Ocean Challenge Aims to Keep Its Readers up to Date Formerly Open University with What Is Happening in Oceanography in the UK and the Rest of Europe

Volume 23, No.1, 2017 (published 2018)

EDITOR SCOPE AND AIMS Angela Colling Ocean Challenge aims to keep its readers up to date formerly Open University with what is happening in oceanography in the UK and the rest of Europe. By covering the whole range EDITORIAL BOARD of marine-related sciences in an accessible style it should be valuable both to specialist oceanographers Chair who wish to broaden their knowledge of marine Grant Bigg sciences, and to informed lay persons who are University of Sheffield concerned about the oceanic environment.

Barbara Berx NB Ocean Challenge can be downloaded from the Marine Scotland Science Challenger Society website free of charge, but members can opt to receive printed copies. Helen Findlay Plymouth Marine Laboratory For more information about the Society, or Will Homoky for queries concerning individual or library University of Oxford subscriptions to Ocean Challenge, please see the Challenger Society website (www.challenger- Katrien Van Landeghem society.org.uk) University of Bangor Louisa Watts INDUSTRIAL CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP University of Gloucestershire For information about corporate membership, please contact Terry Sloane [email protected] The views expressed in Ocean Challenge are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those ADVERTISING of the Challenger Society or the Editor. For information about advertising, please contact the Editor (see inside back cover).

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DATA PROTECTION ACT, 1984 (UK) © Challenger Society for Marine Science, 2018 Under the terms of this Act, you are informed that this magazine is sent to you through the use of a ISSN 0959-0161 Printed by Halstan Printing Group computer-based mailing list. The Magazine of the Challenger Society for Marine Science

SOME INFORMATION ABOUT COUNCIL FOR THE CHALLENGER SOCIETY THE CHALLENGER SOCIETY President The Society’s objectives are: Rob Upstill-Goddard Newcastle University To advance the study of marine science through Immediate Past President research and education Rachel Mills To encourage two-way collaboration between National Oceanography Centre, Southampton the marine science research base and industry/ Honorary Secretary commerce Mattias Green To disseminate knowledge of marine science with Bangor University a view to encouraging a wider interest in the Honorary Treasurer study of the seas and an awareness of the need Edward Mawji for their proper management National Oceanography Centre, Southampton To contribute to public debate and government John Bacon policy on the development of marine science Peter Burkill The Society aims to achieve these objectives Emma Cavan through a range of activities: Rob Hall Holding regular scientific meetings covering all Gideon Henderson aspects of marine science Alejandra Sanchez-Franks Setting up specialist groups in different disci- Richard Sanders plines to provide a forum for discussion Terry Sloane Publishing news of the activities of the Society and Alessandro Tagliabue of the world of marine science Jackie Tweddle Membership provides the following benefits: Sophie Wilmes Judith Wolf An opportunity to attend, at reduced rates, the biennial UK Marine Science Conference and a Editor, Challenger Wave range of other scientific meetings supported by John Allen the Society. Funding support may be available Executive Secretary Receipt of our electronic newsletter Challenger Jenni Jones Wave which carries topical marine science news, and information about jobs, conferences, meet- For information about Council members ings, courses and seminars see the Challenger Society website ADVICE TO AUTHORS The Challenger Society website is Articles for Ocean Challenge can be on any aspect of www.challenger-society.org.uk oceanography. They should be written in an accessible style with a minimum of jargon and avoiding the use of references. MEMBERSHIP SUBSCRIPTIONS For further information (including our ‘Information for Authors’) please contact the Editor: The annual subscription is £40 (£20.00 for Angela Colling, Aurora Lodge, The Level, Dittisham, students in the UK only). If you would like to join Dartmouth, Devon, TQ6 0ES, UK. the Society or obtain further information, see the website (given above). Tel. +44-(0)1803-722513 [email protected] CONTENTS Message from the Editor 3 Some highlights of the 2018 Challenger Society Conference 3 Challenger Conference 2018: new science at Newcastle Corinne Pebody 4 Malcolm Woodward: pushing the boundaries A remarkable career making measurements at sea Rachel Mills 6

Professor Roy Chester (1936–2018): a tribute to a pioneering marine chemist George Wolff, with Tim Jickells, Mike Krom and Martin Preston 9

John Wilson (1938–2017): The interdisciplinary scientist whose innovative work shed light on cold- water corals Dan Bosence and Murray Wilson, with Leta Wilson 10

SCOR is 60 not out ! Gideon Henderson, Carol Robinson, Matt Palmer and Catia Domingues 11

Filling the gaps for predicting the future: the Marine Ecosystems Research Programme (MERP) Kelvin Boot 18

Making progress with the plastics problem 22

Quantifying sea-ice organic carbon in a changing Arctic Ocean Thomas A. Brown and Lindsay L. Vare 23 The challenge of meeting the Paris Climate Accord Phil Goodwin 30

‘An idiosyncratic partiality for the sea’: Alexander von Humboldt’s legacy to oceanography Most of the maps and Gerhard Kortum 31 diagrams were drawn by The ArtWorks. A ‘cranky little vessel’ – the story of HM steam The cover and heading vessel Lightning: Part 4 Friends in high places graphics were designed by Tony Rice 40 Ann Aldred. The cover image is a Book reviews 43 true-colour image of the Barents Sea, obtained though the Sentinel satellite mission, by courtesy of ESA.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018)

Winners of the 2018 Presidents’ Photographic Competition

This prize is awarded at the biennial Challenger Society Conference, with the winner being chosen by the new and outgoing Presidents of the Society. This year, the two photographs below (described by the photographers themselves) were judged equally worthy of the prize.

Overfishing is one of the biggest threats to the health of our oceans. Sustainable management by local people could find a balance between population needs and the availability of marine resources by Angela Bahamondes Domínguez

(Photo taken on Chiloe Island, Chile)

Leaving Brighton for an ‘aerial survey’ of the new wind farm by Alice Marzocchi

(The Rampion Wind Farm is the first offshore wind farm on the south coast. Once fully operational, the farm should generate enough electricity to power almost half of the homes in Sussex)

2 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Message from the Editor

Welcome to Volume 23 of Ocean Challenge, and a special welcome to new members who joined when registering for the Challenger Conference. Climate change is the underlying motivation for much of the work described in this issue. The articles illustrate how understanding, and perhaps ameliorating, the efects of climate change, depend on science addressing the complexity of the atmosphere–ocean system, and bringing together people from many specialisms. One of the two feature articles, by Thomas Brown and Lindsay Vare, looks at an innovative technique developed to provide a clearer picture of the challenges that Arctic ecosystems face as sea-ice cover declines. The other, by the late Gerhard Kortum, considers the oceanographic legacy of a 19th-century scientist who would be very much at home in the interdisciplinary science of today – Alexander von Humboldt.

Some highlights of the 2018 Challenger Society Conference

For the frst time, the Challenger biennial the inter-annual control of plankton commu- At the Challenger Society AGM, held conference was held in Newcastle. Also for nities across the North Atlantic’. The Cath during the Conference, Rachel Mills the frst time, delegates were addressed by Allen prize was awarded to Lewis Wrightson passed the Challenger gavel to incoming royalty – His Serene Highness, Prince Albert (University of Liverpool) for his poster on President Rob Upstill-Goddard. Rachel is of Monaco, a champion of the environment, ‘Quantifying the impact of climate change remaining on Council as Immediate Past whose great-great-grandfather was a on marine diazotrophy: insights from IPCC President. famous oceanographer. climate models?’ Newly appointed to Council are Judith At the conference dinner, Challenger Society The Society’s most prestigious Award, the Wolf, Alessandro Tagliabue, Sophie Wilmes Fellowships were awarded to Stephanie Challenger Medal, was presented to Professor and Jackie Tweddle. Mattias Green has Henson, Yvonne Firing and Phil Godwin (all Mike Meredith. Mike is a physical ocean- taken over from John Bacon as Hon. from the National Oceanographic Centre, ographer at the British Antarctic Survey in Secretary, but John remains on Council as Southampton) and Xiaoming Zhai (Univer- Cambridge, where he leads the Polar Oceans Technical Advisor. Edward Mawji remains sity of East Anglia). The new Woodward team. As well as physics, his research encom- as Hon. Treasurer. For areas of responsibil- Fellowship in Nutrients and Nutrient Cycling, passes chemical oceanography, palaeoclimate ity of Council members, information about made possible by Malcolm Woodward (see and genetics. The next issue of Ocean Chal- the Society’s prizes and awards (Including pp.6–8), was awarded to Sian Henly (Edin- lenge will contain an article by Mike based on Fellowships), and how to apply for Stepping burgh University) (below right). his stimulating Medallist’s lecture. Stones Bursaries and Travel Awards, see challenger-society.org.uk/ where you can The joint winners of the Photographic Prize The Norman Heaps prize for the best early also fnd abstracts from the Conference. were Angela Bahamondes Domínguez and -career oral presentation was awarded to Ed. Stephanie Allen, for her talk on ‘Inferring Alice Marzocchi (see opposite).

Below Outgoing President Rachel Mills introducing Challenger Medallist, Mike Meredith to His Serene Highness Albert I of Monaco. Right Incoming President Rob Upstill-Goddard, alongide Malcolm Woodward presenting Sian Henly her Fellowship certificate at the conference dinner.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 3 Challenger Conference 2018

New Science at Newcastle Corinne Pebody

The 2018 Challenger Conference was an highlighted the importance of looking at a of collaboration by diverse parties. The excellent event bringing together awe- problem from the right angle; she discussed opportunity to meet up with potential col- inspiring science and scientists. As ever, the impact of tidal energy extraction versus laborators from other institutions is one of this biennial conference was a unique mix the impact of not using renewables. Are we the many great things that can ‘just’ occur of early-career scientists and feld leaders more damned if we don’t than if we do? at Challenger. Snippets from papers that where all are listened to with equal respect. would not be happened upon in ‘normal’ Laura Hobbs found that the slightly early This blend ofers a safe space in which to reading, pop up in posters and presenta- calanoid catches the micro-zooplankton – present data, promote discussion and even tions. These promote ideas, provide discus- but not if there are too many calanoids too fy some fresh and slightly left-feld ideas. sion and seed future research, benefcial to soon. Eleanor Frajka Williams explained the us all. This longer term, indirect blossoming The diversity of subjects covered was Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation was in addition to the direct ofers of post fantastic and after a few mix-ups with the (AMOC) in an excellently accessible way. doc posts or occasional open statements talks on Tuesday, things quickly settled Geraint Tarling painted a rather poignant of availability for employment. Impressive down for the rest of the week. Indeed, the picture of the social interactions of krill talks remain in one’s mind ready for recall only difficulty was which of the parallel – how, despite their swimming to stay at future interviews or science discussions. sessions to go to, and the innovative together, fuid dynamics pushes them apart, Challenger truly is a case of the whole is session titles cunningly encompassed thus limiting their swarm size. Everyone greater than the sum of individual parts. talks from different disciplines. All were say ‘Ahh!’ This was one of many talks that delivered with clarity and authenticity, showed that humour and clarity are not The conference dinner started with a wel- challenging us with new ideas – perfectly mutually exclusive. coming drink in an informal setting where fitting the ethos of a Challenger confer- we gathered to chat, before moving on The posters were displayed near the plen- ence. to the meal, which consisted of generous tiful supplies of tea and cofee and were a courses of attractive, tasty but unfussy The topics covered ranged from physics complementary mix of instrument devel- food, all sponsored by Sky News. Sky (‘lite’ – for us biologists) to plastics and opment, scientifc results and invitation for demonstrated the flm they produced to scum. No subject was too tricky to tackle. comment. Many of the authors diligently highlight the issues of plastics and sustain- We explored systems from the micrometre stayed on after the sessions to discuss their able purchasing, and there was a little harm- to the planetary scale in a plethora of para- posters with the many curious among us. less name-dropping which added to the digms, tested to the full. Personal favourites Again some super smart ideas freely shared fun. Again this collaboration demonstrated were sinking strontium in the form of celes- and questions welcomed. the power of people working towards a tite in acantharian cysts. These episodic The posters and talks all promoted the common goal. Committed individuals events are a fascinating example of the large exchange of views – challenging or coming together from diferent backgrounds impact of small organisms – a useful thought strengthening ideas – and the exploration – commercial or academic – really do make for all of us. A great talk from Beth Scott a diference.

The poster hall, delegates and the tireless registration team

4 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Alan Jamieson gave an extremely entertain- Newcastle itself is an unassuming gem ing host’s speech – the way he described of a city. The focus on pedestrians made his recent science-related activities was it easy to walk through to the many very much at odds with the image of sci- excellent destinations close to the city entists in white coats, imprisoned in sterile centre – I’m sure there were plenty further laboratories. The variety, vivacity and verac- away, I just never got the time to explore ity of science does not equate to dullness them. Chinatown, the shopping centre, – far from it! restaurants and central areas generally are pleasant and friendly, and even on a The evening ended with cofee and the week night have a nice hum. We needed awarding of the Challenger Medal and Chal- another week to be able to do justice lenger fellowships. Oceanography involves to all the touristic opportunities and I so many impassioned, intelligent, driven and particularly want to go back to see the thoughtful people you would be forgiven Life Science Centre, run by the NHS and for thinking it difcult to select individuals Newcastle University, which is in a fantas- as outstanding. Yet the awards went out tic building. to some amazing scientists for a variety of excellent reasons, to the applause of all. On the final afternoon, Prince Albert of Monaco gave a well received talk. His For the institution hosting the conference genuine understanding and interest in there is a lot of behind the scenes solid oceanography showed through, as did his graft to bring it all together and Newcastle considered concern about climate change Corinne sampling for dissolved inorganic University were unstoppable. Despite one or and our responsibilities as both scientists carbon at the Porcupine Abyssal Plain two glitches thrown up by the new booking Sustained Observatory earlier this year. and consumers. system all delegates got in and the conference staf were super supportive sorting out It was a super successful conference and Corinne Pebody works at the National registrations and accommodation with little the presence of Prince Albert of Monaco Oceanography Centre, Southampton, as part of the Porcupine Abyssal Plain drama and plenty of patience and humour. was the royal icing on the cake. Thank you Sustained Observatory (http://projects. The lecture theatres had excellent acous- to Challenger, Newcastle and all the many noc.ac.uk/pap/) team. She is interested in tics and the IT systems worked for all the people who went the extra nautical mile. both scientific and creative writing. sessions I attended.

The Ocean Tide and the Port of Liverpool Open to anyone interested in the tides and the Port of Liverpool Saturday 11 May 2019, 10.00 a.m. to 2 p.m. Merseyside Maritime Museum, Albert Dock

A free meeting marking the 100th anniversary of the world-famous Liverpool Tidal Institute organised by the National Oceanography Centre and the University of Liverpool, in association with the Centre for Port and Maritime History and the Liverpool Institute for Sustainable Coasts and Oceans

Welcome and brief history of the Liverpool Tidal Institute Philip Woodworth • The science behind the ocean tide David Pugh • Opportunities for the UK in tidal energy Judith Wolf • The tides and the banks of the Mersey Andy Plater • The tides and the oceanography of our neighbouring seas Jonathan Sharples • The large Mersey tides and the Port of Liverpool Simon Holgate • Tides and the Earth’s climate Chris Hughes Pease register if you intend to come: https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/the-ocean-tide-and-the-port-of-liverpool-tickets-50182272528 Please see this website nearer the time for any changes to the meeting programme. From 1.00 to 4.30 p.m. there will be a Tide Prediction Machine Exhibition at the National Oceanography Centre, 6 Brownlow Street, Liverpool, where you can see the machine that was used to make tidal computations for the D-Day landings in World War II. The exhibition does not require registration – just come along. For more information see http://www.tide-and-time.uk/ and http://www.bidstonobservatory.org.uk/tide- prediction-machines/. There are also plans (details to be announced) for activities at Bidston on that day. Look out for further events to mark this very special anniversary!

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 5 Malcolm Woodward: pushing the boundaries A remarkable career making measurements at sea

In 2016, the Challenger Society awarded Honorary Lifetime Membership to Malcolm Woodward, leader of the Nutrient Facility at Plymouth Marine Laboratory, in recognition of his huge contribution to the worldwide marine science community. For me, time at sea on the RRS James Cook over Christmas, New Year and January 2017/18 – with a great team of scientists, including Malcolm – was a great opportunity to capture his story and fnd out about a career that spans nearly 40 years. Rachel Mills (Challenger Society President, 2016–2018)

Malcolm grew up in Torquay, and has Malcolm (right), with always lived by the sea. Marine science Rachel Mills, and wasn’t a common career track in the 1970s Alessandro Tagliabue – it was a small feld and there wasn’t (Cruise PSO), on the much choice of where to go to university. RRS James Cook during the FRidge Malcolm got ofers to study in Liverpool North Atlantic cruise, and London but he chose Bournemouth Christmas 2017 College of Science and Technology, which was far enough away from home but right by the ocean. He graduated with a London University external joint Honours degree in Chemistry and Zoology, tough at the time but in the long term, invaluable. At Bournemouth he learnt that he preferred the practical side of chemistry and was not over-keen on the theoretical, obscure aspects of physical chemistry, but he loved building things, making experiments work and solving problems and, in particular, he loved the ocean.

In 1977, Malcolm heard about two jobs being advertised at the Institute for Marine Environmental Research (IMER), now Plym- hot curry when the pub closed, and each After this project, Malcolm began working outh Marine Laboratory (PML): one was a morning on the way to the ship, walked in ‘proper’ organic chemistry and began biology role in the plankton group, and the past decommissioned steam trains, laid other a chemistry post. Malcolm’s initial using an early gas chromatograph for a up rusting outside Barry Docks. There thought was that he preferred the biology seasonal survey of volatile organic com- were many more cruises in and around the job, but Fauzi Mantoura interviewed him and pounds in the River Tamar and estuary, Celtic Sea on the John Murray over the appointed him as a chemist. especially focussing on the outputs from frst 10 years of Malcolm’s career. the Naval Dockyard and wash of from the Tamar road bridge at Saltash. Together, Early work at IMER Strictly speaking, Fauzi had employed the team at IMER did a large number Malcolm’s frst experience of work at Malcolm as an organic chemist, and the of river surveys from the fat-bottomed sea was very soon after starting at IMER frst project was to build and deploy the and involved a series of regular three- or frst sea-going analyser for dissolved Tamaris, an adapted landing craft. They four-day surveys of the Bristol Channel organic carbon (DOC). Malcolm was like surveyed up the Tamar, slept on board with Bill Brown and Mike Jordan. At the a kid in a candy store; he got to build with the DOC analyser still running, and time there were national plans to har- things and do practical chemistry, and he surveyed back downstream the next day vest energy from the Severn Estuary by loved working with the team of scientists (with essential pub stops to allow the means of a tidal power array between at IMER: Fauzi, Tony Bale, Alan Morris, sample backlog to catch up). Outings to Minehead and South Wales; Malcolm’s Robin Howland, John Stevens and Reg the River Dart and the River Fal really role was to carry out sampling as part of Uncles. The DOC analyser was a success nailed the freshwater–brackishwater inter- the scientifc baseline surveys of par- and the frst samples analysed were those face and described it for the frst time. ticle loading, nutrient and chlorophyll that were collected monthly, taken on a Parallel to the DOC work Malcolm also concentrations, from on board the RRS transect down the River Severn and its started his frst forays into nutrient analy- John Murray or the ‘Orange Banana’ as estuary by South West Water, who took sis. Ammonium was not routinely mea- she was ‘afectionately’ known – quite the samples using a bucket lowered from possibly the worst-coloured ship ever a helicopter! The result – Mantoura and *Mantoura, R.F.C. and E.M.S. Woodward (1983) Conservative behaviour of riverine (see http://www.shipspotting.com/gallery/ Woodward (1983)* – is a seminal paper, dissolved organic carbon in the Severn photo.php?lid=1287836)! These surveys which has been cited hundreds of times. Estuary: chemical and geochemical impli- left from the NERC ship base in Barry; It describes the conservative behaviour of cations. Geochimica et Cosmochimica like many of us, Malcolm stayed in the DOC in the estuary, which has huge impli- Acta, 47(7) 1293–309. doi: 10.1016/0016- Barry Hotel, drank in The Pixie, and ate cations for carbon cycling in the oceans. 7037(83)90069-8

