Annual Review 2011 Global Cities After the 2011 riots in London, demonstrators took to the streets in response to the mainstream claim that it was the riots could be explained as looting by opportunistic youths. Street rally from Dalston to Tottenham, London, United Kingdom, August 2011. Contents

1. Introduction Manifesto 4 External Context 5 Key Themes and Concepts 6 Research Aims 7 Research Objectives 7 Research Programs 8 Geographical Focus 10 Partnerships 13 2. Approach Engaged Theory: A Toolbox of Methods and Concepts for Researching Cities 20 Part 1. Engaged Theory: Methods Chapter 1. Social Domains and Social Themes 34 Chapter 2. Social Mapping 46 Chapter 3. Social Imaginaries and Ontologies 52 Part 2. Engaged Theory: Protocols Chapter 4. Community Engagement 60 Chapter 5. Climate Change Adaptation 64 Part 3. Engaged Theory: Tools Chapter 6. Sustainability Questionnaire 78 Chapter 7. Sustainability Reporting 88 Chapter 8. Scenario Method 96 Chapter 9. Scenario Simulation 108 3. Researchers 122 4. Administrative Structure 130 5. Visiting Scholars 134 6. Research Programs Climate Change Adaptation 138 Globalization and Culture 146 Community Sustainability 154 Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures 166 Human Security 176 Urban Decision-Making and Complex Decisions 182 7. Affiliated Research Centres Centre for Applied Social Research 188 Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute 189 Centre for Design 190 Centre for Sustainable Organisations and Work 191 Globalism Research Centre 192 8. Publications 196 9. Conferences and Forums 222 10. Postgraduate Students 230 Published by: Global Cities Research Institute RMIT University

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Page 3 : The Central Australian Aboriginal Congress began in 1973 as a cultural-political and health organization. The photo shows an Aboriginal child at a Congress event at the Akeyulerre Healing Centre. She is crushing leaves for Arrethe, a bush medicine made as chest rub for colds and flu. The event was organized to celebrate a joint project with Global Reconciliation and the Global Cities Institute. Alice Springs, Australia, July 2011.

2 Indigenous Elder at the Akeyulere Healing Centre, Central Australia, July 2011 Porto Alegre, Brazil, 2010. This woman lives in the slum of Chocolatäo. She now works in a garbage recycling depot as part of a project supported by the Global Cities Institute through the UN Global Compact, Cities Programme on slum rehabilitation. 3 1. Introduction

RMIT University’s Global Cities Research Institute addresses the challenge of sustainability, resilience, security, adaptation and reconciliation.

Manifesto

Cities, for all their vibrancy and liveliness, have long faced the When cities are researched in their full complexity, neither challenge of providing secure and sustainable places to live. does it makes much sense to set up hierarchies of global Writing some time ago, Lewis Mumford argued that ‘The blind interconnectedness based on counting the number of forces of urbanization, flowing along the lines of least resistance, transactions with other places. While we take empirical research show no aptitude for creating and urban and industrial pattern very seriously - from statistics to global ethnography and that will be stable, self-sustaining, and self-renewing.’1 This narrative history - our emphasis is on analytical understanding challenge of making cities better has been intensifying, with a and interpretation. As a way of giving further focus to this broad global demographic shift across the course of the twentieth brief, the Institute focuses on a number of carefully chosen century and into the present that has seen the majority of the cities in the Asia-Pacific region. The core focus is on Chennai, world’s population living in cities.2 Denpasar, Dili, Hambantota/Colombo, Honiara, Ho Chi Minh City, Honolulu, Kuala Lumpur, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Port In partnership with a number of like-minded institutions and Moresby, Shanghai, and Vancouver. This gives us a remarkable researchers around the world, the Global Cities Institute directly range of cities, all global cities in different ways, cities that cross addresses the challenge through engaged research programs the North-South, East-West, rich-poor and communist-capitalist intended to have significant on-the-ground impact. The divides. emphasis of our research is on questions of resilience, security, sustainability, and adaptation in the face of the processes of Our brief goes to the heart of RMIT’s positioning of itself as globalization and global climate change. Urbanization is not the urban-oriented, globally-projected and socially connected. In key for us - we are not for the most part ‘urban studies’ scholars summary, the Global Cities Institute conducts both cutting- in the usual sense. Rather we see cities - that is, metropolitan edge and applied research that is intended to have engaged locales in relation to ‘their’ hinterlands - as a crucible for consequences. We start with the city which we live - understanding the human condition. Melbourne - and reach out to a range of cities from which we have much to learn. The overall task of the Global Cities Institute is to research the processes of global change in the urban context - both positive and problematic - with the view to projecting sustainable ways of living. This involves understanding the complexity of globalizing urban settings from provincial centres to mega-cities as part of what it means to live on this planet. Here we confront a shibboleth in scholarly writing - not only has the urbanization of the world been a long-term if massively accelerating process, but it should also be said that cities have long been the locus of globalization processes. Against those writers who, by emphasizing the importance of financial exchange systems, distinguish a few special cities as ‘global cities’- commonly London, Paris, New York and Tokyo - we recognize the uneven global dimensions of all the cities that we study. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is a global city. And so is Dili, the small and ‘insignificant’ capital of Timor Leste. Dili was established as an administrative town by the Portuguese in October 1769, a year before the English explorer Captain Cook ‘discovered’ Australia, seven years before the American Revolution, and two decades before the French Revolution.

