Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 1
“Pluto Has Been a Planet My Whole Life!”
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change in Elementary Students‟ Learning
about Pluto‟s Reclassification
Suzanne H. Broughton, Utah State University Gale M. Sinatra, University of Nevada, Las Vegas E. Michael Nussbaum, University of Nevada Las Vegas
Corresponding Author: Suzanne H. Broughton 2805 Old Main Hill Logan, UT 84322-2805 P: (435) 797-1568 Email: [email protected]
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 2
“Pluto Has Been a Planet My Whole Life!”
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change in Elementary Students‟ Learning about Pluto‟s
Reclassification Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 3
Abstract
Learning about certain scientific topics has potential to spark strong emotions among students. We investigated whether emotions predicted students‟ attitudes after engaging in independent rereading and/or rereading plus discussion about Pluto‟s reclassification. Fifth and sixth grade students read a refutation text on Pluto‟s reclassification. Participants were randomly assigned to either the reread independently or the reread plus discussion group. Results showed that students in both groups experienced attitude change and that change was sustained over time. Students reported experiencing more negative than positive emotions at pretest. Emotions, which became more positive after intervention, were predictive of students‟ attitudes and attitude change. Implications for the role of emotions when learning about controversial topics are discussed.
Key words: emotions, attitudes, refutation text, elementary science learning, small group discussions Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 4
On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) General Assembly passed a resolution that changed the definition of “planet.” The IAU agreed that “a planet is defined as a celestial body that is (a) in orbit around the Sun, (B) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces that that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit” (IAU, 2006). As a result, scientists now explain that the Solar System consists of eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Earth, Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn, and Neptune. Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet. All members of the IAU did not support this resolution. Indeed, according to Newsweek (2006) this decision has spawned an emotionally charged debate among members of the IAU and others who believe this decision was a mistake . . . (Vignette written by Broughton, 2008)
It is often the case that issues in science trigger highly emotional responses. Global warming, stem cell research, and genetically altered food could each be considered “hot” topics in science. Even the change in the definition of the term planet and the subsequent change in
Pluto‟s status as a planet sparked a highly emotional debate among astronomers, scientists, and many individuals in the public at large (Brown, 2010; Tyson, 2009). News reports described a general sense of disagreement with the reclassification of Pluto among many scientists, astronomers, and individuals in the general public (see National Geographic News, 2006).
Hundreds of second and third grade students sent emails to the American Museum of Natural
History in New York in protest of the demotion (Tyson, 2009). Further, resistance towards
Pluto‟s reclassification was evidenced among some lawmakers in the United States. The New
Mexico state legislature felt the demotion of Pluto was unjustified and consequently passed a bill in March 2007 declaring Pluto to be recognized a planet within the state boundaries (Tyson,
2009). Indeed, a professor of planetary science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who helped construct the new definition of planet explains, “The word „planet‟ and the idea of planets can be emotional because they‟re something we learn as children” (Adler, 2006). Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 5
In similar ways learning about certain scientific topics in school has the potential to spark strong emotions among students. This may especially be the case when students learn that scientists have changed an explanation of a phenomenon or a definition of an object or event that is familiar to them. Learning about familiar topics in science involves a complex system encompassing students‟ attitudes and knowledge of the phenomenon. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between emotions and the possible change in elementary students‟ attitudes and conceptions about Pluto‟s reclassification. In addition, our aim was to investigate whether an intervention designed to enhance engagement would promote attitude and conceptual change about a controversial science topic. One such intervention, refutation text, has been shown to be an effective tool for promoting conceptual change (Guzzetti, Snyder, Glass, &
Gamas, 1993). In the following sections we review the research on academic emotions, attitude change, and conceptual change as it relates to the goals and purposes of our study. We then review research on refutation text and discussion.
Academic Emotions
Over the past several decades researchers in social psychology have been investigating the influences of affect, including moods and emotions, on cognitive processing (Bless, 2000;
Lazarus, 1984; Rosenberg, 1998; Zajonc 1980). Specifically, emotions are “brief, psychophysiological changes that result from a response to a meaningful situation in one‟s environment” (Rosenberg, 1998, p. 250) and typically happen in response to a specific person or event (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2004). Emotional responses are quick, automatic, and can occur unconsciously (Rosenberg, 1998) and are powerful influences on how we think and interpret events (Kagan, 2007; Lazarus, 1984). Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 6
Past research examining emotions in academic settings has primarily focused on test anxiety (Goetz, Frenzel, Hall & Pekrun, 2008; Linnenbrink, 2006; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry,
2002). However, cognitive and educational researchers have begun to investigate a broader spectrum of emotions in learning contexts. For example, Pekrun and colleagues (2002a; 2002b) have investigated positive and negative emotions and the various influences these emotions exert on academic outcomes. The work by Pekrun and colleagues has focused on emotions at general classroom levels, thus providing a useful perspective for the current study. Emotions that relate specifically to academic learning and classroom instruction have been defined as academic emotions (Pekrun et al., 2002a; 2002b). This category of emotions focuses on students‟ emotions in relation to studying, test taking, and attending class. In contrast to Pekrun‟s research on emotions at the classroom level our interest is in examining topic emotions, those emotions related to a specific topic within a classroom. It may be that a student enjoys learning about science and attending science class; however, they may experience frustration or anger when asked to learn the scientific viewpoint of evolutionary biology.
Pekrun et al. (2002a) describe a two-dimensional model of academic emotions that includes valence (positive/negative) and activation (activating/deactivating). In this study we focused on the valance as that was our interest. Positive emotions include enjoyment, pride, and hope, whereas negative emotions include anxiety, anger, shame, boredom, and hopelessness.
It is hypothesized that positive emotions increase motivation, critical thinking, elaboration, and metacognitive strategy use (Pekrun et al., 2002a; 2007). Additionally, positive emotions can facilitate creative thinking and enhance deeper levels of cognitive processing, thereby facilitating problem solving, even when the information is negative (Pekrun et al.,
2002b). Individuals experiencing positive emotions may initially use less complex processing Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 7 strategies until they notice a discrepancy between their prior knowledge and the new information
(Bless, 2000). Once the discrepancy is noticed the individual is likely to engage in deeper level processing of the conflicting information. It is possible that an individual who experiences positive emotional responses to anomalous information may be willing to give thoughtful consideration of that information even when it conflicts with their prior knowledge (Linnenbrink,
2002). For example, if a student enjoys learning about the solar system she may be willing to thoughtfully weigh the scientists‟ rationale for reclassifying Pluto to a dwarf planet.
