ana Buddhism. The presentation was orga- when I teach literature, for example, I allow positions of advocacy nized into what the Tarthang Tulku’s translators call the “Ten Topics into the classroom that I would once have considered extraneous. of Expert Knowledge” or “The Ten Points of Panditry,” if you will. These are situations where it now seems best to let the cultural matrix Actually, it is unfair to call this work a Summa, because it does not, from which the books arise speak for the books in the person of like Thomas Aquinas, engage church controversies or adjudicate somebody passionately attached to them. them to single conclusions. Rather, it introduces the range of teach- From one point of view it is very simple: who is qualified to speak ings of Mah¯ay¯ana in such a way as to connect them all together in a on behalf of a religion? Scholars such as myself are there to analyze, new whole—a whole which can be a doctrinal ground not just for the to contextualize, to offer a range of perspectives on the material. We Nyingma sect, but for all the schools of . The have a vast range of educational functions. But we are rarely spokes- Gateway to Learning is actually what its title indicates, an introduc- men for what we teach. When we take on ourselves the job of pre- tion to the higher realms of Buddhist erudition. senting a tradition which we admire but in which we do not believe, Ways of Enlightenment is thus an introduction to an introduction, some sacrifice or tradeoff has been made. and its engendering is typical of the vicissitudes of the modern For those who do not wish to make this tradeoff when they teach, Buddhist pedagogy in the West. It seems that in the late 1950s, this book is an interesting option, an especially useful bridge to trans- Tarthang attempted to have his Western disciples study the Ten lations of . Its orderly, passionate descriptions can train Topics of the Khenjug. It turned out, however, that they simply the ear of the undergraduate who is about to read a s¯utra, ameliorating lacked the sort of informational and cultural background necessary to the bothersome disjunction between the styles of primary and sec- undertake Mipham’s text, which was written in the high style of ondary literature. Indian Abhidharma and scholastic metaphysics. And so, during the This book addresses a problem with which we are quite familiar in following decade an introduction to Mipham’s work was written by humanities core curricula. Reading an introduction to Plato’s philoso- Tarthang ’s students at Dharma Press. phy does not really help a student read Plato. Rather, it helps the stu- The result was a survey of Mah¯ay¯ana theology and cosmology so