1 Mumford, L 1956, The natural history of urbanization, cited in Brugman, J 2009, Welcome to the urban revolution, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, p.16. 2 Davis, M 2006, Planet of slums, Verso, London, p. 1.

4 External Context

Two of the most pressing overarching issues facing the world today are globalization and global climate change. They encompass questions of urban adaptation, cultural change, community sustainability, human security, and global learning. Over the last decade, billions of dollars have been spent on ameliorative and security-oriented projects by both government and non-government agencies. However, many communities continue to live under difficult circumstances. Understanding this set of problems is central to the research agenda of Global Cities, and has important implications for sustainability in general. Developing a thorough on-going research program entails going beyond identifying the immediate threats to exploring pathways to enhance sustainability, security, resilience and adaptation. To this end, the Institute links with many other programs. For example, we are engaged in local collaboration with the Municipality of Melbourne and local NGOs, as well as in primary global collaborations with the UN Global Compact, UN Habitat, Metropolis, and other institutes and centres across the world. Through the work of the Global Cities Institute, RMIT was named in 2008 as the first UN Habitat university in the Asia-Pacific region, and from 2007 the Institute has hosted the Global Compact Cities Programme, the only International Secretariat of the United Nations in the Asia-Pacific region. Other more established research programs exist at other universities and institutions in either globalization or climate change. What makes this institute somewhat different is the way in which it works across both these themes. Secondly, the Institute crosses the conventional divide between the technical sciences and the social sciences/humanities. The Institute draws together a diverse range of scholars from social theorists, political scientists, anthropologists and art critics to sustainability specialists, geospatial scientists and water engineers. Thirdly, what makes the Institute stand out is the way in which it brings together on-the-ground deeply-engaged research in communities around the world with analytical theory that takes the social theory and social mapping of globalization and global futures very seriously. Fourthly, the Institute, in partnership with others, takes as part of its central brief the responsibility to make a practical social difference in the world. Here, for example, we provided the research basis for rewriting the Integrated Community Development policy for the country of Papua New Guinea; we were a key partner in contributing to the Future Melbourne planning round for its next ten years; and we are working as part of the United Nations Global Compact to develop a new way of indicating sustainability for cities.

Ministry of Defence building in the city centre. Tel Aviv, Israel, December 2010.

5 Key Themes and Concepts

RMIT’s Global Cities’ research agenda has two major themes:

• globalization

• global climate change

These themes are understood in terms of five key concepts:

Security Reconciliation Our key focus here involves both the broad question of human Our approach to concept of reconciliation is closely aligned with security and, more particularly, examining the local-global how we treat human security. Both are understood critically context of a range of cities and communities in the Asia-Pacific rather than as straightforward ideals. In these terms, positive region. These settings range from communities dealing with the reconciliation requires more than dialogue, truth-telling or aftermath of widespread violence or natural disasters to those saying ‘sorry’. It requires rethinking conventional approaches - polities-communities in countries such as Australia, Canada, and approaches that might be considered to be involved in negative the United States where, despite the absence of the immediate reconciliation, and which seek to achieve comfortable harmony pressures of violence or natural disasters, cities are facing new or to dissolve difference. Rather, reconciliation in our terms is kinds of insecurity. This is expressed in economic, ecological, best understood as dialogue and practical engagement across political and cultural terms. Here one of our most pressing continuing difference where the aim is recognition and respect, concerns are those local groups and communities who are most even across boundaries than continue to be uncomfortable. vulnerable in the face of insecurity, violence and risk. Sustainability Resilience Bringing together these various concerns about the sources of Our aim here is to understand the technical and social capacities insecurity and risk, resilience and recognition, our work centres of cities and communities to respond actively to and practically on the question of sustainability. This involves developing the address processes of globalization and the emerging impacts interpretative, practical and technical bases for more adequately of climate change. In the face of social and environmental understanding how conditions of positive human security and change, cities are experiencing increasing pressures. Existing wellbeing might best be continued or revitalized under different and emerging patterns of resilience are important to the ongoing circumstances. By bringing the interpretative social sciences viability of communities and their infrastructures. Such patterns and the natural and engineering sciences into a dialogue, the of resilience give communities a basis for considering different Institute works to develop a deep understanding of how to deal ways of ameliorating or adapting to emerging conditions before with issues of social and environmental sustainability. In other they reach crisis proportions. Here our research ranges from words, in collaboration with our local-global partners, we want a concern with housing and infrastructure to the nature of to develop practical, socially-engaged, and ethically-considered community itself. responses to the question, ‘What is to be done?’ Critical sustainability is thus our core concept. Adaptation Adaptation is the process by which responses to questions of sustainability are embedded in the practices of communities, organizations and governments. This involves developing and implementing strategies to ameliorate, moderate and cope with the consequences of global insecurities, including climate change and broader social pressures. Adaptation is one possible approach to enhancing resilience. In most cases, however, adequate research has not been done to guide such processes of adaptation.