In contrast, negative emotions are commonly associated with lower levels of academic achievement than positive emotions. Negative emotions diminish motivation, directing attention away from the task, resulting in superficial cognitive processing (Goetz, Frenzel, Pekrun, Hall,
2006; Pekrun, 2002a). Negative emotions, such as fear and anger, may lead to the individual perceiving the anomalous information as a threat and thus resist change (Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
2002). Under this view negative emotions may hinder conceptual change. It may be that if a student is angry about Pluto‟s reclassification they will resist considering the scientists‟ rationale, which in turn may decrease the likelihood of conceptual change.
Few empirical studies have investigated the effect of emotions on attitude change and conceptual change learning. For example, Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002) found that negative emotions exerted a partial meditational effect on the relationship between mastery goal orientation and conceptual change in undergraduate students‟ understanding of Newtonian physics. Limon and Carretero (1998) argue that confusion is an affective factor related to reasoning, which in turn, can influence the likelihood of conceptual change. In an investigation of undergraduate students‟ reasoning strategies, Limon and Carretero found that confusion impeded conceptual change among participants who had low domain-specific knowledge of Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 8 historical events. The paucity of research examining the relationship between emotions and attitude change and conceptual change motivated our interest in this emerging field of research.
Based on the research by Pekrun and colleagues described above we were interested in how academic emotions may influence conceptual change learning and attitude change relative to specific “hot” science topics. We purposefully selected the recent reclassification of Pluto‟s planetary status due to its controversial and highly emotional nature. Elementary age students are quite resistant to Pluto‟s dwarf planet status (Brown, 2010; Tyson, 2009). Consequently, young students may be resistant to engage in attitude and conceptual change learning activities regarding the new definition of planet and the subsequent reclassification of Pluto.
Changing Students’ Attitudes about Pluto’s Reclassification
Students, citizens, and even some members of the IAU held negative attitudes about
Pluto‟s reclassification (see Tyson, 2009, Brown, 2010). Attitudes have been described as evaluative judgments towards an object or event (Crano & Prislin, 2006) and are viewed as a combination of cognitive and affective responses in favor of or in opposition to the object or event. Opposing views towards Pluto‟s reclassification ranged from reasoned arguments based on specific characteristics of Pluto to impassioned pleas that it remains a planet.
Changing one‟s attitudes is most likely to occur through the pathway of persuasion (Petty
& Cacioppo, 1986). The process of persuasion involves initiating a shift in an individual‟s beliefs by fostering deep engagement through argument and reasoning (Alexander, Buehl, & Sperl,
2001; Hynd, 2003). However, not all messages, including those conveyed through text, will result in attitude change. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) proposes two routes to attitude change through persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route is linked to deep cognitive processing of the message as the individual Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 9 weighs its merits, resulting in a general evaluation of, or attitude toward, the persuasive message.
In contrast, the peripheral route is associated with superficial processing where the individual is less likely to scrutinize the merits of the message.
A primary factor that influences whether lasting attitude change will occur is elaboration,
“the extent to which a person thinks about the issue-relevant arguments contained in a message”
(Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p. 128). It is important to note that a seeming paradox exists in relation to elaboration. On one hand, deep elaboration with a message increases the likelihood of change (Dole & Sinatra, 1998; Gregoire, 2003; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). However, deep elaboration may also result in resistance to persuasion with the individual maintaining their original attitudes (Chambliss & Garner, 1996; Kardash & Scholes, 1996). This may especially be the case with controversial issues such as Pluto‟s reclassification.
Changing Students’ Conceptual Knowledge about the Definition of Planet
Children form conceptions about scientific phenomena through their everyday life experiences, which often contradict accepted scientific explanations (Vosniadou & Brewer,
1992). In regards to astronomical knowledge, young children may hold a naïve conception of the earth as flat with people living on the surface and solar objects located above it (Vosniadou,
2003). In concert with Murphy and Alexander (2008), we view a concept as “an idea that is stable over time, the result of a constructive process, connected to other aspects of students‟ knowledge system, robust when confronted with other conceptions, and widespread” (p. 606). In the present study we examined the concept of planet. Specifically, students‟ conception of Pluto as a planet is an idea that is stable over time, is constructed through in and out-of-school experiences learning about solar system, is connected to their views of solar system and other Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 10 astronomical objects, and is widely held by many school children. (See the opening vignette for the current definition of planet.)
Conceptual change can be described as a complex process, gradually occurring over an extended period of time, through which an individual revises his/her mental representations to align with the accepted scientific perspective (Hatano & Inagaki, 2003; Murphy & Mason,
2006). Conceptual change often involves the addition or deletion of beliefs during the process of reorganizing the framework theories in which the beliefs are embedded (Vosniadou, 2002;
2004), such as the belief that planet is a fixed, unchanging construct. Those concepts that are deeply embedded, such as the notion that our solar system contains nine and only nine planets, are most likely to be difficult to change (Chinn & Brewer, 1993). This may especially be the case for concepts that individuals formed from childhood that have been reinforced through everyday experiences (Vosniadou, 2003). Most children learn the names of the nine planets at an early age and as noted earlier, have a strong emotional attachment to Pluto.
Contemporary models of conceptual change acknowledge the role of affect in the change process. For example, the Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model (CRKM) (Dole &
Sinatra, 1998) predicts that the stronger the emotional commitment a learner has to their prior beliefs, the less likely change will occur. It may be the case that young children hold deeply seated emotions towards Pluto and will be less willing to change their existing conceptions about its planetary status.
In addition, the Cognitive Affective Model of Conceptual Change (CAMCC) (Gregoire,
2003) hypothesizes that emotional responses to messages direct the level of engagement.
According to Gregoire (2003), emotional responses occur prior to processing the message and
“as part of the appraisal process, serve as additional information for individuals as they interact Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 11 with a complex, stressful message” (p. 168). Positive and neutral emotions can lead to shallow, heuristic processing of the message. In contrast, negative emotions, such as fear and anxiety, promote deeper, systematic processing of the message.
