J. An. Med. 10: 6-16 "temperamental giants" is essential to correct diagnosis and intelligent medical care. MEDICAL PROBLEMS OF CAPTIVE Several books and scientific have - papers AND WILD A been written on the ecology and ethology of REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND the various rhinoceros .30>52?56,72,81,89 PERSONAL EXPERIENCES

Anatomy M.S. Silberman, D.V.M/ The horns are of the skin that R.B. Fulton, D.V.M.** outgrowths grow throughout the life of the . The African black and white rhinos and the Asian Introduction have two horns. The This reviews the literature paper and, other Asian rhinoceros have one horn. where applicable, adds personal findings on Rhinoceros horn is composed of laminated the medical and surgical problems of keratinaceous filaments arranged in parallel rhinoceros. A bibliography of some of the layers with only a very short and older rhinoceros literature prior to 1955 is rudimentary bony support. Lack of available.43 interfilamentous material gives rise to the The family Rhinocerotidae ("nose horns") fraying that has caused some to state that is represented today by miniature the horn is composed of hairs.86 descendents compared to the Baluchiterium Rhinoceros skin is composed of a thin species of a million years ago, which was a epidermis and thick, well vascularized dermis hornless rhinoceros, seventeen feet at the with numerous sebaceous and apocrine shoulder and thirty-four feet from the nose sweat glands.19?20 Eyelashes are present in all to the tip of the tail. species and there is regional distribution of Five species are in existence today, two hair follicles containing roots and reduced African and three Asian, Diceros bicornis hair shafts.19?20 The greater Indian and Ja van (African black or hook-lipped rhinoceros), rhinoceros have pedal scent glands on all Cerathotherium simum ( or four feet.18 Asian species usually have great Burchell's rhinoceros), and Rhinoceros folds of skin, while the African ones have unicornis (Great ). The first small folds. All species have three toes on two species occur in Africa, while the latter is each foot with horny, compact soles. the largest Asian representative. Rhinoceros The Asian group has well-developed sondaicus (Javan or lesser one-horned incisor and canine teeth, while both are rhinoceros) and sumatrensis absent in the African species. Similar to the (Sumatran or Asiatic two-homed - , the rhinoceros has no are the other Asian gall rhinoceros) species bladder.28 with their survival in the wild, at best, An accurate estimate of weight is essential precarious. Neither are they represented in to calculations of drug dosages for captive collections. immobilization and therapy, for feeding, and As is true in all zoo animal medicine, for monitoring growth. Formulae have been of anatomy, knowledge physiology, developed for free-ranging ethology, and ecology of these that predict within 2%, weights of males and females from vertebral column 'Office of the University Veterinarian, School of Medicine, Emory length University, Atlanta, GA 30322. and/or chest girth.21 Age classes have also Rose City Veterinary Hospital, 809 SE Powell Blvd., Portland, OR 97202. been developed based on dental eruption The authors wish to thank Drs. Mitchell Bush (Nat'l Zoological and wear in known-age captive and wild Park), Emit Dolensek (New York Zoological Park), and Phillip rhinoceros.33 Table 1 lists of Robinson (Zoological Society of San Diego) for sharing some of average weights their experiences with us. rhinoceros.