6 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) sured at IMER, or indeed anywhere else, Malcolm with so he spent a happy nine months learning Pascal Salaun about segmented fow colorimetric anal- (Liverpool ysis and worked with Fauzi on a method University) on for the reliable analysis of ammonium the RRS James Cook in January through the full salinity range of the Tamar 2018 estuary. That method, and derivatives of that method, are still widely used today. Indeed, that automated colorimetric technique for analysing ammonium was still one of the autoanalyser methods being used by Malcolm on the RRS James Cook during the 2017/2018 Atlantic cruise. The early colorimetric analysers had essen- tially the same glassware, connectors and tubing as now but the colorimeters were very simple with a light bulb and glass fow-cell for detection, large upright chart recorders (computers, what computers?) and a very basic auto-sampler with a timing mechanism. These machines A knack for logistics The Plymouth Nutrient Facility was born, needed a lot of looking after and this Malcolm’s frst big open ocean cruises and with it a desire to improve techniques intensive work sowed the seeds for his were in 1986 as part of the Indian Ocean and handling of samples, and then to future career path. Expedition, with Peter Burkill as Principal improve the data quality outputs and reliabil- Scientist. There were two cruises inves- ity of the analyses. Involvements with major Broadening horizons tigating biogeochemical cycling in the programmes grew, and early EU projects The group at Plymouth was now expand- north-west Indian Ocean and the upwelling like EROS (European River Ocean System) ing its science and felds of research – in region of Oman. This is when Malcolm introduced Malcolm to the global commu- the early days, IMER was mainly a coastal realised his skill for logistics and organising nity, and there followed numerous collabo- laboratory, with cruises in the Severn people. Shipping of chemicals was very rative cruises like CYCLOPS (2002), which Estuary, Carmarthen Bay and the Celtic diferent from today and all of the chem- was the phosphate-release experiment in Sea, never far from land and always on icals were sent out in a single container, the ultra-oligotrophic eastern Mediterra- the smallest of the NERC ships. With the within the then regulations. By the time the nean. Involvement with UK programmes, arrival of Nick Owens and Peter Burkill in container arrived in the Seychelles, having underpinning the crucial nutrient analyses the lab in the early 1980s, the scientifc been baked for six weeks in the sun on a and running the scientifc cruise logistics, as horizons broadened, and with the addition container ship, all of the preweighed phenol with the NERC UK Shelf Seas programme, of the newer, larger RRS Challenger to the had been ruined in the vials. A hastily has continued right up to the present day, NERC feet, bigger experiments could be arranged visit to the Victoria hospital in with FRidge on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. carried out by a larger IMER team, further the Seychelles (where the cruise began) to ofshore into the Atlantic and North Sea. replenish the stock of this essential chem- AMT cruises ical was enough to ensure Malcolm was Nutrients and cruise logistics for the AMT By this time, Malcolm was getting more very careful never to have to take advan- (Atlantic Meridional Transect) programme into nutrient measurements, and a big tage of health care in this region. took up much of Malcolm’s time in its early breakthrough was adapting and develop- years (1995 onwards), as there were then ing a new method for analysing very low The cruise ended in Oman, where extra- two cruises per year using the RRS James (nanomolar) concentrations of nitrate and ordinary bureaucracy meant each traveller Clark Ross and her transit to and from the nitrite in oligotrophic (low-nutrient) waters. needed 18 passport photos to enter the Falklands, transporting staf and equipment Previously these concentrations were country, which had not yet opened up to for the British Antarctic Survey. The early below the detection limits of colorimet- tourism – but for Malcolm this was just ideas and eventual inception of the AMT ric autoanalysers. The early nanomolar another logistical problem to be dealt with. came from ‘Met Obs meetings’ which were methods were pretty scary – gas pressur- It was here that the challenges of working named after meetings to discuss metereo- ised systems with boiling concentrated at sea, getting analysers operational and logical observations when at sea, but were sulphuric acid to reduce the nitrate meant keeping them that way, plus the enjoyment then held regularly in the basement of the that by the end of the cruise Malcolm’s of seeing diferent oceans and cultures, IMER building (usually involving a bottle of clothes were full of holes from the acid made sure that there would be no career wine or two at the end of the week). There burns – but the data were extraordinary changes for Malcolm. in 1994 Jim Aitken, Roger Harris, Tony Bale, and ground-breaking. Nick and Malcolm The birth of the PML Nutrient Facility Dave Robins and Malcolm discussed and became close friends and they started the developed the idea for using the RRS James There was a follow-up Indian Ocean nitrogen cycling work at IMER with Nick Clark Ross transit to sample the whole cruise in 1994, and by then Malcolm had working on development of the stable length of the Atlantic Ocean for the very 15 assumed responsibility for all the nutrient isotope mass spectrometer system for N minimal cost of staf time and consumables, analyses at IMER, taking on the four-chan- analysis and Malcolm now able to comple- just adding a couple of days’ ship-time nel Technicon analyser for nitrate, nitrite, ment this, having the capacity to measure costs to achieve a full Atlantic transect. silicate and phosphate, which comple- the nanomolar nitrate and nitrite concen- This Atlantic Meridional Transect has to be mented the ammonia, DOC and the new trations in the oligotrophic oceanic regions. the best value science that has ever been nanomolar methods for nitrate and nitrite funded in the UK. that he already worked with.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 7 In all, Malcolm has completed six whole very small improvements add up to a large get the quality of analysis and data in all AMT legs and fve partial transects. Partial improvement in the overall quality of the regions to the same level is an absolutely transects involved fying to the Falklands analysis. There is rarely any one big thing, essential part of moving international sci- to set up the ship and train the scientists, but everyone can make small cumulative ence forward, so enabling the comparison leaving the ship at Montevideo and fying changes and improve the quality of their of nutrient datasets in the future. Attention home. Or he would go to Grimsby to set analyses.’ to data quality becomes even more impor- up, the ship would call into Portsmouth to tant as we try to measure changes in the Participating in the GEOTRACES pro- pick up aviation fuel for BAS aircraft and he deep and upper ocean nutrient inventory gramme and the UK cruises at 40°S would jump of and head home. in a warming planet – we can only do this (2010 and 2011) between Cape Town and efectively if our data are intercalibrated Montevideo, with Gideon Henderson as Malcolm was Principal Scientist for AMT11. accurately. Malcolm and his group are look- the Principal Scientist, really challenged It was funded with only 42 hours of science ing for ideas for funding to maintain this this attention to data quality and to the time that was eked out over the 40-day international efort in the future. passage. Each day he would oversee two sharing of data. Rigorous comparison of CTD deployments, zooplankton netting, data from cross-over stations and peer Malcolm assures me that he still is fddling and an optics dip to look at the optical scrutiny of numbers is really important, with his techniques and trying to make properties of the surface ocean. The and through Malcolm’s eforts as part of a them better. ‘You have to question what importance of ocean colour was of huge similarly minded team, reference materials you do, examine your data with a critical interest to NASA and they part-funded the are now regularly used by nutrient chem- eye and learn from the best,’ he says. He’s early AMTs to help ground-truth the new ists across the globe. Reference materials picked up tricks from Clif Law and Phil SeaWIFS satellite data. are the key to good analyses but they are Boyd while visiting New Zealand as an very expensive – Malcolm co-chairs an international visiting scientist (2005 and AMT was by then an international activity International SCOR (Scientifc Committee 2006) and they shared ideas – Malcolm and Carol Robinson led the NERC consor- on Ocean Research) Working Group (No. now uses ‘nitrogen pillows’ (known as tium that funded AMT13 through to AMT18, 147) whose aims include making low-cost Tedlar bags) to supply gas to his analytical on which Malcolm was again the Principal reference materials which are now more system rather than bulky and hazardous Scientist. Tim Jickells was the Principal widely available at a lower price. Malcolm pressurised gas systems, and with much Scientist for AMT12 and he requested that oversaw the collection of nearly a tonne of better results. He also participated in the Malcolm sail with him to oversee nutrient Atlantic seawater last year on the ZIPLOc New Zealand South Pacifc GEOTRACES measurement right across the oligotrophic cruise (zinc, iron and phosphate in the voyage whilst there. As for the number of ocean gyres. Malcolm upgraded all of his Atlantic Ocean) with Claire Mahafey as cruises he has been on, well, it’s some- kit and delivered great data under all sea the PSO. He helped flter, cook (to 80°C), where over 80, and one day they should be conditions. store and package this water and sent it to documented. Japan for processing. There are now two Raising standards Malcolm is now regularly sought after to sets of certifed nutrient reference materials advise on techniques, to train up scientists, Malcolm now works with the global marine for deep and mid depth Atlantic seawater and advise on the development of new kit. community and is recognised world-wide available from JAMSTEC (the Japan Agency This keeps him busy and he also has a as one of the leaders in the feld – he has for Marine–Earth Science and Technology) number of projects lined up for the future led the PML Nutrient Facility for over 22 who are co-ordinating the sales on behalf of (e.g. the ORCHESTRA and PICCOLO pro- years. He is proud of everything he has the SCOR working group. built up but most of all he wants to get grammes in the Antarctic). He still has lots good numbers and good data, and share Through his international working group, of enthusiasm and drive but somewhere this knowledge with scientists around the Malcolm has coordinated nutrient training down the line maybe he will want to do world. His mantra is about attention to workshops for scientists from developing something diferent. detail: ‘It is the many small changes and countries – training young scientists from improvements you can make to cleanliness, South Africa, India, China, Argentina and What’s next? handling, sampling, reagents, tubing etc. Mexico in the art of nutrient analysis and Malcolm has always played hockey and that make the diference,’ he says. ‘Lots of helping them with their lab and analytical now has ten international caps for Wales, techniques. This international efort to scoring three goals for the Welsh Grand Masters team (his mother was born in Wales) in the Hockey World Cup in Australia in 2016, and following that up with another three goals in Barcelona, during the 2018 Grand Masters World Cup. Malcolm at the launch What happens when he retires? He has of the hull of the new polar research ideas to set up a gin distillery, but worries vessel, Sir David there may not be much to sell. We look for- Attenborough, in July. ward to tasting Woody’s Gin, and I predict Malcolm represents it will be exceptional! UK marine chemists on the Scientifc We need a plan for when we have to User Consultation replace him – his is a fantastic job for the team helping advise person with the attention to detail, ability to on the design and organise things and the energy and enthu- specifcation of the siasm for a long career in marine science. scientifc areas on the new ship. Rachel Mills, January 2018

8 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Professor Roy Chester (1936–2018) A tribute to a pioneering marine chemist

Roy Chester, Professor of Oceanography in and leachable trace metals, determining the Department of Earth Sciences at for the first time the nature of the major Liverpool University from 1991 to 2001, sources of trace metals for this important died on 20 March 2018 after a short inland sea, and the relative contributions illness, aged 81. Roy graduated with from Europe and from Saharan Africa. a B.Sc in Geology in 1959 and was His novel methods for determining the then awarded an Imperial Oil Company solid-state speciation of trace metals Scholarship for research into sedimen- were also important for understanding tary geochemistry, gaining his Ph.D from their solubility and biogeochemical impact Manchester University in 1963. In 1962 in the oceans. Roy went on to show the he came to Liverpool as an Assistant importance of continental dust entering Lecturer in the Department of Oceanogra- the Atlantic Ocean. The significance of phy, being promoted to Lecturer in 1965, his work was not just in understanding Senior Lecturer in 1973, Reader in 1976 how these transport pathways operate, and Professor in 1987. He took over the but also in the realisation that continental established Chair of Oceanography from aerosols could be important for supplying John Riley in 1989. fertilizing nano-nutrients, such as iron,

to oceanic surface waters. Trace metal Roy had many research interests in the fertilization of the oceans remains a very geochemistry of marine and lacustrine active area of research and Roy would I remember Roy as an excellent col- waters, sediments and marine aerosols. have been delighted that colleagues at league with a wonderful sense of humour. He published over 125 research papers, the University of Liverpool continue to He led the Liverpool oceanographers many of which were very highly cited. In excel in this field. through some difficult times but cared for the early 1970s Roy started working on all of the staff and was prepared to stand deep-sea sediments and then, recognis- As a teacher, Roy Chester was a firm up for us when necessary. His Ph.D ing the role of atmospheric deposition in believer in the principle of allowing cut- students and postdoctoral researchers supplying terrigenous clays to abyssal ting edge research to influence teaching. benefitted from his careful and close sediments, began a series of pioneer- His collaboration with John Riley and supervision. Many of them were interna- ing studies of atmospheric inputs to Geoffrey Skirrow initially resulted in the tional students, and now hold academic the ocean. His innovative work helped research-level two-volume book, Chemi- posts all over the world. to create the whole field of research on cal Oceanography, published in 1965, but atmospheric contributions to the oceans. realising that this was beyond the reach Roy had more strings to his bow than of undergraduates, he and Riley distilled most. He was a prolific novelist, penning He developed a novel sampler, and his the key components into the Introduction murder mysteries and thrillers (including early work on the Saharan dust plume to Marine Chemistry published in 1971. The Toy Breaker, Pagan and Vengeance), (with Harry Elderfield and others) set the This was a key resource for the BSc. a member of the Mental Health Tribunal, scene for much that followed in this field. teaching at Liverpool for many years and and an active member of the Round He began by considering the clay content was widely adopted internationally as an Table. He was also a mad Liverpool fan, of aerosols, but an important component accessible and authoritative overview of who never tired of ribbing me about my of his research was his pioneering work the subject. support for West Ham United FC and on Saharan dust and other atmospheric delighting in the inevitable thrashing that particulate matter as external sources of Through his research and teaching Roy we got every season at Anfield! I missed trace metals and other chemical species developed his description of the oceans Roy when he retired and will certainly to the Mediterranean Sea (with Peter as a unified system linked by a variety miss him now. Statham, Malcolm Nimmo and others). of pathways. He used this approach to Scientists had realised that there had develop his magnum opus, the textbook George Wolf (University of Liverpool) to be large quantities of Saharan dust Marine Geochemistry, which ran for three with help from Tim Jickells (University of entering the Mediterranean, but there editions (the third with Tim Jickells) and East Anglia), Mike Krom (University of were almost no measurements of the remains one of the most comprehen- Leeds) and Martin Preston (University of nature and amount of such inputs. Roy sive and well-written marine chemistry Liverpool) collected samples from some fixed textbooks to this day. Roy was keen to stations in the western Mediterranean maintain its relevance and was talking to and during cruises through the Mediter- Tim Jickells about another edition only a ranean. He made measurements of total few months before he died.

Readers with connections with Oceanography at Liverpool might be interested in a special meeeting in May on ‘The Ocean Tide and the Port of Liverpool’. For more information, see p.5.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 9 John Wilson (1938–2017) The interdisciplinary scientist whose innovative work shed light on cold-water corals

John Wilson worked at the boundary submersibles to study deep-water coral between geology and biology by study- reefs or thickets in waters 200–300 m down ing modern shelf-sea environments, how of the western shelf of the British Isles. these control the distribution of organisms This work led to a number of classic papers living there and how these organisms and his major contribution to our science. became preserved in the fossil record. Fortunately, the videos and commentaries More specifically he focussed on those of some of his 1973 dives have been saved with calcareous skeletons such as mol- by colleagues working with the British Film luscs and corals, their ecology and tapho- Institute and can be viewed at http://www. nomy (i.e. preservation/fossilisation), and lophelia.org/case-studies/pisces-and-rock- how they contributed to the production of all-bank/pisces-videos. calcareous sediment on the UK shelf. In these pioneering submersible dives Born and educated in Edinburgh, John John made critical observations on obtained a frst class honours degree from how cold-water coral patches formed Edinburgh University. After a year at Caltech by Lophelia pertusa developed to form he continued at Edinburgh with a Ph.D coral rings: large colonies expanding out studying how bivalve molluscs became from existing small fragments of hard Throughout his career John was always preserved in the intertidal sediments of the substrate. The environmental controls on the most enthusiastic and supportive Solway Firth. Using an ‘actuopalaeonto- these formations (known today as ‘Wilson colleague and mentor. This enthusiasm for logical’ approach, being pioneered by rings’) are still of research interest. Work- his subject was infectious and no-one who German workers such as Wilhelm Schäfer, ing in the cramped conditions in Pisces worked alongside John at sea or back in he was able to demonstrate the diferences submersibles John’s keen eye and obser- the lab will forget the passion he brought between shell beds formed on tidal fats vational skills were the vital ingredients to his work and his sheer joy at seeing and those formed on the foors of tidal that laid foundations for work on cold- something new or unexpected for the frst channels, and how diferent bivalve species water corals, which has been growing time. were preferentially preserved in these exponentially since the late 1990s. sediments. Outside his passion for his subject John Royal Holloway was an avid collector of militaria, mem- IOS and classic papers With the closure of the IOS at Godalm- orabilia from the White Star Line and the Following his Ph.D in 1965, John obtained ing in 1995, John moved to an Honorary Titanic (his father was a nautical engineer a lectureship for four to five years at Research Fellowship at Royal Holloway, who transferred his skills to build an oil Aberdeen before beginning his productive University of London, where he carried refnery for the Burma Oil Company). John career at the Institute of Oceanographic out research on material collected during is survived by his wife Leta, his two sons, Sciences (IOS), near Godalming, Surrey. his many IOS cruises and assisted with Angus and Bruce, and three grand- Here he joined an active research group teaching and Ph.D research supervision. A children Jonathon, Hannah and Chloe. who were making major advances in the fortuitous meeting with André Freiwald led hydrography, sedimentology and ecology to fruitful collaboration on Lophelia reefs Dan Bosence (Royal Holloway, of the UK’s shelf seas using innovative and thickets – most notably, the extensive University of London) and Murray equipment such as side-scan sonar. At IOS Sula Reef on the Norwegian shelf. Roberts (University of Edinburgh), with John was one of the frst to use manned assistance from Leta Wilson.

Above right John proudly holding up a sediment sample, and (left) adding weights to the Smith McIntyre grab, with Bob Spencer and crew, on RV Surveyor, in March/April 1971. Right John examining dredged coral aboard the RV Victor Hensen, on the Galicia Bank, in April 1997.

(Photos taken on board This obituary frst appeared in Geoscientist, RV Surveyor by courtesy 28(6), 2018. The two photographs taken on of Colin Pelton; photo to board RV Surveyor are from ‘Memories of the right, by courtesy of John Wilson’ by Colin Pelton, which can be André Freiwald) found at oceanswormley.org.

10 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) SCOR is 60 not out !

SCOR – the Scientifc Committee on Oceanic Research – is now in its 7th decade. Many readers will have been involved in SCOR programmes, but others may know little about it, despite the tremendous role it plays in coordinating and integrating ocean science across the globe, and the substantial involvement of UK scientists throughout SCOR history. Below, Gideon Henderson explains how SCOR facilitates and supports marine science in the UK and internationally. The frst of the two pieces that follow describes one of SCOR’s Large Scale Ocean Research Projects – IMBeR (Integrated Marine Biosphere Research) – while the second describes the aims of one of the 18 smaller and more tightly focussed Working Groups – IQuOD (International Quality-controlled Ocean Database). Ed

SCOR: building international science Gideon Henderson, Chair UK-SCOR Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford

SCOR was founded in 1957 by the on integration of plankton observing Society. Challenger Council has International Council for Science in systems, and 155, on eastern-boundary- recently taken on direct responsibility recognition of the international and current upwelling systems. Each year for UK-SCOR business (previously interdisciplinary nature of ocean there is a call for proposals, allowing any undertaken by a UK-SCOR Committee science. It aims to promote international group of scientists to suggest a subject that met annually) and now has SCOR cooperation in planning and conducting they consider suitable for a new SCOR as a standing item on its agenda ocean research, and it enables trans- Working Group. to ensure regular consideration of national ocean research to fourish. the interaction of UK oceanography The third SCOR activity is capacity- Since its inception, SCOR has had a with SCOR. SCOR activities are building, by expanding the range of track record of taking new ideas and also reported to the Royal Society, oceanographic expertise in developing challenges from the bench (or perhaps through an ex ofcio SCOR position nations. Key to spreading expertise are more accurately, ship) and nurturing them on the Society’s Global Environmental SCOR Visiting Fellowships, which allow into international scientifc activities. Its Research Committee. leading oceanographers to run courses programmes span the full range of ocean in developing countries, and the jointly UK scientists have played a strong science – biology, physics, chemistry and sponsored POGO–SCOR Fellowships, role in shaping SCOR activities geology – and lead to fndings with broad which allow young scientists from over the years, and continue to implications for ocean policy. the developing world to spend up to have a presence on project steering SCOR activities fall into three groups. three months at leading oceanography committees and in Working Groups One involves the initiation and institutes. that far exceeds that expected from organisation of Large Scale Ocean a single nation. The UK recently Research Projects to make the most of SCOR’s organisation of this suite of provided the President of SCOR important opportunities or tackle major activities is efciently led by an executive internationally (Peter Burkill, 2014–16), challenges in oceanography that cannot committee of ten scientists, and a one- and UK scientists have chaired many be addressed by one nation. Such person secretariat in the form of Ed Urban of the major programmes including SCOR Projects include WOCE, TOGA, – SCOR’s Executive Director. SCOR SOLAS (Peter Liss, 2005–2007) and GLOBEC, JGOFS, IMBeR, SOLAS, representatives from member nations GEOTRACES (Gideon Henderson, and GEOTRACES, all of which have meet annually to steer existing initiatives 2006–2012); IMBeR is currently led by allowed signifcant step-changes in our and consider future ones. The next Annual Carol Robinson (see overleaf). The UK understanding of the ocean. Meeting will be in September 2019, in also presently has 15 full members on Toyama, Japan. SCOR Working Groups, including four A second SCOR activity is sponsorship in Chair positions. SCOR sponsorship of Working Groups, each dedicated to SCOR activities are funded by a has given UK scientists an opportunity addressing a timely issue in a particular combination of national subscriptions to pursue their scientifc ideas and area of oceanography. SCOR funding and grants from national funding councils integrate them with those of other allows a group of international experts which support certain programmes. In oceanographers across the world. to meet, over a period of four years, to the UK, 51% of the national subscription address a specifc set of questions or is contributed by the Challenger Society, Two contrasting examples of SCOR goals. Last year SCOR announced three who are therefore the responsible initiatives are described in the pieces new Working Groups: numbers 153, on organisation for UK interaction with that follow. foating litter and ocean transport, 154, SCOR, and 49% comes from the Royal

156 and 157?