6 Research Aims Research Objectives

Cities are diverse. They are composed of distinctive social 1. To develop an overall understanding of the ways in which relations and particular natural systems. They have varying patterns of globalization and global climate change impact exposure and changing sensitivity to different internal and upon the human condition. external stresses. The people who dwell in them live across 2. To explore the basic sources of insecurity and sustainability multiple time-horizons over which risk and vulnerability may shift. for different Asian-Pacific cities, with particular reference to The Global Cities Institute’s research program involves mapping the following: and comparing the insecurities, resilience and sustainability of strategically-chosen cities and hinterlands in the Asia-Pacific • risk analyses of urban infrastructure; region. • structural analyses of insecurity and vulnerability; • social analyses of cities, including through developing Urbanized regions are places of immense change and indices of sustainability; and innovation. Nevertheless, they are vulnerable to major shocks such as economic crises, terrorism, civil conflict, tsunamis, and • interpretive analyses of the conditions of adaptation to disease pandemics. They are also susceptible to the gradual climate change. breakdown of basic infra-structural services that provide 3. To understand the resilience and adaptive capacities of communications, energy, mobility, and water. In turn, cities are communities in relation to climate change, globalization and intensifying the resource impacts and environmental damage of other conditions of insecurity. their ‘ecological footprints’. Intensifying urbanization is having 4. To examine questions of cultural transformation and an impact upon the economic, ecological, political and cultural develop an understanding of the conditions for alternative sustainability of smaller communities through resource demands, pathways to learning, knowledge-exchange, reconciliation rural de-population, migration flows and the destabilizing of and cross-community co-operation. social ties. Issues of urban inequality, homelessness and socio- spatial polarization, both between and within urban regions, 5. To generate policies and strategies aimed at maximizing undermine the social and cultural foundations that underpin social learning for cross-cultural dialogue and reconciliation; democratic institutions and practices. Globalization, at least in addressing sources of insecurity; minimizing the impact its current form, tends to reinforce these trends by accelerating of natural and human-induced disasters and conflicts; some social changes that degrade the environment, displace promoting approaches to reconstruction that integrate families, fragment community identity, and increase inequality physical rebuilding with political, cultural, and economic and social conflict. Our aim is to determine what might be renewal; and applying environmentally and culturally sustainable and innovative responses to these processes. sustainable technologies and techniques in the areas of urban infrastructure. 6. To contribute to the development of local-global governance processes for dealing with complexity of social and environmental change, and to engage with alternative global futures.

Our overall aim is to develop interpretations and strategies for building sustainable cities in the world today, thus contributing to the quality of human life and the viability of ecologies in those places.

7 Research Programs

The Institute brings researchers across the University into an The research across the Institute integrates interpretative ongoing collaboration framed by concerns about social and analysis and practical engagement, developed in co-operation environmental sustainability with a particular focus on the with local partners in specified cities. It thus involves the themes of globalization and global environmental sustainability. following: The strategically chosen cities provide the locus of our research, 1. Collaborative scoping of the research, including by but we want to understand those cities in context. In other engaging critical reference groups in different cities; words, the Global Cities Institute is based on the premise that cities can only be adequately understood in local, regional, 2. Ongoing assessment and reassessment of current national and global contexts. The Research Programs are: relevant patterns of the phenomena or processes under investigation; 1. Global Climate Change 3. Comparative case studies of issues in specific Asian- 2. Globalization and Culture Pacific cities and egions,r the development of theory and 3. Community Sustainability the identification of lessons learnt and recommendations 4. Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures for addressing economic, ecological, political and cultural change; 5. Human Security 4. Public communication back to the cities and their 6. Urban Decision-Making and Complex Systems communities of lessons learnt, with ongoing dialogue over emerging policy recommendations, models and applications; 5. Development of theory and methodology as the basis for recommendations on appropriate and flexible policies, models and tools; 6. Application of these flexible policies, models and tools in a wide range of cities and further refinement, both in practice and theory.

Globalization Global Climate Change

Social Community Sustainability Environmental Sustainability Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures Sustainability Human Security Urban Decision-Making and Complex Systems

Page 9: The sandstone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem is simultaneously the Western Wall of the Jewish Temple Mount - Kotel - and, the Al-Buraq Wall, a wall of the Islamic Al-Aqsa Mosque. It is one of the most controversial places in the world, currently used by the Jewish for prayer. Men and women pray on different sides of a barrier. Without wearing a Jewish kippah or yalmulke scalp-covering as depicted in the photograph it is deemed illegal for men to pray at the wall. In the late-seventh century, the Umayyids claimed that the site of Al-Aqsa was in fact the Temple Mount, but Jewish archeologists claim an earlier heritage, and therefore priority. Much of the Israel-Palestine conflict turns on such claims and counterclaims. Jerusalem, Israel-Palestine, December 2010.

8 9 Geographical Focus

The Global Cities Institute focuses on the Asia-Pacific region with a particular emphasis on specific cities, their hinterlands, and regional contexts. This is not to exclude other places of research, but to focus on these locales as the places where long-term research relations including with universities, governments and NGOs are being developed. It allows for a research data-base to be slowly accumulated. Because RMIT is located in the Asia-Pacific region it makes some sense that, without ignoring other areas, that the University develops a powerful specialization in this region, including Vietnam where RMIT currently has a major campus.