6 TABLE 1 Weight Range for Black, White and Indian Rhinoceros

SpeciesNew Born, kg Adult, kg

- - Diceros bicornis (black rhinoceros) 30 351000 1050

- - Ceratotherium simum (white rhinoceros) 55 65 2000 3000 - Rhinoceros unicornis (Indian rhinoceros) 2000 3500

Normal Values narcotic drugs used. Severe respiratory Body temperatures for white rhinoceros depression under etorphine anesthesia has kept in a large paddock ranged from 33.6? been reversed to tolerable levels by injection to 37.5?C, (92-100?F) depending on of fractions of recovery doses of narcotic ambient temperature and exposure to antagonists.62'99 Naloxone has been sunlight.2 In a similar study, core suggested as the ideal narcotic antagonist temperature of a 2-year old black rhinoceros because it has no demonstrable varied from 37.7? to 40?C (100-104 ?F).12 pharmacologie effects in the absence of a Normal values for blood serum narcotic. Itmay be used to reverse both constitutents for captive whites93 and values etorphine and fentanyl.94 for wild white and black rhinoceros have Improper positioning for transport results recently been published.59 Jayasinghe has in r?gurgitation, leading to aspiration, reported electrocardiographic values from an pneumonia, and death after immobilization unsedated black rhinoceros.53 with etorphine and acepromazine.62

Restraint Preventive Medicine and Husbandry Tame adult rhinoceros may be given a All new arrivals should be examined for examination without to cursory resorting ecto-and endo-parasites and treated when restraint. Quiet but ?ntame may be indicated. enticed with food into a crate shipping for Though many veterinary practitioners in closer inspection of either end of the animal. the United States advocate the use of Aside from these situations more involved western and eastern encephalitis vaccines in physical examination or collection of a captive rhinoceros, the authors could find no laboratory sample requires chemical reports of infection from these viruses. immobilization. numerous Although Tetanus toxoid is probably justified. chemical restraint or agents combinations Although no cases of tetanus in rhinoceros have been the authors' is used, preference have been reported, this disease can affect etorphine hydrochloride (M99), 2-4 all . mg/animal.1'42'47'58'116 Opthalmic ointment Except for autogenous bacterins when should be used to cornea protect the of clinically indicated, the authors find no immobilized animals. justification for the use of available bacterins Problems of immobilization often result and vaccines in these animals. from the respiratory depressant effects of New enclosures should be inspected for 7 in ears a possible sources of hardware that might lead rhinoceros, (b) Hematomas the of to medical problems if eaten, stepped upon, young black rhinoceros have been reported. to or accidently rubbed against. The hematomas responded surgical The authors have found over the years treatment, as described in canine surgery that both black and white rhinoceros will do texts. well on good grass hays, such as timothy Horn problems: Captive rhinoceros and coastal bermuda. The common "sweet require suitable objects for horn-rubbing as feeds" used by ranch owners appear to part of the grooming behavior. Tree stumps in enclosures afford suitable satisfy their needs for grain. They have also firmly mounted been fed successfully on combinations of material for horn grooming. An animal to lack alfalfa, pellets, and sudan hay. forced to resort concrete, for of erode the Supplementation with salt and minerals may anything better, may quickly be desirable, (a) horn.50 Casual observation of rhinoceros may not Several reports of loss of horns during status. or that the horn be adequate to evaluate nutritional capture transport suggest Because of the thickness of skin, loss of can be easily detached.9'99 Regeneration of subcutaneous fat and emaciation may not horns lost by accident in the wild or in become obvious until there is a marked captivity and after complete removal have times decrease in weight.69 been reported.9'55'64 Regeneration vary on Though all species of rhinoceros are from one to ten years, depending horn cancer also tempermental to some degree, the white length. A case of of the horn has rhinoceros tend to be quite gregarious. In been published.74 Two female captivity they get along well in groups, Bacterial dermatitis: young a though minor fighting will occur at times white rhinoceros developed severe, characterized