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Anna C. Krausse

THE STORY OF PAINTING FROM THE TO THE PRESENT Malerei_001-128Malerei_001-128_GB 01.02.2006 23.11.2007 12:51 14:37 Uhr Uhr Seite Seite 6 6 (Text black Auszug)

PREDECESSORS OF THE cities, particularly in northern Italy, wealth, af- RENAISSANCE 1300-1420 fluence and growth. The confidence of the new bourgeoisie now forming in the cities 14th-century predecessors burgeoned along with their economic pros- Like all the arts, painting had been treated as perity. The connection with far-off cites as a craft since classical times. Painters were well as the exchange of unfamiliar goods commissioned by high-ranking people or and information extended the horizon. The institutions to produce paintings on a particu- world, which was still described as a disc, Painters discover reality lar subject, for a particular purpose, within a became – as did this very notion – a chal- given time. Painters only began to win the lenge to be explored. RENAISSANCE creative freedom to give paintings a purpose People stopped relying exclusively on reli- AND of their own – a content beyond the motif it- gion, and the knowledge controlled by the self – 700 years ago. clerics. They began asking questions, and At that time, around the turn of the 14th wanted to examine everything. Bold seafarers century, they passed beyond medieval picto- set off to explore the blank areas of the map, 1420-1600 rial forms and developed a method of per- and to find treasures in unknown countries spectival reproduction that shapes our own to add to the affluence and wealth at home. ways of seeing paintings even today. Art's To do this, they needed a worldly science area of responsibility, formerly restricted to and technology. Many inventions of this peri- the depiction of sacred subjects, cautiously od, such as clocks, maps and a whole series expanded in line with a growing interest in of mechanical apparatus, are evidence of this the real world, and new areas of subject mat- need. As people grew interested in the world ter were granted access into art. As part of a around them, painting also turned towards a lengthy process, painters began to escape hitherto unknown . This new vision the craftsman class, and to express their was first apparent in the paintings of the ideas as liberal artists. Italian Giotto di Bondone. This apparently new vision of things emerged out of many different changes in all Taken from real life spheres of life, which had helped to trans- When Giotto painted the fresco The Mourn- form intellectual attitudes and ways of seeing ing of Christ in 1304, painters were still sim- the world. Far-reaching trade relations with a ple craftspeople. They did not have the no- lively exchange of goods had brought the tion of the 'artist' that we have today. Their

1452: Leon Battista Alberti pub- lishes his standard art-theoretical book On Architecture.

1492: Christopher Columbus dis- covers America.

1546: Work begins on the Louvre in Paris. Foundation of the first stock market in France.

1550: Giorgio Vasari begins his Lives of the Most Famous Italian In the Renaissance the world is investigated and defined with man at its centre: Draughtsman Drawing a Recumbent Woman, from ‘The Teaching of Measurements’. Woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, c 1527. Architects, Painters and Sculptors – the first art-history book. 1302: Pope Boniface VIII issues a climax. The Papal residence is 1400: First excavations of ancient the Bull ‘Unam Sanctam’, accord- moved to Avignon (until 1376). Rome by Filippo Brunelleschi. 1588: The Spanish Armada is ing to which ‘every human 1318: Development of a new 1421: Giovanni de’ Medici is destroyed by the English fleet. End creature’ is to be subject to the system of payment: a law is elected head of Florence, and of Spanish domination of the sea. Pope for the sake of their souls, passed in Venice authorizing thus stands at the beginning of and secular princes must bear money transfers (Giro bank). 1590: The dome of St Peter’s in arms on the orders of the Church. the Medici dynasty. 1321: Dante Alighieri completes Rome is completed from plans by 1309: The struggle for secular his major work, the Divine Com- 1434: Cosimo de’ Medici founds Michelangelo. William Shake- and ecclesiastical power reaches edy. the Platonic Academy in Florence. speare writes his first plays.

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Master of science Self Portrait (attribution uncertain), 1515 c. Red chalk drawing, 33,2 x 21.2 cm. Biblioteca LEONARDO DA VINCI Reale, Turin with the rich and fluent interplay of light and 1452-1519 shade, revealing bodies in all their vividness, and giving them intellectual and spiritual Leonardo da Vinci is the prototype of the creative Renaissance depth. The basis of this innovation is Leonar- man, the ‘uomo universale’. Not only was he a brilliant inno- do’s positive concept of shadow. It no longer vator in painting, he was also well versed in all areas of the means simply the absence of light and (then) natural sciences, technology and architecture. His con- colour, but becomes a colour value in its own right, an atmosphere to be interpreted temporaries admired Leonardo’s universal talents, and his in- and represented. exhaustible urge for knowledge and research. In an inspired way, he combined a sober and objective observation of nature with a passion for the Constructed reality – The Last Supper artistic penetration of invisible reality. His painting influenced the work of many artists It was not only the effects of colour and light over the centuries. that Leonardo investigated and used in new ways. Like many of his contemporaries, he Leonardo was born in 1452 in the little Up- Leonardo develops sfumato studied the reproduction of spatial reality per Italian village of Vinci. Little is known In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan, to the through perspectival representation on the about his youth. From 1469 he lived in Flor- court of Ludovico Sforza. He worked for him picture surface. But with references to the ence, where he worked for five years from initially as a court portrait-painter, but soon, content of the painting, and to relations with- 1471 as an assistant in the workshop of the because of his comprehensive knowledge, in it, he brought this ‘realistic’ depiction of painter Verrocchio. also as an engineer, designing his new wa- the world to a new level of pictorial reality. His early works include several depictions ter pipes, as an inventor and builder of war- This desire to be ‘master of the beauty of na- of Mary, one outstanding example of which machines and defences, and as an artistic ture’ – to perceive, recreate and go beyond it is the Annunciation. In this panel painting, designer of opulent court festivals and theat- – is particularly apparent in his fresco The Last Supper. This painting, which the monks commis- sioned him to paint as a mural for the refec- tory in the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan between 1495 and 1498, shows a comprehensive structure of compo- sitional relationships. The table stretches along the lower edge of the painting, turned frontally towards the viewer, so that the view- er stands directly facing Christ and the dis- ciples. Christ is sitting at the centre, and has just spoken these words: ‘One of you will be- tray me!’ The disciples deny this accusation with excited gestures, and fall to discussing one another. Their horror and astonishment spreads like a wave from the centre of the picture to both edges, and is thrown back Annunciation, c 1427. Oil on wood, 98 x 217 cm. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence again. The figure of Jesus Christ in the centre of the painting, on the other hand, begun in 1471, Leonardo’s particular paint- rical productions. During his Milan years, has a peaceful equilibrium and a dignified erly means of expression are clearly appar- Leonardo was also commissioned to paint strength. Above the centre window there is a ent. The events occur in front of Mary’s numerous religious and biblical themes. Dur- house in the mild evening twilight. The gar- ing this period he brought the characteristic Propertion of the Human Figure, den appears soft with damp grass and flow- painting technique called sfumato (It., ‘smo- 1492 c. Galleria dell’Accademia, Venice ers, and is surrounded by a wall. In the cen- ky’) to perfection. He achived this sfumato tre of the upper part of the painting the for- effect by means of soft transitions of light est opens up, providing a clear view of a and shade; things lose their rigidity, and real- deep landscape with trees and hills. The ity appears hazy, which sparks all kinds of Archangel Gabriel, dressed in red, bends his emotions in the viewer. right knee to tell Mary the message of the The softening of all sharp contours and Lord. The Virgin Mary openly and fearlessly clear delineations creates the mood of a returns the angel’s greeting. Her right arm freer painterly representation, in which the rests on her sewing. paint seems to adapt itself to the qualities of With her flowing hair and soft features, Mary places and things – day and night, lightness embodies Leonardo’s mild feminine ideal of and darkness become important compo- beauty. A representation of precise draughts- nents of the painting. Leonardo thus proved manship, along with the subtle shading of himself to be a master, and at the same time the colours of the soft, tender physiogno- to have gone beyond earlier Florentine mies, are typical features of the portraits of painting – in so far as he had taken up its this period of work; they reveal the attempt legacy, but he takes their orientation towards to give expression to the internal, the soul, drawing as a strictly linear, abstractly geo- through the external. metrical means of expression and replaces it