Gregoire‟s (2003) explanation of how emotions may influence conceptual change conflicts with other research that suggests positive emotions facilitate creative thinking, problem solving (Pekrun et al., 2002a), and deeper cognitive processing of the conflicting information
(Bless, 2000). In addition, Gregoire hypothesized that negative emotions would foster carefully weighing of the conflicting information. However, researchers have also found that negative emotions are related to attitudes of resistance (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). The majority of research on negative emotions supports Pekrun‟s model (2002a) but Gregoire‟s model raises the possibility that negative emotions may be beneficial for learning. This area of research on how emotions may influence attitude and conceptual change is relatively new and in need of further exploration.
One tool that has been effective for promoting attitude change as well as conceptual change is the use of refutation texts. In the following section we describe the structure of refutation texts and the research that shows its fruitfulness in facilitating conceptual change.
Refutation Text as a Conceptual Change Intervention
Students‟ willingness to engage with a highly emotional topic like Pluto‟s reclassification may be facilitated by the use of a pedagogical approach that is designed to promote attitude and conceptual change. Carefully crafted texts and/or discussion can promote both conceptual change and attitude change (Alexander, Murphy, Buehl, & Sperl, 1997; Chambliss, 1995, Hynd, 2003).
Refutation texts are designed to state common misconceptions about a phenomenon, refute those ideas, and then present the scientific explanations as plausible and fruitful alternatives (Guzzetti Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 12 et al., 1993; Hynd, 2001). The refutation sentence may serve to make explicit the difference between the readers‟ prior beliefs and the scientific explanation thereby increasing the likelihood of conceptual change (Vosniadou, 2001). Refutation texts can also be persuasive because they are written in causal-explanatory style (Broughton & Sinatra, 2010).
The refutation format may increase the reader‟s engagement with the text (Murphy,
2001). Deeper engagement may result from the individual finding the refutation segment personally relevant because the misconception presented in the text is similar to that which the individual holds. The refutation sentence directly rejects the misconception, which may lead the individual to consider the ensuing scientific explanation more thoughtfully and critically. This deeper engagement often increases the likelihood of attitude change through persuasion or conceptual change (Dole & Sinatra, 1998) and may be more critical when students are reading about controversial topics.
Enhancing reading of refutation text. Conceptual change can be facilitated when the refutation text is read in conjunction with other instructional activities (Guzzetti et al., 1993).
One instructional intervention is repeated readings of a text as an avenue for increasing comprehension (Amlund, Kardash, & Kulhavy, 1986; Morrow & Gambrell, 2000). Reading a text passage, then rereading it at a later date, referred to as distributed repeated readings, have been shown to be more effective with promoting comprehension and recall than mass repeated readings (Krug, Davis, & Glover, 1990). Mass repeated readings occur when learners read and immediately reread that same passage. The likelihood of attitude and conceptual change among young students regarding scientists‟ rationale for rewriting the definition of planet and Pluto‟s reclassification may be increased through repeated readings of a refutation text. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 13
A second instructional intervention for deepening engagement, increasing comprehension, and promoting critical analysis of text is the use of small group literature discussions (Beck & McKeown, 2001, 2006; Raphael, 1998; McKeown, Beck, & Worthy, 1993).
One technique intended to promote cognitive engagement through small group discussions is
Questioning the Author (QtA) (Beck & McKeown, 2001, 2006; Beck, McKeown, Sandora,
Kucan, & Worthy, 1996). The collaborative meaning-making discussions take place as the teacher and students read the text together, pausing at key points in the text to grapple with ideas in order to make sense of the ideas presented. The intent of QtA is to have students‟ challenge the perceived authority of a text by questioning the ideas presented and critically reflect on the meaning of those ideas. Queries are intended to help students retrieve information from and expand discussion around the text by incorporating students‟ responses into the discussion (Beck
& McKeown, 2006; Beck et al., 1996). Research by Beck and McKeown (2001) demonstrated that deeper levels of engagement with text occurred when students connected ideas, integrated their prior knowledge with the new information, and used their own words to convey their thoughts rather than the language of the author.
Each of these factors associated with QtA discussions may help to promote deep cognitive engagement with ideas in a refutation text. The researcher-developed queries may also help increase the likelihood of student‟s awareness of conflicts that may exist between their prior knowledge and the scientific view of the characteristics of planet. It is through these higher levels of cognitive engagement with the ideas in a text that the likelihood of conceptual change may occur (Dole & Sinatra, 1998).
Present Research Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 14
Three goals directed the current investigation. First, we wanted to test whether we could enhance the likelihood of attitude change in students studying a controversial topic through interventions designed to increase engagement. Our second goal was to promote conceptual change through our interventions. Finally, we wanted to explore the relationship between students‟ emotions on attitude change and/or conceptual knowledge about a controversial topic.
More specifically, three research questions guided this study:
1) Does rereading a refutation text through small group discussions promote greater change
in students‟ attitudes about Pluto‟s reclassification towards the accepted scientific
perspective than independent rereading?
2) Does rereading a refutation text through small group discussions promote greater change
in students‟ conceptual knowledge about the revised scientific concept of planet than
independent rereading?
3) How do emotions relate to change in students‟ attitudes about the reclassification of
Pluto?
4) How do emotions relate to change in conceptual knowledge about the reclassification of
Pluto?
For Question 1, we hypothesized that students who both reread the refutation text and engaged in small group discussions would experience greater change in attitudes towards Pluto‟s reclassification than students who reread the text independently.
Similarly, for Question 2, we expected that students in the reread plus QtA discussions would experience higher levels of conceptual change regarding Pluto‟s reclassification and the new definition of planet than students who reread the text independently. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 15
For Questions 3 and 4, we predicted that positive emotions in relation to Pluto‟s reclassification would be related to change in attitudes and conceptual knowledge because of a willingness to engage with the topic. We also hypothesized that negative emotions would be related to resistance to attitude and conceptual change about the characteristics of planet and
Pluto‟s reclassification.
Method
Participants
Fifth and sixth grade students (N = 62) enrolled in a private school located in the western
United States participated in this study. These students came primarily from White, upper-middle class families. Of those who completed the demographics survey, 24 students were fifth graders and 31 students were sixth graders with approximately the same number of males (n = 27) and females (n = 28). Students‟ ages ranged from 10 to 12 years (mean age = 10.84). Participants were primarily Caucasian (n = 43), with Asian American (n = 5), and Hispanic (n = 2) students.