between males and more rarely between exudative dermatitis, by females. Often they will develop strong coalescing pustules and ulcers, soon after to Britain from Natal. psychological attachments for another importation Bacteria; member of the group. This may or may not Staphlococci, Pseudomonas and Proteus sp. be sex-related, but individuals became quite and fungi; Fusarium sp. and Alternaria sp. on one were from the surface of the dermis. dependent another. isolated was a The authors feel that a white rhinoceros On h?matologie examination, there that is ill responds much better to therapy leukocytosis with neutrophilia, eosinophilia Initial treatment of when a mate is close by. When an individual and monocytosis. of sulfanilamide is isolated, another stress seems to be debridement and application was weeks of inflicted on the already sick individual which powder ineffective. After three often will lead to the animal's death. This daily treatment of lesions with a suspension has not been the case with black of 0.5% thiabendazole and 2.0% lesions ceased to rhinoceros, for they are extremely oxytetracycline, expand and new to individualistic and do well in solitary epidermis began appear. the was not itwas situations. Although etiology clear, felt that the stress of shipping plus poor Adnexa Skin and conditions were inciting factors.55 Jones, et al have reviewed skin diseases The senior author has treated five adult in rhinoceros.55 white rhinoceros with pustular dermatitis. In In cold areas, frostbite of the pinna and one case, the animal died as a result of an penis has been reported in Indian overwhelminq septicemia following failure of

b. M. Nat'l communications. a. Behaviorally, the white rhinoceros is a grazer and the black Bush, Zoological Park?personal rhinoceros is a browser. Black rhinoceros might do better if given browse or higher protein feeds such as alfalfa. 8 antimicrobial therapy. Staphylococcus front feet of a black rhinoceros was due to a aureus and Streptococcus sp. were cultured papilloma in the space between the medial were from skin lesions. Both responded to and central digits. The masses intramuscular ampicillin hydrochloride (20 removed surgically and copper napthenate mg/kg) given twice a day for seven to ten (e) and a temporary bandage applied. The days. An infection with Pseudomonas sp. corns recurred 26 months later and the responded to treatment with gentamicin same treatment, was carried out with equal sulfate (4 mg/kg) given once a day success.13 are intramuscularly. Decubital ulcers common in all species Mycotic dermatitis: An exfoliative of rhinoceros after prolonged transportation dermatitis in an Indian rhinoceros due to in cramped shipping crates. We have found Pityrosporum pachydermatis has been these to respond rapidly to topical reported.103 treatments with antimicrobial ointments, Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. copper naphthenate (e) or astringents such asteroides was the cause of a dry, scaling as scarlet oil. Removal from the shipping eczema seen in 10 to 19 white rhinoceros crate aids in recuperation. housed for six weeks after importation in a Creosote poisoning in black rhinoceros reconstructed cowshed. The organism was (apparently due to constant contact with isolated from skin samples and from a creosoted poles) led to the deaths of four wooden post in the shed. Topical animals. Raised and crusted wheals on the applications of Elisazol HC1 (c) were skin were noted.4 curative.104 A case of Trichophyton sp. in a A fowlpox virus has been isolated from white rhinoceros adult has been reported by epidermal erosions on a black Dolensek. (d) The animal was released from rhinoceros.40'68 winter quarters and the condition resolved Ectoparasites spontaneously. Parasitic dermatitis: Granulomatous Ixodid parasitize both black and white dermatitis due to infestation by rhinoceros.67'71'102'113 Sites of attachment are skin folds in the and anal Stephanofilaria dinnike commonly occurs in usually genital wild black rhinoceros and has been observed regions, in and on the ears, and around the The of ticks in captive black rhinoceros.84 Typically, the eyes.7'89 majority parasitizing rhinoceros are not lesions, consisting of erosions, ulcers and host-specific; genera encrustations are on the flanks behind the common to both North America and Africa include point of the elbow but may also occur on the , , and limbs.97 Lesions are pruritic, becoming larger , Haemaphysalis. crenatum was in the summer