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The brillant creator of weighty lightness (defined as the ‘standing leg’ by classical antiquity, as opposed to the relaxed ‘free leg’) while the rest of the body is tensed as MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI if for a show of strength. His hands are heavy and large, this impression reinforced 1475-1564 by the left hand curving towards the shoul- der. All the figure’s attention and energy are Many people saw Michelangelo as the apotheosis of the Renaissance, embodying in concentrated in the head, and focused at his life and his work the greatness and tragedy of the age like no other. His art in the the bridge of the nose, between the eye- fields of painting, sculpture and architecture forms a single corpus of work, at the cen- brows. In his unity of strength and anger, David was seen by contemporaries as a tre of which is the creative human figure, with all its power and suffering. For Michel- guardian of freedom and independence, as angelo, artistic creation is a means through which man comes to understand himself a political allegory of the city-republic of and the world, and it becomes for him a kind of universal religion. Florence and its virtues of citizenship.

The Sistine Chapel Michelangelo Buonarroti, born to a well-to- In 1505 Pope Julius II brought the artist to do family in Caprese near Arezzo, entered Rome, where he first commissioned him to Ghirlandaio’s workshop in Florence in erect his funeral monument in the Church 1488. Soon afterwards he went to work of S. Pietro in Vincoli. Pope Julius was a for Bertoldo di Giovanni, who intro- warlord, who, sword in hand, personal- duced him to the Medici circles. In ly subjugated a number of cities and 1490 Lorenzo il Magnifico introduced incorporated them within the Vati- him to the grandeurs of the neo-Pla- can state. He was also a patron of tonic academy, whose humanist the arts who gathered around him ideas were to be important for his the most important artists of his work. After the fall of the Medici in time, and tried to bind them to his 1494 he went first to Bologna, brief- will. Such was his temper that he ly returned to Florence a year later, even struck Michelangelo with his and went to Rome for the first time stick while he was working. in 1496. Returning to Florence in In 1508 the Pope commissioned 1501 he engaged himself in the Michelangelo, who would have pre- work of his artistic opposite ferred to devote himself solely to number, Leonardo da Vinci. The fres- sculpture, to decorate the Sistine coes by the two artists in the Palazzo Chapel, which was at that time quite Vecchio have not been preserved, but bare. A year later the artist began work on another work does tell us about Michelan- the main decoration, which lasted until gelo’s painting style at this point. 1512. Michelangelo undertook the paint- The Holy Family, also known as Tondo ing himself. Doni, was painted around 1503-4. The The Holy Family (Tondo Doni), c 1503. He divided up the colossal barrel vaulting central figure, Mary, crouching cross-leg- Tempera on wood, diameter 120 cm. Galleria of the chapel with painted trompe l’oeil ged on the grass in the foreground, turns degli Uffizi, Florence architecture, and chose as his main narra- with a wide twist of her torso, deliberately tive theme the creation of the world and exaggerated by the artist (called ‘linea ser- man until the fall. He represented the cycle pentinata’) towards Joseph, who is stand- separation of the main group from the of Genesis – nine episodes, from the sepa- ing behind her and passing her the mus- background, the brightly-coloured land- ration of light and darkness to the mocking cular Christ-child. Behind a wall, on the scape and the plasticity of the scene might of Noah – and added single figures from right, we can see John be seen as a deliberate contrast to the sub- other contexts: prophets, sibyls, the ances- the Baptist, still a child. tle ‘veiling’ sfumato technique of Leonardo. Their spatial separa- Madonna and Child, Red chalk drawing. tion indicates that Michelangelo as a sculptor Casa Buonarroti, Florence their paths will di- Michelangelo thought that it was in sculp- verge. John will ture that he would most successfully be go into the able to realize his idea of man as the cen- world and an- tre of divine creation. The naked male fig- nounce the ure, the Titan, was the perfect translation of coming of the this idea. As an educational ideal, a moral Lord, while power, this was entirely in the classical tra- Christ has al- dition, but Michelangelo had a different idea of sculpture. For Michelangelo the ready begun body was primarily mass and volume, his journey into which had to be wrought from the resistant inner loneliness material of stone, bound to the gravity of and his future the earth – a vision that the artist also car- Passion. All the ried over into painting. figures look seri- In the Florentine years between 1501 ous and sol- and 1504 he carved the famous statue of emn. The clear David, originally planned as a niche-figure for the cathedral, but then erected in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. In its conflict be- David, 1501-04. tween minute detail and large form, the fig- Marble, height ure radiates a heroic but controlled pathos. 550 cm. Galleria The lower half of the body bears the mas- dell’Accademia, sive burden of the powerful torso. All the Florence weight rests on the outstretched right leg