Three students reported speaking English as a second language. Students‟ scores on the
Standford Achievement Test Series, 10th Edition, (SAT 10), total reading portion averaged around the 88-percentile during their second through sixth grade years (Personal communication,
K. J. Brown, December 15, 2010). The SAT 10 is a norm-referenced test commonly used by school districts across the U.S. to measure student achievement across domains, including reading comprehension. Seven students did not complete the demographic survey.
Measures
Two scales were developed to assess students‟ emotions and attitudes. An additional series of generative questions was developed to identify students‟ conceptual knowledge regarding planets and Pluto‟s reclassification. Each is described below. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 16
Emotions. Students‟ emotions towards the reclassification of Pluto to a dwarf planet were assessed using an 18 item Emotions about Pluto‟s Reclassification Survey. We constructed the survey informed by the Class-Related Emotions Scales (CRES) (Pekrun et al., 2005). The
CRES measures emotions at the general classroom level. In contrast, our goal was to measure emotions related to a specific topic, Pluto‟s reclassification. We focused on the valance aspect of emotions from the CRES (Pekrun et al., 2005) that characterized the positive and negative emotions students would most likely experience in relation to Pluto‟s dwarf status.
Students rated their emotional experiences on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). A sample item is “When I first heard that Pluto was no longer a planet I felt sad.” Scoring of the Emotions Survey was calculated by summing the students‟ responses on each subscale and calculating their mean. Cronbach‟s alpha tests of reliability for this measure are reported in Table 1.
Attitudes. Students‟ attitudes about the change in Pluto‟s planetary status were assessed with the researcher developed Attitudes about Pluto Survey (Appendix A). The survey consisted of five Likert-scale items ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Higher responses indicated higher levels of acceptance. Examples of items include “The scientists‟ decision to change Pluto from a planet to a dwarf planet was a good one,” and “Pluto should remain a planet.” For data analysis, Items 2 and 5 were reverse coded so that higher scores reflected lower levels of acceptance towards the change in the definition of planets as well as
Pluto‟s dwarf-planet classification. Cronbach‟s alpha tests of reliability for this measure are reported in Table 1.
Knowledge. Students‟ knowledge about planets and Pluto was assessed using six open- ended items (Appendix B). The use of open-ended items to assess student‟s background Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 17 knowledge is common among conceptual change researchers (see for example Hynd, 2001;
Mason, 2001; Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992; Vosniadou & Skopeliti, 2005). The items did not form a scale but rather assessed different aspects of the revised planetary definition. For example, Item 1 stated, “List the planets in our solar system,” and was intended to tap into student‟s knowledge about the number of planets in our solar system. In contrast, Item 5 asked,
“Why did scientists change the definition of planet?” with the purpose of eliciting students‟ concepts about scientists‟ rationale for rewriting the definition of planet. These items are clearly addressing different types of information and conceptions.
To ascertain students‟ knowledge about planets in our solar system at a general level we asked, “How many planets are in our solar system?” Student responses for this item were scored on a scale: 2 = 8 planets, 1 = 9 planets, and 0 = all other numerical responses. A score of 2 reflected a correct understanding of the current scientific view on the number of planets in our solar system. To further elicit students‟ knowledge about planets in our solar system, we asked them to “List the planets in our solar system.” Student responses to this item scored on scale of 0
(named less than two planets) to 3 (named seven or eight planets).
We elicited student opinions of Pluto as a planet by first asking whether or not it should be a planet. We then elicited their conceptions of Pluto by asking students to provide a rationale for their response. Our goal for these two questions was to determine whether student conceptions of Pluto‟s planetary characteristics aligned with the scientific description. It was likely that most students would not hold the scientific conception that Pluto is small in comparison to the other planets and has an odd orbit. Each of these conceptions about Pluto is central to the scientists‟ rationale for reclassifying Pluto to a dwarf planet. Consequently, we wanted to examine students‟ prior knowledge to uncover any misconceptions they held regarding Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 18
Pluto in hopes of changing those misconceptions toward the scientific description through the intervention.
We scored student responses to the remaining questions using a scale based on Mason and colleagues (2008) for assessing open-ended items. The scale was as follows: 0 for non- scientific, 1 for scientific, not elaborated, and 2 for scientific, elaborated. We considered non- scientific responses to be misconceptions. Responses that were correct but incomplete were given a lower score than answers that were correct and well detailed. For example, for the question, “Why do scientists no longer call Pluto a planet?” the answer “I think that scientists think Pluto is a meteorite or asteroid from Saturn‟s ring” scored a 0. The answer “The scientists no longer call Pluto a planet because of its size” scored a 1. The answer “Because of its size, shape, and orbit they think it is a dwarf planet” scored a 2.
Student answers on the pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest were coded by the same two independent raters. Each rater read and scored answers independently. Inter-rater agreement, calculated as the percentage of agreement on the total of the answers, was 82%. Disagreements were resolved through conference.
Design and Procedure
The study was a classroom-based comparison group design. Participants in both classrooms were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions, independent rereading
(independent reread) or rereading plus small group discussion about the text (reread plus discussion). All instruments were piloted and minor changes made to the instruments in terms of question wording. Data collection occurred over a two week period during 4 one-hour sessions per classroom. In the following, we first describe the interventions used for the study. We then describe the procedure employed for this investigation. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 19
Refutation text. We constructed a refutation text based on information from magazine articles (National Geographic News, 2006; Scientific American, 2006; Time for Kids, 2006) to explain the changing nature of science, the role of evidence in making scientific decisions, and the history of Pluto‟s status as a planet. We included two refutation segments in the text. The first segment described the changeability of science knowledge. The second segment provided information on the reclassification of Pluto as a dwarf-planet (IAU, 2006). Specifically, the text addressed the difference between the traditional and current definition of planet, including the scientists‟ rationale for the definitional changes. Each refutation segment stated a common misconception followed by the second sentence that explicitly refuted the misconception. The sentences and paragraphs that followed the refutation sentences provided the scientific explanation related to that topic.
The text consisted of 556 words, eight paragraphs, with an average of 10.9 words per sentence. Flesch-Kincaid readability showed the text was at the 6.4 grade reading level. The passage was reviewed by experts in science education and text structure. Revisions were made to the text based on their recommendations.
Discussion intervention. The format of the small group discussions was based on
Questioning the Author (QtA) (Beck & McKeown, 2006; Beck, et al., 1996). The researcher assumed the role of facilitator to ensure the discussion stayed focused on the central ideas of the text.