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 11 IMBeR: Ocean sustainability under global changes for the beneft of society

Carol Robinson (Chair of the Steering Committee) School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia

The Integrated Marine Biosphere During 2014 and 2015, IMBeR took stock The second Grand Challenge is to Research project (IMBeR; www.imber. of its accomplishments over the previ- predict future states of the oceanic info) is one of the international research ous 10 years, and engaged the scientifc ecosystem, and the consequences of initiatives sponsored by SCOR. Now community in producing a new 10-year global change for marine ecosystems involving more than 2000 scientists Science Plan. This has a mission to and human societies, by incorporating from more than 80 countries, it began in promote integrated marine research and into models a system-level understand- 2005 with the central goal of providing enable development and implementation ing of the drivers of change in marine ‘a comprehensive understanding of, and of strategies for attaining ocean sustain- ecosystems. An example research accurate predictive capacity for, ocean ability within and across the natural and question within this challenge asks what responses to accelerating global change social sciences, and provide society with levels of ecological, biogeochemical and the consequent effects on the Earth the information and knowledge necessary and social complexity are required to system and human society’. The 2005 to secure sustainable, productive and provide realistic projections of future Science Plan had four themes: healthy oceans. The new Science Plan is states, including human well-being and divided into three themes or ‘Grand Chal- livelihood. • Key interactions between biogeochem- lenges’ which cover six priority research ical cycles and marine food webs. The third Grand Challenge aims to areas and incorporate four key topics or Sensitivity to global changes (such as improve communication and under- • ‘Innovation Challenges’ (Figure 1). ocean acidifcation, increasing tempera- standing between IMBeR scientists, ture, inorganic nutrient limitation, de- policy makers and society to achieve oxygenation and increases in marine IMBeR Grand Challenges improved regional and international gov- harvesting). The frst Grand Challenge relates to ernance, adaptation to and mitigation of • Feedbacks within the Earth system developing whole-system-level under- global change, and transitions towards including oceanic storage of anthropo- standing of ecosystems, including sustainability. An example research genic CO2 and the impact of deoxygen- biogeochemical cycles and interactions ation on emissions of nitrous oxide. question within this challenge asks how with humanity. One research question natural science, social science and • Responses of society within this challenge asks what the major humanities research can be integrated linkages, interactions and dependencies The interdisciplinary science within these into global change research so that it is between human and ocean systems four themes was progressed through the useful to policy-makers and society in are, and how they are afected by global work of four regional programmes, several general. task-oriented working groups, and inter- change at a range of time- and space- national networking and capacity-building scales. activities.

!"#$%&'(#))*$+*&, !"#$%&'(#))*$+*&,, !"#$%&'("#)"*+("#+,-("')./0 869%52)"*+&7$"(%)5&:+9%$#)7')5"&+ )"*+'1$+&'('$+("#+2(%)(3)4)'/+5.+ ("#+9%5;$7')5"&+5.+.-'-%$+ 6(%)"$+$75&/&'$6&+ 57$("–1-6("+)"'$%(7')5"&+ ('+6-4')94$+&7(4$& Figure 1 The three Grand Challenges and four Innovation Challenges within the ,$$-.#/0-$&'(#))*$+*&1 ,$$-.#/0-$&'(#))*$+*&2 IMBeR 2016–2025 7-+(#3("2$+5"#$%&'("#)"*+-/+ Science Plan. !"#$%&'("#)"*+',$+%-.$+-/+ 0$'(1-.)2+#)3$%&)'4+("#+ $2-.-*)2(.+/$$#1(28&+)"+',$+ Note: An EOV is an 9(%',+&4&'$0 $3-.5')-"+)"+0(%)"$+ Essential Ocean 1)-*$-2,$0)2(.+242.)"* Variable, i.e. a ("#+-2$("+$2-&4&'$0+ quantity which is 6%-2$&&$& derived from feld observations and which contributes signifcantly to ,$$-.#/0-$&'(#))*$+*&3 assessments of the 7-+2-"'%)15'$+'-+',$+#$3$.-60$"' state of the ocean. -/+(+*.-1(.++-2$("+$2-&4&'$0 An eEOV (Innovation ,$$-.#/0-$&'(#))*$+*&4 +-1&$%3(')-"(.+("#+0-#$..)"* Challenge 2) is 7-+(#3("2$+("#+)06%-3$+',$+5&$+ "$':-%8+',('+6%-3)#$&+$9;<& -/+&-2)(.+&2)$"2$+#('(+/-%+-2$("+ !"#$%&'(#))*$+*&,,, a biological or <71)$2)"*+("#+)69%52)"*+ ("#+'-+)06%-3$+0("(*$0$"'+-/+ 0("(*$0$"'=+#$2)&)-">0(8)"*+ 0(%)"$+#('(+("#+)"/-%0(')-" ecological EOV. ("#+6-.)24+#$3$.-60$"' &-&'()"(34$++57$("+*52$%"("7$

12 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) IMBeR Innovation Challenges The Innovation Challenges are timely topics which we believe are tractable within three to fve years and for which IMBeR is suitably placed to make a difer- 6<1=(>"#?.@ ,<1=(;3%&. 678-,(94%-&2%:4(92--#%&'(;"00%22-- ence. The frst Innovation Challenge asks how the diversity and evolution of marine organisms afect their resilience and their ,-'%"&./( 123-#(4"&2#%5)2"#+( !"#$%&'('#")*+ capacity to adapt to change. The second *#"'#.00-+ 2"(678-,(+4%-&4- Innovation Challenge addresses the syn- 67?.23@;?425;125 !""#" $A+$B(5 thesis and integration of global datasets, -./0123/454./-6 %'$()(* %:;?!-1 and linkage of these datasets to ecosys- 7894::;2<35=5>4?5 57??4/35-611:5 tem modelling. Innovation Challenge 3 "$+!, -12C4/42-453 asks how interactions between the ocean contnental margins .2@35=?815;. $%!& ecosystem and other components of the @.>.3?.2.<4?42> 42@1/54@38/1D4->5

Earth system afect climate processes and how these interactions are afected by change; and the aim of the fourth Innova- >3EFFF3$A+4,35-;42>;5>53C/1?3>3GF3-172>/;45 tion Challenge is to progress the integration, analysis and synthesis of data and information collected at diferent spatial Figure 2 The activities through which IMBeR facilitates networking and research and temporal scales from across the range of relevant social and natural sciences. Meeting the ever-increasing needs of the region, and determine how those dynam- Oversight of IMBeR activities is provided Earth’s human population while main- ics afect climate, extreme events, marine by an international scientifc steering taining biological diversity is one of the biogeochemical cycles, ecosystems and committee, and the day-to-day running greatest challenges of our time. Despite human populations. of IMBeR is undertaken by teams at bold international commitments, biodiver- CLIOTOP the International Project Ofce (IPO) in sity continues to decline. One potential The aim of CLIOTOP is to investigate Bergen, funded by the Norwegian Institute solution rapidly gaining momentum – as key processes involved in the interaction of Marine Research and the Research well as attracting opposition – is to incor- between climate variability/change and Council for Norway, along with the porate the economic value of biodiversity human use of the ocean, and their efects Regional Project Ofce (RPO) in Shanghai into mainstream decision-making. ICED on the structure of pelagic ecosystems supported by the State Key Laboratory scientists and collaborators asked how and large marine species. A major output of Estuarine and Coastal Research at the well this approach is working for marine from CLIOTOP this year was the pub- East China Normal University (Figure 2). systems using examples from three lication of a special issue of Deep-Sea contrasting regions, one of which was Reseach including 27 papers on topics Regional programmes the Southern Ocean. These ICED case covering conservation biology, trophic A large part of IMBeR research is com- studies demonstrate that valuation can be ecology, fsheries science, climate pleted through four regional programmes, useful but they also highlight the dearth change, and adaptive management. each of which has a science plan overseen of research exploring the ecological rela- The introductory paper describes over by a scientifc steering committee. These tionships which underpin the benefts that a decade of CLIOTOP research which are ESSAS (Ecosystem Studies of Sub- ecosystems provide. Arctic and Arctic Seas), ICED (Integrating resulted in signifcant progress towards SIBER Climate and Ecosystem Dynamics in the the goal of preparing both climate-sensi- SIBER is co-sponsored by the Indian Southern Ocean), SIBER (Sustained Indian tive predator populations and the human Ocean Global Ocean Observing System Ocean Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem societies dependent on them for the (IOGOOS) Programme, and focusses Research), and CLIOTOP (Climate Impacts impending impacts of climate change. on understanding the efects of climate on Oceanic Top Predators). Some of the change and other anthropogenic forcing IMBeR working groups activities undertaken by these pro- on biogeochemical cycles and ecosys- grammes during 2017 are given below. In addition to the four regional pro- tems in the Indian Ocean. A major activity grammes, six IMBeR working groups ESSAS and ICED of SIBER is the Second International focus on ocean carbon cycling, ocean ESSAS and ICED led the frst comparative Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE2, 2015– acidifcation, upwelling systems, continen- study of the ecological impacts of atmos- 2020), which is motivated and sponsored tal margins, data management and human pheric and oceanic circulation on polar by SCOR, the Intergovernmental Oceano- dimensions. One example is the ocean and subpolar marine ecosystems. The graphic Commission (IOC-UNESCO) and acidifcation subgroup of the carbon study highlights the efect of the strik- IOGOOS. The goal of IIOE2 is to advance research working group (jointly organised ingly diferent polar circulation patterns of understanding of interactions between by IMBeR and SOLAS, the Surface Ocean the Arctic and Antarctic on the amount, the geologic, oceanic and atmospheric Lower Atmosphere study; http://solas-int. thickness and duration of sea ice and the processes that give rise to the complex org/) which coordinates activities through ecology of zooplankton, fsh, seabirds and physical dynamics of the Indian Ocean the ocean acidifcation international marine mammals.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 13

coordinating committee (https://www. practitioners, incorporating mentoring Further reading iaea.org/services/oa-icc). This working for early career scientists in all of its Cavanagh, R.D., S. Broszeit, G.M. group also organises the Ocean in a activities. In particular, we organise the Pilling, S.M. Grant, E.J. Murphy and High CO World conference series and biennial ClimEco (Climate and Eco- M.C. Austen (2016) Valuing biodi- 2 versity and ecosystem services: a contributes to the global ocean acidifca- systems) summer schools. These are useful way to manage and conserve tion observing network (GOA-ON, http:// exceptionally popular; 200 applicants marine resources. Proc. R. Soc. B 283 www.goa-on.org/). from 51 countries applied for the 65 20161635 doi: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1635 places available at ClimEco5 in 2016. Hobday, A.J., H. Arrizabalaga, K. Evans, Other IMBeR activities Students on the summer school spend K.L. Scales, I. Senina and K.C. Weng IMBeR also convenes open science a week attending lectures, participat- (2017) International collaboration and conferences, biennial workshops (known ing in hands-on practical sessions and comparative research on ocean top predators under CLIOTOP. Deep-Sea as IMBIZOs: IMBIZO is the Zulu word undertaking a group project related to Research II, 140 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j. for meeting or gathering) and biennial predicting the socio-ecological impacts dsr2.2017.03.008 summer schools. IMBIZOs are targeted of global change. ClimEco6 was held Hofmann, E.E. and 10 others (2015) meetings which aim to lead to synthesis in Indonesia in August 2018, and the IMBeR – Research for marine sustain- papers and dedicated journal special next one will be in 2020. IMBeR has ability: Synthesis and the way forward. Anthropocene, 12, 42– 53. issues. For example, the frst IMBIZO also recently initiated a network of early was held in Miami, USA, in 2008 and led career researchers (Interdisciplinary Hofmann, E.E. and the IMBeR Scientifc Marine Early Career Network – IMECaN) Steering Committee (Eds) (2016) IMBeR to a special issue of Deep-Sea Research 2016–2025: Science Plan and Imple- on the ecology and biogeochemistry to provide training, development, col- mentation Strategy. http://www.imber. of the mesopelagic and bathypelagic laboration and leadership opportunities. info/resources/images/prosjekter/imber/ ocean. The latest IMBIZO – IMBIZO5 IMBeR-Science-Plan-and-Implementa- IMBeR communicates its activities tion-Strategy-2017.pdf – was held in Woods Hole, USA, in through a website (www.imber.info), October 2017, and position papers are Hunt, G.L. Jr and 16 others (2016) Advec- twitter account (@imber_ipo) and tion in polar and sub-polar environ- currently being prepared aligned with bi-weekly eNews Bulletins. To fnd out ments: Impacts on high latitude marine the challenges of the new Science Plan more about IMBeR activities, sign up to ecosystems. Progress in Oceanog- on microbial metabolic diversity and raphy, 149, pp.40–81. doi: 10.1016/j. the eBulletin, apply for a place on the ? evolution, critical constraints on future pocean.2016.10.004. see next summer school, or participate in projections of marine systems and man- Steinberg, D.K. and D.A. Hansell (Eds) email one of our forthcoming conferences. The agement strategy evaluation. (2010) Ecological and biogeochemical next IMBeR Open Science Conference interactions in the dark ocean. Deep- IMBeR has always aimed to contribute (Future Oceans 2) will be held in Brest, Sea Research II 57(16) 1429–1592. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ to training of the next generation of 15–21 June 2019 (http://www.imber.info/ journal/09670645/57/16?sdc=1 interdisciplinary marine researchers and en/events/osc/2019).

The international Quality-controlled Ocean Database Initiative (IQuOD): subsurface temperature profles

Matthew Palmer, Met Offce, and Catia Domingues, CSIRO, Australia (Joint IQuOD Chairs) on behalf of SCOR WG148, IODE SG-IQuOD and CLIVAR IQuOD

The global ocean stores most of the ocean’s ability to integrate atmospheric collect in situ measurements, and excess heat energy accumulating in signals, and propagate these relatively most historical observations have the Earth system as a result of human- slowly, provides the climate system with relied on deployment of instruments induced greenhouse gas emissions. It ‘memory’, which is the foundation of from research and commercial ships. is this accumulation of energy that is seasonal and decadal forecasts around Routine measurements of the upper the fundamental driver of the various the world. few hundred metres of the ocean only manifestations of climate change. As became available from the late 1960s. seawater warms, the ocean volume Why IQuOD is needed Ocean measurements extending to expands, raising global sea level. At To monitor variability and change in the sea foor still rely on dedicated regional scales, changes in ocean the ocean interior we rely on in situ research ships, including those in the currents and physical water properties observations, because unlike the GO-SHIP programme, with a typical (temperature, salinity, density) can atmosphere, the ocean depths are cruise working 24 hours a day for signifcantly infuence geographical invisible to satellite-borne sensors. Over several weeks or months to provide patterns of sea-level change, and also time, an increasing armada of observing full-depth transects across an ocean provide insights into changes in the technologies and platforms has become basin (http://www.go-ship.org/RefSecs/ global water cycle, particularly through available (Figure 1), but the ocean is goship_ref_secs.html). changes in ocean salinity. In addition, the a challenging environment in which to

14 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018)

[however] moved later In particular, the Argo array of autonomous profling foats has revolutionised our ability to observe the upper 2km of the open ocean since the mid-2000s and marine mammals are now frequently used to provide valuable observations in sea-ice regions Figure 1 Number of profiles per year by instrument type from the World Ocean Database. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed 70 000 diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna Note the marked increase in observations in the aliquam erat volutpat. Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis 21st century (see also Figure 2), mainly as a result water bottle of the Argo programme and the use of marine 60 000 MBT mammals. MBT = motorised bathythermograph, XBT XBT = expendable bathythermograph (discussed CTD %

0 !"#$

− 50 000 overleaf), CTD = conductivity (for salinity)– !"#$%&" temperature–depth probe, XCTD = expendable XCTD CTD. (Courtesy of Tim Boyer, NODC NOAA) towed CTD 40 000 glider moored buoy marine mammals The scarcity (Figure 2) of historical ocean 30 000 observations, in addition to the investment '()*($*+"(,-&.*/" of logistical efort, money and time spent in acquiring them, underline the need to maximise 20 000 their utility for ocean and climate research and services of societal beneft. This is a challenge, 10 000 in terms of fnding optimal ways to extract maximum information from the sparse historical observations, eliminating erroneous data values, 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2015 and correcting the inter-platform biases that can confound the analysis of ocean climate change.

In many cases, the metadata needed to help correct these biases are not available, so further work is required to provide a ‘best guess’ of specifc instrument type and other aspects of the data records. The International Quality-controlled Ocean Database (IQuOD) initiative aims to address this challenge, through the timely development and distribution of the highest quality, most complete and consistent long-term database of ocean temperature profles. This is being achieved over the next few years, through international coordination of resources from institutions in 17 nations, together with support from international programmes, such as SCOR, the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (IODE) of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO), and Climate and Ocean: Variability, Predictability and Change (CLIVAR), one of the four core projects of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). Under the auspices of SCOR, as a working group (WG 148) since December 2015, the IQuOD initiative is allowing coordinated progress in the objective development of data quality-control procedures, the documenting of instrumental uncertainties and providing ‘best guess’ estimates of missing metadata needed to develop corrections of inter-platform biases.

Figure 2 Distribution of historical ocean temperature observations for all profles that reach at least 700 m depth in four example years. Colours indicate the month in which the profle was recorded. (Courtesy of Simon Good and reproduced from Palmer, 2017)

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Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 15

Getting the most out of historical data Prior to the 2000s, the majority of ocean temperature profiles came from expendable bathythermographs, initially developed in the 1960s as a cheap means to measure upper ocean temperature from ships while underway (Figure 4(a)). However, it was discovered that XBTs record higher temperatures than research quality observational systems by an amount that has varied over time. This introduced artificial climate signals into observed global ocean temperature and sea-level change over the latter half of the 20th century, which were at odds with climate model simulations. Since 2007, a number of bias corrections for XBTs have been proposed but a key issue remains: the lack of metadata for a large fraction of XBT profiles (Figure 4(b) and (c)).

x 104 (a) 7 shallow, known Figure 4 (a) Deployment of an expendable bathythermo- 6 shallow, unknown graph (XBT). An XBT consists of a torpedo-shaped probe (here deep, known already discharged from its canister) inside which is a thermistor deep, unknown 5 which is connected electronically to a recorder on the ship. The probe falls freely under its own weight, which enables a 4 temperature profile to be recorded. Eventually, the wire runs out and breaks, and the XBT sinks to the sea bed. Since the 3 deployment of an XBT can be done while a vessel is underway, count XBTs are often deployed from vessels of opportunity, such as ferries. (Photo by courtesy of John Gould) 2 (b) The number of XBT profiles recorded each year and 1 the proportion of profiles where either probe type and/or manufacturer is unknown (approximately 50% of the historical 0 database). ‘Shallow’ and ‘deep’ XBT profiles correspond to (b) 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 nominal sampling depths of 460 m and 760 m, respectively. (c) The ratio of shallow XBT profiles for which type and/or manufacturer are unknown, to shallow XBT profiles for which this information is known, as a function of geographic location. Metadata include vital information needed to Where the number is close to 1, nearly all XBT profiles are of develop more accurate bias corrections, such unknown type and/or manufacturer. Where the number is as the specific XBT probe type used, the close to zero, nearly all XBT profiles are of known type and manufacturer. ((b) and (c) reproduced from Abraham et al., 2013) manufacturer, the cruise number, ship identification code and country of origin. IQuOD will help address this challenge by developing !"#"$%"/ ‘intelligent metadata’ schemes to give a best #"$%" guess answer when information on probe 1 type and manufacturer are missing.

80° N Another challenge is to address the mixed quality of the historical temperature profiles 0.8 found, which is imperative for the develop- 40° ment of more accurate bias corrections and ocean change estimates. IQuOD is working 0.6 towards refining the quality of the ocean cli- 0° mate record through a systematic intercom- parison of several automated quality-control (QC) procedures. The aim is to arrive at an 0.4 optimal set of automated QC checks, drawing 40° on the results of quantitative tests and coordinated input of expertise from around the 0.2 world. This effort will improve the quality and 80° S consistency of the database and will allow us to quantify the impact of data QC on derived 0° 60° E 120° 180° 120° 60° W 0° 0 ocean data products and eventually even the (c) accuracy of seasonal to decadal forecasts.