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RÉGENCE AND The representative painting of French Ba- 1715-1780 roque matched neither the spirit nor the taste of a society which took its pleas- Elegant paintings for the drawing-room – ure in private, without great court ceremo- Régence nials, and which enjoyed a certain libertinage The 18th century is the age of the Enlighten- in its lifestyle. The new clients demanded ment, clearly turning its attention to this paintings which matched the intimacy and world, to pragmatism, to the feasible. With its privacy of the elegant little city castles for The beautiful illusion belief in the power of reason to penetrate and which they were painted. Thus the formats explain the world in rational terms, and con- changed, and the pictorial repertoire and for- ROCOCO sequently with a critical attitude towards tra- mal vocabulary were also transformed. The AND NEO- ditional authorities – above all the Church French painters of the Rococo no longer took and the aristocracy – philosophers, commit- their lead from the flat, heavily-outlined, rigidly CLASSICISM ted social reformers, researchers, literati and classical style of Poussin. Their new guiding visual artists had been preparing the ground light was Rubens. The Flemish master's work 1715-1830 for a development which was to reach its cli- had the joie de vivre, the luminescent colour max in 1789, in the French Revolution. The and materiality, the composition focusing the processes of social transformation which pre- action on a single point, that absolutist repre- pared for this historical event also left their sentational art, for all its vigorous lines, had mark in art. never developed. The turn away from large- When the Sun King died in 1715, his suc- scale heroism to the pleasures of life, to a dec- cessor, Louis XV, was still a minor, so Philip, orative intimacy, makes its first appearance in Duke of Orleans, took over the business of the paintings of Jean Antoine Watteau. government (the Régence, or Regency) for seven years. His style of leadership was fun- Mere theatre – painted role-playing damentally different from the absolutist As the painter of fêtes galantes, or 'feasts of authority of Louis XIV. One of the regent's first courtship', Watteau won a great reputation official duties was to transfer the royal resi- and the membership of the Académie Royale, dence from Versailles to Paris. This move as teacher of the new genre which he himself amounted to a dissolution of the old court, had invented. With his representations of the because the aristocracy, which had previously distinguished pastimes of the elegant society lived at court, now hurried to follow the ruler which, with its glittering, imaginative feasts, to the livelier capital, where there were plenty re-modelled the customs of the court, he had of distractions in the form of theatre, dances hit the nerve of the age. Watteau often found and private parties. In the process, the centre the models for his paintings at the feasts of of power and cultural life had moved from rich friends. His paintings draw a realistic pic- out-of-the-way Versailles to the city; the royal ture of the ways in which contemporary so- court had dissolved, so to speak, into a series ciety took its pleasures, while at the same of private societies. As the intellectual climate time maintaining an almost melancholy de- and the self-image of the 'civilised' class tachment from the scenes portrayed. The var- changed – by now, along with the aristoc- ied coloration and the tender, hazy style of racy, it included the mercantile bourgeoisie, painting lends the scenes a certain detach- bankers and tax collectors, whose bank ac- ment, and gives them the appearance of counts contributed considerably to the state stage-sets, not least because of their back- coffers – also changed art: solemn, dramatic grounds, which often have the appearance of painting, in which the absolutist backdrops. Is Gilles really a sad clown, or just craving for power had found direct expres- Jean Antoine Watteau, Gilles, somebody playing a sad clown? A real stage- 1718-19. Oil on canvas, sion, retreated in favour of the elegant and in- play or just dressing up, as the people of the 184 x 149 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris timate, the pleasant and the decorative, the elegant society liked to do at their intimate atmospheric and the emotional. This early ex- little parties? Deliberately, Watteau leaves the pression of Rococo was given the name of subject vague, as though to blur the bounda- the transition government: Régence. ry between theatre and distinguished role-

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The rebellious court painter FRANCISCO GOYA 1746-1828

The Spanish painter and draughtsman Francisco José de Goya, born on 30 March 1746 in Fuendetodos (Saragossa), was one of the most contradictory and fasci- nating artistic figures around 1800. On the one hand, while he made his career as court painter to the Spanish royal family, and portrait-painter to the nobility and the grande bourgeoisie, he was also, particularly in his engravings, a keen critic of social abuse and a scourge of human failings.