The discussion format was semi-structured, and included questions such as “What is the author trying to tell us?” and “What do you think the author wants us to know?” The queries used during QtA discussions were intended to support students building a coherent understanding rather than retrieving information from the text (Beck & McKeown, 2006). For Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 20 example, the text presents a description of the current definition of planet including the three key features of a planet. Immediately after reading this section of text, the researcher posed the queries, “What has the author told us about planets?” The aim for this query was to make the three key features of planets under the new definition explicit to the students. Later in the text a refutation segment is presented describing Pluto‟s unique orbital path and Pluto‟s small size in comparison to the other planets. The queries posed after reading this section included “What is the author telling us about Pluto?” and “How does this fit in with the new definition of planet?”
The purpose for these queries was to help students understand the relationship between the new definition of planet and Pluto‟s characteristics. We viewed this association between Pluto and the new definition as central to fostering attitude change towards Pluto reclassification as well as to students‟ conceptions of Pluto as a dwarf-planet.
Students‟ prior knowledge was elicited throughout the small group discussion. For example, after reading the section of text describing the historical flat earth perspective and how that perspective changed based on empirical evidence, the QtA query posed was, “What is the author telling us about science theories?” This query was intended to help students activate their background knowledge of science theories and to connect their understandings with the information presented in the text. This was an important component of the QtA discussions because it may have helped students recognize the differences between their existing ideas and the new information presented in the text. The likelihood of change in attitudes and conceptions may have increased as students compared and contrasted the differences between their prior knowledge and the information in the text (Chinn & Brewer, 1993; Chi, 2008; Dole & Sinatra,
1998).
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 21
Procedure. Session 1 began by having participants complete the demographics survey.
Next, the researcher read aloud a brief announcement regarding the reclassification of Pluto to a dwarf planet. The purpose of this announcement was two-fold; first, it served to inform those students who were unaware of Astronomical Society‟s decision that Pluto was reclassified, and second, it served to remind those who had heard about it previously in attempt to bring their emotions regarding the decision back to the surface. Following the announcement, the researcher then immediately asked students to think about how they felt when they heard that Pluto was no longer categorized as a planet. Then, students completed the Emotions Survey. The goal was to assess students‟ emotions as close to the moment that they experienced them as possible. It is important to note that the announcement did not provide any of the Astronomical Society‟s rationale for their decision, as this was the subject of the intervention. Next, students completed the Attitudes Survey, and the Concepts about Planets Assessment as pretests.
Session 2 occurred two days after Session 1. All participants read the refutation text individually and silently while seated at their desks.
Session 3 took place one day after Session 2. Participants in the independent reread group reread the refutation text silently and independently at their desks. Next, they were asked to complete the Emotions Survey again. The purpose of re-administering the Emotions Survey post reading was to assess students‟ emotional reaction to the content they had just read. Participants in the reread plus discussion group engaged in QtA-style small group discussions while rereading the text. QtA is a discussion technique intended to occur during reading or rereading.
At the conclusion the discussion, these students again completed the Emotions Survey, the
Attitudes Survey, and Concepts about Planets Assessment as posttests. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 22
Session 4 took place two weeks after Session 3. Students completed the Attitudes Survey and Concepts about Planets Assessment as delayed posttests. Students did not complete the
Emotions Survey at delayed posttest because too much time had lapsed since they reread the text to ask them to reflect on their emotions about the text content.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
We performed multivariate analyses of variance to test the equivalence of Grade 6 and
Grade 5 students on each of the measures at pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. The alpha level was set a priori at .001. Box‟s test of equality of covariances revealed no significant difference between groups, as did Levene‟s test for equality of variances (all p > .001). We then conducted multivariate analyses of variance to test the equivalence of students across the conditions (rereading, rereading plus discussion). Alpha was set at .001 a priori. Levene‟s test for equality of variances and Box‟s test of equality of covariance showed significant differences between the two groups (all p < .001). All subsequent analyses were conducted using data from all participants. Table 1 reports the means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis for the outcome variables. Intercorrelations among variables of interest for research Question 1 are also reported in Table 1.
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Insert Table 1 about here
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Correlational analyses of the Emotions Survey at pretest and posttest were used to determine the emotions subscales for the present study. The correlations at pretest are presented in Table 2. Similar trends were identified among the emotions at posttest. A factor analysis of the Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 23 emotions was not appropriate for the present study based on number of participants (n = 62). We identified two emotion subscales based on valence, positive and negative. The negative emotions
(uneasy, worried, surprised, disappointed, mad, scared, irritated, sad, upset, nervous, angry, frustrated, annoyed) showed a significant positive correlation with one another. Similarly, positive emotions (joy, glad, happy, excited) showed a significant positive association with one another. The analyses showed a moderate positive correlation between bored and the positive emotions but bored is not a positive emotion (Pekrun et al., 2002a) so it was dropped from further analyses.
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Differences between the Groups
Attitude change. To address our first research question, Does enhancing the rereading of a refutation text through small group discussions promote greater change in students’ attitudes about Pluto’s reclassification than independent rereading? a repeated measures ANOVA was conducted. We compared attitudes towards Pluto‟s reclassification using condition (independent reread, reread plus discussion) as the between subjects factor and scores on the Attitudes Survey at Time 1 and Time 2 as a repeated measure. The means and standard deviations of students‟ attitudes towards the reclassification are presented in Table 3. The results showed a non- significant interaction, therefore main effects were examined. Main effects are not interpretable in the presence of a statistical interaction. Because the interaction was non-significant, we therefore, interpret the main effects. A significant main effect of change in attitudes over time was found indicating that students‟ attitudes shifted towards greater acceptance of Pluto‟s Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 24 reclassification [F(1, 46) = 7.694, p < .01, with η2 = .14] after having read the refutation text twice.
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A second repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare students‟ attitudes from pretest to delayed posttest using group as the between-subjects factor and Time 1 and Time
3 as the within-subjects factor. The rationale for conducting these separate ANOVAs is that we did not expect a linear trend from Time 1 to Time 2 to Time 3. Consistent with the literature on attitude, belief, and conceptual change, we expected a stable or even backward shift in students‟ attitudes at delayed post test (see Diakodoy, Mouskounti, & Ioannides, 2011). The results showed a non-significant interaction, therefore main effects were examined. A significant main effect was revealed in students‟ attitudes from pretest to delayed posttest [F(1, 47) = 14.711, p =
.000, with η2 = .29]1. This indicates that attitude shifts were maintained at delayed post.