Chennai, India The research centres on community development strategies and the resilience and adaptation of communities to change and crisis, including in response to the 2004 tsunami and environmental degradation. The work of the Global Cities Institute in Chennai is led by Yaso Nadarajah and is linked to the University of Madras, a number of NGOs, and local government organizations such as the Slum Clearance Board, Tamil Nadu.

Chennai, India, 2009.

Denpasar, Indonesia The work of the Global Cities Institute in Denpasar is lead by Jeff Lewis and centres on questions of the culture of human security.

Dili, Timor Leste A number of major projects have been conducted in Dili and across Timor Leste by the Timor group linked to the Human Security and Community Sustainability programs, with comparative research undertaken in Fatumean (Covalima district), Luro (Lautem district), Venilale (Baucau district), and Kampung Baru (Dili district). The Global Cities Institute is working with Irish Aid, Oxfam Australia, Concern Worldwide, and the Office for the Promotion of Equality (now known as the Secretariat of State for the Promotion of Equality), Prime Minister’s Office, Timor-Leste. The work of the Global Cities Institute in Dili is lead by Damian Grenfell.

10 Hambantota and Colombo, Sri Lanka The work of the Global Cities Institute in Sri Lanka is led by Martin Mulligan. Here the work centres on the resilience and adaptation of communities to crises such as the recent tsunami and the violence of civil war, with comparative research undertaken on Hambantota, Seenigama, Sainthamaruthu and Thirukkovil Districts. Research is conducted in partnership with the University of Colombo, the South Eastern University (Pottuvil), the Foundation for Goodness, and NESDO.

Honiara, Solomon Islands The work of the Global Cities Institute in Honiara is lead by John Handmer. Here the main emphasis has been on the human security questions of an island-state experiencing different waves of movement and intervention into the city, both from its local hinterlands and from the global, whether it be the Chinese diaspora or the Australian police intervention.

Honolulu, USA The work of the Global Cities Institute in Honolulu is lead by Manfred Steger. One of the key projects in Hawaii concerns the role of indigenous festivals in relation to the culture of globalization and the conditions of community sustainability.

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Vietnam is a key focus of RMIT University and continues to be an important emphasis of the Institute. The Global Cities Institute has made a major commitment to research in Vietnam. Key partnerships include the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences and the Vietnam Green Building Council. The work of the Global Cities Institute in Vietnam is lead by John Fien.

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 2011.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia The work of the Global Cities Institute in Kuala Lumpur is led by Yaso Nadarajah. This research includes a longitudinal community-based study follows the relocation of squatter settlement communities to new low-cost, high-rise housing commission complexes. Our work has served as a catalyst to broader enquiry into the workings of national development, ethnicity and identity politics. Partners include the University of Malaya, University Kebangsaan Malaya, and University Sains Malaysia.

11 Los Angeles, USA The work of the Global Cities Institute in Los Angeles is focused on issues of migration and citizenship. Los Angeles acts as a gateway city for undocumented migration that flows throughout the United States. Anne McNevin and Paul James have done qualitative research into this phenomenon, investigating the role of Los Angeles as a hub for transnational labour markets, transnational communities and experiments in localised modes of citizenship and political belonging. A range of migrant community organizations in Los Angeles have been engaged with this research.

Melbourne, Australia Given that the home of the Global Cities Institute is in Melbourne, it is natural that this involves engagement with many organizations in the city. One of those centre partnerships is with the Melbourne City Council. The Council is the local government body responsible for the municipality of Melbourne. The Council has developed a new planning strategy for inner-Melbourne called ‘Future Melbourne’ and the Global Cities Institute has treated work in collaboration on this program as central to its engagement at the local level. The City of Melbourne is a supporter of the UN Global Compact Cities Programme (see above). The work of the Global Cities Institute in Melbourne is convened by Liz Ryan.

Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea Through the Globalism Research Centre, the Global Cities Institute has been working with the Department for Community Development since 2004. The Institute has contributed to policy developments that are rewriting the national approach to community sustainability. Under their Minister Dame Carol Kidu (recently retired) and Secretary Joseph Klapat, the Department has been in the forefront of rethinking community development strategies and partnerships, particularly as embodied in their recent major document Integrated Community Development Policy, 2007, and a series of subsequent reports. The work of the Global Cities Institute in Papua New Guinea is lead by Paul James.

Shanghai, China The Institute’s key collaborator in Shanghai is the Shanghai Academy of Social Science. The Director of the Academy came to Melbourne in 2008 and the Global Cities Institute participated in major research forums in Shanghai in 2009 and 2010. The work of the Global Cities Institute in Shanghai is led by Manfred Steger and Chris Hudson.

Vancouver, Canada The work of the Global Cities Institute in Vancouver is lead by Andy Scerri. Global Cities is collaborating with the Simon Fraser University in developing a major project linked to the UN Global Compact Cities Programme (see below) on the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ method for developing social indicators. The method is being piloted in the city concurrently with research being conducted in Melbourne.