Goya lived in an age which was influenced mask the ’extravagance, foolishness, betrayal by the ideas of the Enlightenment, the French and vice’ of society, bring the individual’s ig- Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, a time norance and stupidity to light, and thus to in which traditional values were being called use the Enlightenment effect of caricature. into question, in which Spain had lost its po- However, he added, he had no wish to attack sition as the world’s greatest marine power anyone personally. His themes were ideal, to England, in which the population was drawing on the imagination rather than na- growing poorer and poorer, and in which ture. In this way he achieved artistic freedom wartime atrocities were occuring on a pre- for his political and highly explosive works. viously unknown scale. The resulting conflict The famous sheet No. 43 – The Sleep of Self Portrait, 1783. Oil on canvas, is more fully expressed in the works of Reason Produces Monsters – was originally 80 x 54 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Agen Goya than any other artist. conceived as the title page for the whole se- ries of the Caprichos. The engraving shows conventions – and this is precisely what Goya as a political painter the sleeping or dreaming artist (in Spanish, makes it so hard for us to understand this In 1799, in an advertisement in Madrid’s the term ‘sueno’ means both sleep and artist today. daily newspaper, Goya announced the publi- dream), surrounded by bats, owls and cat-like cation of a series of engravings, with which creatures. Goya as court painter he addressed a wide audience for the first At first sight this claustrophobic picture The painting The Osuna Family represents time as a social critic. seems to show a fantastic nightmare, an idea one of Madrid’s most influential aristocratic The title of the sequence, Caprichos (Span. that was to return in the 20th century with families. Francisco de Goya had a great deal ‘caprices’), at first suggested the depiction of the work of the Surrealists, and one to which to thank the Osunas for, because they had amusing themes in the form of satire or cari- Goya repeatedly returned well into old age – supported him since the middle of the cature – a genre which had become in- as, among other images, in the bloodthirsty 1780s with numerous commissions, and in- creasingly well known and popular through- painting of Saturn Devouring one of his troduced him to aristocratic circles, which out Europe in the course of the18th century, Children, with its symbolic portrayal of de- through the work of artists like Hogarth and struction and death. But the commentary on Gillray. Goya too wanted, he explained, to un- Sleep of Reason refers the observer to an- other layer of meaning: if reason sleeps or dreams, the monsters, the terrible powers of The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, night – ignorance, tyranny, unreason and vio- (from the series Los Caprichos), c 1797. lence – will rule. Etching and aquatint, 21.6 x 15.2 cm. Private property In the Caprichos, Goya can be seen to rep- resent Enlightenment ideas, with which he had come into contact through his intellec- tual friends in Madrid, who were in the lib- eral camp. In the spirit of the French Revolu- tion they rebelled against the despotism of the monarchy, the church, the aristocracy and the judiciary, and openly spoke out against the oppression of the Spanish peo- ple, who were becoming increasingly impov- erished. Goya sympathized with these ideas, they were important to him – but his post as a court painter was more important: shortly after their publication, Goya withdrew his Caprichos again. This withdrawal was a characteristic act for Goya. His whole life, his whole body of artis- tic work underlay the conflict between the in- dividual, rebellious desire for expression, the career-motivated conformity to traditional Saturn Devouring one of his Children, 1821. Oil on plaster transferred onto canvas, 146 x 83 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid

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Théodore Géricault, the Raft of the Medusa, 1819. Oil on canvas, 491 x 716 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris In 1816 the fully occupied French frig- ate 'Medusa' ran aground near Morocco. Since there were not enough lifeboats, a raft was built which provided room for 149 people. The storm pulled it away from the boats, leaving it to drift across the sea for 27 days. Géricault did a sub- stantial amount of preliminary studies for this painting: he interviewed survi- vors, made drawings of the ill or even dead, and produced horrifying sketches of the heads and limbs of executed people. Every minute detail of the pic- ture, down to each movement of the bod- ies, is carefully composed. The main interest of the painter was concentrated on the human bodies and their drama- tic movements and intertwining. Most of the naked figures have a sculptural qual- ity. The pallid skin colours of the doom- ed people make an effective contrast to the gloomy sea. It is this light-dark contrast which gives the painting its dramatic effect of agitation.

ROMANTICISM IN FRANCE scandal of the 1820 Salon. No-one until then 1815-1850 had portrayed horror so directly and compel- ingly. The painting was all the more devastat- Rousing paintings of Neo-Baroque ing in that the portrayed shipwreck was splendour based on a real disaster. With the monumen- As in Germany, a phase of Restoration began tal representation, which makes the viewer a in France in the wake of the wars of libera- direct witness, a participant in the horror, tion. Napoleon's fame and grandeur were Géricault primarily achieved an emotional ef- consigned to the past in 1815. The charis- fect. His powerful arrangement deliberately matic general had finally been stripped of contradicted the calculated, intellectual paint- power after the battle of Waterloo, and had ing of academic Neoclassicism. The stage- been banished to St Helena as a prisoner of like stasis of the Neoclassical painters was the English. Louis XVIII, a brother of the alien to the impetuous Géricault. He was French king executed in the Revolution, re- a painter of movement and emotion. He turned to the throne. The republic once again achieved the latter not just with the three- became a monarchy. Many achievements dimensionality of the figures and by working were repealed, the old aristocracy had its for- out the entire picture-space down to its last mer rights restored and Napoleon's support- details, features which clearly reveal the influ- ers were persecuted. ence of his model, Michelangelo, but also Only now could really take with the symbolic character of his raft of hold in the motherland of the French Revolu- hopelessness. This symbolic potential of ship- tion. Jacques Louis David and the Academy wreck and hope is just as typical Romanti- had until then been unchallenged authorities, cism as the link between horrific reality and and only the fall of Napoleon broke their symbolic , which gives the painting hold. The young generation of artists fled the the same drama that characterised the works 'shopkeeper mentality' that now prevailed in of the Baroque painters Rubens and Veláz- the country, swapping them for glowingly quez, models often copied by Géricault. painted wild adventures or remote, exotic Delacroix, some years older than Géricault, climes. continued the painter's artistic path after his A pioneer and, with Eugène Delacroix, the early death. Impressed by his works, particu- most important representative of Romantic larly by The Raft of the Medusa, Delacroix painting in France, was Théodore Géricault: painted pictures whose brilliant colour and his dynamic Raft of the Medusa was the impetuous composition were designed to

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Painter of light CLAUDE MONET 1840-1926