16 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Figure 5 Left An Argo profiling float observation cycle. The Argo array of autonomous profiling floats has provided unprecedented coverage of the open ocean since its inception in the early 2000s. Below Marine mammals, 6–12 hr at surface to such as the elephant seals pictured, can provide transmit data to satellite total cycle time valuable ocean observations in ice-covered 10 days regions of the ocean.

descent to depth at 10 cm s−1 (~ 6 hr) salinity and temperature profles recorded during ascent

1000 m drifting ~ 9 days

foat descends to 2000 m

For more information about Argo, see http://www.argo. Photo: Clive R. McMahon, IMOS Animal Tagging, Sydney Institute of Marine Science)

Linking historical and future The historical observations, made by Palmer, M.D. (2017) Reconciling observations XBTs and other past observing technol- estimates of ocean Heating and Earth’s radiation budget, Curr. Clim. Since the mid 2000s, the Argo array ogies, provide essential context for the future changes that will be revealed by Change Rep., 3(1), 78–86. of autonomous profiling floats has doi: 10.1007/s40641-016-0053-7 Argo and the evolving ocean observing revolutionised our ability to observe Palmer, M.D., T. Boyer, R. Cowley, system. the upper 2 km of the open ocean, and S. Kizu, F. Reseghetti, T. Suzuki marine mammals are now frequently Further Reading and A. Thresher (2018) An used to provide valuable observa- algorithm for classifying unknown Abraham, J. and 27 others (2013) A expendable bathythermograph tions in regions covered by sea-ice review of global ocean temperature ob- (XBT) instruments based on (Figure 5). servations: Implications for ocean heat existing metadata. Journal content estimates and climate change. of Atmospheric and Oceanic It is essential to sustain and build Reviews of Geophysics, 51(3), 450–83. Technology, 35(3), 429–40. doi: on these observations if we are to doi: 10.1002/rog.20022 0.1175/JTECH-D-17-0129.1 improve our understanding of ocean Cheng, L. and 14 others (2016) XBT von Schuckmann, K. and 11 others climate change, sea-level rise and the Science: Assessment of Instrumental (2016) An imperative to monitor current rate of anthropogenic global Biases and Errors, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Earth’s energy imbalance. Nature warming. IQuOD data products are Soc., 97(6), 924–33. doi:10.1175/ Clim. Change, 6(2), 138–44. being developed so that they will BAMS-D-15-00031.1 doi: 10.1038/nclimate2876 operate with modern data streams, so Domingues, C.M., and M.D. Palmer, promoting seamless analysis of both (2015) The IQuOD initiative: Towards current and historical ocean change. an International Quality controlled You can find out more about Both modern and historical data will Ocean Database. CLIVAR Exchanges, IQuOD activities, workshops and be treated with consistent quality- No. 67, International CLIVAR Proj- publications at http://www.iquod.org. control procedures and provided with ect Ofce, Southampton, 38–40. estimates of instrument uncertainties. http://www.clivar.org/documents/ exchanges-67 This will help improve ocean data- assimilation products used to study Gouretski, V., and K.P. Koltermann historical climate change, and to ini- (2007) How much is the ocean really warming? Geophys. Res. Lett. tialise seasonal-to-decadal forecasts. doi: 10.1029/2006GL027834

For more information about SCOR activities, see the Challenger website at http://www.challenger-society.org.uk/SCOR, or the SCOR webpage (www.scor), including in their 60th Anniversary Newsletter: http://www.scor-int.org/Publications/SCOR-NL-35.pdf

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 17 Filling the gaps for predicting the future The Marine Ecosystems Research Programme (MERP) Kelvin Boot

The NERC/Defra-funded Marine SAMS Ecosystems Research Programme Marine Scotland £685k (MERP) is now drawing to a close. MERP UNIVERSITY RSPB OF GLASGOW set out to integrate existing marine CEH £348k data and specially collected new data UNIVERSITY OF £75k STRATHCLYDE £275k UNIVERSITY with current models and knowledge of GLASGOW OF SHEFFIELD marine ecosystem services in order to £740k improve understanding of the whole UK marine ecosystem. Kelvin Boot QUEEN’S worked alongside MERP scientists UNIVERSITY BELFAST NOC and stakeholders and here provides £100k £480k a summary of the aims, activities and outputs from MERP. CEFAS £645k Services under stress AFBI Marine ecosystems provide a wide range of ‘services’ to humanity, which are highly QUEEN MARY £281k UNIVERSITY OF dependent on biodiversity and high LONDON ecological functioning. Perhaps the more BRITISH OCEANOGRAPHIC £110k BANGOR recognised are the so-called provisioning DATA CENTRE UNIVERSITY PML SEAWATCH SAHFOS services, of which wild-capture fisheries FOUNDATION £1275k is the most obvious, but other ecosys- £668k DEFRA tem services also support human life and livelihoods, for example by contributing to climate regulation, leisure and The NERC/Defra-funded Marine Ecosystems Research Programme partner institutes and tourism, and bioremediation of polluting their shares of the funding. The three main beneficiaries of programme outputs across substances. However marine ecosystems UK administrations are Marine Scotland, Defra (England & Wales) and the Agri-Food & are facing ever-increasing stress and Biosciences Institute (Northern Ireland). environmental change through human activities such as ecosystem restructuring Bringing data together Working together generated by fisheries, eutrophication, Although there is considerable scientific MERP brought together more than 50 pollution, and the CO -induced changes 2 activity and associated data-collec- scientists from 12 research institutes and a of global warming and ocean acidifica- tion in the north-east Atlantic, from a large number of supporting organisations. tion. Other human uses of the ocean, like whole-ecosystem perspective it tends The quality of its outputs are a testament gravel extraction, generation of marine to be fragmented, focussed on limited to the approach, which brought together renewable energy and coastal develop- descriptors of food webs (e.g. a single scientists with diferent expertise and ment, also add to the stressors that we tracer of trophic level) or components experience. They used the best available impose on the ocean. of the system (e.g. a specific habitat or modelling approaches and developed them Our coastal seas are busy places with component of the biota) or issues (e.g. further, merged existing data from a range of many competing demands and users; now, fishery management or renewables), sources and added new data where neces- more than ever before, it is crucial for us to each largely reflecting the interests sary; they also linked what they learnt about understand any consequences of changes and responsibilities of individuals and natural processes and ecosystem state and how they impact biodiversity and the organisations doing the work. There to services, and tailored the programme’s delivery of ecosystem services. We now is widespread recognition among the outputs to provide better understanding recognise that these impacts can have research and policy communities that relevant to policies. It was an underlying much wider consequences than had been a whole-ecosystem perspective is now aim that, in addition to laboratory studies, previously suspected, due to interactions required. The step-change envisaged literature reviews, feldwork and sampling through food webs. Marine ecosystems by MERP is to integrate existing data, cruises, MERP would bring together and fur- are complex and it is essential to devel- specially collected new data, and state- ther develop a suite of eight diferent marine op a much better understanding of how of-the-art ecosystem models, all within ecosystem models, provide vital evidence, they function, how their constituent parts a common framework built around the tools and advice to support compliance with interact, and how they may change into latest and most appropriate ecological the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the the future. Policy-makers, regulators and theories, and to use these to improve Marine and Coastal Access Act, the Marine the wide range of users are all concerned our understanding of the whole marine (Scotland) Act and the Common Fisher- about maintaining the long-term delivery ecosystem rather than just parts of it, ies Policy), and inform the OSPAR Joint of services from marine ecosystems, so how it responds to changes in pressures, Assessment and Monitoring Programme. understanding the consequences of any and the consequences of those changes MERP science has already fed into these changes is necessary when designing, test- in terms of ecosystem services. and other guidelines, directives and legisla- ing and refning management approaches. tion. Applying MERP outputs to forecasting

18 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) SEA MAMMALS

SEABIRDS

FISH

SEAWEEDS

BENTHOS ZOOPLANKTON

JELLYFISH

OTHER ZOOPLANKTON

PHYTOPLANKTON

NUTRIENTS

BACTERIA & DETRITUS

OXYGEN

PHYSICS

MODEL NEMO ERSEM STRATH E2E EWE PDMM SSSM Multi SSM CCSSM Fish Sums Ensemble

Dynamic Ecosystem Models, an interactive document on the MERP website, invites stakeholders to find the most appropriate model or suite of models to answer their queries. It provides information on a model’s geographical and ecological coverage and scale, details of how it has been used, and links to the key contacts for each model. NB The place of ‘jellies’ as both prey and predator has been revealed by genetic studies during MERP and this knowledge has enabled a gap to be filled in ecosystem models. any changes in the provision of ecosystem Each of the 14 questions informed the available or who to talk to, while satisfying services as a result of natural and human route MERP research would follow, and scientists’ desire for their work to be rec- pressures is an equally important outcome how the eight models were brought ognised and used. of MERP. The approach has been to follow to bear on bringing the resulting data the National Ecosystem Assessment (2011) together for making predictions. Group- Top predators guidance, focussing on food provision, ings of scientists and modellers, regular MERP’s work on top predators and the biological checks and balances, leisure and dialogue and strategic meetings ensured part they play in ecosystems has brought recreation, and bioremediation of waste good communication and sharing of together a huge amount of data revealing (see uknea.unep-wcmc.org/LinkClick.aspx- challenges, approaches and solutions. A where cetaceans and seabirds are to be ?fleticket=ryEodO1KG3k%3D&tabid=82). summary of how these questions were found, how their distributions vary with addressed, and how the models per- seasons, what they are eating and how Science to support policy formed and produced specific outputs, they interact within ecosystems in top Engagement with various stakeholder has already been shared with stakehold- down/bottom up ways. A series of maps groups was identifed as a priority for MERP, ers, in an online interactive document. has been produced which will have imme- and a stakeholder advisory group (SAG) A second web resource (shown above) was brought together at the very beginning demonstrates how each model has been The role of seabirds in marine ecosystems, to ensure the programme would produce used and how it contributes to a larger their distributions and numbers and how they may be affected by human activities relevant and useful outputs. The SAG mem- ensemble, looking across the marine were key drivers in MERP. (Photo: Francis bers, who came from backgrounds in policy ecosystem at different trophic levels and Daunt) advice, regulation, NGOs and industry, set scales. This easy-to-use resource enables the researchers a series of 14 policy ques- interested parties to select which model tions, distilled from a much longer initial list, or modelling approach is likely to be under the three headings: the most relevant for a particular stake- • The state of food webs (or their compo- holder question and further links to the nents) in relation to specified targets. model’s website and the person who is • Effects of natural and anthropogenic best placed to help. The idea is that that change on the state of marine food webs stakeholders outside of the immediate and the services they provide. stakeholder advisory group can see which • The future state of marine food webs model or combination of models is going and ecosystem service provision under to be most helpful. Hopefully, this will scenarios reflecting various management go some way to overcoming the barri- situations in UK waters. ers of stakeholders not knowing what is

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 19 MERP brought together the most comprehensive dataset, to date, of top predator distributions and movements in UK waters, resulting in a series of unique maps. The maps, being published as an Atlas, will provide an invaluable tool for decision makers. Here are distributions of just six cetaceans. Top: minke whale, fin whale and short-beaked common dolphin; bottom: long-finned pilot whale, Risso’s dolphin and Atlantic white-sided dolphin. In all, 35 species will be covered, 12 of them in greater detail. Publication of the Atlas is planned for early 2019. diate utility for stakeholders concerned the annual cycles which many models do our coast spread: the shallow seas that with Marine Protected Areas and Marine not cater for, but which have dramatic encircle the UK are busy places with often Strategy Framework Directive indicators, impacts on model outputs. MERP also competing demands on them. Improv- and marine management including that used the Ecopath with Ecosim model to ing our understanding of how the marine relating to effects of offshore renewable question whether marine renewable energy environment functions to maintain natural energy installations, and risks posed by devices are a positive beneft to fsheries, capital – so continuing to provide goods bycatch, shipping and offshore devel- by providing ‘reefs’ and sanctuary, or and services – and of how we balance opments. This unique series of maps is deleterious by displacing existing fsheries our varied demands upon marine natural now, thanks to additional funding, being or disturbing important sea-bed habitats capital, is essential for a sustainable future brought together as an Atlas, which will and their benthic communities. At another for the seas and ourselves. MERP brought soon be available online (see above). level, genetic sequencing was applied to to bear a vast range of skills and experi- open the possibility of identifying over- ence from experts ranging from empirical Fish, fisheries and fishing looked species, as well as unravelling the scientists to modellers to socio-econo- Fishing remains an important UK industry relationships between prey and predator: mists, with the aim of understanding how that exploits natural marine ecosystems to the technique has already been used to we can maximise the benefts we get from provide food and employment, as well as disentangle the relationship between fsh our seas through trade-offs between eco- supporting strong cultural identities within and jellyfsh – a previously neglected but nomic, ecological and cultural activities the coastal communities concerned. The important link in ecosystem models. and services while maintaining clean, safe Marine Ecosystems Research Programme and healthy seas, and the living natural investigated fsh, fsheries and fshing Natural capital capital they contain. across many of its research threads, from As human populations grow in size, Kelp communities and mussel beds are better understanding of how fsh ft into coastal communities increase and the both examples of valuable marine capital. and control trophic cascades, to modelling pressures on the seas that surround MERP investigated the overlooked but the impacts of commercial fshing on target species and the ecosystems of which they form a part. Investigations into fsh-related Monkfsh collected topics provide excellent examples of how on a cruise aboard groups of scientists have been assembled the Prince Madog. Species size-spectra within MERP to share expertise and tech- were included in niques in order to reach new conclusions the models. and approaches, which not only increase (Photo: our knowledge base but are also of great Leigh Howarth) utility for a wide range of marine stakeholders. Dedicated MERP research cruises and modelling showed how the efects of fshing on marine ecosystems vary with regional productivity.

MERP provided an opportunity to ‘tune’ models to embrace more parameters, such as the inclusion in the Strath E2E model of migrating fsh species to refne

20 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) important connectivity between kelp com- ‘Mini research munities, coastal carbon stores and the cruises’ carried out food web. Research ‘mini-cruises’ sampled at various locations at various points around the coast and around the UK found that the levels of seaweed- showed that the infuence of kelp as derived carbon in diets of sediment fauna, a carbon source for many kilometres from land, are greatest benthic organisms during autumn and winter when seaweed stretched many detritus production is also high. This link kilometres offshore highlights the need to think more widely to manage and protect subtidal carbon stores and has already attracted international attention. Another MERP project looked at the part played by mussels in bioremediation. Mussels are able to bioremediate many types of waste, including excess phytoplankton resulting from eutrophication of coastal waters, toxic products of plankton, highly carcinogenic and muta- genic particles from burnt fossil fuels, cal models have been shown to have the A wide range of bodies are involved in heavy metals, microplastics, nanoparticles ability to predict sediment composition managing the coast for economic, environ- and pharmaceuticals. Thus while it has not in British waters and the North Sea with mental and cultural sustainability. These been possible to place a fnancial value on a high degree of accuracy. By taking stakeholders have an interest in using the mussels’ bioremediation of waste, there is existing data on sea-bed sediments and coast, but increasingly they may come no doubt that it is an important contributor combining it with statistically modelled into confict as competing users demand values, the missing parts of the sea-bed to a healthy ecosystem, and anything that their share of coastal seas. MERP has jigsaw puzzle can be added and help to reduces mussels’ ability to provide this completed an analysis of its stakeholder provide a series of ‘synthetic’ maps of the service is likely to have impacts on water landscape, which involved mapping 278 north-western sedimentary environment quality and knock-on efects for other eco- representative stakeholders in terms of covering the area from the Bay of Biscay system processes, food supply, recreation their interest in MERP, their power and to the Faroes. This approach, developed and tourism. infuence over policy, and their potential as by MERP scientists, has produced the funders for future works. Three stakeholder Sea-bed sediment maps most extensive dataset of sediment com- ‘defning workshops’ were held during position and disturbance regimes, over a Access to reliable maps of the sea bed April–May 2017 for North Devon, Cornwall large spatial scale, available to date. is essential for addressing marine policy, and the west of Scotland, each attended by a range of fshing industry, NGO planning, spatial management and sci- It all comes back to stakeholders and policy-related representatives. The entifc issues; existing maps are patchy, The mosaic of activities and interests workshops aimed to document stakehold- leaving large gaps in our knowledge, but around our coasts can be complex, includ- ers’ expectations and ambitions for the flling these gaps would be expensive ing industries such as fshing, aquaculture, direction of change of a range of attributes and time-consuming. Benthic species gravel extraction, shipping and trade, of- of the state and exploitation of their marine have difering sediment requirements, shore energy and tourism. Individuals may regions. Interviews were flmed and edited so mapping sediments can be helpful in pursue angling, bird- or whale-watching, and will be used to re-interview individuals providing information on mud content and or simply enjoy a walk along the seashore; to see how their needs and attitudes may median grain size, enabling identifcation others just like to know we have ‘clean and have been modifed in the face of changes of ecologically distinct habitats. Statisti- healthy marine environments’. that are taking place, and information gained from models that predict conse- Ideas coming quences of various activities in the marine together at one environment. of the stakeholder workshops. MERP works Stakeholder engagement and MERP outputs, backed up by 75 (to feedback were date) peer-reviewed scientifc papers, guiding principles are making their mark. More than 140 of MERP. external presentations have taken MERP results to Defra, the Scottish Government, Natural Resources Wales, ICES, ASCO- BANS, the UN Sustainable Development Group, JNCC, Natural England, PICES, the European Parliament, UNEP MMO, CSIRO, the UN and other bodies concerned with managing our seas. As with any signifcant research programme, MERP results will take time to be analysed and further outputs and publications will be forthcoming, and there is no doubt that MERP will continue to be relevant into the future.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 21 This article can highlight only some of Ecosystems Research Programme is now further gaps in our knowledge, but demon- the diversity of approaches and results of drawing to a close, having made major strates that by bringing to bear upon the MERP to give a favour of the vast amount inroads into answering the questions it challenge a diverse group, with widely of research and development that it carried was frst set. Some data-gathering contin- difering expertise and experience, the out. Stakeholders and other readers are ues and other data are still being analysed, complex jigsaw puzzle that is the coastal encouraged to visit marine-ecosystems. but the outputs so far have provided some environment can be pieced together. org.uk for more details of the various MERP novel insights into how our coastal marine projects, the people who led them and their ecosystem functions, how its constituent Kelvin Boot is a science communicator outputs, along with links to the interactive organisms interact and how they may be working with Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the Marine Ecosystems Research documents and the models. The Marine afected by change. MERP has identifed Programme. [email protected]

Making progress with the plastic problem

As might be expected, the problem of The project, which is the brainchild of to tackling plastic pollution in open waters plastics in the ocean was addressed by architect Ramon Knoester, involves trap- worldwide. Along with retrieval of debris quite a few presenters at the Challenger ping plastic that has been carried down from rivers and river mouths and the Conference in Newcastle. We learnt about the rivers Rhine and Meuse into Rotter- sustainable use of plastics, RIF organises microplastic pollution of the ecosystem dam harbour, and putting it to good use. clean-ups, and works to create awareness in the Rockall Trough, and about model- and improve education about sustainability. ling the three-dimensional distribution of Once recycled, the plastic has been used plastics in the ocean. There were talks and to construct modules that ft together Related links to form a ‘Recycled Park’, 140 m2 in posters about diferent ways of assess- https://youtu.be/ZpwtWPnta68 = Opening ing the amount of plastic in the marine area. Not only does the park illustrate Recycled Park environment using direct sampling along that plastic litter collected from natural https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_ the coast, using the Continuous Plankton watercourses is a valuable material, but continue=1&v=lna6cOELLT8 Recorder at sea, and using a hyperspectral the building blocks create a new riverside https://www.youtube.comwatch?v=vwE7A- infrared camera on an unmnanned auto- green area for Rotterdam and have an 9SRcYk mated vehicle, and from satellite. (For more ecological function as habitat for micro- www.recycledpark.com information, see the Conference abstracts and macrofauna, such as larvae, snails, A short video about the making of the at challenger-society.org.uk.) fatworms, beetles and fsh. The floating ‘Recycled Park’ is available on request park provides birds and aquatic fauna Valuable though all this research is, if we from Ramon Knoester with food, breeding grounds and shelter, want to reduce the rate at which plastic [email protected] so stimulating the ecology in Rotterdam Ed. is entering the ocean (signifcantly reduc- harbour as a whole. ing what is already there must be a lost cause?), there can be no doubt that the Ramon hopes that Rotterdam can set most pressing need must be to prevent the an example for port cities elsewhere in plastic entering the sea in the frst place – a the world. He sees such local projects point strongly made by keynote speaker, as contributing to a larger aim, which he Erik van Sebille. It is therefore heartening is pursuing through the Recycled Island to learn that a pilot project with this aim, Foundation (RIF) which he and others described in Oean Challenge, 22, No.1, is founded to develop an active approach now up and running.

Right One of the plastic traps being used in Rotterdam harbour. The traps were tested, monitored and improved over the course of a year and a half, resulting in a system that works effectively even with heavy ship traffc, tidal current reversals and variable wind direction. Below left The frst artifcal islands, some recently planted. Below right A nesting coot making use of the new habitat.

22 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Sea ice is a key feature of the Arctic Ocean, but since satellite-borne sensors started observing and measuring Arctic sea ice, its extent has been continually declining; today, sea-ice cover in the Arctic is about 60% of that in the late 1970s (Figure 1). There is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of the significance of sea ice as a habitat for specially adapted sea-ice algae which form the basis of the Arctic food web. Although in a practical sense we are unlikely to be able to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, knowledge gained through the study of sea-ice algae will be important for helping society adapt to the change by, for example, developing novel management approaches to reduce stress on sub-Arctic commercial fisheries that may be impacted by the effect on the ecosystem of a loss of sea ice.