and virtually disappearing in Amblyomma recovered from a lesser Indian serve as the winter. Histological sections reveal the rhinoceros.65 Ticks vectors for babesiasis and in presence of microfilariae and mature theileriasis filarids.91 An ointment that has been used to rhinoceros. The senior author has often seen provide some remission of active lesions has been described (10% iodoform, 10% Dermacentor rhinocerinus on imported white sulfanilamide, 50% benzene hexachloride, rhinoceros. These ectoparasites respond to the 10% zinc oxide, 20% q.s. with Stockholm approved equine and cattle sprays. Flies as as tar).110 may transport parasites well their hosts. Flies associated Miscellaneous dermatologie problems: directly damage with black rhinoceros in Africa are Progressive tenderness and lameness of the Lyperosia sp., Rhinomusca, , and Glossinia - - - c. Ectimar Bay. Vet Kansas City, MO. e. Kopertox Ayerst Laboratories, New York, NY. d. Dolensek?Personal communication. 9 and and species.69'77'89'105 Glossinia sp. (tsetse fly) hyaline granular degeneration both feed on and carry trypanosomes calcification; in the longest survivor active infection for rhinoceros.69 regeneration of muscle was evident.72 (f) Larvae of the genera Gyrostigma and Cardiovascular and Respiratory Gasterophilus are known to infect Cardiac conditions: A 25-year old rhinoceros.25'37'101'113 Presumably, infection ''African" rhinoceros died after a of a black rhinoceros' eye with thelaziasis progressive loss over a time an was through a fly.89 Stephanofilaria dinniki, weight year's despite excellent appetite. Postmortem diagnosis of the parasite causing granulomatous the cause of death was endocarditis of the dermatitis, is probably transmitted by flies.91 right ventricle.6 An Indian rhinoceros in An insect growth regulator [Thompson good health for four years died suddenly Hayward TH6040: N-(-4-chlorophenyl)-N after a clinical illness of three weeks. (2,6-difluoro-benzoyl) urea] incorporated Postmortem examination revealed extensive into the feed of 19 captive rhinoceros, resulted nodular growths on the heart and lungs in complete inhibition of development of comprised of sarcoma cells.92 Musca domestica (housefly) and Stomoxys microscopically Pulmonary disorders: Postmortem findings calcitrans (stable fly) in the feces.107 from one captive black rhinoceros were An unusual skin-piercing, blood-sucking severe pulmonary emphysema and gross moth was observed feeding on a captive arterial lesions which the author stated were black rhinoceros inMalaysia.3 similar to those of equine viral arteritis.73 Neurological and Musculoskeletal Tuberculosis is documented in both and wild rhinoceros.39'45'57'60'79 In Transient and permanent cases of radial captive paralysis in black rhinoceros immobilized and cases where clinical data are available, a over down on one side for 5.8 and 17.6 hours, history of progressive weight loss a respectively, have been reported.61 several months to year and/or dyspnea are An abscess of the lower jaw was surgically and productive coughing common. One treated under chloroform/ether anesthesia.11 rhinoceros developed dyspnea and died one A diagnosis of actinomycosis of the mandible week later. Lesions are always present in the of a rhinoceros was made, with thoracic cavity; in two cases there were same in mesenteric osseous lesions essentially the as those of miliary lesions the liver and a a present-day case of lumpy jaw in cow.70 lymph nodes. Two unspeciated types of Chronic osteoarthritis in a captive Indian Mycobacterium, two M. bouis, and one M. rhinoceros cow, secondary to trauma, has tuberculosis var. hominis were been observed.44 Degenerative polyarthritis identified.39'45'57'60'79 in a free-ranging black rhinoceros, due Behavioral comment: Calf-calling vocalizations wild black rhinoceros cows probably to systemic disease, was diagnosed by have been to sound much like at necropsy.100 reported due to Two cases of organophosphate spray impaired breathing pathologic lung related deaths with associated degenerative conditions.26 myopathy have been reported.69'72 In both a was cases, spraying with followed Digestive System muscle by weakness, ataxia, collapse, Reports of enteritis are relatively common and death within hours to dyspnea, days. in the rhinoceros literature. Many enteric Postmortem examinations revealed muscles diseases may be infectious, but rarely is the of limbs and trunk which were pale and parboiled in appearance. Some bladders f. Edltors Note?In view of the recent literature, one would have to surmise that the muscle necrosis was due to the were urine. probably full of dark brown capture myopathy syndrome and not as a toxic effect of the Microscopically, affected muscle showed insecticide. 