Claude Monet helped on the road to success as a European sty- listic trend. Although he had nothing to do with the theoretical formulation of the artistic style, he was for a while its chief representative, but he survived the age of Impressionism by a generation, and also left behind a significant body of work in his old age. Claude Oscar Mo- ble and Turner, which made a deep impres- net was born in sion on him with their free use of colour and Paris in 1840, the the importance that they placed on the ran- son of a business- dom, fleeting natural phenomena. Here he al- man. The family so made the acquaintance of the art dealer soon moved to Le Durand-Ruel, who was later to buy many of Havre, where the his paintings and become one of his most im- young Monet portant patrons, helping him with regular ex- drew pictures and hibitions. caricatures. In The following year Monet painted in Holland 1856 he went to and, after inheriting a modest fortune from his study technical father, settled in Argenteuil, while Manet and skills in the studio Renoir soon came to work with him. In 1874, of Jacques at his friends’ first group exhibition, he showed Rouen Cathedral: Early Morning, 1894. Oil François Ochard, his painting Impression, Soleil levant – Impres- on canvas, 100 x 66 cm. Museum Folkwang, where a year later sion, Sunrise, which through its use in a satiri- Essen he met the plein- cal review by the critic Leroy, gave the move- Monet in his garden at air painter Eugène ment its name. ture-element towards the overall tone of the Giverny around 1910 Boudin, who was painting, but considered and treated each ob- to have a lasting Monet discovers light ject as an autonomous part of the picture with influence on him. In 1859 he made a study With his first marine painting, Monet prepared a colour of its own. In fact, Monet had already tour to Paris, received many impressions and the Impressionist style of painting: for him, sea laid such stress on all the light phenomena in attended the private Académie Suisse, where and sky were no longer an effect-laden, homo- nature that the material differentiation of the he met Camille Pissarro. He was unsatisfied geneous spatial stage which extended into the objects bathed in the light seems to be lost. with studio work, already feeling too dedicated depth of the painting, according to the rules of Natural, external light itself becomes the object to plein-air painting. Later he met Bazille, Re- perspective that had been known since the of representation, and begins to exclude the noir and Sisley, with whom he often painted in Renaissance. Rather he broke the space down other picture elements. This often makes his the forest at Chailly-en-Bière near Barbizon. into individual atmospheric phenomena, paintings look like a breakdown of reality into In 1870 Monet married his long-time lover giving sky, sea and landscape an autonomous coloured elements, behind which there is no Camille Doncieux, with whom he already had life of their own. Monet’s specific coloration longer any unified body; the picture as a whole a son, and fled the Franco-Prussian War to contributed to this autonomous life: he no becomes a confusion of colour-tones, and as- London. There he saw landscapes by Consta- longer geared the hue of the individual pic- sumes an atomized appearance. The colours are light and bright and thus intensify the impression of the transparency of the picture elements. The juxtaposition of many differently coloured tones, each with its autonomous value defined by the local light of the sun (local colour), means that the objects are not brought into depth, into the physical world, but broken down in the surface, in their juxtaposition. Monet’s multi-coloured landscape paintings never fall apart in compositional terms, be- cause for all the freedom of their painterly transposition the artist always subjected them to the same organizational pattern: the light of the sun, which illuminates all the elements of the picture and connects them together like a net cast around them.

Monet at the peak of Impressionism Despite his occasional successes, Monet’s fi- nancial situation did not improve. But he did increasingly enter the public eye, and was also perceived as being at the vanguard and finally

La Gare St Lazare, 1877. Oil on canvas, 75 x 104 cm. Musée d’Orsay, Paris

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Painter of passion and despair VINCENT VAN GOGH 1853-1890

Vincent van Gogh, a loner and, to a large extent, an autodidact, was one of the most important predecessors of modern painting. He imbibed Impressionism, transformed it in his own way and became a major antecedant of the Expressionists. His wide- ranging, powerful work, but also his unhappy life, which was plagued by misfortune (in his whole life he did not sell a single painting), intense inner doubts and tremen- dous creative power, not to say obsession with work, have repeatedly made him the focus of attention of later generations.

Vincent van Gogh was born in 1853, the son mired throughout his life, but then also made of a Protestant minister in Groot-Zundert in his own independent drawings and water- northern Holland. After attending various board- colours based on the miserable lives of the Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear, 1889. Oil ing schools, in 1869 he went to work for his coal-miners. on canvas, 51 x 45 cm. Mr. and Mrs Leigh B. uncle, an art dealer in The Hague, and stayed In 1880 he took courses at the Art Academy Block, Chicago there until 1876. Business trips during this peri- in Brussels, but he basically remained an auto- od took him to London and Paris, amongst didact, and copied a series of social-romantic other places, and it was at this time that he be- paintings. A brief return to his parents’ house never being able to give his vision of contem- gan the correspondence with his brother Theo, the following year ended with his unhappy love porary painting its appropriate expression, four years younger than he was, which was to for a widowed cousin, and a temporary break which were to be characteristic of his work for last throughout his life. with his family. At the end of 1881 Vincent the remaining years of his life. He produced went to study with his cousin, the painter Anton some fifty paintings of people from his home- The quest for a vocation Mauve, in The Hague. Mauve advised him to land, particularly peasants and weavers. Only After a short period of work as a teacher, he work with oil paint. seven lithographs remain of a planned cycle trained as a Methodist lay preacher, and began Under the influence of the sociocritical novels about peasant life. to study theology in Amsterdam, abandoning it of Flaubert and particularly of Zola, van Gogh In 1885, after many studies, he produced the shortly afterwards because of learning difficul- decided to become a painter of simple people. painting The Potato Eaters. The community of ties and the fear of failure. He also failed at the He was particularly keen to turn his attention to these five people is based on their meagre po- Mission School in Brussels, but at the end of the peasant life. After a short return to the prov- tato dinner, and the fact of their sitting under 1878, at his own expense, he went as a volun- inces, whose loneliness he soon fled once the sparse light of their paraffin lamp; the tary missionary to the coal-mining district of the more, he returned at the end of 1883 to his colours are dark, the greyish brown tones refer Borinage in Belgium. parents’ house in Nuenen, where he stayed for to the earth. Van Gogh himself compared the Despite his strong social and religious com- two years. This stay was also overshadowed by tone of the painting with that of unpeeled, dusty mitment, he still found it impossible to make an unhappy love. potatoes. contact with the people there. At this point van At the same time the painting expresses Gogh began to overcome his inner tensions by Advocate of the simple life strong social commitment and resignation. The drawing. At first he based his drawings on During this period van Gogh turned to the tire- forms appear oppressed, their faces are care- models by Jean-François Millet, whom he ad- less working method, driven by the fear of worn to the point of caricature, their hands bony. The paintings from these years remain The Potato Eaters, 1885. Oil on canvas, 82 x 114 cm. Vincent van Gogh Foundation/Van dark, their lines are heavy and simple, and they Gogh Museum, Amsterdam were described as ‘tormented, dark Realism’.