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useful that it was published for the general public as well. Each of the the scriptures as a practitioner would understand them, and (2) it ten topics received a brief, almost telegraphic treatment—a treatment gives a sense of the traditional reader’s response to that content. that combined good Western prose styling with a certain Tibetan For example, this passage says that “the study of history and poetic flourish. The presentations were adorned with an elegant selec- philosophy [must be] joined with regular meditation practice.” tion of elucidating quotes from Buddhist scriptures. The quotes them- Imagine then that the student’s next reading were one of N¯ag¯arjuna’s selves sketched out a kind of mini-canon of Buddhist literature. The texts of philosophical dialectic or a selection from the corpus of the whole was presented in the order in which the Ten Topics occur in Abhidharma, scriptures on cosmology and Buddhist analytical the Khenjug. psychology! These texts, although incredibly intellectual, would be Actually, in this volume only the first seven topics are covered. The seen as an accompaniment to meditation practice, not as free-standing hardest part, Buddhist philosophical dialectics, are left for a second philosophical speculations. This would be a practitioner’s way of volume which will appear in the next two years. organizing the content—not as formal metaphysical inquiry, but as a Culturally Buddhist Discourse set of contemplative objects. And the traditional reader’s reception of the texts is quite different, The chapters in this book are organized like lessons in a course— for where a Western intellectual might seek food for thought in the pithy, compact, and extremely clear, with suggested readings at the writings of Buddhist philosophers, the fervent adherent will seek end—but they are written in the passionate, almost romantic tone of experiences of awakening or sacred outlook. These disjunctions are voice of traditional Tibetan Buddhist scholars. Let us take a close not simply differences in view. They indicate a fundamentally differ- look at the expressive style of one passage. You will see that there is ent act of reading. no particular sense of empiricism or gesture towards scientific objec- We are beginning to understand the significance of this cultural dif- tivity, no evocation of the discourse of social science. Students who ference in academia. Partly this is because the Tibetan diaspora has read this introduction find themselves face-to-face with a Buddhist brought scholars such as Tarthang Tulku into our midst, and their stu- persona. These lines are from the introduction: dents are beginning to teach in American universities. Another reason Ways of Enlightenment can only hint at the vast is because anthropological and ethnological approaches now exert a ocean of wisdom that the teachings contain—each greater influence on American Buddhology. Some of these influences of Lama Mipham’s Ten Topics would require a are homegrown. Others are the result of the translation and importation whole book to discuss in detail. If the seed of of European Buddhist structuralist studies. And of course there is the Dharma is to take root and flourish in Western immense pressure of multiculturalist movements towards diversity. culture, the ground must be well prepared. The teaching of Asian Studies is keeping step with these changes in Preparation includes the study of philosophy and interesting ways. There is, for example, a new series of textbooks history, combined with regular meditation practice entitled Princeton Readings in Religions. The centerpiece of this and the application of the teachings directly in series is a collection of anthologies edited by Don Lopez, entitled everyday life. In the Nyingma tradition, such a Buddhism in Practice, Religions of in Practice, Chinese many-sided approach is considered vital. [p. xxi] Religion in Practice, and soon to appear, Tibetan Buddhism in This passage shows quite clearly the slant of the book. It assumes Practice. The aim of this series is “better to represent the range of that the reader is sympathetic with the desire that “the Dharma take religious practices, placing particular emphasis on the ways in which root and flourish in Western culture.” It evokes the Nyingma Lineage texts are used in different contexts.”2 Dr. Lopez contrasts the selec- of Tibetan Buddhism as if association of a method with this sect is an tions he has made with “source books used by the last generation of automatic positive recommendation. The missionary agenda is utterly students [which] placed a heavy emphasis on philosophy and on the explicit. religious expressions of elite groups in what were deemed the “classi- In this passage the praxis of Buddhism—meditation and meditation cal” civilizations of Asia and the Middle East.” Here the practition- in action—is confidently prescribed, along with something Western er’s view is honored by offering the student an array of writings more readers should, but do not usually expect from Buddhists—analytical like what a normal Buddhist disciple might actually read. It is a per- study of the teachings—“philosophy and history.” ilous attempt, because the result suggests a vast, unkempt, culturally This missionary and proselytizing voice has a certain advantage diverse, inclusivist canon. It is more heterogeneous and disorganized over the usual discourse of Religious Studies. It gives the sense of than the refined set of classics and narrow choice of genres claimed emphasis of an adherent. It shows forth in its structure and style the by traditional Western scholars. way of thinking of traditional Tibetan Buddhist disciples. Thus, it The disadvantage of these anthologies—their unkempt diversity—is prepares us in two ways for the primary readings which would pre- offset by the fact that, like Ways of Enlightenment, the Princeton series sumably follow in a university course: (1) it explains the content of points directly to the way the religion is actually practiced, rather than

50 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 1, Number 2 Fall 1996 RESOURCES BOOK REVIEWS