10 specific etiology identified. Usually, clinical Noninfectious intestinal disorders: A are observations and gross necropsy findings carcinoma of the stomach was an incidental used to arrive at a diagnosis.66'73 finding at necropsy of an African rhinoceros Bacterial enteritis: A 2-month old white of unstated species.6 rhinoceros (found and hand-reared) died on Volvulus of a portion of the small intestine the 12th day of captivity. The whole was the apparent cause of death in a wild digestive tract was inflamed, with a few adult white rhinoceros. The peritoneum near a hemorrhages the duodenum. The contained large quantity of hemorrhagic mesenteric lymph nodes were hyperemic. purulent fluid; diffuse peritonitis was also Pseudomonas pyocyanea was cultured present. The walls of the involved intestine was were from the intestine. It speculated that the gangrenous and congested.23 an stress of environmental change decreased A case of volvulus at the ileocecal junction resistance and allowed proliferation of an in a adult male black rhinoceros resulting in organism normally of mild pathogenicity.95 the animal's death was reported by the Salmonellosis was diagnosed in a black authors. This male mounted a female a few rhinoceros kept in an unsanitary holding pen hourse before its death and presumably this after capture by immobilization. was the initiating cause of the volvulus. The a Drinking water, placed in depression in rhinoceros, like equids, may accumulate became contaminated, in the ground, quickly sand the large bowel. Twenty four with feces. Poor quality forage was also kilograms of sand was removed from the cecum a given. On the sixth day of capture, the of black rhinoceros dying of other animal went down, showing dyspnea and causes.75 frothing at the mouth. Postmortem lesions Rectal and Perianal Disorders included excess fluid in the abdominal A rectal mucosal prolapse in a 13-year old cavity, marked enteritis, hemopericardium, was successfully treated by reducing the and a collagenous appearance of the left volume of the edematous mucosa by ventricle. Salmonella typhimurium was applying granulated sugar. Lidocaine and isolated in pure culture from the liver. Death corticosteroid ointments and a modified was attributed to Salmonella septicemia pursestring suture of umbilical tape precipitated by stress of poor completed the therapy. Reduction of management.106 roughage and available food plus A 26-day old female white rhinoceros acepromazine sedation were felt to died after suffering from profuse watery contribute to the success of the reduction.24 diarrhea, dehydration, and weakness. Prior A rectal prolapse in a 4.5-month old black to oral death, sulfonamides, neomycin, and rhinoceros female was repaired under belladonna alkaloids, intramuscular general anesthesia. The first sign of a sulfachlorpyridazine and atropine, and problem was a flow of fresh blood from the intraperitoneal sodium chloride and 5% rectum, without diarrhea or straining. In in were dextrose lactated Ringer's given. three hours there was an eversi?n of bowel ductus mucosa Pulmonary congestion, patent through the anus. Straining and arteriosus, membranous enteritis, hyperemic contraction of the anal sphincter produced a and necrotic mucosa of large intestine, focal congested, turgid, and edematous bowel. A necrosis of the liver, and swollen mesenteric submucosal resection and apposition of the lymph nodes with petechiae were observed. free mucosal borders led to an The and postmortem histopathologic uncomplicated recovery.78 were compatible with salmonellosis and other A 9-year old female white rhinoceros was bacterial Salmonella attacked a infections, although by male rhinoceros and severely was not isolated. horned in the rear quarters. She exhibited 11 dysuria and anorexia and failed to pass feces having a direct life cycle.16'69 for 80 hours. Immobilization was done with Some anthelmintics successfully used by fentanyl and azaperone, and rectal the authors in treating intestinal examination revealed dry, hard fecal balls. infestation in both black and white Manual evacuation of the rectum was rhinoceros are dichlorvos (36.5 mg/kg of followed by a 12 liter enema and parenteral body weight) given once and mebendazole