Van Gogh in Paris After a brief period at the Art Academy in Ant- werp from autumn 1885, where he developed a particular enthusiasm for Rubens, but prin- cipally studied the technique of the Japanese woodcut, he turned up, surprisingly, in Paris, where his brother Theo ran an art gallery. He came into contact with the group of the Impressionists, whose art at this point had, however, already passed its peak. Paris can be described as a crucial experience for van Gogh. He was enthusiastic about the luminescence of the Southern sun, and brightened his palette more and more. He learned to use purer colours in more intense contrasts, and tried for complementary colour chords of primary colours and mixed colours (red-green, blue- orange, yellow-violet). In some of the 23 self-portraits he made during this period, and also in other paintings, he experimented with the prismatic splitting of the light, or homogeneous colour patches, into highly vibrant strokes in the manner of the Pointillistes.

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GLOSSARY us, whose aim was to combine Newman and M. Rothko. the arts and crafts. The terms explained are in italics in the main text Complementary colours:The : German stylistic colours on the colour circle or trend between 1815 nad 1848. colour triangle which produce Characteristic motifs are bour- white if mixed additively, and Abstract :A blan- Arcadia: Greek landscape which, geois idylls. Most important black if mixed subtractively: red- because of its purity and beauty, ket term for the various non-fig- representative: C. Spitzweg. green, blue-orange, yellow-violet. urative trends in painting in the came to represent virtue, insouci- 1940s, 50s and 60s, in which ance and happiness in literature Blaue Reiter, Der (Ger. ‘The Blue Complementary contrast: expression and meaning are con- and art. In the modern age, A. is Rider’): Title of an almanac Colour contrast in which comple- veyed solely by colour, form and linked with love poetry and pas- containing art-theoretical essays, mentary colours are played off manner of painting. toral poetry, and becomes the published by W. Kandinsky and against one another. With com- prototype of the classical ideal F. Marc in 1910. Later also the plementary contrast, the effects of Abstraction: Avoidance of any landscape, in which man and name of an artists’ association the colours are intensified. naturalistic depiction, to the point nature live in harmony. based around these two artists, Composition: Formal structure of complete renunciation of fig- which turned against academic on the basis of particular ordering urative representation. : See Jugendstil. painting and Impressionism un- principles. Principles of composi- der the influence of and L’art pour l’art (Fr. ‘art for art’s tion can be: relation of colour and :A manner of , and attempted to ex- sake’): Art that is free of moral, form, symmetry/ asymmetry, painting in which, without a pre- press ‘the spiritual in art‘ in an ab- political, philosophical or social movement, rhythm, etc. liminary sketch, the paint is stract-tending pictorial language. brushed, dripped or slung on to claims, and made simply for its own sake. : International art the canvas, which is sometimes Brücke, Die (Ger. ‘The Bridge’): movement which, from the Expressionist artists‘ community lying on the floor. The pictorial Assemblage:A relief-like painting 1970s onwards, declared the in- (190-1913). The work of the structure is the result of an intui- in which everyday objects are in- tellectual process, free from the ‘Brücke‘ artists feature intense tively guided painting process, corporated, generally unaltered, necessity of transposition into colours, and a flat style with and of the different kinds of as part of the composition. The images, to be an art work. heavy outlines and a woodcut- ‘behaviour’ of the paint, such as first assemblages were made by like coarseness. random dips. K. Schwitters in the 1910s. :Movement with- in from the beginning Brushwork: The qualities of a Aerial perspective:A perspec- Attribute: The sign (either an ob- of the 20th century, which, free of personal handwriting, for exam- tival method which creates depth ject or a particular action) used to any figuration, attempts to create ple in an artist’s application of and space through the different characterise or identify a figure, harmonic structures with abstract paint (brushstroke, mode of appli- spatial effects of cold and warm e.g. a pot of salve and long hair geometrical forms. cation, line). colours. In the background blue is for Mary Magdalen. Contour: The outline of a form, stressed, and red and yellow in Camera obscura (Lat. ‘dark Automatism:A spontaneous painted as a line or evoked the foreground. room’): A pinhole camera which technique of painting and writing: through contrast. was used from the 17th century All-over painting:A painting style an artistic expression applied as an aid to studies of perspec- Contrapposto (It. ‘placed oppo- in which the canvas is covered without rational control, moral or tival constructions, portraits and site’): Way of representing stand- with an unfocused structure of aesthetic considerations, used by proportions. ing full-length figures in equilibri- the Surrealists and the artists of paint and form. The term is usual- um, with a ‘free-leg’ and a ‘stand- . ly applied to Jackson Pollock’s : Artist‘s influenced ing leg’. Was developed in classi- Action Paintings. by Caravaggio’s painting, who Avant-garde: Artistic groups or cal Greek sculpture and rediscov- took up his spotlight-like chiaro- ered in the Renaissance. (Cf. Botti- Alla prima (It. ‘at first’): A method artistic statements that are ahead scuro lighting and the realistic celli, Birth of Venus (p.13) or Mi- of painting in which the picture is of their time, point beyond what treatment of classical subjects. chelangelo, David (p.16).) painted without a sketch setting already exists and anticipate future trends. out the composition (underpaint- Chiaroscuro (It. ‘light-dark’): Tech- Contrast: In painting, the distinc- nique used since the 16th cen- ing), and carried out in a single :A group of tion is made between ‘light and tury, in which colour is less im- layer of paint. The heyday of alla French artists who devoted them- dark contrasts’, ‘colour contrasts’, portant than a strong contrast of prima painting was Impression- selves to ‘plein-air’ painting after ‘warm and cold contrasts’, ‘com- light and dark. ism. 1840, and are seen as having in- plementary contrasts’ and ‘simul- vented it. taneous contrasts’. Allegory: Illustration of an ab- Cinquecento: Italian term for the 16th century (It. ‘five hundred’, stract concept (freedom, justice, Baroque (from ‘Barocco’, Port. Copper engraving: The earliest hence ‘1500’). etc.), often in the form of a per- ‘irregular’): Stylistic epoch of Euro- type of gravure. The drawing is engraved on a copper plate, paint sonification (e.g., Delacroix, Liberty pean art between ca. 1600 and Classical : Art-histori- is rubbed into the scratches and Leading the People, p. 61). ca. 1750. Starting in Rome, the cal term to describe the begin- transferred to paper under me- Baroque spread throughout nings of abstract art, beginning Analytic Cubism: See Cubism. chanical pressure. Europe. Diverse in its different with Cézanne. Anti-art: ‘Non-artistic’ form of ex- forms, according to national and Craft: Unlike the liberal arts, crafts , cloisonnisme:A pression deliberately rebelling religious allegiance. Characteristic: are the applied arts, including tex- style recalling the lead bounda- against artistic tradition. Anti-art extreme dynamism, play with tile, glass, ceramics, enamel and space and light situations. ries used to isolate areas of furniture. originated in Dadaism, and re- colour in stained-glass windows, appeared in the Happening and Baroque Classicism: Trend with- developed at the end of the 19th Critical Realism: German art movement of the Neo- in the art of the Baroque which, century by E. Bernard and P. Gau- movement in the 1960s which Dadaists in the 1960s. in contrast to the florid formal lan- guin. showed contemporary themes guage of the Baroque, is influ- painted in a realistic manner, or Antique, the:A term for Greek enced by the art of the Antique. Colour-Field Painting: Trend in captured social relations in pro- and Roman antiquity. Begins ca. One important representative of Abstract Expressionism chiefly in vocative, satirical distortions. 2000 BC, ends 500 AD. The Baroque Classicism is N. Poussin. the 1960s, in which a colour, the Antique was particularly impor- sole expressive medium, is ap- Cubism: Movement formed by tant as a source of inspiration for : School of building and plied in such a way as to cover a P. Picasso and G. Braque (around the artists of the Renaissance and design founded in Germany in whole surface of the canvas. Im- 1907), in which objects are no Neoclassicism. 1919, by the architect W. Gropi- portant representatives include B. longer reproduced according to