to the uses Western scholars have made of Asian textuality. adventitious. The problem is that, while the works of Buddhist The passage I quoted above is stylistically quite different as well. scholastic writers can be, and deserve to be, compared with our best The language of Buddhist texts is evoked through use of traditional speculative philosophers, that is not the way Tibetan pandits read Buddhist imagery and metaphors. We see, “the vast ocean of wis- them. Traditional Buddhists read N¯ag¯arjuna and his successors as if dom” and we should imagine the uncultivated Western land which they were faithful commentators on a scriptural tradition in which we must be ploughed and planted (“if the seed of the Dharma is to take must have faith. They are not seen as superbly rational and self- root and flourish the ground must be well prepared.”) And the subtle, reliant thinkers, but as continuers of an ancient lineage. other worldly humor of Buddhist discourse is hidden here as well. There is a remarkable difference in these two readings. The cultur- “Vast ocean of wisdom” is a pun, for the Gyatso in Mipham ally Buddhist reception imagines a religion that has existed primor- Gyatso’s name is “ocean”—a bi-syllable which in Tibetan contains dially, taught by an endless succession of Buddhas appearing in the word for vast. cyclic time. The traditional American version, however, projects a Structurally, this simple passage is quite Buddhist as well. One typi- religion almost with no credo, a religion that is actually not a religion cal way that Buddhist rhetoric shapes a cadence and sense of ending at all, a religion that is pure honesty and truth and rationality with no is by moving to a more sweeping and florid language as we move to premises or presuppositions. the close of a discourse or a chapter. This passage, being at the end of Tibetan Buddhists we meet, on the other hand, are true believers in the introduction, is at such a point. This is one place in a Buddhist their religion. They accept the efficacy of its rituals, the soundness of text where the strongest, most over-generalized, or most controversial its cosmology, and the correctness of its philosophies. They are statements tend to occur. For example, the Tibetan Buddhist approach hoarders of relics and amulets and have been so since the first cen- to study is given here concisely, but symphonically: turies of the religion, and they rely on the development of faith and commitment as a pathway to final success. Even though the absolute When joined together from the outset, study and authority of the Buddha’s word is a point of controversy in medieval practice foster a deep experiential appreciation for Buddhist scholasticism, nevertheless, in practice, throughout history the potential of our human existence. Intellectual his scriptures have been taken to be as authoritative as the Bible or understanding based on study and experiential the Koran for their respective religions. understanding based on practice support one That is why there is a particular richness of imagery in the passage another; together they illuminate the structure of cited above. It expresses its position on the relationship between faith the path. When students of the Dharma can verify and learning with an extended metaphor suggesting the lush figures the teachings through direct experience, of k¯ avya, Sanskrit Court Poetry: “the sustained engagement neces- confidence in their own understanding and in sary for effort to bear fruit, and the taste of this fruit helps knowledge the Dharma both develop naturally. Confidence to deepen into complete certainty.” We are adjured to grow this fruit, in turn generates the sustained engagement ripen it, pluck it, eat it and savor the taste. This tropical language has necessary for effort to bear fruit, and the taste roots in k¯ avya, and other Indic forms of florid art language. It match- of this fruit helps knowledge to deepen into es the scriptural quotes seeded throughout the book. complete certainty. [p. xxi] Western academic treatments, on the other hand, use another lan- It is quite typical of Tibetan panditry to say that uniting study with guage. Perhaps it is because they tend to focus on Buddhism as an meditation practice leads eventually to the experience of “complete ascetic religion, and their vision of its asceticism is matched by the certainty.” For American college students, this is brightly promising asceticism of the professorial prose style. But this style is subtly in something they do not desire. This kind of faith, however, is central conflict with the peculiarly sensuous nature of Buddhist discourse, to the Tibetan Buddhist learning experience and it is constantly men- which has never shaken itself free from a metaphorical language orig- tioned in traditional discourse. To “resolve the mind” or “settle the inally designed for love lyrics and ecstatic devotional verse. mind” (rten la babs) is essential for the advanced practitioner. But it The passage I am using as an example is good for its choice of is mainly practitioners who foreground this idea at the outset. Buddhist positions and language representative of Mah¯ay¯ana writ- Until quite recently, however, this point was often underplayed in ings. One can imagine college students being “turned off” by the cru- the writings of academic apologists who would rather see Buddhism sading quality of this discourse, which one of my colleagues called, as a religion of reason than of faith. To this end, they placed the not without reason, “overwrought.” Still, perhaps it is best that they philosophical works of the great medieval Indian Buddhist realize in advance the fervidness of Buddhist practitioners, who have “Charioteers” (N¯ag¯arjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dign¯aga, paid a cost of discipleship as high as in other religions and have Dharmak¯irti, etc.) at the center of their understanding. This made the given up some bit of autonomy and personal freedom in pursuit elements of faith, magic, and mystery in the religion seem almost of religious goals. No matter how rational and skeptical Buddhist