penicillin. Ten hours later, copious feces and (15-20 mg/kg) once a day for 3 treatments. urine were passed and her appetite returned.41 GenltO'Urlnary System The age of sexual maturity has been listed Endoparasitology for female white rhinoceros as 5 years, black The Rhinocerotidae demonstrate their rhinoceros females 3.8 to 5.0 years and affinity with the Equidae in the similarity of males 4.3 to 4.5 years, and female Indian as internal parasites each hosts. Genera rhinoceros 4.5 years.34'76'96 Estrous cycles common to both families are have been listed from 17 to 60 days, with in Anoplocephala, Habronema, Oxyuris, and the length of estrous Indian rhinoceros 24 hours.35'76'96 Estrous are Strongylus.5'83'87 Thus the potential for being cycles infection of rhinoceros by intermal parasites generally continuous throughout the year of domestic and wild equids is present. but at least the white rhinoceros shows peak estrous Several reviews of parasites of rhinoceros behavoir from November through and an extensive well-referenced February.35'76'96 Gestation periods range monograph on helminth parasites of African from 15 to 16 months.22'89'96 The mammals have been intercalving interval for wild black rhinoceros published.83'113'114'115 - Necator americanus, a human parasite, is 2.5 3.5 years.89 Obstetrical problems in are common. one has been reported from an adult black rhinoceros not Delivery of rhinoceros.17 Anoplocephala species have white rhinoceros calf took 10 minutes after been reported from the Indian rhinoceros labor began.88 The placenta of a black and both African species.29 Death of a rhinoceros cow passed 4 hours captive Indian rhinoceros calf was attributed postpartum.35 to infection by Fasciola gigantica.8 A uterine prolapse which occurred 9 days Larvae of Gyrostigma and Gasterophilus postpartum in a black rhinoceros cow to 2 species are commonly found in the stomachs spontaneously retracted, only reappear of rhinoceros.25'37'89'101'113 On a number of days later. The cow died of shock; at occasions, the senior author has found larva necropsy there was a uterine tear.66 of both genera in captive white rhinoceros A black rhinoceros cow approximately 12 a upon necropsy. years of age was noted to have clear Death of 3 captured black rhinoceros was vaginal discharge. Shortly after, the animal attributed to massive loads of Strongylus started passing fetal parts. The animal was tremletti, Kiluluma sp. and other species. immobilized and the uterus flushed with a The carcasses were emaciated, with severely 12% nitrofurantoin solution. At this time the depleted fat reserves.69 cow received 20 mg of estrogen Balantidium coli infection was an intramuscularly and systemic antibiotics. incidental finding in a captive black Fetal parts were passed over a month's time. rhinoceros that died of human tuberculosis.79 Eventually, the cow developed a white, foul Rhinoceros defecate in well-defined areas smelling vaginal discharge. At this time, the cow scattered throughout their home received 20 mg of estrogen Itwas .76'81'89 Coprophagy, observed both intramuscularly. immobilized twenty in the wild and in captivity, has the potential four hours later, and once again, the uterus of increasing the load of those parasites was flushed with nitrofurantoin. This 12 was procedure repeated weekly for five the brucei subgroup have been reported.69 treatments and the animal apparently Several species of tsetse flies are know to recovered. feed on black rhinoceros.77'105 a case a The author treated of abortion of Presence of trypanosomes in a blood near-term black rhinoceros calf. No smear indicates infection, but does not infectious agents could be implicated, but the indicate whether the infection is acute or dam "R?dbeen distraught for several days latent. Absences of trypanosomes in blood prior to the incident. Itwas felt that the smears does not rule out infection.69 stress and led to the prepartum agitation Clinical and postmortem data are available abortion. for two black rhinoceros that died after so Artificial insemination techniques capture, despite prophylactic diminazine commonly used in domestic livestock have (1.5-3.0 grams) treatment at capture. The been in rhinoceros two were rarely attempted breeding animals more lethargic and less in semen captivity. However, has been aggressive than usual but maintained an collected from tractable rhinoceros by approximately normal appetite. Rapid masturbation.108 Knowledge of specific weight loss and a marked