Sea ice: a dynamic environment for life Sea-ice cover in

) 8 the Arctic has 2 2 Sea ice covers, on average, 25 million km of declined by about km

the Earth, about 6% of the ocean surface. In 6 40% since the 7 late 1970s (10

the Arctic, in summer, sea-ice covers about 6–7 million km2, which increases to an average maxi- 6 mum areal extent of approximately 15–16 million km2 in the winter months. As seawater freezes to form sea ice (see Box), a complex interior 5 network of pores and channels forms, which can provide a unique and dynamic habitat for micro- 4 organisms, including sea-ice diatoms. Arctic sea-ice extent 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 In the Arctic, much ice survives year-round, so multiyear ice up to 4–5 m thick is formed, but it is within the thinner seasonal ice cover, which Figure 1 The observed September Arctic sea-ice freezes and melts each year, that most ice extent for 1979 to 2018, showing a decline of 13.3% algae are found (see Box). In some regions of per decade. (Courtesy of the National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado, Boulder) the Arctic over half of the total annual primary Lorem ipsum

Seasonal and multiyear ice in the Arctic In contrast to the waters around Antarctica, where sea-ice forms seasonally, in the Arctic a significant proportion of sea ice survives from year to year, with the result that much of the Arctic Ocean is permanently covered in ice, and most Arctic pack ice is several years old. Pack ice is continually moving under the influence of winds, and as it cracks and shifts, layers of ice raft over one another; where ice floes are forced together, pressure ridges form, increasing the ice thickness locally from 3–5 m to 40–50 m. These processes, combined with the snowfall that is added each winter, means that its albedo is higher; incoming solar radiation which is not reflected is greatly attenuated as it passes through multiyear ice. By contrast, the sea ice that forms anew each winter is much thinner and carries less snow, and in the spring sufficient sunlight can penetrate through the ice to allow photosynthetic organisms to flourish in the lowest parts. When seawater begins to freeze, relatively pure ice is formed, so that the salinity of the adjacent seawater is increased. Most of the salt in sea-ice is therefore in the form of concentrated brine droplets trapped within the ice as it forms. The presence of salt lowers the freezing point (which is why salt is used on icy roads), and so the droplets gradually melt their way through the ice, forming cavities and channels, and providing a habitat for micro-organisms.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 23 production can originate from the sea-ice habitat, is one of a number of problems that we need providing a valuable food source for many con- to solve if we are to be better placed to predict sumers both in the water column (pelagic) and at the future ecological impact of declining sea-ice the sea floor (benthic). cover. To improve our understanding of the role in the ecosystem of particulate organic carbon from Optimal conditions for primary production sea ice before it disappears, we first need to be associated with sea ice usually occur in spring, able to accurately and unambiguously distin- when sufficient solar radiation provides the guish, as well as quantify, this particular type of stimulus for the spring sea-ice algal bloom. In organic carbon so that we can track it through springtime, diatoms are one of the most impor- the ecosystem. tant groups of primary producers within Arctic sea ice. As summer approaches, seasonal sea Developing a chemical signature for ice melts, removing the physical ice habitat, and sea-ice particulate organic carbon ice-adapted microorganisms are released to the One approach that is beginning to offer new underlying ocean. (The implications of this are insight into the cycling of sea-ice carbon in the discussed on p.28.) Arctic uses the analysis of hydrocarbons known as highly branched isoprenoids, or ‘HBIs’. This Particulate organic carbon associated is the name given to a group of lipids usually with Arctic sea-ice containing 20, 25 or 30 carbon atoms and with As the climate warms and sea-ice extent contin- one or more double bonds between carbon atoms ues to decline, there will be an associated loss (Figure 3). A growing number of HBIs have of the physical habitat that currently supports been identified in aquatic environments, being the diatoms and other micro-organisms that live characterised as either alkanes or alkenes, with in it, leading to a net loss in particulate organic variations of the latter being distinguished by carbon of sea-ice origin, i.e. the micro-organ- both the number and position of double bonds. isms themselves, organic remains, faecal pellets The most commonly reported HBIs are the etc. The reproductive life-cycle of certain Arctic alkenes with 25 carbon atoms, and between one macro-fauna, such as calanoid copepods and and six double bonds. amphipods (Figure 2) that graze upon sea-ice algae, are inextricably linked to the timing of the The biological source of these HBIs, considered sea-ice algal bloom. Many larger animals, from to be secondary metabolites,* was determined by fish, up to seals, whales and polar bears, time John Volkman and his team (CSIRO, Tasmania),

at least some activities – especially hunting and when they identified C25 and C30 HBIs in cultures reproduction – to coincide with the spring sea-ice of the marine diatoms Haslea ostrearia and Rhizo- bloom period in order to take advantage of the solenia setigera. Following this initial biological abundant energy-rich supply of organic carbon. identification, subsequent studies went on to Sea-ice loss is therefore likely to have a broad discover further diatom species that appeared and complex range of ecological impacts. Yet, to share the ability to biosynthesise HBI lipids, beyond our direct observation of interactions although HBIs are not present in all diatoms. between animals and sea ice, quantifying the The global ubiquity of HBI-producing species amount of sea-ice particulate organic carbon of diatom has meant the use of HBIs in environ- taken up by the ecosystem is challenging. This mental research can span freshwater and marine systems as well as temperate and polar settings.

Figure 2 A ‘swarm’ of amphipods feeding on sea- Observing how the number of double bonds ice algae. These amphipods are often the dominant in the HBIs synthesised by Haslea ostrearia fauna at the underside of Arctic sea ice, and are decreased as the culturing temperature in the consumed by Arctic cod and seals. laboratory was decreased, Simon Belt, Guillaume (Courtesy of Shawn Harper, North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources) Massé and Steven Rowland from Plymouth Uni- versity hypothesised that species of Haslea diatoms living in very cold conditions, such as those Amphipods are just found at high latitudes, might synthesise an HBI one of the groups of crustaceans that possessing a single double bond. It was further feed on sea-ice postulated that the specificity of the biosynthetic algae pathway of HBI production in cold-water species of Haslea would make such an HBI structurally unique and, therefore, distinguishable from any other. With the support of Canadian researchers, the team confirmed this hypothesis by identifying

*Secondary metabolites are organic substances produced by an organism, which are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or reproduction of the organism. Their purpose is often unknown.

24 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) Figure 3 (a) The structure of the highly branched

isoprenoid (HBI) known as IP25, showing the positions of the hydrogen atoms and the 25 carbon atoms, and the position of the single double bond. (b) Structures of HBI lipids from sea-ice diatoms and (c) structures of HBI lipids presumed to originate from pelagic diatoms.

a C HBI with a single double bond that was 25 (a) located at a distinctive location in the chemical (ringed in red in Figure 3(a)). This HBI was

termed the ‘Ice Proxy with 25 carbons’ or IP25 (see Belt et al., 2007, in Further Reading).

A subsequent study of lipids in a series of IP25 samples of sea ice collected between January and June in the Canadian Arctic constrained (b) !"#$%&"'(%#)*+'!*,-&" the temporal and spatial variability of IP25 in sea ice, and demonstrated peak concentrations of

both IP25 and sea-ice diatoms at the ice–water interface during the spring (March–June) sea-ice bloom (Figure 4). Following the manual isolation of over 1500 individual sea-ice diatoms from natural sea-ice samples, it was established that at least Haslea kjellmanii and H. crucigeroides

biosynthesise IP25 within sea ice. In addition, it was also found that Pleurosigma stuxburgii var.

rhomboides also contributed to IP25 production in this habitat (Figure 5).

Subsequent meta-analysis of taxonomic studies (c) .-"!,+"('."/#0%&'(%#)*+'!*,-&" describing the sea-ice flora of various Arctic

Figure 4 (a) The author sampling seasonal sea ice in the Amundsen Gulf (Canadian Arctic) during the Circumpolar Flaw Lead Project in 2008. (b) The brown discolouration caused by ice algae inhabiting the underside of an extracted sea-ice core. (c) Light microscope image of acid-cleaned sea-ice diatoms. (d) Schematic time-series of

diatom abundance (brown) and IP25 concentration (red) in a series of sea-ice cores, showing peaks in both that represent the spring sea-ice bloom. (a) /,(&0!*.$)0 "#$%&#!!9:&%%0#;**

20 μm

1%&)(,2 $*+0#2 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1%&)(,$*+0#!!$3)45)(+**!!6#(7!!(8,05,*-&$!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1%&)(,2 "#$%&!'()*& $*+0#

IP25 5 cm (b) (c) IP25

!"#$%&#!!'()'*+&(,*-&$!/ $.*')%# Abundances of sea-ice diatoms and the sea-ice diatoms Fig 5 compound IP25 IP both peak in 25 spring Figure 5 Scanning electron micrograph of sea-ice

diatoms known to biosynthesise the IP25 biomarker. January July Scale bar = 10 µm. (d)

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 25 regions revealed that these IP25-producing diatom across 15 species, representing a confirmation species were not only ubiquitous in sea ice within of well established ideas on sea ice-benthic cou- the sea-ice diatom assemblage throughout the pling within Arctic ecosystems. The initial report Arctic, but were also present at relatively consist- represented a qualitative, yet important, devel-

ent abundances (~1–5% of all sea-ice diatoms in opment regarding the application of IP25, since it spring). On the basis of this work, the presence demonstrated a direct connection between sea- of sea-ice diatoms and, therefore, the presence ice primary production and a range of benthic of overlying Arctic sea ice, could be inferred from Arctic animals. the presence of IP in the Arctic sea-bed sedi- 25 Subsequent studies went on to show that IP ment. Since this point, interest in the use of IP 25 25 was present in animals on a pan Arctic scale, has expanded (Figure 6). in both pelagic and benthic habitats and at all Investigating sea-ice particulate organic trophic levels of the marine, terrestrial and avian carbon in the ecosystem food chains (see www.IP25.co.uk). However, in order to quantify the uptake of particulate Direct evidence for the uptake of particulate organic carbon from sea ice within the food web organic carbon from sea ice into the food web it was necessary to explore how IP analysis obtained using IP was first reported in benthic 25 25 could provide more quantitative data. animals. Significantly, in this first study, IP25 was detected in 19 of the 21 specimens analysed Measuring uptake into the ecosystem of sea-ice particulate organic carbon Figure 6 Frequency of peer-reviewed publications Recently, quantitative estimates of the propor- reporting and interpreting the presence of the sea- tion of particulate organic carbon at all levels of ice diatom biomarker IP , as of June 2018. 25 the food web, from zooplankton to polar bears, Research on IP25 has For full bibliographic details and links to these have been achieved by using the so-called been burgeoning studies please visit www.IP25.co.uk. since 2007 ‘highly branched isoprenoid lipid fingerprint’, often referred to as the H-Print. The H-print is 20 obtained by combining measurement of amounts

of IP25 with measurements of amounts of addi- 15 tional HBIs that are derived from certain pelagic

- related diatoms (e.g. Pleurosigma spp. and Rhizosole- 10 25 nia spp.). A laboratory-based calibration of the 5 H-Print was achieved by preparing a series of publications samples consisting of increasing proportions of no. of IP no. 0 sea-ice diatoms and decreasing proportion of 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Figure 7 Experimental setup used to establish the first calibration of the H-Print. (a) Five replicate experimental bottles each containing 20 adult Artemia sp. being fed a combination of sea-ice and phytoplanktonic diatoms and kept in suspension by aeration. (b) Light microscope image of an individual Artemia with algae visible in the gut (highlighted by red arrow). (c) Illustration of the linear regression of the H-Print ratio of Artemia and their faecal pellets versus the ratio of sea-ice and pelagic diatoms fed to the Artemia. (See Brown and Belt 2017 for a discussion of these results)

The H-print ratio of organisms (and their faecal pellets) reflects the balance between sea-ice 50 : 50 diatoms and pelagic diatoms in their diet 50 : H-Print

100 : 0 50 : 50 0 : 100 algal food (a) (b) 50 : 50 (c)

sea-ice !"#$%&' diatoms (&$)*+,

26 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) pelagic diatoms, and the H-print is defined so that a ratio of 100 : 0 corresponds to all food being of sea-ice origin. The resulting linear trend in a plot of H-Print ratio versus the sea-ice algae to pelagic algae ratio in the food demonstrated how accurate numerical estimates of the proportion of organic carbon from sea-ice diatoms versus that from pelagic diatoms could be achieved.

With the calibration established, the ability of

the H-Print to provide representative data on position) N (trophic 15 the composition of sea-ice particulate organic δ carbon assimilated by herbivorous grazers was also tested by feeding the same range of algal sea-ice pelagic samples to brine shrimp (Artemia sp.) in the diatoms diatoms

laboratory (Figure 7(a) and (b)). After 24 hours 100 : 0 50 : 5 0 0 : 100 feeding on algae, the Artemia sp. and their H-Print

faecal pellets were isolated and their H-Print (sea ice : pelagic) ratios were determined across the calibration gradient (1000 individuals in total) (Figure 7(c)). Since there was no statistically significant Particulate organic Figure 8 Schematic plot to show how the H-Print difference between either the H-print of the carbon can be ratio can be combined with d15N (a proxy for algae and that of the Artemia, or beween that tracked through the trophic position) to assist in assessment of the food web using the of the Artemia and that of their faecal pellets, it transfer of particulate organic carbon from sea ice H-print and stable was concluded that the H-Print was not altered up through the food web. (See Brown et al., 2017, for nitrogen isotopes during grazing and digestion. a more detailed illustration)

In ecology it is useful to be able to estimate the trophic positions of animals. One established Collectively, these studies provide persuasive approach to doing this makes use of the stable evidence that the H-Print approach can result in nitrogen isotope composition of animal tissue, new quantitative insights into the utilisation of expressed as d15N,* which increases by a pre- sea-ice and pelagic organic carbon within Arctic dictable amount across trophic levels. Recent ecosystems during this current period of notice- complementary analysis of the H-Print and able change in climate. In the future, less ice will nitrogen stable isotopes (e.g. Figure 8) provided result in increased light penetration from early an added dimension to food-web analysis. This spring to late autumn, which is likely to result in powerful combination illustrated how sea-ice increased phytoplanktic productivity. However, in and pelagic carbon within a food-web model this scenario the benthic community is expected were incorporated within multiple species across a range of trophic levels. Figure 9 Plot of sea-ice extent versus the relative H-Print ratios have also been successfully proportions of sea-ice and pelagic particulate combined with physical environmental varia- organic carbon (i.e. the H-Print) in livers of ringed bles, including sea-ice extent. For example, seals (Pusa hispida) sampled from the Cumberland The H-print of Sound region of Baffin Bay. Years with smaller sea- the livers of H-Prints were calculated for over 300 ringed ice extent resulted in lower contributions of sea-ice ringed seals seals sampled during 1990–2011 as part of the particulate organic carbon reaching ringed seals. reflects the Inuit subsistence harvests from Cumberland (Data from Brown et al., 2014) degree of sea-ice cover Sound, Baffin Bay, and the results showed that interannual variability in sea-ice extent had a significant impact on the amount of particulate organic carbon from sea ice that was being !"#$#%"&' used by the ecosystem (Figure 9). ''''''''()"% pelagic

*Natural nitrogen has two stable isotopes, 14N and H-Print 15N; 14N makes up about 99.636% of the total. d15N is a measure of the ratio of the heavy isotope to the lighter one. It is defined by:

15 14 15 14 ( N/ N)sample – ( N/ N)standard !"#*)+"'()"% ! = 300

15 sea ice d N = %0 (15N/14N) standard more sea ice less sea ice

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 27 to suffer from the absence of a pulse of partic- samples collected during the springtime sea-ice ulate organic carbon from ice during the spring melt in the Canadian Arctic. The sea-ice particu-

bloom. Calculating the deficit in particulate late organic carbon : IP25 ratio in sea-ice samples organic carbon supply in the likely future scenario was determined and this ratio was then used to of a total loss of sea ice therefore requires data estimate sea-ice particulate organic carbon by

on the absolute quantities of sea-ice particulate measuring IP25 in the underlying water column organic carbon entering the food web at present. which was shown to contain both sea-ice and This will be an important step in predicting how pelagic carbon. It was therefore possible, over ecosystems will behave in the future. a period of about four weeks, to observe and quantify the sinking and dispersion of sea-ice Absolute quantities of sea-ice particulate particulate organic carbon throughout the entire organic carbon entering the food web water column. The historical challenges associated with unambiguously distinguishing between particulate Whilst successful in this first instance, the organic carbon from sea ice and that from phy- method is highly novel and further detailed toplankton has been overcome, to some extent, application and assessment will be necessary by obtaining data from captive organisms fed to determine the full capability of the technique. controlled diets. Indeed, such an approach ena- Reassuringly, application of this method to bles us to obtain fully quantitative estimates of almost 100 amphipods sampled from the Nansen grazing rate and organism turnover which might Basin, in the Norwegian Arctic, is also providing later be up-scaled to the natural environment. data that are in line with existing captive exper- However, the transferability of such laborato- iments and best knowledge. This study showed ry-derived data to the environment needs to be that, during the spring period, amphipods were critically assessed since there is no guarantee feeding exclusively on sea-ice particulate organic that captive organisms will behave naturally, or carbon, consuming more than 70% of the avail- that individuals are even representative of the able sea-ice algae, which equated to 0.48 mg of population. There is, therefore, a great advan- sea-ice particulate organic carbon per square tage in being able to quantify an animal’s carbon metre entering the food web each day. There- fore, by combining quantitative IP and H-Print assimilation in situ. Arguably, the first step 25 towards achieving this is being able to distin- analyses, it will be possible to provide a wealth of guish sea-ice-derived particulate organic carbon novel data that can complement and advance our from carbon assimilated from other, non-sea ice, ability to predict the impacts of, and so prepare for, a decreasing sea-ice extent. sources – something which IP25 and the H-Print have demonstrably made possible. In addition, An opportunity for young scientists the particulate organic carbon component needs Rapid change is occurring in the Arctic and it is to be quantifiable in absolute rather than relative important to be able to quantify, among other (i.e. the H-Print) terms. things, the ecological impact of a loss of sea ice. In fact, particulate organic carbon can be, and Unusually, perhaps, the predicted time-frame of is, readily quantifable within sea ice, but as soon this major change in the sea-ice environment is as the sea ice melts and this carbon becomes relatively short (decades), meaning that many of mixed with other (i.e. pelagic) sources of carbon, the current generation of scientists are likely to quantifcation becomes much more difcult: experience it first-hand, making them best placed something that is further complicated by graz- to observe and quantify the likely impacts. Thus

ing by animals. To overcome these challenges, far, the analysis of IP25 and related HBI lipids has a recently proposed methodology exploits the been demonstrated to represent a useful emerging complementary technique which can provide sea-ice specifcity of IP25 to generate realistic estimates of absolute sea-ice particulate organic novel information on Arctic ecosystem structure carbon concentration, outwith sea ice. This is and functioning, an ability that is underpinned by identifying the link between HBI biosynthesis achieved by frst quantifying both IP25 and total sea-ice particulate organic carbon concentrations and specific diatom species. It is anticipated within sea ice, i.e. prior to it becoming mixed with that the continued development and application non-sea-ice carbon. From these values, a repre- of HBI-based techniques to polar science will ensure that further important and valuable data sentative sea-ice particulate organic carbon : IP25 ratio can be determined for sea ice. The absolute can be generated, which will further improve our amount of sea-ice particulate organic carbon in understanding of the polar ecosystem’s response a given sample can then be estimated based on to a rapidly changing climate. IP concentration alone, even within samples 25 Further reading containing carbon from many other non-sea-ice Belt, S.T., G. Massé, S.J. Rowland, M. Poulin, C. sources. The ability of this approach to gener- Michel and B. Leblanc (2007) A novel chemi- ate reasonable estimates of sea-ice particulate cal fossil of palaeo sea ice: IP25. Organic Geo- organic carbon concentration was recently chemistry 38, 16–27. doi: 10.1016/j.orggeo- established by applying the method to seawater chem.2006.09.013

28 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) Brown, T.A. and S.T. Belt (2012) Identification of the Post, E., U.S. Bhatt, C.M. Bitz, J.F. Brodie, T.L. sea ice diatom biomarker IP25 in Arctic benthic Fulton, Hebblewhite, J. Kerby, S.J. Kutz, I. Stirling macrofauna: Direct evidence for a sea ice diatom and D.A. Walker (2013) Ecological consequences diet in Arctic heterotrophs. Polar Biology, 35 of sea-ice decline. Science 341, 519–24. (1),131–7. doi: 10.1007/s00300-011-1045-7 doi: 10.1126/science.1235225 Brown, T.A., S.T. Belt, M. Gosselin, M. Levasseur, M. See also www.ip25.co.uk Poulin and C.J. Mundy (2016) Quantitative estimates of sinking sea ice particulate organic carbon Tom Brown is an environmental scientist inter-

based on the biomarker IP25. Marine Ecology Prog- ested in the discovery and measurement of chem- ress Series, 546, 17–29. doi: 10.3354/meps11668 ical biomarkers derived from diatoms. Although Brown, T.A., E. Chrystal, S.H. Ferguson, D.J. his work focusses on the Arctic, his interests also Yurkowski, C. Watt, N. Hussey and S.T. Belt (2017) span temperate marine and freshwater settings. Coupled changes between the H-Print biomarker and In 2016, Tom was appointed as a lecturer at the δ15N indicates a variable sea ice carbon contribution Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS). to the diet of Cumberland Sound beluga whales. Lim- [email protected] nology and Oceanography, 62 (4), 1606–19. Lindsay Vare is a marine geochemist and Project doi: 10.1002/lno.10520 Manager for SAMS Research Services Ltd. Her Brown, T.A., C. Alexander, D.J. Yurkowski, S.H. Fer- research interests include palaeo-reconstruction of guson and S.T. Belt (2014) Identifying variable sea past environments through a range of techniques ice carbon contributions to the Arctic ecosystem: A using both inorganic and organic geochemistry. case study using highly branched isoprenoid lipid Her experience also includes investigating and biomarkers in Cumberland Sound ringed seals. assessing anthropogenic impact on the marine Limnology and Oceanography, 59, 1581–9. environment by monitoring pollutants, and study- doi: 10.4319/lo.2014.59.5.1581 ing the biogeochemical processes involved in their Brown, T.A. and S.T. Belt (2017) Biomarker-based redistribution. [email protected] H-Print quantifies the composition of mixed sym- pagic and pelagic algae consumed by Artemia sp. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecol- ogy 488, 32–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2016.12.007

A treat for West Country historians

The Maritime History of Somerset is a series of multi-author works,

edited by Adrian Webb, liberally illustrated with photographs, Webb A.J. Two Volume Somerset of History Maritime A original paintings and sketches, maps, tables and diagrams, A Maritime History intended to be of interest to scholars and general of Somerset readers alike. Volume Two

Vol. 1 (2010) contains eight chapters primarily relating to trade and commerce from the 16th to the 20th centuries. It also contains chapters on Royal Naval charting of the Somerset coast in the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as a chapter on how the marine environment infuenced the development of Weston-super-Mare.