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their visual impression; everything posed to rise to the surface. Used Genre painting: Art showing Hard-edge: Abstract trend of the figurative is broken down into principally by the Surrealists. scenes from daily life. In the aca- 1960s and 70s, featuring cleanly geometrical shapes. A distinction demic hierarchy it was seen as defined, often geometrical areas is made between ‘analytic Cub- Emblem:A pictorial and literary a ‘low genre’, and is marked by its of colour. Part of ‘colour field’ ism’ (until ca. 1911) and ‘syn- art form, in which what is repre- high degree of lifelike realism. painting. thetic Cubism’ (1912 until mid sented (the emblem) is turned in- Divided into the categories of 1920s) to a universal symbol by a motto peasant, bourgeois and court Heroic landscape: See Land- or a brief inscription. In the Ba- genre painting, it enjoyed its peak scape. Cubo-: Russian artistic roque, many ‘emblem books’ in Holland in the 17th century. movement in the early years of were used to decode this mode History painting: The illustration the 20th century, in which Cubist of representation used in religious Geometrical Abstraction:A re- of historical events, mythological, and Futurist influences were or moral teaching. duction of the pictorial composi- Biblical and literary themes which combined. tion to clear geometrical forms. are either realistic or idealised. Environment: Artistic form of the The surface is given a rhythm Until the end of the 19th century Dadaism: begun second half of the 20th century, in through colour. Based on Con- the highest form of art in painting during the First World War, which which spaces are shaped artistical- structivism, its peak was in the followed by the portrait and the ‘low genres’ of landscape, genre rebelled against traditional art ly and thus become works which 1950s and 60s. values with deliberate nonsense the viewer can enter. and still life. and new expressive forms, called Gestural painting: In Modernism, :A revival of earlier ‘anti-art’, such as photomontage, Etching: Gravure technique, like a style in which the process of the principle of the copper en- artistic styles, to make a new style, sound poems, etc. the creation of the work is record- graving, but easier to produce as e.g., Neoclassicism. ed in the marks on the canvas. Danube School:A loose group the plates are generally made of Hyperrealism: Art movement of artists in the German territories softer metals. Glaze: Thin, transparent applica- comparable to and along the Danube at the begin- tion of paint on dried layers of Expressionism: Artistic move- its aims, based on the principle of ning of the 16th century. The paint or on a ground, not in order ment in the first half of the 20th the illusion of reality and the real- painters of this school developed to hide it but to provide finely- century, stressing subjective ex- ity of illusion. a new form of landscape paint- graded shades and mixtures of perience. Expressionism is ing, in which the experience of colour. characterised by a highly expres- Icon: Originally a panel painting nature is highly important, and of the Greek Orthodox Church, sive, non-realistic colour and Golden section:A proportion in the landscape is painted for its formed for centuries according to form, and a flat application of which a line is divided into two own sake, no longer as a prop rigid patterns and strict traditions. paint deliberately ignoring three- so that the smaller part is to the and a backdrop. In the extended sense: ‘typical or dimensionality. larger as the larger is to the classic example’. : Dutch artists’ group set whole. This proportion is held to Fantastic Realism: Art move- up in 1917 by P. Mondrian and be particularly harmonic. It was ment of the early 60s, typified by Iconography: Meaning of the Th. van Doesburg, whose abstract known in classical antiquity, and a rather Mannerist, superficially form and content of picture-signs. paintings, constructed from geo- rediscovered by the Renaissance. aestheticizing, visionary style. Also a term for the academic dis- metrical surfaces in pure colours, cipline devoted to the investiga- Gothic: In general terms, the art represent a variation of Construc- Fauvism, Fauves (Fr. ‘wild tion of picture-content. of the Middle Ages, which devel- tivism. beasts’): A loose association of oped over various periods in all French artists formed around H. Ideal landscape: See Landscape. Decalcomanie: Method devel- the arts in Europe. Starting with Matisse in 1905, which opposed oped by the Surrealist M. Ernst. In the architecture of the 12th cen- Idealism: Philosophy and artistic the Impressionist breakdown of Decalcomanie, damp paint is tury, Gothic was almost entirely mode in which reality is not colour with pure, unbroken transferred from one support dominated by religious tasks. In shown as it is, but in the spirit of colour, from which it constructed (paper, glass) to paper by being Italy, Giotto set new standards in a particular idea. Idealistic ten- its paintings, ignoring representa- rubbed by hand. the transition between Gothic and dencies are to be found in the tional precision. the Early Renaissance. painting of the second half of the Devotional painting: Paintings Figuration, figurative painting: 19th century (e.g., A. Böcklin), but designed for quiet contemplation Gouache:A painting technique Representational painting. also in the idealising vision of and personal devotion. The pre- using water-based colours, which ‘’. ferred motifs since the 14th cen- Fontainebleau School: Group of are opaque when dry. The addi- tury have been the Passion of mostly Italian artists who were tion of binders and filler produce Illusionism: Painting which, with Christ and Maria, the Last Supper, commissioned to decorate the a pastel-like effect and a brittle perspective and painterly devices, and the Mourning of Christ. Chateau of Fontainebleau near surface. generates the optical appearance Paris. They developed a decora- of three-dimensionality and spa- Drip Painting:A painting techni- Graphic art: Blanket term for tive, ornamental style derivative of tiality. que in which the paint is dripped in drawings and print-based works Mannerism. uncontrolled gestures on a canvas (e.g., etching, woodcut, engraving, Impasto: Application of paint laid out on the floor. The term is Fresco (It. ‘fresh’): Wall painting, in etc.) on paper. (with spatula or large brush) in usually applied to the painting of J. which paint is applied to wet which the paint creates a three- Grattage: (Fr. ‘scraping’): A meth- Pollock. plaster, and blends with it as it dimensional effect in the paint it- od developed from the frottage dries. self. :A method of dis- technique. A surface prepared secting colour and light, used in Frottage (Fr. ‘rubbing’): Technique with a thick layer of paint is Impressionism: An art move- late Impressionism, in which in which the structures of materi- scratched and scraped to pro- ment formed around 1870 in points of colour on the canvas als (e.g. wood) are made visible duce changes in the layers of France, concerned with capturing assemble into colour chords and on paper through rubbing. De- paint, and effects of light and the object in its momentary de- shapes in the eye. veloped by M. Earnst in 1925. shade. pendency on lighting. Marked by a blurred style, bright coloration Écriture automatique (Fr. ‘auto- Futurism: Italian art movement Happening: An art form chiefly and often arbitrary-looking fram- matic writing’): A creative process founded by the writer F.T. Mari- from the 1960s, in which the art- ing; favourite motifs of I. were based on Freudian psychoanaly- netti, with the publication of the work is an action. This action, of- landscapes and scenes of urban sis, based on an unreflective, Futurist Manifesto. The attitude of ten lifelike or close to the every- life. trance-like manner of painting, the group was anti-academic, day, aims at the involvement of drawing or writing. By eliminating their art was based on modern the viewer. It is improvised, pro- Informel: Non-figurative painting rational control and aesthetic technology and the intoxication vocative, unpredictable and im- of the second half of the 20th norms, the unconscious is sup- of speed. possible to reproduce. century.