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philosophy may be, the primary scriptures are full of religious sum- chology. This is a felicitous way of presenting the tradition, for it uses monings to an agonized personal engagement. This is particularly the kind of linguistic contexting Asian Buddhist teachers have judged true in Tibetan Buddhism, where, whether it is always true or not, a fitting over the last few decades. certain mind is said to be necessary at a certain point, going hand-in- That strategy of adaptation manifests in every paragraph. The pas- hand with commitment to a specific lineage: sage we cited mentioned “experiential appreciation for the potential This certainty forms the link to the lineage of of our human existence.” It said that “Intellectual understanding light—at once the inner wisdom of the Dharma based on study and experiential understanding based on practice sup- and our own deepest truth. The Western heart port one another.” The terms I have placed in italics are, of course, cherishes individual freedom, but it is only not technical words from Abhidharma. They are roughly parallel to through such direct knowledge that the freedom the native Buddhist terms “what is heard” and “what is experienced.” to choose becomes meaningful. But this distinction between the “experiential” and the “intellectual” was really developed to explain to Westerners something that Asian In , transmission of the lineage of philosophers once took utterly for granted: the existence of a distinct- enlightened knowledge depended on making a ly contemplative kind of understanding. particular kind of connection to a teacher who The hybridization of popular Western discourse and Tibetan reli- possessed realization of the inner meaning of gious language gradually drops away as the reader penetrates more the texts. [p. xxi] deeply into the technicalities of Buddhist metaphysics. I believe this In university classrooms this is a dangerous and controversial point. is a good idea. By the time students have worked their way through Commitment to a lineage and commitment to a human authority fig- the ideas of Asanga and N¯ag¯arjuna in the second volume, it will no ure—submission, in effect, to some teacher—is a hugely important longer be necessary to find parallel Western ideas for purposes of issue in Tibetan Buddhism and is hotly contested among American translation. In the most philosophical parts of Ways of Enlightenment, Buddhists. The student in an introductory class is naturally uncom- the terms will be defined by the book itself. fortable, for the religion described by traditional Asian voices seems hierarchical, undemocratic, and absolutistic. It is far from the egalitar- A Compendium of Lists ian relativism of the post modernist college student. Ironically, I am One interesting and very traditional aspect of Ways of Enlightenment arguing that this very hierarchical view should be allowed into class- is the fact that it is organized into lists and enumerations. The rooms in the name of that most democratic of principles, cultural Western surveys are usually organized into narrations. That is to say, diversity. Pulling no punches, Ways of Enlightenment takes a strong they are historical in their orientation, or else they come in the form position on this point. For better or worse, it is a good representation of neat and well-organized essays. But Buddhist pedagogic dis- of the authoritarian voice in the Tibetan tradition. course is usually ordered into nested lists of topics and categories. This is in part for purposes of memorization. It may, in fact, be a A Suitable Hybrid relic of the time when s¯utras and ´sastras did not have a written form Of course, these passages are not really the language of Tibetan and had to be learned by heart. scholars. Tarthang Tulku’s students write in a kind of sermon lan- In any case, it is always a problem for Western students to read guage developed by Buddhist teachers in the West. This is the shape these lists. They do not have the knack, and we academics do not words of Buddhist advocacy and adherence have taken here. They train them to have the knack. We have removed that sort of exercise are influenced by the language of s¯utras and ´sastras; they are an from the educational system. For example, paradigm memorization interpretation of it in modern English. Take, for example, “When has been excised from most language courses—although it was a pre- joined together from the outset, study and practice foster a deep cious tool to teach students to memorize lists. experiential appreciation for the potential of our human existence.” In fact, we are currently moving in the other direction. We are even Buddhist scriptures do not talk about “potential.” “Potential” is a beginning to design CD-ROM pedagogical tools that make study an word from popular Western psychology which can explain the idea arcade game. These interactive educational tools are okay in them- of “buddha nature” or tath¯agathagarbha. It evokes the last twenty- selves, but like the essay style of textbooks they replace, they move five years of New Age religious movements. It also has a sort of counter to the flow of discourse in the primary texts. American progressivist tang. The problem is present throughout the humanities. There is a sense of A wholly native Tibetan presentation would evoke Mah¯ay¯ana textu- cold splash when one moves from the textbook or the realm of theory ality with talk of power and the Family (gotra), Element (dhatu), and to primary sources. In this case, the shock comes from suddenly enter- Nature of the Buddha. But here in this passage, we are seeing a ing the frigid waters of Buddhist list-oriented pedagogy. Ways of cultural cross-current between Tibetan Buddhism and American psy- Enlightenment eases us in this pedagogical North Sea with a graduated

52 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 1, Number 2 Fall 1996 RESOURCES BOOK REVIEWS

program of lists. First, there is the biography of the Buddha which is given as a list of twelve “acts, “ to fit some of the ancient biographies. This section raises the question of historical dating in an interesting way. The traditional Tibetan date for the life of the Buddha is given along with current academic conventions of dating. The Tibetan approach takes the Buddha’s predictions of the decline of the Dharma as authoritative, and establishes the time of the life of the Buddha by counting backwards from the present “dark age.” This is a good lesson in religious epistemology, for, as the book admits, this method of dating places the birth of the Buddha at least four hundred years earlier than modern science would. We then have the Three Turnings, the Three Baskets, and the Three Disciplines (´sila). This is followed by the Seven Patriarchs, the First Turning, and the Eighteen Schools. These three chapters, then, turn out to have been the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha (community). And so the chapters continue, going step by step through all the major categories of Buddhist learning. These are actu- ally the kind of lists a Buddhist teacher would use as a basis for his or her Dharma lectures. Knowing these lists, one can read Buddhist ser- mon literature with easy comprehension. Buddhist songs and poetry, which mention the names of these lists recurrently, become intelligi- ble. Just as Sanskrit court poetry is a basis for poetic figures, so these didactic lists are a primary basis for allusion in Indic Mah¯ay¯ana liter- n ature. The gateway to panditry has indeed been opened.

Robin Kornman

ROBIN KORNMAN is the Bradley Assistant Professor of World Literature at the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee. He is a founding member of the Nalanda Translation Committee and is a well published translator of Tibetan Buddhist texts.

NOTES

1. Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, foreword by Paul Demieville (Bedford, [England]: G. Fraser, 1959). 2. Don Lopez, ed., Indian Religions in Practices (Princeton: University Press, 1996), vii.

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