Vol. 2 (2014) includes development of Minehead’s harbour facilities at the end of the 17th century and the origin ISBN Edited by 978 0 902152 of two Somerset river ferries, as well as a very detailed 26 7 Adrian J. Webb chapter analysing the experience of travel to and from the SANHS Somerset coast.

Vol. 3 (2017) covers some ground-breaking research into the origin of Somerset’s principal maritime place names, along with geology, wrecks, seamens’ religious and social welfare, imports and exports of stone, the infamous 1607 inundation of mid Somerset by the sea, and much more.

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Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 29 The challenge of meeting the Paris Climate Accord

Phil Goodwin

The United Nations Paris Climate Accord, difficult to plan strategies to achieve the Modeller app (illustrated below). This app agreed in 2015, set out targets for desired outcome for future warming. allows anyone to explore diferent emis- restricting the rise in global mean surface sions pathways, and see if they comply In two recent papers, co-authors and I temperature. Under the Paris Climate with the Paris Climate Accord. Users set an applied a diferent approach to constrain Accord, the rise in global mean surface emission pathway via a simple touchscreen how much CO emissions have to be temperature is to be kept less than 2 °C 2 and the app then runs 1000 simulations curbed to satisfy the Paris Climate Accord. above pre-industrial, and efforts are to of the fast climate model to project future Using a very fast climate model, we frst be made to keep the rise to less than warming, sea-level rise and ocean acidif- ran many millions of simulations, each with 1.5 °C above pre-industrial. However, cation up to the year 2100. a diferent set of model parameter values at the current observed rate of warming (e.g. the model’s climate sensitivity*). Both the app and published papers both the 1.5 and 2 °C warming limits will Then we tested each simulation against emphasise the enormity of the challenge be exceeded during the middle of this observational records of surface warming, ahead if we are to avoid the most danger- century. The more ambitious 1.5 °C target ocean heat uptake, and carbon uptake in ous consequences of climate change. is the subject of a new Intergovernmental the ocean and on land. We kept only the Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special simulations that agreed with all observa- The CO2 Modeller climate app is available Report, published in October. on App Store and Google Play via tional records, and used these observa- www.CO2modeller.info Complex climate models agree that tion-consistent simulations to project into meeting the Paris Climate Accord will be the future. We identifed that the 1.5 °C Further Reading a significant challenge: to restrict the rise warming limit would be breached in around Goodwin. P., A. Katavouta, V.M. Roussenov, in global surface temperature we must 17 years at current carbon emission rates, G.L. Foster, E.J. Rohling and R. Williams, and that the 2 °C warming limit would be (2018a) Pathways to 1.5 and 2 °C warm- restrict the amount of CO2, and other greenhouse gases, being released into breached in around 35 to 40 years. This ing based on observational and geolog- ical constraints, Nature Geoscience, 11, means that if we are to stabilise climate the atmosphere. The trouble is that the 102–7. doi: 10.1038/s41561-017-0054-8. various complex climate models predict we cannot continue to emit carbon at the current rate but must continually reduce Goodwin, P., S. Brown, I.D. Haigh, R.J. a range of values for the amount of extra Nicholls and J.M. Matter (2018b) carbon dioxide that can be emitted before the carbon emission rate until we reach Adjusting mitigation pathways to warming exceeds the limits set by the Paris zero-carbon world. This zero carbon world stabilize climate at 1.5 °C and 2.0 °C must be achieved by 2050 to stabilise at rise in global temperatures to year Climate Accord. According to these models, 1.5 °C warming. 2300, Earth’s Future 6, 601–15. doi: for the 2 °C limit to be broken, the total 10.1002/2017EF000732 amount of future carbon emissions could The fast climate model can be run on IPCC Special Report (2018) http://www. be as little as 80 gigatonnes of carbon or smartphones and tablets through the CO2 ipcc.ch/report/sr15/ as much as 580 gigatonnes of carbon. If carbon emissions continue at their current *A model’s climate sensitivity is the equi- Phil Goodwin is a lecturer in Ocean rate, this means between 8 and 50 years librium global mean surface temperature and Earth Science at the University of change that results from a doubling of from now. This large uncertainty makes it Southampton. [email protected] atmospheric CO2 concentration.

Clicking on Home allows the user to set and change emissions scenarios. Then, through the icons at the top, they

can view projections of atmospheric CO2, surface warming, mean sea-level rise and surface ocean pH up to year 2100, corresponding to their chosen scenarios.

30 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) During his ‘journey to the equinoctial regions of the new continent’ about 200 years This article is an ago, Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) made many oceanographic observations in abridged translation from the German of the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean. His main interest was the relationshisp a paper by the late between climate and the global ocean circulation, still a major topic in marine research. Gerhard Kortum, Ever since 1790, when he first saw open waters at the North Sea coast, and embarked frst published in on his trip to England in the company of his friend and mentor Georg Forster, Humboldt the Northeastern Naturalist (for more had a longing for the ocean, especially the Pacific, and a strong interest in matters details, see end of relating to oceanography. Unfortunately, his writings on the sea are scattered through his article) major publications, and many of his notes have never been published. Humboldt never finished his decade-long work Oceanica, a summation of his ideas about marine natural history. Nevertheless, while he was not an oceanographer in the modern meaning of the word, it is generally accepted that Humboldt belongs in the list of pioneers of marine science.

Humboldt’s Latin American Journey The Atlantic was crossed, the first target attained 1799–1804 – but Humboldt’s American journey would not On 5 June 1799 Humboldt started his remarka- end until he sailed into Bordeaux on 1 August ble voyage of research to South America, which 1804. The historical scientific significance of almost became a circumnavigation of the world. the journey can perhaps be compared only After lengthy preparations he embarked on the with Charles Darwin’s 1831–36 round-the-world Spanish frigate Pizarro in the Spanish harbour of voyage on the Beagle (where he was an avid La Coruña. Accompanied by the French doctor reader of Humboldt’s books). On the Origin of and botanist Aimé Bonpland, he arrived at Ten- Species was published in the year of Humboldt’s erife where he stayed from 19 to 25 June 1799. death (1859), and a new era was born. Humboldt Then, following in the wake of Christopher Colum- and Darwin (roughly 40 years younger) knew each bus, whose travel reports he studied keenly, other through their personal correspondence and Humboldt arrived in the New World after a fast cited each other favourably in their main publica- and pleasant crossing. He wrote: tions. In both of their famous travel narratives, questions of marine science played a signifcant (though At dawn on 16th July 1799 a picturesque green relatively minor) role. coast lay before us. The mountains of New Anda- lusia, half veiled in cloud, formed the horizon to the South. The town of Cumana with its castle appeared between groups of coconut palms. At nine o’clock in the morning, twenty-one days after *In this article, Journey refers to Vol. I of Reise in die our departure from Corunna, we dropped anchor Aequinoctial-Gegenden des neuen Continents (Journey in the harbour … . to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent) (Journey, p.217)* edited and translated from Humboldt’s French original by Hermann Hauf and published in 1861.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) 31 ,-*°. +*° *° The legs of the journey were as follows: I On the Spanish corvette Pizarro from La /01&%(23 Coruña to Curmaná, via Tenerife in the Canary islands, 4(56012ñ( .():#"=$0" 9:#;(&%;<:#( and then to Caracas; II 75 K%L !"#$%& M days’ journey inland, on the '$($%) GM Orinoco and the Rio Negro; 5'<(#" 30°N III From Nueva Barcelona 7%"%1#8% (between Cumaná and )*+&'*,- 4%35,-.36.7&'-"% Caracas) to Havana, three >(?("( 71#"#&(& F%3#B056#$D months in Cuba, across the G%1(B12H island to Trinidad, and thence AB(<2;B0 MMM by sea to Cartagena; IV 6(1$(=%"( Through today’s Colombia, G 6(1(B() 62@("( Ecuador and Peru to Lima; A"=0)$21(...... /-"&' 8&-,6.,- /0=0$( MM V From Callao (the port !"# of Lima) to Acapulco via I2#$0 'J6(1;0) 012&*3% $%&'&(& *° Guayaquil, followed by a year C2(D(E2#; in Mexico; VI Back to Havana MG 102$%5085%3<%&#$#0" from Veracruz, then on the Spanish vessel Concepción )$0<<#"=5<;(B% to Philadelphia and by road ...... /-"&' 6(;;(0 K%L5'<(#" to Washington, and fnally to 9%12 '<("#):5?#B%10D(;$#%) K%L5C1("(&( Bordeaux on the French frigate 9%12 Favorite. Figure 1 The route of Humboldt’s journey to the Americas, 1799–1804. By courtesy of WikiMedia

Humboldt confessed ‘an idiosyncratic partiality as soon as I was on board a ship, I always felt a for the sea’ in a personal remark at the end of his great drive to work.’ (Journey, p.28) classic summary of his oceanographic knowledge It is to this deep personal interest in the sea that and opinions in his major work Cosmos: model of a we owe not only the numerous observations and physical description of the world (Vol.1). In his pref- measurements that Humboldt made during his aced remarks to Journey, p.3, Humboldt added that voyages but also, in his later years, his constant he ‘always felt, from early youth onwards, the drive examination of advances in the then poorly towards the sea and to long journeys,’ although – or developed field of oceanographic research. perhaps because – he had grown up in Berlin, far from the coast. Furthermore, he reported that ‘I was Humboldt knew personally James Rennell (1742– blessed by my constitution never to be seasick, and 1830) and Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806–1873), the leading English and American hydrographers of the first half of the 19th century, and corre- Table 1 The individual voyages made during Humboldt’s American journey. sponded with them. Their ideas about oceanog- The roman numerals correspond to legs of the journey shown in Figure 1 raphy are dispersed as notes and longer pas- (legs II and IV were over land). Days sages within Humboldt’s most important writings, at collected at different times. Passage Dates sea n.m. Humboldt manifestly continued to develop his La Coruña–Tenerife 5 June to 19 June 1799 15 1078 oceanographic views over time. Of special signifcance in this connection are the references to I Tenerife–Cumaná 25 June to 16 July 1799 22 3072 Rennell in Humboldt’s Views of Nature (of which Cumaná–Caracas 18 to 21 Nov. 1799 4 162 English translations were published in 1849 and 1850), as well as pages of citations from Rennell’s Nueva Barcelona – Cumaná 26 to 27 August 1800 2 54 An Investigation of the Currents of the Atlantic Cumaná–Nueva Barcelona 17 Nov 1800 1 54 Ocean (1832) in his unpublished writings. (Similar III brief references to Humboldt appear in Rennell’s Nueva Barcelona – Havana 24 Nov. to 19 Dec. 1800 25 1563 book, and it was Humboldt who suggested the Trinidad, Cuba – Cartagena 9 to 30 March 1801 21 647 phrase that became the title of Maury’s long-lived textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea Callao/Lima–Guayaquil 24 Dec.1802 to 4 Jan 1803 12 863 (1855).) V Guayaquil–Acapulco 17 Feb to 22 March 1803 35 2264 When Humboldt visited London at the end of April 1827 he met Rennell and obtained docu- Veracruz–Havana 7 to 19 March 1804 13 915 ments from him. Basically Humboldt, and thereby VI Havana–Philadelphia 29 April to 20 May 1804 22 1240 also the German geographer Heinrich Berghaus, Philadelphia–Bordeaux 30 June–1 August 1804 33 3611 aligned themselves with essential aspects of Rennell’s concept of the circulation of the oceans. Berghaus took this idea cartographically

32 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) from Rennell in the form of a detailed map of the know only sketchily from other notes about *Berghaus (1797– oceans with corresponding notes and explana- Humboldt’s famous journey in the ‘South Sea’ 1884) was most tions, in his two-volume Physical Atlas* (1845 and (i.e. the South Pacific) from Peru to Mexico, famous for his 1848). His Physical School Atlas, published in and in particular, so far we really know very cartographic work; his Physical Atlas, Gotha in 1850, contains a simplified representa- little about his return journey from Veracruz via which provided tion of the world map of ‘Ocean Currents’, which Havana, Philadelphia and the Azores to France, the illustrations is most probably a map attributed to Humboldt following the Gulf Stream system. These facts for Humboldt’s that was said to be lost. have both contributed to a limited recognition Cosmos, was of Humboldt’s contributions to oceanography, in his greatest Of course, Humboldt’s (now classic) descrip- what became a very extensive body of writing, achievement. tion of the crossing from La Coruña to Cumaná and to a general lack of critical appreciation of in Journey, reflects his earlier state of knowl- his work. edge. Shortly before his death on 26 March 1859, Humboldt directed Hauff to undertake a The naming of the Humboldt Current German translation of his travel writings (orig- Although Humboldt’s Pacific studies are well inally published in French). In its Foreword, known as an episode of the total journey, their Humboldt refers to his ‘antiquity’ and explains value to the history of oceanography had been why he refused to rework the text written a good scantily assessed until relatively recently. At the 50 years before, in the interest of a more real- end of 1802 / beginning of 1803, 47 days were istic representation ‘of my journey, which was spent at sea crossing from Callao, via Guayaquil, undertaken with the joys and aspirations of youth. to Acapulco (V on Figure 1). Humboldt was first Material used to explain general cosmic results’ able to see the South Sea in 1802, on the way were shortened or omitted. from the Inca city of Cajamarca to the coast. A Sadly, Humboldt did not manage to publish a dream he had nurtured since his youth was thus work that he planned to call Oceanica, which fulfilled, as we can learn from a very personal would have included all his oceanographic obser- passage in Views of Nature: *When young, Forster vations and knowledge, and would have been had accompanied ‘The sight of the South Sea seemed like a his father on several Volume 2 of his Shorter Writings. His life’s work celebration for one who owed part of his scientifc expe- Cosmos also remained unfinished. Likewise, his education and the directions of many of his ditions, including Journal ended with his arrival in Cartagena on desires to his interaction with a travel companion James Cook’s 30 March 1801, so fails to reflect the extensive of Captain Cook. Georg Forster* had already second voyage to observations recorded in his diaries. Thus we known my travel plans early, in broad outlines, the Pacifc.

120° W 60° 0°

e 60° f c d

Tropic of Cancer d

Figure 2 Important ocean currents in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean, m according to Humboldt: a a Equinoctial Current; b Gulf Stream; 0° Equator c North Atlantic Drift; d Rennell Current and North African Current; h e Arctic Current; f Hudson Bay Current; g South Atlantic Current; h Southeast Trade Wind Drift; Tropic of Capricorn i Southern Connecting Current ; g k Brazil Current; l Peru Current; k i m Mexican Current. l Also shown is the position of the accumulation of Sargassum weed in the North Atlantic, as estimated by Humboldt. (From Kortum (1999a) in Further Reading) 60° S

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) 33 Humboldt and the Royal Navy John Phillips

Humboldt and Bonpland sailed to South America under the Spanish flag. Britain was already in a state of war with Spain and remained so during most of the expedition. Their departure from La Coruña on 5 June 1799 in a Spanish warship, the Pizarro, was a risky undertaking. Humboldt wrote: ‘We directed our course to the north west, in order to avoid the English frigates, which we supposed were cruizing off those coasts.’ Four days later he continues: ‘at sunset, we descried from the masthead an English convoy, which sailed along the coast, steering towards the south east. In order to avoid it, we altered course during the night. From this moment no light was permitted in the great cabin, to prevent our being seen at a distance. This precaution ... was extremely irksome to us ... We were constantly obliged to make use of dark-lanterns to examine the temperature of the water, or read the divisions on the limb of the astronomical instruments.’

The first port of call was Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and here they had an even closer shave. The Pizarro anchored in thick mist, but as this lifted ‘we saw four English ships of the royal navy lying to very near the poop. We had passed without being perceived; and the same mist .... had saved us from the danger of being carried back to Europe ... We immediately got up our anchor, and the Pizarro stood in as close as possible to the fort, to be under its protection.’

Five years later they sailed homeward from the United States on board a French frigate, the Favorite. By then Britain was at war with France as well as Spain, and French ports, particularly the principal naval bases of Brest and Toulon, were under heavy blockade from the Royal Navy. Apparently the Favorite was able to slip into Bordeaux without any trouble.

Ironically, the most direct seaborne threat to the expedition occurred during their shortest voyage – eastward along the coast of Venezuela from Nueva Barcelona to Cumaná in August 1800, a distance of about 40 nautical miles. Impatient to reach Cumaná and take passage for Cuba, Humboldt hired an open boat loaded with contraband for the island of Trinidad, which the British had recently occupied. They had covered scarcely a quarter of the distance when their boat was captured by a privateer from Halifax, Nova Scotia. Humboldt’s attempt to negotiate their release was interrupted by a stroke of luck: ‘Happily for us, an English sloop of war, the Hawk, was cruising in those parts, and had made signals to the captain to bring to; which he not being prompt to obey, a gun was fired from the sloop, and a midshipman sent on board our vessel ... [who] invited me to accompany him on board the sloop, assuring me that his commander, captain John Garnier, of the royal navy, would furnish me with better accommodation for the night ... I accepted these obliging offers, and was received with the utmost kindness by captain Garnier ... [who] gave me up his own stateroom.’ Humboldt had been doubly fortunate in the identity of his rescuer: John Miller Garnier, born the fourth son of a prominent Hampshire family in 1774, had sailed as a midshipman with Vancouver’s exploring expedition to the west coast of North America in 1791–95. He was naturally very interested in Humboldt’s recent travels, which he had followed in the British newspapers. Humboldt was presented with astronomical tables for the years he had not been able to procure in France or Spain and concluded ‘I owe to captain Garnier the observations I made on the satellites beyond the equator, and feel it a duty to record here the gratitude I feel for his kind offices.’

Humboldt and Bonpland resumed their passage to Cumaná the next day. In striking contrast with previous sightings of British naval vessels, this encounter had been essential to their success; without the intervention of HMS Hawk, a five-year expedition to Spanish America might have ended after less than eighteen months, and in a distant port under British control!

Garnier’s later career was tragically brief. The following year he was promoted Captain at the early age of 26 and assumed command of the frigate HMS Southampton, but only three months later he died of yellow fever on St Martin in the Leeward Islands. After a further six years his estate received the payment due for both commands, much delayed by missing official paperwork. The family’s naval connections certainly didn’t end there: the next generation of Garniers included, by marriage, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Keppel, GCB, OM (1809–1904) and, almost two centuries after the Humboldt incident, Rear Admiral Sir John Garnier, KCVO, CBE was commanding officer of the Royal Yacht, HMY Britannia, from 1985 to 1990.

Quotations on this page are from Humboldt’s Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent, during the Years 1799–1804, translated from the French by Helen Maria Williams (7 volumes, published in London, 1814–29).

34 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) when I enjoyed the privilege of visiting England Prussian Maritime Atlas. He wanted to dedicate under his guidance for the first time (now more this to Humboldt with an extensive tribute in the than a half century ago).’ spirit of the time. Part of this reads: ‘Showing Bn [Baron] Humboldt’s thermometrical navigation and Through this voyage, Humboldt became one of various passages from Callao to Guayaquil during the pioneers of oceanography. At least in the the last days of the month of December 1802’. German-speaking world, the name ‘Humboldt Current’ has prevailed over the conventional However Humboldt objected strongly to this, in a oceanographic nomenclature for the cold water letter written on 21 February 1840: current along the coast of Chile to Ecuador. ‘Similarly I also protest at least publicly against any This has to be regarded as a special honour. ‘Humboldt’s Current’ … The current was known In the 1930s this dedication led to a rather to all fishing youths from Chile to Payta 300 years unproductive academic argument between the before me: I have simply the credit for being the first to measure the speed of the water stream.’ marine geographer Gerhard Schott and the oceanographer Georg Wüst, who was still active But when Berghaus eventually sent the maps to in Berlin at that time (later at the Institute of him on 6 December 1840, Humboldt was flattered Oceanography, Kiel). There is no sympathy with and relented. His reply written the following day this quibbling in South America. To this day they read: ‘On my return from Charlottenburg I find your see no reason to depart from naming the current beautiful maps, amongst them the one on which after Humboldt: after all, there are still Humboldt you have honoured my name too much for such penguins along the Pacific coast of South small achievements.’ The name was therefore America! But how did this nomenclature actually bestowed in Berlin, far from the territory which come about, given that Humboldt and Berghaus Humboldt explored. always used ‘Peru Current’ or ‘Peruvian Current’ in their writings and maps (Figure 2)? In his report on the Peru Current, Humboldt considered the signifcance of its temperature: From the beginning, the naming of this current ‘The first task of a travelling physicist, when he was not without controversy. Humboldt had arrives at the sea coast after a long absence in selflessly made his hand-written records mountainous regions, is to measure the baro- pertaining to ocean currents available to Berghaus metric pressure and the water temperature. I for his cartographic work. Berghaus reproduced was busy with this in the region between Truxillo these records verbatim in the first volume of and Guaman, at Callao de Lima and, on the ship his General Geography and Ethnology in 1837. crossing from Callao to Guayaquil and Acapulco, Amongst these was a (now classic) report on along a stretch of the Pacific Ocean of more than a hundred German miles. In those latitudes where the Peru Current. In 1904, the geographer and the surface water temperature is 26º to 28.5º marine scientist Otto Krümmel included this short outside the current, I recorded, to my greatest treatise in a collection of classics for university astonishment, 16 degrees in the vicinity of Truxillo, students, published as Selected Classics of at the end of September, and 15º at Callao, at the Geography for Use in Universities. This was how beginning of November.’ Humboldt’s account of the Peru Current survived – his intended monograph ‘About ocean currents Humboldt presented a great number of observa- in general; and the cold Peruvian current of the tions, and arrived at the ‘opinion, confirmed by South Seas, as opposed to the warm Gulf or many seafarers, that the Peruvian current is a polar Florida streams’ was never finished and dealt current which follows the main curves of the coast mainly with the Gulf Stream. and the NNW direction, from high to low latitudes.’