12 Partnerships

Global and International Organizations

Global Reconciliation Global Reconciliation grew out of the Global Reconciliation Network and collaboration between RMIT and Monash Universities going back to 2002. Global Reconciliation brings together members of community groups, social activists, academics and others around the world, working towards the broad goal of reconciliation. Here reconciliation is understood as the process of establishing dialogue and collaborative practice across the divides of difference - nationality, religion, race and culture. It is focuses upon grounded engagement with local communities. The patrons of Global Reconciliation include The Reverend Desmond Tutu, The Honourable Sir William Deane, Aung San Suu Kyi, President Jose Ramos-Horta, Professor Bernard Lown, Professor Amartya Sen, and Dr Lowitja O’Donaghue. As part of joint initiative with the Global Cities Institute, and in particular the Human Security Program, the Pathways to Reconciliation Summit held in December 2009 followed on from a series of previous events: Melbourne, London, New Delhi, Sarajevo and Amman. The Summit was organized as a response to the paradox that political violence and insecurity have been intensifying across the world despite the expansion of security regimes and other short-term solutions. More recently work has focused on Sri Lanka and Australia. The objective across all the projects is to explore alternative pathways to peace, pathways which emphasize informal reconciliation processes operating beneath the radar of conventional regimes.

Mohammed Shaheen (Palestine) and Zvi Beckerman (Israel), working together as part of a Global Cities, Global Reconciliation Project at Akeyulerre Healing Centre. Alice Springs, Central Australia, 2011.

Global Reporting Initiative Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is a network-based organization based in Amsterdam that has pioneered the development of the world’s most widely used sustainability reporting framework and is committed to its continuous improvement and application worldwide. The Global Cities Institute has been invited to convene a panel to renew the GRI’s Public Agency reporting supplement.

13 Metropolis Created in 1985, the Metropolis Association is represented by more than a hundred member cities from across the world and operates as an international forum for exploring issues and concerns common to all big cities. The main goal of the association is to better control the development process of metropolitan areas in order to enhance the wellbeing of their citizens. To do this, Metropolis represents regions and metropolitan areas at the world-wide level. The Global Cities Institute was represented on Metropolis’ Commission 2, Managing Urban Growth which reported in 2011.

Spire International Spire International is a not-for-profit organization that links donors to local initiatives in developing communities. Spire specializes in identifying smaller locally-based initiatives where there is a need for external assistance so that goals can be achieved. Spire focuses on the areas of education, health, income-generation and environment. The Global Cities Institute is a supporter and sponsor of some Spire International events, and is represented on the executive of Spire Australia.

United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme The Global Cities Institute became the host of the UNGCCP International Secretariat in 2007 with support from the City of Melbourne and the Committee for Melbourne. This means that RMIT hosts the only United Nations International Secretariat based in Australia and the Asia-Pacific. This relationship provides the Institute with a direct partnership with the United Nations through the Global Compact in New York and the Secretary General’s Department. The Cities Programme was initiated in 2003 by former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan. It is a discrete component of the Global Compact and provides a unique framework for cities to develop and implement sustainable and concrete solutions to social, economic and environmental urban challenges of a long-term and often intractable nature. The Cities Programme was developed in response to the need for an evolution of corporate social responsibility to enable a meaningful engagement of the private sector at a systemic level. However, it went much further. By utilizing a common methodology, the Melbourne Model, it combines the ideas, knowledge, experience, and resources inherent within business, government, and civil society in a manner that directly benefits all participants.

Flinders Street Train Station. Melbourne, Australia, 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

14 United Nations Human Settlement Programme The United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN-Habitat, is the United Nations agency for human settlements. It is mandated by the UN General Assembly to promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing adequate shelter for all. In 2008 UN Habitat invited RMIT University through the Global Cities Institute to become a Habitat Partner University. This was confirmed in 2009 with the visit of a delegation from UN Habitat to Melbourne, including Executive Director Anna Tibaijuka. The visit was marked by a major public launch of the partnership. The partnership directly engages research staff and students in the activities of the UN Human Settlement Program. It links the Global Cities Institute with a unique group of international universities, including Simon Fraser University in Canada which also hosts a UN-Habitat Urban Observatory. RMIT was the first university in Australia, and the first university in the Asia-Pacific to be so invited.

World Vision World Vision Australia is part of an international aid organization for children and youth, mostly in rural areas. In order to begin a reorientation of its operations globally towards urban engagement, World Vision has established a Centre of Expertise for Urban Programming. The Global Cities Institute is working with the Centre to develop an integrated approach to sustainable urban and community development. The approach is based on the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ method that is also used by the United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme. It will establish a process for initiating, monitoring and evaluating projects and for locally negotiating indicators of sustainability.

Public-Political Bodies and Grassroots Organizations

Arena Publications Established in 1963, Arena Publications publishes Arena Journal, an academic bi-annual, and Arena Magazine, Australia’s leading left magazine of cultural and political comment. Both publications frequently publish articles and commentary pieces on areas ranging across the work of the Institute, including globalization, Indigenous politics and culture, and the role of intellectuals and technology in the transformation of the current cultural and political landscape. Arena has a thriving centre in Fitzroy, Melbourne, which combines publication, public discussion and a commercial printery.

Institute of Postcolonial Studies The aim of the Institute of Postcolonial Studies is to understand and undo the continuing legacies of colonialism today: dispossession, displacement, racism, and intercultural violence. In particular, this entails understanding political and economic pressures and cultural prejudices faced by indigenous peoples and impoverished communities, supporting those facing the consequences of political upheaval and violence, and generating dialogue across worlds of continuing and often positive cultural difference. RMIT’s Global Cities Institute is represented on the Postcolonial Institute’s Council, the Institute’s peak policy body. The IPS publishes Postcolonial Studies, an international journal, founded in 1997 by a group of scholars associated with the Institute of Postcolonial Studies, including Global Cities’ representation, and a book series with the University of Hawaii Press.

The Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research The Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research (VCCCAR) is an initiative which aims to promote multi-disciplinary research activity in the region, as well as fostering increased collaborative working between universities, other research organizations, and government, in order to better inform strategic planning and other decision-making processes. Four main Victorian universities are involved, with Darryn McEvoy from RMIT (through the Global Cities Institute) as Deputy Director for the Centre.

15 Universities and Research Centres

Simon Fraser University Simon Fraser University is located in Vancouver, Canada, as is the home to a UN Habitat Urban Observatory led by Meg Holden. She is part of a SFU-RMIT team doing pilot studies in Vancouver and Melbourne to develop the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ approach as part of the United Nations Cities Programme (see UN Global Compact Cities Programme).

University of Colombo In 2006, the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, and the Globalism Research Centre signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the objective of developing collaborative research projects. This has been carried forward by members of the Community Sustainability Program of the Global Cities Institute with exchange research trips by academics both from RMIT to Sri Lanka and Colombo to Australia.

University of Hawai’i In September 2003, the Globalism Research Centre and the Globalization Research Centre at the University of Hawai’i, USA, collaborated with a number of other institutes in establishing the Globalization Studies Network. Since then Manfred Steger has been working with its Director, Mike Douglass, to develop ongoing research collaboration around the theme of ‘Globalization and Culture’, one of the programs in the Global Cities Institute.

University Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM is the National University of Malaysia mandated with safeguarding ‘the sovereignty of the Malay language while globalizing knowledge in the context of local culture’. It is located in Bangi, south of Kuala Lumpur. In 2007 discussions began with the objective of developing collaborative research. This has been carried through in joint work with the Institute of Malaysian and International Studies (IKAMS).

University of Madras Since 2006, the University of Madras, Chennai, India, and RMIT have seen a movement of research staff between the two institutions collaborating around the Community Sustainability Program.

University of Salford The University of Salford is in the City of Salford, part of the Greater Manchester Region, in central England. High-level visits of staff from Salford and RMIT across 2008 to 2010 have been part of a strong and developing relationship between the two universities. The Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures centre (SURF) at Salford is mirrored by the program of the same name at RMIT.

Corporations

Accenture Researchers in the Institute have worked closely with a team at Accenture in Australia, France and India (led by Simon Vardy) to develop a sustainability simulation tool which was launched in Singapore in November 2010. The web-based software is framed by the United Nations City Programme method and allows city planners to project sustainability programs and to see the potential effects of those programs over time as different parameters are changed.

ARUP ARUP is a global construction and design company committed to sustainable development. The Global Cities Institute have been working with Arup London and Melbourne with the aim of forming a strategic research partnership on sustainability indicators, climate change adaptation, and on urban infrastructure.

16 B2B Lawyers B2B is Melbourne-based law firm operating in the areas of corporate and commercial Law, insolvency, commercial litigation, alternate dispute resolution, domestic and international taxation. David Lurie, one of the B2B partners, does significant pro bono work for the Global Cities Institute on important areas of reconciliation. B2B is the legal organization behind the Global Cities Institute and Centre of Ethics (Monash University) initiative Global Reconciliation (see Global Reconciliation) and has provided financial support for some of its projects.

Playing together, a Global Reconciliation Project between Australia and Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka, October 2010.

Costa Group The Costa Family Foundation has been a significant and ongoing philanthropic supporter of the work of Global Cities in the area of reconciliation and human security. Through Rob Costa it was a major under-writer of the Reconciliation Summit in Amman, Jordan. Most recently, it has supported the ‘Playing Together’ project involving indigenous footballers in Sri Lanka.

Drapac Group Drapac is a property investment group committed to creating sustainable environments and investments. Through Michael Drapac, the company has provided significant financial support for reconciliation projects in the Middle East and Sri Lanka.

Microsoft Microsoft Australia is providing the software tools to develop our ‘Circles of Sustainability’ project in conjunction with the UN Global Compact Cities Programme. Greg Stone of Microsoft is an advisor to our ARC-funded project ‘Accounting for Sustainability’.

Urbis Urbis is a multi-disciplinary consulting firm offering a range of expertise in planning, urban design, property, social, economics and research. The firm works across all matters relating to the design, planning and management of land, property and construction, and environmental and social issues. Urbis also works throughout the Asia Pacific and the Middle East having established an office in Dubai. The Global Cities Institute is working with Urbis through Michael Barlow who is Chair of our Advisory Board.

17 18 Pudong on the other side of the Huangpu River, part of the Yangtse River Delta, was mostly agricultural land prior to the 1990s. Now, with five million inhabitants, it is the financial hub of Shanghai and Mainland China. Chinese and other tourists come to the Bund promenade in the old city on this side of the river to be photographed with the Oriental Pearl Television Tower (1994) and the Shanghai International Conventional Centre (1999) in the background. The architecture of Pudong is self-consciously global, going back to the Lujiazui international urban design competition. The globes pictured in the photograph are part of the Convention Centre; China is coloured in red. Shanghai, China, June 2010.