Change in knowledge. To address the question of whether there was change in students‟ conceptual knowledge about definition of planet six knowledge items were analyzed separately
(recall that they do did not form a scale). The means, standard deviations for each of the six knowledge items are shown in Table 4.
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1 We conducted a repeated measures ANOVA of time (pretest, posttest, delayed posttest) entered into the same equation. A similar pattern was revealed with an overall change over time (p < .01). Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 25
We used the same analysis strategy for each of the six knowledge items to examine attitudes, that is, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare groups across time. The means and standard deviations for each group at pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest are displayed in Table 5. Beginning with the critical “why” question that taps students‟ understanding of the change in planetary status, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze Knowledge Item 6, “Why did scientists change the definition of planet?” Similar to the analysis of student attitudes, group was used as the between-subject factor and Time 1 and Time
2 served as the within-subjects factor. Main effects were examined due to the non-significant interaction. A main effect of time was found from pretest to posttest, [F(1, 46) = 69.785, p =
.000, with η2 =.60]. This main effect indicates that all students experienced conceptual change from pretest to posttest in their understanding of why scientists changed the definition of planet.
No significant results were found among the remaining Knowledge Items from pre- to posttest.
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A second repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare students‟ responses on
Knowledge Item 6 from pretest to delayed posttest using group as the between-subjects factor and Time 1 and Time 3 as the within-subjects factor. The rationale for this analysis was to examine whether this change in students‟ conceptions was maintained over time. The interaction approached, but did not reach, significance, (p = .08) (see Figure 1). This trend is suggestive of an elusive finding in conceptual change research, in that students often revert to the level of the prior conception at delayed posttest. We examined the main effects because of the non- significant interaction. There was a significant effect of time from pretest to delayed posttest, Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 26
[F(1, 48) = 64.19, p = .000, with η2 =.57]. This main effect indicates that rereading the refutation text a second time helped students maintain the change in their conceptual understanding of why scientists redefined “planet.” There was also a significant main effect of group [F(1, 48) = 6.79, p = .01, with η2 =.12]. Figure 1 makes this main effect more visible.
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Examination of the marginal means revealed an advantage for the discussion group (M = 0.60,
SD = 0.07) compared to the independent reread group (M = 0.35, SD = 0.07). In sum, students‟ understandings of the scientists‟ rationale changed significantly from pre to post instruction and moreover, this change was sustained over the two-week delay period. The analysis of the remaining Knowledge items revealed no significant differences from pre- to delayed posttest.
Emotions
Emotions and Attitude Change. To address our third research question, How do emotions relate to change in students’ attitudes about the reclassification of Pluto? we followed
Pekrun‟s analytic framework and employed a regression strategy to determine whether emotions were related to students‟ attitudes about Pluto‟s reclassification. First, we examined whether positive and negative emotions were predictive of students‟ attitudes about Pluto‟s reclassification at the time of pretest. Positive and negative emotions were correlated (r = -.53) so they were entered into the same regression equation. Emotions accounted for a significant portion of the variance in students‟ attitudes at the time of pretest, [F(2,49) = 17.84, p = .000, adjusted R2 = .41, positive emotions, B = 0.73, negative emotions, B = -0.41]. This suggests that Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 27 positive emotions about Pluto‟s reclassification were associated with attitudes towards acceptance of the planet‟s new status.
Next, we performed a second series of regression analyses to examine whether emotions at posttest were predictive of change in students‟ attitudes towards Pluto‟s reclassification.
Researchers have argued that emotions must be measured in the moment (Linnenbrink, 2006).
Therefore, emotions at posttest were those most closely associated with students‟ responses on these surveys at posttest so we used them as the predictor variables for this series of analyses.
Emotions at posttest were used to predict the change in attitudes at post (posttest minus pretest).
The results revealed that emotions at posttest accounted for a significant (11%) portion of the variance in attitude change at posttest, [F(2, 46) = 5.83, p < .01, Adjusted R2 = .17, positive emotions, B = 0.31, negative emotions, B = -0.36]. This suggests that positive emotions at posttest were related to a shift in students‟ attitudes towards acceptance of Pluto‟s dwarf status.
Emotions and Change in Conceptual Knowledge. We conducted a series of regression analyses to examine our fourth research question, How do emotions relate to change in students’ conceptual knowledge about the reclassification of Pluto? The conceptual knowledge items were open-ended. The means and standard deviations of the Concept Items at each time interval are presented in Table 4. Separate correlations and regressions were conducted for individual
Knowledge items.
We calculated the mean score for the individual concept items at pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. One outlier was identified on the concepts posttest with a score more than three standard deviations below the mean. This participant was excluded from all further analyses involving the concepts posttest. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 28
We performed logistic analyses on Knowledge Item 3 because it was a dichotomous variable. The item asked students whether Pluto should still be a planet. Students who gave a Yes response were given a 0 (non-scientific answer), and students who stated No were given a 1
(scientific answer). The model using students‟ responses to Knowledge Item 3 as the dependent variable and positive emotions at pretest as the predictor showed that the latter was a significant predictor of students‟ Yes responses to Concept Item 3 at pretest (B = 1.28, Wald = 3.76, df = 1,
SD = 0.38, p ≤ .05). To interpret the beta estimate, it was converted into an odds ratio. The findings of this analysis showed an odds ratio of 3.60 (e1.28 = 3.60), which suggests a 260% increase in the odds of students answering scientifically on Knowledge Item 3 given a one unit increase in students‟ positive emotions at pretest. The analysis failed to show negative emotions at pretest as predictors of students‟ responses at pretest.
We used a rubric to score students‟ responses to Knowledge Item 4. Consequently, we used an ordinal regression strategy to examine whether emotions at pretest were predictors of
Item 4 at pretest. Positive emotions was found to be a significant positive predictor of Item 4 scores (B =0.90, Wald = 3.92, df = 1, p = .034, exp(B) = 2.47).