So the name does not come from Humboldt Some ten years later, in Cosmos, Vol. 1, Humboldt himself. Berghaus, however, wrote an adden- wrote: dum on his ‘pirate copy’: ‘Twenty years after his ‘The counterpart to this current in the Atlantic return to Europe, Herr von Humboldt at last had basin between Africa, America and Europe [i.e. the the pleasure and satisfaction of seeing his work Canary Current], belonging almost entirely to the completely confirmed. The observation first made Northern Hemisphere, is found in a current in the South Sea. I frst discovered its low temperature by him and with that the discovery of a cold ocean and obvious efect on the littoral climate in Autumn current in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean, 1802. It brings the cold waters of the high southern and the influence of this current on the climate of latitudes to the coasts of Chile, follows the coasts the coastal plain of Peru, was witnessed by three of this land and those of Peru frstly from the travellers in the most different of seasons.’ south towards the north, then (from the Bay of Arica onwards) from south–south-east towards To this text he added the following footnote: ‘Which north–north-west. At certain times of the year, in is why it can be justly named ‘Humboldt’s Current’. the middle of the tropical region, this cold oceanic Here, Berghaus was following a proposal made by current is only 15.6º, while the still water outside Franz Meyen (a naturalist and doctor), in his Jour- the current shows a temperature of 27.5º and ney around the Earth, published in 1833–35. 28.7º…’ At this time, Berghaus was working on a map of The idea that the Humboldt Current is cold merely the waters along the Peruvian coast for his Royal because it fows from high latitudes has since been

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) 35 abandoned. The waters of the coast of Chile and first appears in an entry in Humboldt’s diary for Peru belong to the areas of upwelling in the world’s 16 December 1800, written during the journey oceans, similar to those found on the west coasts of through the Caribbean from Nueva Barcelona to North America and Africa under the infuence of the Cuba. As set out in Journey (pp.41–2) this reads: Trade Winds. The water is 5–8 ºC colder because it ‘Since knowledge of the currents can make an wells up from a depth of about 200 m. This results essential contribution to shortening sea voyages, in a very fortunate situation, because the upwelling it would be of such great importance for the prac- provides nutrients for the phytoplankton at the tice of sea-faring, as well as of scientific interest, surface – the water of the Humboldt Current is often if ships with high quality chronometers could bottle green from its rich content of plankton. In turn determine the distance between the Gulf Stream and the foothills of Hatteras and Codd in differ- this promotes the abundance of fsh and the large ent seasons and under different wind conditions. population of sea birds in the coastal ecosystem. This could be achieved by these ships crossing However, when the tropical Pacific is subjected to in the gulfs of Mexico and in the northern Ocean an El Niño event, the upwelling fails, with cata- between 30º and 54º of latitude, purely for this strophic consequences for the ecosystem and the purpose … Such an expedition could, in addition fishing industry. to direction and speed of current, engage in taking measurements of sea temperature, and observe When we analyse the diagrams and measurements lines of equal magnetic deviation, the inclination Humboldt made on the voyage from Lima via of the magnetic needle and the intensity of the Guayaquil to Acapulco, it becomes evident that magnetic field ... .’ Humboldt travelled the coast when the upwelling was strong. It was clearly not an ‘El Niño year’, This proposal is typical of Humboldt’s intuitive feel as shown by Humboldt’s ‘Table of Sea and Air for scientific problems, which still have relevance Temperatures from Callao de Lima to Guayaquil’. in today’s marine research. The manuscript about Humboldt and his companions left Callao on 24 ocean currents, written shortly before the end of December 1802, reached Guayaquil on 4 January his life, contained numerous ideas for investigat- 1803, left on 17 February, and arrived at Acapulco ing the circulation in the North Atlantic. The then on 22 March 1803. Modern archive studies into elderly Humboldt expressed his regret that the El Niño show that this phenomenon appeared in proposals he made decades earlier had not been 1791 and 1804. put into practice.

The Humboldt Current fows as a 3000 km long and If things had turned out differently, Humboldt 80–100 km wide stream from 32º S to Cabo Blanco might never have had the opportunity to study the at 4º S with a speed of 0.4–0.7 m s-1 (15 n.m. day-1). Gulf Stream. As he explained in his introductory The volume of water transported, however, is remarks to the Journey, he had originally intended 10–15 x 106 m3 s-1, so the Humboldt Current does to sail with a French voyage of circumnavigation* led not attain the signifcance of the Gulf Stream. by Nicolas Baudin in 1798 (and thus met his friend But, like the Gulf Stream, the Humboldt Current Bonpland). When its departure was postponed he is characterised by variability in time and space. sought an alternative route to tropical climes, even- Using numerous records, Humboldt discussed tually crossing Spain to Madrid where, after much extensively the changeability of the maritime efort, he obtained a passport giving him freedom meteorological conditions in this ecologially to visit any of Spain’s overseas possessions. He sensitive coastal region. He reported on the had always wanted to return to Europe via the effects of abnormal years with high rainfall and the Pacifc and India, but access to the East was denied formation of the typical coastal fog (garua). ‘Only him; so instead of sailing west toward the Spanish the presence of a physicist for many years at this Philippines, Humboldt took passage northward, to boundary, a true weather divide, would be able to Spanish Mexico (New Spain). satisfy us …’ to explain the variability of the sea *The period of In the history of research as well as with respect to and atmosphere that Humboldt clearly recognised. circumnavigations marine science, Humboldt stood between particular started with Cook’s Was this an early glimmer of the idea of El Niño? periods, however these are delineated. He almost voyages. Around That would not be surprising given the univer- became a ‘round the world sailor’, like his teacher that time there were sality of Humboldt’s perspective of Nature, and and travelling companion, Georg Foster, whom he about two dozen his intuitive understanding. He may never have had much admired since his student days. government-funded completed Oceanica, but Humboldt’s spirit lives expeditions, includ- on in many projects within today’s climate and So what would have happened if Humboldt ing that of the Chal- ocean research. had followed Forster’s example by crossing the lenger (1872–76). Pacific? Most likely the history of science would They each had Humboldt and the Gulf Stream a scientifc team have taken a different course and Humboldt’s on board, which During his Latin American journey, Humboldt research of the Gulf Stream during his return initially comprised became the first to propose the use of govern- voyage could never have taken place. Through ‘all-round’ natural ment ships equipped with instruments to capture this voyage, the founder and master of the historians. Darwin’s synoptically the variability of ocean currents. comparative method in geoscience, could carry voyage was one An innovative idea for the time, it was unfortu- out an oceanographic comparison between the such. nately acted on only very much later. The idea North Atlantic and East Pacific current systems

36 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) with respect to their spatiotemporal variability. His still unpublished memoir ‘About Ocean Currents in general and the cold Peruvian Current of the South Sea in contrast to the warm Gulf or Florida Stream’, which would have formed a major part of Oceanica was intended to address this topic. (A current chart centred on the Americas from Berghaus’ Physical Atlas can be found in a paper by the author (Kortum 1999b in Further Reading).

The breadth of Humboldt’s marine research Humboldt’s contributions to marine science relate mainly to the fields of physical oceanography, marine biology and maritime meteorology, and to a lesser extent, marine geology. Overall, they seem no less significant than those he made to general climatology, geology, botanical geography, geophysics, astronomy, comparative geography and other sciences.

Humboldt should not be viewed as the founder of marine research, but his comprehensive and holistic approach to searching for interactions in Nature clearly included an engagement with marine science, particularly the circulation of the ocean and its effects on climate, and on life in the sea – all based on his own observations and measurements. A portrait of His multifaceted contributions to marine science the first week of June, 1799, shortly before his Humboldt, painted are scattered amongst his major works and in departure to America in the Pizarro. In his travel by Joseph Stieler some less accessible writings. in Cosmos (Vol. 1), in 1843, when narrative he writes: Humboldt reiterated with justification a funda- HUmboldt was in ‘During the crossing from Corunna to Ferrol mental principle of marine and climate research: his early seventies over a shallow near the ‘White Signal’ in the ‘In all climate zones, the ocean tends to retain the (By courtesy of bay, which according to d’Anville is the ‘Portus WikiMedia) warmth of its surface in the layers of water closest Magnus’ of antiquity ... we used a thermometer to the air, since the cooled parts are heavier and probe with valves to make several measurements move downwards.’ of the sea temperature and of the fall in temperature in the layers of water lying one below It is well known that Humboldt took with him on another. At the surface above the bank, the his expeditions a large number of scientific instru- thermometer read 12.5º–13.3º on the hundred ments from the best European manufacturers, and part scale [i.e. Centigrade], while around this, made full use of them. He was better equipped, where the sea was very deep, the thermometer however, for taking measurements in the ‘ocean stood at 15–15.3º at an air temperature of 12.8º.’ of air’ (‘Luftmeer’) than for oceanographic (Journey, p.21) observations in the ‘fluid wrapping of our planet’ (Cosmos, Vol. 1). The thermometer could be put Humboldt took this result as proof for his thesis to use in both fluid media but in the ocean, only of ‘the cooling of sea water over shallows’, which in surface waters. In the 1999 exhibition in Berlin he also elaborated on in other texts. With his and Bonn, ‘Alexander von Humboldt: Networks tendency for seeking practical applications of of Knowledge’, an old densimeter was displayed. scientifc results, he proposed that this concept The salt content could be recorded with this by could be used for ‘thermometric navigation’ in the determining the density at a given temperature, sense used by Benjamin Franklin. The idea is now but no recorded measurements of salt content viewed as obsolete, and ‘the cooling of sea water are to be found in Humboldt’s writings. Thermal over shallows’ can in many cases be explained by factors are key for Humboldt in the development the local upwelling of cooler, deeper water. of circulation, and salinity remains very much in Although Humboldt himself could not directly the background. observe deep polar currents, he could introduce At the time it was difficult to measure tempera- this idea theoretically – and correctly. This realisa- ture at depth, though individual results from other tion anticipated the idea of the ocean conveyor, seafarers interested in the natural sciences were driven by convection in polar oceans. Indeed, many available. Humboldt reported only one of his own theoretical ideas frst formulated by Humboldt have attempts, undertaken on the Galician coast in been splendidly confrmed.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) 37 Humboldt’s contributions to marine biology also the New World, and advances in nautical astron- require further elucidation. Not only do they omy, in the 15th and 16th centuries (1836–39) complement Humboldt’s phytogeographical work which covers in meticulous detail a range of topics on land, but they lead into the early phase of in the history of discovery and of navigation. As a planktology. Humboldt was a diligent user of his result, Humboldt and his comprehensive body of microscope on board ship. Later in his career, work has time and again been studied by histo- together with Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (who rians of the geosciences. Engagement with his accompanied him on his 1828 Siberian journey), writings is timeless and rewarding, particularly in he carried out studies on plankton specimens view of the ease of establishing their relevance to from Kiel harbour, which Professor Michaelis from research questions of today. the University of Kiel had sent to him in Berlin So Humboldt was not simply a great polymath but (Humboldt discusses marine phosphorescence also a chronicler of natural sciences in the 19th in Views of Nature.) Humboldt was never in century. By the time of his death, he had already Kiel, but a scientific connection to this centre of become a monumental figure. Since then, there German marine research, with all its richness of have been several periods of intensive renewed tradition, was established. interest in Humboldt’s thinking – Humboldt Some final questions must remain open. In remains timeless. particular, the sources which Humboldt used Historical examinations of a scientific discipline when writing his texts need to be clarified. At the with relevance to the present day require no moment, the reason why Humboldt broke off the justification. Humboldt, who will himself remain preparations for printing his treatment of ocean the object of reflection in the geosciences, already currents, even though large parts were already knew this: ‘Nature is an inexhaustible source of typeset and in proof, is unknown. The question research and, as science advances, always offers must also be asked: why did Humboldt not make to one who knows how to ask her the right ques- greater use of the good hydrographic results tions, a fresh page, something he has not consid- from the voyages of the ships of the Prussian ered before …’ (Journey, p.188) maritime Trading Company, and instead leave these almost entirely to Berghaus? It would not Acknowledgements have been difficult for him to arrange that he Grateful thanks are due to the following people: also took part in a voyage, something he had the Editor of Northeastern Naturalist, where the article already done for Franz Meyen, who in the end frst appeared, in Vol. 8, Special Issue 1, Proceedings: was responsible for the naming of the Humboldt Alexander von Humboldt’s Natural History Legacy and Current. But for some reason he didn’t do this. Its Relevance for Today, 91–108 published in 2001; Lina Talbot for translating the article from German; Humboldt was well known to have a great inter- Ingo Schwarz (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of est in the history of science. This is particularly Sciences) for up-to-date information about access to evident in the second volume of Cosmos, as well Humboldt’s writings; and John Phillips for bibliographic as in his Critical investigations into the historical assistance. John would like to thank Admiral Sir John development of the geographic knowledge about Garnier for help with ‘Humboldt and the Royal Navy’.

Humboldt’s name sails on

It is not unusual for a ship to be named after Humboldt. Research vessels in both Germany (Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research) and Peru (Institute of the Sea of Peru, IMARPE) bear his name, as do several other vessels. One such is a three-masted barque designed in Bremen as a lightship and launched in 1906. In 1988 she was converted to a sail training vessel (left) and renamed Alexander von Humboldt. Ten years later she sailed on a goodwill tour to South America and the Caribbean, flying the flag where Humboldt had sailed many years before.

She was retired in 2011 and her replacement, Alexander von Humboldt II, was launched in the same year. This purpose-built successor continues to offer sail-training cruises for the charity Deutsche Stiftung Sail Training. The original vessel is now a floating hotel and restaurant back in Bremen.

38 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) Further reading Humboldt studies Kortum, Gerhard (1990) An unpublished manuscript Humboldt’s Publications of Alexander von Humboldt on the Gulf Stream. In Alexander von Humboldt published prolifcally Ocean Sciences: their History and Relation to Man, throughout his life. Many works were originally pub- Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress lished in French or German, then translated into other on the History of Oceanography, ed. W. Lenz and languages, sometimes with competing translations. M. Deacon, Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift English editions of the works mentioned in the article Suppl. Ser. B, No. 22, pp.122–9. are given below. Kortum, Gerhard (1999a) Über A. v. Humboldts Atlan- Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial tikquerung vor 200 Jahren. In Deutsche Gesellschaft Regions of the New Continent, 7 vols, translated für Meeresforschung, No.1, pp.3–9. by Helen Maria Williams, London (1814–29). Kortum, Gerhard (1999b) ‘Die Strömung war schon This is the first, and only complete, edition in English. 300 Jahre vor mir allen Fischerjungen von Chili bis A modern abridged version, translated by Jason Payta bekannt’: der Humboldtstrom. In Alexander Wilson, is available in Penguin Classics (1995). von Humboldt: Netzwerke des Wissens, Berlin and Bonn, pp.89–99. Views of Nature translated by Elise C. Otté and Henry G. Bohn, London (1850). Théodoridès, Jean (1965) Alexander von Humboldt et la biologie marine. In Colloque international sur l’his- Cosmos: Sketch of a Physical Description of the toire de la biologie marine: les grands expéditions Universe, 4 vols, translated by Elizabeth Sabine, scientifques et la création des laboratoires maritimes London (1846–58). Vie et Milieu, Suppl. 19, pp.13-62. There is a useful index at www.avhumboldt.de with Humboldt: contemporaries and Influences links to the works of Humboldt that are available online. The books by Humboldt that were part of the Berghaus, Heinrich (1837-44) Allgemeine Länder- library on board HMS Beagle are available at www. und Völkerkunde, 6 vols, Stuttgart darwin-online.org.uk. Krümmel, Otto (1904) Ausgewählte Stücke aus den Klassikern der Geographie für Gebrauch an Hoch- Humboldt’s unpublished work schulen. 2nd series, Kiel & Leipzig. Unfortunately, Humboldt’s ‘About ocean currents in Maury, Matthew Fontaine (1855) The Physical Geog- general; and the cold Peruvian current of the South raphy of the Sea. Harper & Brothers, New York, Seas, as opposed to the warm Gulf or Florida streams’ 274pp. (which he prepared for Oceanica, Vol.2 of his ‘Shorter Rennell, James (1832) An Investigation of the Currents Writings’, mentioned in the article) was never com- of the Atlantic Ocean. J.G. & F. Rivington, London, pleted. However, proof sheets can be found on http:// 359pp. www.deutschestextarchiv.de/humboldt_meer_1833. Many of Humboldt’s original works and letters have General been digitally scanned by the Biodiversity Heritage Deacon, Margaret (1997) Scientists and the Sea 1650– Library. biodiversitylibrary.org 1900: a study of marine science, 2nd edn, Ashgate Publishing Ltd, Aldershot & Brookfeld VT, 459pp. Humboldt’s diaries Editing and publishing Hum- bolt’s diaries is currently being undertaken at the Mills, Eric L. (2009) The Fluid Environment of our Alexander von Humboldt Research Centre in the Planet: how the study of ocean currents became a Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. The diaries science. University of Toronto Press, 434pp. describing travels on the River Magdalena, through the Peterson, R.G., L. Stramma and G. Kortum (1996) Andes and Mexico, and in Venezuela, have been pub- Early concepts and charts of ocean circulation lished as Volumes 8, 9 and 12 of the series Beiträge zur Progress in Oceanography 37(1), 1–115. Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung. The diary that Humboldt wrote on the return journey from Philadelphia to Bordeaux no longer exists as Hum- boldt re-arranged the pages before they were re-bound; some parts may be in other diaries, others might be in the ‘Nachlass’ (Humboldt papers) in Berlin or Krakow, some may be lost. Scans of the American travel journals can be found at: http://kalliope.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/de/search. Gerhard Kortum was appointed Scientifc Director html?q=Humboldt+Reisetageb%C3%BCcher and Curator of the Institute of Oceanography at Biographies of Humboldt the University of Kiel, Germany, in 1987. He was Botting, Douglas (1973) Humboldt and the Cosmos. appointed to Extraordinary Professor in 1989, and Michael Joseph, London, 295pp. later became Provost. Athough he retired in 2003, Kellner, Lotte (1963) Alexander von Humboldt. Oxford he remained with the institute for another ten years, University Press, 247pp. on the board that managed the mergers which led Wulf, Andrea (2015) The Invention of Nature: the to the formation the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre adventures of Alexander von Humboldt, the lost for Ocean Research. His great passion was the hero of science. John Murray, London, 473 pp. history of marine research, especially Alexander von For more about James Rennell, see the Special Humboldt and the Kiel oeanographer Otto Krümmel. James Rennell issue of Ocean Challenge (1993) 4, He died in 2013. No.1 & 2.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No. 1 (publ. 2018) 39 A ‘cranky little vessel’: The story of HM steam vessel Lightning