19 2. Approach

Engaged Theory: A Toolbox of Methods and Concepts for Researching Cities

Paul James, George Cairns, Hartmut Fünfgeld, Damian Grenfell, Darryn McEvoy, Liam Magee, Martin Mulligan, Lin Padgham, Andy Scerri, Manfred Steger, James Thom, Jo Tacchi, and George Wright.1

This long essay collates concepts, methods, protocols and principles across an integrated but open approach that is used by a number of researchers in the Global Cities Institute. The approach is called ‘Engaged Theory’. It is intended to be flexible and modular. Each part of the approach has been developed so that it operates as part of a toolbox for studying social phenomena and locales as they are reproduced and change. The terms of the approach are intended to work across time and in different places as we attempt to understand the complex layering of the local, the national, the regional and the global. Functionally this means that the various items in the toolbox - different concepts, methods, protocols and principles - can be taken out and used singularly. Or they can be used in relation to other specified tools. Or, most comprehensively if a researcher chooses, the toolbox can be used as an integrated methodology. This essay represents our attempt to show the interrelation of different tools used by various researchers in the Global Cities Institute.

The essay is schematic and it is written with as few footnotes as possible.2 It is provisional and remains a work-in-progress. Over the coming period we will continue to refine and develop the parts of the approach. Nevertheless, considerable care has been given to making sure that the various definitions, descriptions of method, protocols and principles, all align and complement each other. This does not mean that all the researchers in the Global Cities Institute use the approach as integrated whole or across its connected parts. It simply means, firstly, that the task of writing and arguing about the interconnections have sensitized us to the difficulty of an integrated method and that some of us are attempting to work through these difficulties. Secondly, it means that in working together it is helpful to have developed a common language, common definitions of key concepts, and crossovers of methods. As a primary consideration the toolbox is intended to be useful. Concepts and methods, protocols and principles are given a place within this methodological framework insofar as they are developed within a number of principles. Are they heuristically useful? Do they enable us to map the complexity of social life without becoming too arcane or complicated to use? Can they offer us the possibility of moving between analysing dominant patterns of practice and meaning (structures) and recognizing the contingency of any particular practice or idea? Can they contribute to a broader analysis that can move between empirical description and understanding the ontological grounding of a pattern of practice and meaning? The essay begins with some definitions and an apparently very simple recognition of different spheres of social life. Despite their basic orientation beginning in this has fundamental consequences. The essay finishes with some specific tools for such as activities as sustainability reporting and conducting a questionnaire. In between are a number of excursions into method that are part from different projects of the Institute. As a way into the discussion we begin with some basic definitions.

1 This essay is a collective effort with major contributions from each of the named contributors. The overall author however is Paul James who takes final responsibility for the connections between the parts. Other contributing authors may or may not agree with all sections of the essay. 2 If as a reader of this essay you want to get a sense of the depth of work behind the discussion then longer papers, articles and books written by the present authors and others are available in the public domain that take the discussion much further.

20 Defining the Urban

The challenge of conducting research in the contemporary world is complicated by what is often a rapid and radical reconfiguration of social space. Among the many issues this raises are problems of definition. In relation to defining a phenomenon as apparently simple as an urban settlement, debates and practices in the fields of anthropology, sociology and ethnography confront us with one set of issues, and debates in the fields of human geography and demography present others. One concern is that mainstream demographic analyses of human settlements - whether they are by governments, inter-governmental organizations, economists or NGOs - tend overwhelmingly use the urban-rural dichotomy as the dominant modality of categorizing locales and land-use. The urban-rural distinction was first proposed in the early 1950s, and it was criticized at the time for being overly simplistic. Nevertheless, it quickly entered into popular usage. It has persisted as the dominant classification system for studying human settlements, and is used by virtually all countries. Beyond that there are a number of significant problems with the widespread usage of the various settlement categories. Firstly, there is no uniform approach to defining rural and urban settlements. The United Nations has taken the position that, ‘Because of national differences in the characteristics which distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between urban and rural population is not yet amenable to a single definition that would be applicable in all countries’.3 Thus, it is said to be best for countries to decide for themselves whether particular settlements are urban or rural. The OECD has adopted the same approach. However, while recognizing that it is a difficult task to create categories which are applicable to a diverse range of landscapes, contexts and regional settings, the failure to define the terms being used simply means that there is an overabundance of opportunities for confusion and inconsistent use. The usual urban-rural distinction also fails to account for the changing nature of human settlement across the globe. Some writers point to a number of significant changes, including the changing forms of urbanization such as urban sprawl, and the decentralization of non-residential functions, for example, retail parks close to intercity highway junctions; massively increased levels of commuting between urban and rural areas; the development of communication and transport technologies; and the emergence of polycentric urban configurations. While the urban-rural dichotomy was always over-simplistic, it is arguably more misleading today than it was half a century ago. In some countries where we work, such as Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands, it needs to be treated very carefully given the networks of exchange relations that intensively connect different locales, including through marriage and retirement relations. Thirdly, the generality of the terms overwhelms the significant variation in settlement forms that exist between the extremes of the most urban and the most rural. ‘Rural’ is in general use a catch-all category for ‘not-urban’. The inadequacy of this has led to a number of intermediate categories being proposed, including suburban, peri-urban, ex-urban and peri-metropolitan. These new forms of categorization are intended to respond to the increasing complexity of settlement patterns and they partly do so. The difficulty is that marking the differences is sometimes reduced to a set of arbitrary metrics. One approach uses two criteria - population density and accessibility - to distinguish between three categories of rural areas: peri-urban rural; intermediate rural; and remote rural. Rural areas are considered to be those with a population density lower than 150 inhabitants per square kilometre, while the three sub-categories are defined according to the level of access to major services. This certainly marks differences, but the technical precision is pseudo-scientific rather than in keeping with the present social mapping approach that takes objective and subjective dimensions of social life equally seriously. Another approach identifies three dimensions through which human settlements can be addressed, as opposed to the one-dimensional nature of the urban-rural distinction: settlement size, from hamlet to metropolitan centre; concentration, from dense to sparse; and accessibility, from central to remote.