We conducted a second series of regression analyses to examine whether emotions were predictive of change in students‟ knowledge of the planets and Pluto. For each analysis, we used the change in students‟ responses to the respective knowledge item from pretest to posttest as the dependent variables and positive and negative emotions as the predictor variables. The linear regression analyses indicated that positive emotions at posttest were significant predictors of change in students‟ responses at posttest (posttest minus pretest) on Knowledge Item 2, which asked students to list the planets. Emotions accounted for 20% of the variance in the change in students‟ responses at posttest [F(2, 45) = 6.47, p < .01, adjusted R2 = .20, positive emotions, B = Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 29
-0.77, negative emotions, B = -0.65]. The negative betas indicate that as students named fewer planets at posttest (meaning they no longer listed Pluto), the intensity of students‟ emotions decreased.
We then conducted a McNemar Chi-squared test for matched pairs to measure the change in students‟ responses from pretest to posttest on Knowledge Item 3 (“Should Pluto still be a planet?”). The findings revealed a significant change from pretest to posttest: 16 students changed from Yes to No (posttest), [Chi-square = 1.96, df = 1, p = .16]. This suggests these students became more accepting of Pluto‟s reclassification over time. The results also indicated that 30 students remained constant in their responses from pretest to posttest (24 Yes, 6 No) and
2 changed from No to Yes. This indicates that, as seen in previous research, conceptual change often takes time and repeated exposure to new content. In addition, negative emotions tended to decrease from pretest (M = 3.02) to posttest (M = 2.77). A paired-samples t-test showed this decrease in negative emotions from pretest to posttest was significant, t(46) = 1.99, p = .05. The same test for positive emotions revealed that emotions tended to become more positive from pretest (M = 1.92) to posttest (M = 2.22), t(47) = -2.28, p < .05. This shift in students‟ emotions about Pluto‟s reclassification may have resulted from their reading the refutation text and finding the scientists‟ rationale for Pluto‟s reclassification as acceptable.
Discussion and Conclusions
The findings of this study support previous research demonstrating that students come to instruction with pre-existing attitudes and ideas that have an emotional component (Frenzel,
Goetz, Ludtke, Pekrun, & Sutton, 2009; Pekrun, 2002a; 2006). Our findings indicated that instructional interventions designed to increase engagement did promote shifts in both attitudes and conceptual knowledge about an emotional topic. Students‟ attitudes became more accepting Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 30 of the reclassification of Pluto after instruction and they showed some improved understanding of the rationale for Pluto‟s new status. Moreover, these shifts in both attitudes and conceptual knowledge were sustained over a two-week time frame.
Further, our findings support the literature related to the efficacy of refutation text as an instructional tool for promoting conceptual change (see Tippets, 2011). Our findings suggest that repeated exposure to the information presented in a refutation text likely increases the opportunities for conceptual change to occur and to be sustained over time. It is also of interest to note that the refutation text was effective with promoting sustained conceptual change regarding a controversial science topic that, initially, many participants were resistant towards accepting.
The refutation text presented the scientific rationale in a coherent and plausible manner that may have helped to soften the attitudes of resistance and increase the likelihood of conceptual change.
Refutation texts may be useful for science educators who teach controversial topics and are seeking instructional tools to soften attitudes of resistance and increase student knowledge of the topics. Future research could examine the relationship between the refutation text structure and attitude change.
No study is without limitations. A limitation for the current study is that students were primarily from White, upper-middle class families and were enrolled in a private school. Past research has shown that students in these circumstances are generally successful in academic settings (National Research Council, 1998). The results of this study may reveal a different trend across more diverse student populations. A second limitation was the difference in time spent learning about Pluto between the groups. The reread plus discussion group spent an average of
20 minutes discussing the text. In contrast, the independent reread group spent an average of 12 minutes reading the text. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 31
An additional limitation is in relation to the measuring of students‟ emotions. We used self-report surveys based on measures developed and validated by researchers in this field of study (Pekrun et al., 2002a; 2005). We acknowledge the inherent constraints of self-report surveys of emotions; however, researchers within this field have argued that, at present, self- report measures are “the most valid, reliable, and economic assessment tools available” (Goetz et al., 2008, p. 28). Researchers are beginning to utilize additional measurement tools for capturing the emotions experienced by students in real time by monitoring heart rate (D‟Mello & Graesser,
2011). The Facial Action Coding System (Ekman, 2003) examines individual‟s facial expressions and prosody to uncover emotional responses to referents. Future studies of academic emotions, including topic emotions, may consider employing both real time and self-report measures as tools for gaining a better understanding of the influence emotions exert on conceptual change learning.
Shifting attitudes and knowledge, particularly around controversial, emotionally laden topics is challenging (Sinatra & Mason, 2008). Our results showed that even a modest intervention, lasting less than 90 minutes of instructional time, can serve to promote attitude and conceptual shifts. Furthermore, when interventions are successful, it is not uncommon for students to revert to their previous attitudes and ideas (Diakodoy et al., 2011; Mason & Gava,
2007). It is interesting to note that instructional interventions, even short-term, can show sustained effects.
The results of the present study suggest that emotions are a part of science learning especially when the topic is controversial. Traditionally, science learning was perceived as a purely rational, “cold” cognitive endeavor. Early models of conceptual change did not include an affective component (Posner et al., 1982). More recently, researchers of conceptual change have Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 32 called for investigations of “hot” cognitive factors such as affect, interest, and motivation
(Pintrich et al., 1993; Strike & Posner, 1992, Sinatra, 2005). This study shows that emotions are present and relate to attitudes both pre and post instruction. Logically, it was possible that we would have found no relationship between emotions and change, but this was not the case.
This study attempts to further the discussion that exists in the literature regarding emotions and cognition. Researchers have argued that negative emotions can impede cognitive processing but that they can also foster critical thinking and metacognition (Gregoire, 2003;
Lazarus, 1982; Linnenbrink, 2006). Our findings suggest that it may be possible to temper negative emotions through instruction, opening the way for attitude and conceptual shifts.
Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002) postulated that a reduction in negative affect may allow students to focus cognitive resources on the information to be learned. It is possible that our instruction softened negative emotions which may have led students towards a more accepting attitude towards Pluto‟s dwarf-planet status. This finding is tentative and warrants further investigation.