Part 4: Friends in high places Tony Rice

In the last episode of the Lightning saga* or even knowledge. But in the meantime Admiral spent the night in preparation we left the four-year-old paddle steamer William was titular head of the Navy and for the pomp and ceremony of his official in the summer of 1827 accompanying the despite restrictions on his powers he was visit the following day. Royal Yacht Royal Sovereign carrying Wil- able to make a number of important deci- But where was the Lightning? We’ve liam, Duke of Clarence (soon to become sions, including some crucially affecting heard nothing of her since her tow line William IV) on a tour of naval establish- the status of steam-driven naval vessels was cast off somewhere between Milford ments. In April that year William had in general and the Lightning in particular. Haven and Lands End. Well, it seems been appointed to the resurrected post of So now let’s return to South Wales in late that the poor old Procris, the rather inef- Lord High Admiral in a clever ruse by the July 1827. ficient brig-sloop that we met in the last Prime Minister, George Canning, with the Having completed his official visits to the episode also accompanying the Royal aim of keeping control of the Navy in the dockyards at Devonport and Pembroke Sovereign, had been unable to keep up hands of the Cabinet and not in those of a Dock, William returned to Portsmouth for with the Royal Yacht yet again and pos- single, powerful, politician. The arrange- the final part of his tour in the Royal Sov- sibly needed a tow from the Lightning (or ment was short-lived. Canning died ereign, initially, at least, apparently towed the Comet, which was also in attendance) suddenly on 8 August, to be replaced as by the Lightning because of contrary because Moses reports that ‘On Tuesday PM by the equally unfortunate Viscount winds, or even too little wind. But accord- [31 July] morning early, the Procris brig, Goderich. Unable to hold Canning’s loose ing to Sir John Barrow, the Second Sec- and the steam-vessels, which attended Tory/Whig coalition together, Goderich retary to the Admiralty, who was travelling his Royal Highness, arrived and went was forced to resign in January 1828, to with William, once the little flotilla had into the Harbour.’ But now Lightning’s be replaced in turn by a Tory government crossed the Bristol Channel and reached moment of glory is nigh. under the Duke of Wellington. the Cornish coast ‘... it began to blow so William’s days as Lord High Admiral were strong that the steamer was cast off. The Lightning to the rescue, now numbered and Wellington simply Wolf rock roared tremendously, between ‘in a most beautiful manner’ needed an excuse to get rid of him. which and the coast of Cornwall the yacht ‘At 10 [wrote Moses] the Command- William provided one in July 1828 when, went beautifully, and rounded the Land’s er-in-Chief [Admiral Sir Robert Stopford] totally contrary to his job description, he End without our seeing any more of the and the Captains of the Fleet, in their pinched a squadron of ships from under steamer. On the 30th of July, at six in the respective barges, with the Lieuten- its admiral’s nose and took it to sea for evening, we reached Portsmouth.’ ant-Governor [Major General Sir James several days of fun, including gunnery Lyon, KCB] and Staff, went to Spithead, A significant threat to shipping, then and practice, without the admiral’s permission and were received by the Lord High now, the Wolf Rock sits between the Admiral on board the Royal Sovereign. coast of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, At 11, his Royal Highness, attended by * Ocean Challenge, 22, No.2, pp.33–6. about eight miles south-west of Land’s the Admiral, and the flag retinue, went End. Since 1870 it has been marked by a on board his Majesty’s brig Musquite,* to 35-m high lighthouse, but in 1827 it was muster her crew and examine the ship. unmarked other than by the remains of From this vessel he went to his majesty’s previous fairly minimal attempts to make cutter Starling,† then to his Majesty’s it more visible. Instead, passing seafarers ship Warspite, and from her returned to relied on its most distinguishing feature, the Royal Sovereign Yacht, which was the howling noise caused by high winds immediately taken in tow and brought into blowing through fissures in its structure, the Harbour by the Lightning steamer, giving the rock its name. with the Lord High Admiral on board, in The engraver Henry Moses now took the most beautiful manner, amidst cheers up the story, describing how the Royal from thousands of the most respectable Sovereign arrived at the Solent under her people we have ever yet seen assembled own sail and eventually came to anchor on the lines [sea walls] and beaches.’ at 9 p.m. at Spithead near the entrance to Portsmouth harbour, where the Lord High *Presumably actually the Musquito, a Cherokee class brig-sloop, like the Procris, The Wolf Rock lighthouse. in this case built in Portsmouth Dockyard It was built between 1862 and 1869, and in 1825. the light was automated in 1988. Since 1972 †The Starling was a 10-gun cutter built at it has had a helipad on its top, making Chatham Dockyard in 1817 and broken it the first lighthouse in the world to be up in 1828, only months after the visit to supplied with one. (Photo: Alvaro) Portsmouth.

40 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) Tony Rice

Henry Moses’ engraving showing the Royal Sovereign being towed into Portsmouth harbour by the Lightning on 31 July 1827. (From Moses, 1830)

Moses’ engraving of the scene (above) hanging out washing on a line rigged on yacht brought into harbour by the steamer shows the Royal Sovereign sailing past the foreshore. But Moses was clearly ‘in the most beautiful manner’, William the 15th century Round Tower at the aware of the politics involved in the seems to have been so impressed that entrance to Portsmouth harbour, with all proceedings. The star of the piece is the he decided, possibly there and then, that her sails furled, being towed by a two- Royal Sovereign, so that although the the Lightning would become his yacht as masted steamer belching smoke from her Lightning, at a length of about 126 feet, Lord High Admiral. But before this could extremely tall funnel. Beyond the steamer was considerably larger than the 95-feet- happen, Lightning would have to become is a cutter with her sails filled, while long yacht, in the engraving she appears the command of a properly commissioned the ‘thousands of the most respectable to be considerably smaller. officer. Accordingly, on 4 December 1827 people’ are represented by about a dozen the Navy Board wrote to the Admiralty So apart from the lady hanging out her figures standing on the top of the tower, in the following terms: ‘In obedience to washing, what would the onlookers have then, as now, one of the best places the command of the Lord High Admiral made of it all? Well for some, at least, it from which to watch vessels entering the signified by your letter of this date, we beg would have been a totally novel expe- harbour. At the base of the tower stand to propose the following as the proper rience, seeing a vessel moving under another group of people apparently totally establishment for steam vessels. One Lieu- steam rather than the conventional sail. indifferent to what’s going on only a few tenant, one mate, two engineers, twelve For many of the others it would not have hundreds of metres away while, even men (including stokers).’ been quite such a surprise since steam more incongruously, a lady appears to be vessels of various sorts had been chug- The same day, the Duke of Clarence ging in and out of Portsmouth for the pre- completed the process by signing the vious 15 or 20 years. But even for those The Round Tower today. The structure on the commissions of lieutenants Evans, Bullock familiar with steam propulsion, seeing a horizon is one of the Solent Forts, completed and Hay to the command, respectively, in the 1870s. major naval vessel entering the harbour of the steam vessels Lightning, Echo and so smartly and with relatively little fuss Meteor. In turn, these vessels appeared would have been impressive. in the next issue of the Navy List, pub- And William himself would have been lished in January 1828, thus raising their particularly pleased. After all, during the status from the fairly lowly one of aux- whole of his naval career, bringing a large iliary transport vessel or tug under the sailing vessel safely into or out of a har- command of a non-commissioned officer bour, particularly one with a rather narrow or even a civilian to that of a full naval entrance like that at Portsmouth, was one vessel carrying the proud title of ‘HMS’ of the most difficult of all manoeuvres and commanded by an officer bearing the required of a naval officer, sometimes monarch’s commission. Naval steam had involving laborious towing by rowed finally come of age, and the Lightning had whaleboats or warping the vessel using played a crucial role. Next time we will capstans and kedge anchors. Warping look at her early days under the command was an extremely tedious procedure in of Lieutenant George Evans, but before which the ship hauled itself up to a series that let’s have a brief look at another con- of small anchors, or kedges, deployed temporary naval officer who would have ahead of it from its boats. Having had his loved George Evans’ job.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 41 Post Script: Black Charlie Captain (later Admiral Sir) George Strong Nares (1831– Many contemporaries of Evans, Bullock 1915). Eric Linklater used this and Hay would have considered their portrait in his book, The Voyage appointments to these strange new of the Challenger, published in vessels as retrograde steps rather than 1972 to mark the centenary of improvements in their careers. After all, the Challenger Expedition. naval vessels were mainly driven by wind and sail and would remain so for several decades to come. Indeed, George Nares (right), HMS Challenger’s captain for the first two years of her famous scientific circumnavigation in the 1870s, wasn’t born until 1831, three years after Light- ning entered the Navy List; yet his training was as a sail-and-rope man and he wrote the definitive manual of seamanship first Portrait by Stephen Pearle, published in 1860. And to emphasise painted in 1877 after Nares the continuing importance of sails, in the had been withdrawn from the preface to the second edition he wrote Challenger Expedition to take that ‘Engines and machinery, liable to command of the Arctic Expedition many accidents, may fail at any moment, in HMSS Alert and Discovery and there is no greater fallacy than to sup- in 1875/6. (© National Portrait Gallery, pose that ships can be navigated on long London) voyages without masts and sails, or safely commanded by officers who have not a But despite his rank, like so many young propulsion. This interest in steam grew sound knowledge of seamanship.’ officers at the time, Napier then spent two out of the period between 1815 and 1819 But even in the 1820s by no means all years on half pay, some of it attempting when the Napier family wandered around naval officers felt this way. Then, as now, to improve his education at the University Europe, eventually finishing up in Paris. the main proponents of new technology of Edinburgh. This was followed by a Having inherited a considerable fortune, were youngsters, but in Part 2 of the further two years of naval employment, Napier at this time became involved in Lightning story (Ocean Challenge, 22(1)) against the French in the Mediterranean, funding a company to promote the use we’ve already seen that James Clark and against the young United States in of steam vessels on the Seine, a venture Ross’s uncle John, a RN captain in his the Atlantic, before returning to the UK which ultimately cost him a great deal of late forties, was so keen on steam that he in 1815 to another period on half pay money and brought in no profit. and marriage to a naval widow with four wrote a sort of instruction manual on its In 1820 the Napiers bought a house near children. Now in his late twenties, he had use in warships which was published the Alverstoke in Hampshire and for several already established himself as some- very year Lightning entered the Navy List. years lived a fairly peripatetic existence, thing of a thorn in the Admiralty’s side, And John Ross was not alone; another sometimes at Alverstoke and sometimes bombarding them with a series of letters mature naval man, who had been an RN in Paris or Havre. Finally, in 1827 the addressing his three major interests, Captain for almost twenty years, actually steamboat bubble burst, leaving Napier reform of the Navy, particularly in the applied for command of Lightning but comparatively poor. As a result, he sold way it treated its seamen and its junior was turned down despite his seniority, or the Alverstoke house and moved to Row- officers, promoting the use of ironclad perhaps partly because of it. lands Castle, only about 10 miles from ships to replace the conventional wooden Portsmouth, from where he made several In 1828 Charles Napier (right), known hulls, and encouraging the use of steam as Black Charlie, initially because of his black hair and swarthy complexion, but Charles Napier, in the uniform of an subsequently also because of his sartorial admiral in the Portuguese navy. shortcomings and indifference to personal This Charles Napier was, hygiene, was a fairly impoverished cap- incidentally, frst cousin of Sir tain on half pay and therefore desperate Charles James Napier (1782–1853), for further naval employment. He had famous as the conqueror of Sind been born in 1787 at Merchiston Hall, and attributed with authorship of Stirlingshire, into an old and famous mili- the famous (but sadly fctional) one-word Latin message to the tary and naval family, and was pretty well Foreign Offce in London in 1843, destined for a naval career. He entered ‘Peccavi’, meaning ‘I have sinned’. the Navy in 1799 at the tender age of only 12, serving in a series of vessels in British and Mediterranean waters until he was eventually appointed Lieutenant in the 74-gun Courageux in November 1805. He then served with considerable distinction against the French in the West Indies and was promoted Captain in May 1809 at Portrait by John Simpson (1782–1847) painted c. 1834 and now in the Museo the age of 22, pretty early by the general Nacional Soares dos Reis, standards of the day. Oporto, Portugal

42 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) unsuccessful attempts to obtain further of the Crimean War in 1854. In this, High Admiral to Portsmouth, in the year naval employment, including applying for his very last naval job, his activities 1827, with views of the Russian squad- the command of the Lightning which, as we impinged on the Lightning again – and ron at Spithead. London, Ackermann have seen, he lost to George Evans. Even- he fell out with his political leaders big and Co. tually, in 1829, he was given command of time. But in the meantime, let’s leave Napier, P. (1995) Black Charlie: A life the frigate Galathea on which he conducted Black Charlie to his own eventful career of Admiral Sir Charles Napier KCB a number of moderately successful trials and, in the next episode, return to the 1787–1860. Michael Russell, 238pp. in which the ship was fitted with paddles Lightning’s rather less tumultuous one. Nares, G.S. (1862) Seamanship. Gresham driven by winches on the main deck. During Books, 224pp. (Facsimile reprint pub- this commission Napier served in the West Further Reading lished by Unwin Brothers Limited in 1979). Indies and in Portuguese waters, becom- Barrow, Sir John, 1847) An autobio- ing interested in Portuguese politics which graphical memoir of Sir John Barrow, Pockock, T. (1991) Sailor King. The life were, at the time, fairly chaotic and, as we London. of King William IV. Sinclair-Stevenson, 254pp. will see later, even touched on the Lightning. Greenhill, B. and A. Gifford (1994) Although he continued his interest in steam, Steam, Politics and Patronage, Ross, J. (1828) A Treatise on Navigation Napier disappeared from the Lightning story Conway Maritime Press, 256pp. by Steam. London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 182 + 68pp. for the next 25 years before re-entering it Linklater, Eric (1972) The voyage of the with a vengeance when, as a 67 year-old Challenger. John Murray, 288pp. Tony Rice is still ‘a geriatric biological Vice Admiral, he was given command of Moses, Henry (1830) The visit of William oceanographer with a passion for mari- the British naval forces in the Baltic theatre IV when Duke of Clarence, as Lord time history’. [email protected]

Book reviews

Politics, power and the NIO in Cambridge, Neil Macintosh (Discovery The book then explores how the Admi- Investigations), Joseph Proudman and ralty’s demands and priorities for NIO Ocean science and the British Cold Arthur Doodson in Liverpool, and J.N. changed in response to the emerging War state by Samuel A. Robinson (2018) Carruthers who played a leading role for threat of the Cold War, as well as in Palgrave Studies in the History of Science the Admiralty at the end of WWII. These response to funding crises in which ocean- and Technology, 278pp. £80+ (hardback, were people of whom I already knew ography had to fght hard for scarce funds ISBN 978-3-319-73095-0), £71.50 (ebook, but the book introduced me to Sir Henry against the need for frigates and sub- ISBN 978-3-319-73096-7). Tizard, a Whitehall ‘insider’ who was Chief marines. Scientifc Advisor to the Government And what of the ‘British Cold War State’? The book Of seas and ships and scientists* (1948–52). The interplay of the strengths, NIO’s science did indeed feed into the gives a readily accessible picture of the weaknesses and prejudices of these men Royal Navy’s requirements for ocean development of UK marine science during (in that era men were the sole players), science but most of these were delivered and immediately after World War II, leading and the interfaces between the networks by the Navy’s own laboratories. What I to the formation of the National Institute of within which each of them operated, had not realised was that as international Oceanography. The picture it paints is from make for a fascinating read. As Robinson collaboration developed, as exemplified the perspective of scientists who worked states, ‘It is a scientist that possesses a by the International Geophysical Year in at NIO. How would an outsider and an variety of skills, enabling them to shape 1957–58, civilian scientists on planning historian see those same events? the historical trajectory of networks in Well, now we know. Sam Robinson has bur- order to “get their own way” who suc- rowed deep into the archives at the National ceeds (as Deacon did).’ Oceanography Centre in Southampton, and It was during WWII that ocean science into the National Records Ofce, to produce came to the help of the nation and the this impressively researched book. It is clev- Royal Navy. Thus the NIO came into the erly structured around the career of George world with close links to the Admiralty; Deacon (1906–84), the NIO’s founding indeed its scientists were, until the late Director, as he progressed from his role as the 1960s, employees of the Royal Naval chemist for the Discovery Investigations, to Scientifc Service. Deacon’s vision for a being the leader of a talented and diverse col- national institute was multidisciplinary: it lection of scientists addressing urgent issues included physical oceanography (which during the war, and then to the person who he had led in WWII), marine biology, as above all shaped the structure of the NIO. the legacy of the Discovery Investiga- This book is not a dry narrative; rather, it tions, and chemistry, marine geology and brings to the fore the conficting visions of the geophysics, the power base for which lay dramatis personae, including Edward Bullard in university departments. Forming the new Institute, convincing the Admiralty of *Of Seas and Ships and Scientists (Lutterworth the value of marine biology and creating Press, 2011) was reviewed in Ocean Challenge, an Institute that did not tread on the toes 18 (Winter, 2011), pp.49–50. of established laboratories was difcult.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018) 43 committees could provide intelligence on It was only when the frst orcas were cap- retained followed ‘in sad vigil for their lost foreign scientifc capabilities and priorities. tured and taken into captivity that visitors to pod mates’. As Colby progresses through the tourist attractions, scientists and even from the early days of capture to an entire As Deacon approached retirement he the fshermen who had regarded them as industry dedicated to procuring, trading was faced with negotiating the transfer pests, saw the killer whale for what it really and transporting orcas across the globe of NIO’s oversight from the Admiralty and is: a magnifcent, powerful, beautiful and to perform tricks for our entertainment, he the National Oceanographic Council to sentient animal worthy of our respect. Orca relates tales of double-dealing, treachery, the much broader Natural Environment chronicles the changes in attitude which, in rivalry and sabotage. Orcas were worth big Research Council, which had a diferent just a few short decades, took the animal money and attracted huge crowds. Despite vision of the Institute’s role. There was from a creature to be killed on sight, to one protestations that ‘live capture was essential also the not insignifcant matter of who that, once incarcerated, represented human to research’ and ‘whales in captivity are should be Deacon’s successor as Director. dominance over dangerous and unpredict- pampered and much better fed than other And so the narrative ends. Should you able nature, to an intelligent cohabitant of whales’, the main driver of capture and buy this book? It is not cheap and most our world. The animal went from reviled incarceration was proft. killer whale to revered orca. individuals will baulk at the £80+ price But attitudes were changing, pressure for one so modestly illustrated. Should Jason M. Colby is an historian, ideally groups were forming, politicians were you read it? Yes, most certainly. It gives suited to write a book which will not be taking notice and even those involved in the an insight into the roots of British marine to everyone’s taste. With the beneft of orca industry were (reluctantly) recognising science and into the workings of the gov- hindsight we know it was wrong to capture that the animals that provided them with a ernment as they affected marine science. and ‘cage’ such amazing mammals; Colby living should not be in captivity but living My suspicion is that, even today, the has the ability to stand to one side and give wild and free. Colby takes us through the interplay of priorities, budgets, egos, net- us the often unpalatable truth about our transition, legislative regulation and public works and interdisciplinary rivalries is little relationship with orcas. In 19 chapters he abhorrence at the fencing in of killer whales, changed. So just as C.P. Snow wrote of takes us from early perceptions of orcas: and their ultimate rebranding as orcas to be goings on in the ‘Corridors of Power’, ‘Gaius Plinius Secundus had witnessed a marvelled at – as they disport themselves this book gives an insight into how these lot of violence in his life – war in Germania, wild and free in the ocean. played out in our own science discipline. Sicilian raids, Nero’s reign of terror – but I didn’t want to enjoy this book, but I was killer whales really seemed to scare him,’ I can’t wait to read the sequel, which will compelled to read it from cover to cover, through the years of capture, and commer- describe the following decades. all 300-odd pages, and I am glad I did. cial gain, to the dawn of appreciation. Pliny If like me you are left hungry for even described the killer whale as ‘an enormous John Gould more, the book is backed up by a really mass of fesh armed with teeth’. This idea National Oceanography Centre useful set of chapter notes, bibliography of the killer whale as a ferocious killing Southampton and comprehensive index. I am not sure machine clung to the animal for centuries. I always share Colby’s generous spirit Fishermen took every opportunity to spear, when he talks about those pioneering harpoon and shoot these ‘demons from orca hunters and trainers, but he is writ- A tough read, but worth it hell’, massacring thousands in the name of ing with the objectivity of a historian and fsheries and whaling; even the US military Orca: how we came to know and love that made me see the other point of view. trained their guns on them. the ocean’s greatest predator by Jason I appreciate orcas even more than I did, M. Colby (2018) Oxford University Press, Colby’s meticulous research and attention and can’t wait for my next sighting. 408pp. £15.99 (hardcover, ISBN: 978-0- to detail provides a compelling narrative 190-67309-3). Also available as an ebook from the days of mass destruction to the Kelvin Boot and Audio CD. endeavours of one man who brought Science Communicator working with Plymouth Marine Laboratory them into captivity. The dogged nature of I saw my frst orcas decades ago, from Ted Grifn is a constant thread through a helicopter fying from the mainland to the book, following his frst success at the ofshore island of Lundy in the Bristol trapping, transporting and exhibiting orcas Channel: my most recent sighting was at in 1965. This was an orca watershed, as dawn of the Galapagos when a pod of 15, it gave ordinary people the opportunity to complete with youngsters, gave we early see orcas close-up and to marvel at their risers the best possible start to the day. performances and intelligence. The fol- The sighting of an orca always makes the lowing chapters are a hard read for anyone news, attracts onlookers and gives those who admires orcas, as they catalogue the of us lucky enough to witness the event a stages of the burgeoning industry of killer tantalising glimpse of the majesty of ‘the whale capture and captivity. There were ocean’s greatest predator’, a heartening successes, of course, but there were also symbol of wild nature. But this was not failures, which we now see as tragic and always the case; even as recently as the unnecessary suferings and deaths. Colby 1950s, orcas were regarded with fear, on more than one occasion refers to the mistrust and revulsion as mindless killers, ‘cries’ of orcas as pods are divided, mothers no doubt a hangover from days when we and calves separated; for him, the cries humans massacred the orca’s cousins, the imbued the orcas with an almost human great whales, for proft and the orcas came emotion. Grifn, the hardened entrepreneur, to share in the spoils as whale carcasses was himself ‘painfully aware of the social were harpooned and dragged aboard the ties he was breaking’ and ‘they were impos- foating whale factories. sible to ignore’ as the whales that were not

44 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 23, No.1 (publ. 2018)