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With contributions by Ralf Burmeister, Christoph Delius, Katrin Fehr, Kathrin Hatesaul, Markus Hattstein, Katrin Bettina Müller, Melanie Pfaff, Felicitas Rink, Ursula Rüter

© h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH

Original Title: Geschichte der Malerei von der Renaissance bis heute ISBN: 978-3-8480-0123-1

© for the illustrated works, where this is not held by the artists or their estates: Dalí, Salvador © Salvador Dalí. Foundation Gala-Salvador Dalí / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Bonnard, Pierre © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Munch, Edvard © The Munch Museum / The Munch Ellingsen Group / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Ensor, James © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Derain, André © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Beckmann, Max © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Kandinsky, Wassily © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Picasso, Pablo © Succession Picasso / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Braque, Georges © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Duchamp, Marcel © Succession Marcel Duchamp / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Feininger, Lyonel © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Schwitters, Kurt © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Grosz, Georges © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Dix, Otto © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Chirico, Giorgio de © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Miró, Joan © Successió Miró / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Ernst, Max © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Magritte, René © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Pollock, Jackson © Pollock-Krasner-Foundation / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Wols © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 de Kooning, Willem © The Willem de Kooning Foundation / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Rothko, Mark © Kate Rothko-Prizel & Christopher Rothko / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Vasarely, Victor © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Albers, Josef © The Josef and Anni Albers Foundation / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Klein, Yves © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Stella, Frank © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Rauschenberg, Robert © Robert Rauschenberg / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Johns, Jasper © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Lichtenstein, Roy © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Schad, Christian © Christian Schad Stiftung Aschaffenburg / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Reinhardt, Ad © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Newman, Barnett © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Matisse, Henri © Succession H. Matisse / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Bacon, Francis © The Estate of Francis Bacon / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 El Lissitzky © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Baselitz, Georg © Georg Baselitz Fontana, Lucio © Fondazione Lucio Fontana, Milano Heckel, Erich © Nachlass Erich Heckel Warhol, Andy © 2005 Andy Warhol Foundation for Visual Arts/ARS, New York Kirchner, Ernst-Ludwig © Dr. Wolfgang und Ingeborg Ketterer, Wichtrach/Bern Estes, Richard © Richard Estes, courtesy, Marlborough Gallery, New York Hofer, Carl © Carl Hofer “Formes circulaires, soleil n 2” 1912-13 by Robert Delaunay © L & M SERVICES B. V. Amsterdam 20050503

Editor, Layout: Peter Delius Coverdesign: Simone Sticker Cover photos from the inside: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin Front cover (from left above to right below): pp. 14, 83, 34, 6, 31, 80, 7, 58 b., 11 a., 79 b. Back cover (from left above to right below): pp. 73, 27, 90, 14 a.

© for the English edition: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH

Translation from German: Shaun Whiteside (main text), Ingrid and Iain Macmillan Overall responsibility for production: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH, Potsdam, Germany

Printed in China, 2013

ISBN: 978-3-8480-0414-0

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