deterioration in infectious diseases of the genital tract is condition led to death. Postmortem findings meager. were marked pulmonary edema and froth in A survey of brucellosis in game animals in bronchioles; catarrhal inflammation of small Rhodesia uncovered one suspicious intestines; and depletion of fat reserves. a agglutination reaction in rhinoceros.82 Trypanosomes of the brucei subgroup were found in blood smears of one rhinoceros.69 Blood Parasites Treatment with diminazine aceturate has Babesiasis: Erythrocytes parasitized by been advocated to reduce stress-associated Babesia sp. are encountered commonly trypanosomiasis after capture. Diminazine when examining blood smears from wild aceturate, homidium bromide, and African rhinoceros.10'14'15'69 does Only rarely pyrithidium (alone or in combination) have overt clinical disease develop.14 also been used.46'69 Sudden death of 2 black rhinoceros after capture was attributed to babesiasis. Sensory Organs Numerous forms of Babesia were large sp. There are no unique diseases of the ears seen in the each or blood taken from eyes reported in the rhinoceros. The rhinoceros. In both cases, anulocytosis, congenital absence of the pinna has been one anisocytosis, and in case, poikilocytosis, described in black rhinoceros.32 Ulcers and were seen on smears. Prophylactic treatment proliferative lesions occurring around the at with 3-10 of diminazine capture grams eyes of white rhinoceros have been aceturate, a trypanosomicide, was ineffective observed. An ulcer at the medial canthus of against Babesia.69 a white rhinoceros was successfully treated Attempts to control vectors of Babesia topically with an ophthalmic ointment.109 by spraying captured rhinoceros with Eosinophilic inflammatory polyps were organophosphate pesticide was associated removed from the third eyelid of a white with high mortality.69 rhinoceros. The lesions waxed and waned in size over a Theileriosis: Theileria-like piroplasms have 5-year period, being worse in summer been reported from both black and white and regressing in winter.54 rhinoceros, but no disease has been Vitamin A deficiency was thought to be associated with their presence.10'14'15'69 involved in the appearance of corneal Trypanosomiasis: Trypanosomiasis is opacities in a captive black rhinoceros.69 The endemic in the black rhinoceros.15 opacities resolved following oral Trypanosoma uiuax and trypanosomes of administration of vitamin A. 13. on an Cataract surgery Indian rhinoceros rhinoceros began weaving and panting, was successfully performed under eventually progressing to recumbency, open chloroform anesthesia.11 mouthed breathing, and death 3 days after A 30-year old wild black rhinoceros cow initial observation of unusual behavior. was observed to have a prolapsed eyeball. Necropsy was performed the next day. She was immobilized with phencyclidine, Gross lesions included extensive gingivitis, followed by local anesthesia with procaine small hemorrhages on the gums, slightly hydrochloride. A transpalpebral enucleation emphysematous lungs, edematous and was performed. The wound was packed hemorrhagic subcutis of the lower neck and with sulfonamide powder and sutured with shoulders, and a swollen, friable liver, which vetafil, leaving a space at the medial exuded gas bubbles from the cut surface. canthus for drainage. Intramuscular Clostridium sordellii was cultured from lungs was oxytetracycline (2.5 gm.) given. A two and liver.21 Many other generalized year follow-up showed complete healing and infectious diseases are potential in no apparent interference with behavior.80 rhinoceros. The ubiquitous nematode Thelazia sp. has Metabolic Disease been recovered from the conjunctiva of a wild black rhinoceros. Agalactia in two black rhinoceros cows, an apparent consequence of stress during General Infection capture and translocation, resulted in was Leptospirosis: Leptospira sp. cultured sudden hypoglyc?mie coma in their nursing from the liver of an adult wild black was calves. One calf, saved by prompt rhinoceros that was euthanized after being administration of one liter of 10% dextrose found unable to rise. No signs of in 0.9% saline solution.51 malnutrition were observed. The body Rhinoceros milk is quite low in fat.36 An cavities contained large quantities of clear analysis of milk samples from colostrum fluid.89 through 16 months of lactation has been Clostridial disease: An adult male black published.38

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