Researchers have argued that both positive and negative emotions have an effect on learning (Pekrun et al., 2008; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Recently researchers have been investigating the relationship between emotions and learning (see for example, Linnenbrink-
Garcia & Pekrun, 2011). However, little empirical research has shown an association between emotions and learning about specific topics. The findings of the present study add to the literature on academic emotions by providing an empirical link between emotions and topic- specific learning. It may be important to understand that while a student could love science class and exhibit overall enjoyment of science learning, a specific topic, like the demotion of Pluto, may unexpectedly trigger negative emotions. This is an area for future research. Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 33
Investigating the types of emotions involved when learning about other controversial topics in science such as stem cell research and genetically modified foods may help to uncover which negative and positive emotions are present and how those emotions might be influencing the change process. Patterns of emotions across various controversial topics may lead to deeper understanding of how emotions may promote or impede conceptual change and attitude change.
In conclusion, learning about certain topics in science, especially those that may be perceived as controversial, may trigger emotional responses. Our findings suggest that instruction may help to assuage negative emotions that may be present when learning about science topics. Moreover, instruction may help to facilitate a shift in students‟ attitudes towards greater levels of acceptance of the scientific viewpoint. We concur with Pekrun (2006) that more research is needed to examine the influence emotions may exert on learning activities, and in our view, on conceptual change processes. Moreover, emotions can impact students‟ academic performance by influencing their motivation, effort, and use of cognitive processes such as elaboration and engagement (Pekrun, 2009). This elaboration and high engagement increase the likelihood of conceptual change occurring. Further research is warranted to investigate the types of emotions that are present during the conceptual change process and the possible influence those emotions may exert on conceptual change.
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 34
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APPENDIX A
ATTITUDES ABOUT PLUTO
Please mark how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the statements listed below. Please circle the number that best matches the strength of your attitude.
1. The scientists‟ decision to change Pluto from a planet to a dwarf planet was a good one. strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5
2. Pluto should remain a planet. strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5
3. Pluto as a dwarf planet is okay with me. strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5
4. Defining Pluto as a dwarf planet because of its size, shape and orbit is okay with me. strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5
5. Scientists should accept Pluto as one of the nine planets. strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 48
APPENDIX B
Conceptual Knowledge Items
1. How many planets are in our solar system?
2. List the planets in our solar system:
3. Should Pluto still be a planet?
4. Explain your answer to question #3:
5. Why do scientists no longer call Pluto a planet?
6. Why did scientists change the definition of planet?
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 49
Table 1 Correlation Matrix, Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness, and Kurtosis for Emotions and Attitudes
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Positive Emotions, Pretest
2. Positive Emotions, Posttest 0.15
3. Negative Emotions, Pretest -0.53** 0.08
4. Negative Emotions, Posttest -0.32* -0.23 0.66**
5. Pre-Attitude 0.61** 0.30* -0.53** -0.41**
6. Post-Attitude 0.31* 0.48** -0.44** -0.62** 0.64**
7. Delayed-Attitude 0.39** 0.37** -0.61** -0.65** 0.65** 0.87**
M 1.90 2.24 3.02 2.77 2.48 2.88 2.99
SD 0.63 0.74 0.70 0.83 0.99 1.15 1.05
Skewness 0.37 0.54 -0.49 0.25 0.24 -0.20 -0.35
Kurtosis 0.66 0.64 -0.49 -0.69 -0.62 -1.16 -0.94
Alpha 0.82 0.77 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.94 0.92
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 50
Table 2 Correlations between Emotions at Pretest
joy uneasy worry surpr happy disap excite glad mad scare irritate sad upset nerv angry frust uneasy .05 worry -.17 .19 surpr -.29* .01 .06 happy .60** -.03 -.05 -.32* disap -.29* .22 .30* .35** -.26 excited .41** .20 .04 -.17 .60** -.07 glad .62** .09 -.10 -.26 .80** -.13 .58** mad -.42** .37** .43** .17 -.32* .46** -.32* -.33* scare .14 .31* .41** .15 .25 -.05 .14 .20 .29* irrit -.24 .48** .40** .32* -.26 .39** .01 -.12 .52** .35** sad -.41** .41** .42** .22 -.30* .45** -.12 -.27* .54** .20 .68** upset -.35** .31* .55** .24 -.29* .56** -.21 -.31* .75** .27* .57** .67** nerv -.02 .31* .55** .24 .14 .19 .12 .04 .34* .62** .38** .25 .49** angry -.43** .29* .39** .40** -.34* .38** -.16 -.31* .78** .38** .58** .63** .70** .45** bored .33* .14 .04 .17 .24 -.09 .33* .39** .02 .28* .14 -.12 -.12 .06 .16 frust -.31* .41** .57** .22 -.24 .35** -.15 -.17 .65** .37** .55** .47** .68** .49** .68** annoy -.23 .42** .52** .16 -.26 .39** -.01 -.16 .47** .30* .69** .51** .61** .43** .44** .70**
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 51
Table 3 Attitudes Means and Standard Deviations by Group
Time, Group M SD N Attitudes
Pretest
Independent reread 2.66 .923 25
Reread plus discussion 2.27 1.01 23
Posttest
Independent reread 3.03 1.09 25
Reread plus discussion 2.65 1.28 23
Delayed Posttest
Independent reread 3.08 1.07 26
Reread plus discussion 2.83 1.11 23
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 52
Table 4 Means (SDs), for Concept Items Delayed Pretest Posttest Posttest Concept 1 8.44 (1.21) 8.22 (0.65) 8.15 (0.67)
Concept 2 7.65 (1.40) 7.90 (0.71) 7.71 (0.99)
Concept 3 0.17 (0.38) 0.45 (0.50) 0.47 (0.50)
*Concept 4 0.35 (0.59) 0.82 (0.65) 0.72 (0.72)
*Concept 5 1.08 (0.52) 1.35 (0.52) 1.08 (0.65)
*Concept 6 0.08 (0.33) 0.92 (0.60) 0.89 (0.64)
*. Items scored on rubric (0 = non-scientific, 1 = scientific, 2 = scientific, elaborated). Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 53
Table 5 Concept Item 6 Means and Standard Deviations by Group
Time, Group M SD N Pretest
Reread .04 .20 25
Reread plus Discussion .13 .46 23
Posttest
Reread .80 .70 25
Reread plus Discussion .96 .37 23
Delayed Posttest
Reread .65 .63 26
Reread plus Discussion 1.08 .58 24
Emotions, Attitudes, and Conceptual Change, p. 54
Figure 1. Group Means of Concept Item 6.