3 United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 1998, Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, Revision 1. Series M, No. 67, Rev. 1, UNSD, New York.

21 Piecing together material from different sources, however, it is possible to get a basic framework for a general set of definitions that we will use as part of our toolbox:4 A city or urban area can be defined as a human settlement characterized by a significant infrastructural base - economically, politically and culturally - a high density of population, whether it be as denizens, working people, or transitory visitors, and what is perceived to be a large proportion of constructed surface area relative to the rest of the region. Within that area there may also be smaller zones of non-built-up, green or brown sites used for agriculture, recreational, storage, waste disposal or other purposes. A suburban area can be defined as a relatively densely inhabited urban district characterized by predominance of housing land-use - as a residential zone in an urban area contiguous with a city centre, as a zone outside the politically defined limits of a city centre, or as a zone on the outer rim of an urban region (sometimes called a peri-urban area). For example, suburban areas are made up of village communities or squatter settlements, sometimes edged by bushland. This also includes ‘settlements’ or ‘squatter areas’. Thus our definition of ‘suburb’ does not made the usual distinction between formal suburbs and informal or squatter settlements - they are in our terms different forms of suburbanization. A peri-urban area is a zone of transition from the rural to urban. These areas often form the immediate urban-rural interface and may eventually evolve into being fully urban. Peri-urban areas are lived-in environments. The majority of peri-urban areas are on the fringe of established urban areas, but they may also be clusters of residential development within rural landscapes and along transport routes. Peri-urban areas in the Global North are most frequently an outcome of the continuing process of suburbanization or urban sprawl, though this is different in places where customary land relations continue to prevail. A hinterland area is a rural area that is located close enough to a major urban centre to for its inhabitants to relate a significant proportion of their activities towards the dominant urban area that draws upon that area. A rural area is an area that is either sparsely settled or has a relatively dispersed population with no cities or major towns. While agriculture still plays an important part in numerous rural areas, other sources of income have developed such as rural tourism, small-scale manufacturing activities, residential economy (location of retirees), and energy production. A rural area can be characterized either by its constructed (though non-industrial) ecology or its relatively indigenous ecology. In the Global Cities Institute we study all these zones to the extent that they bear on the formation and reproduction of cities or urban settlements.

4 Here we have drawn heavily on the European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Spatial/Regional Planning (CEMAT) 2006, Glossary of Key Expression Used in Spatial Development Policies in Europe, CEMAT, Lisborne, available at: http://www.mzopu.hr/doc/14CEMAT_6_EN.pdf

Page 23: McDonald’s continues to globalize its operations, menu and marketing. However, increasingly it has made cultural modifications in local circumstances, and often it gets this wrong. One advertisement which ran in China depicted ‘a Chinese man kneeling before a vendor and begging him to accept his expired discount coupon, but is refused. The advertisement goes on to say people don’t have to worry about McDonald’s coupons expiring, since their validity lasts for a whole year.’ According to the People’s Daily the advertisement was charged with ‘hurting Chinese consumers’ sense of dignity and morality, the ad was soon banned in many big cities such as Shanghai’. In Buddhist Thailand, the image of Ronald McDonald praying is of this ilk. Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2010. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

22 23 Defining Globalization

Globalization is defined as the extension and intensification social relations across world-space, (where the nature of world-space is understood in terms of the temporal frame or social imaginary in which that space is lived). Except for the bracketed qualification, this is a disarmingly simple definition. It is the qualification that needs further elaboration because it turns on two concepts - ‘world-space’ and ‘social imaginary’. In this sense, the changing global space, the space of the ‘world’, needs to be defined in terms of the historically variable ways in which it has been practised and socially understood. To give one illustration, the world as understood by Claudius Ptolemaeus (c90–c150) was based on a revival of the Hellenic belief in the Pythagorean theory of a spherical globe, but this was a substantially different globe from that understood by George W. Bush when he initiated the Global War on Terror. Both conceptions take the world to be a spherical globe - hence globalization. However, the nature of that sphere and how a particular empire or a state is to reach across that world-space is understood and practiced in fundamentally different ways. By analytically defining globalization in this variable way, we can say that the phenomenon of globalization has been occurring across the world for centuries, but in changing ways, and massively intensifying across the mid-twentieth century to the present. Across history, globalization has involved the extension of uneven connections between people in far distant places through such processes as the movement of people, the exchange of goods and the communication of ideas. (For an extended discussion of the concept of the ‘social imaginary’ see Chapter 3 below.) There are a number of dimensions to an understanding of globalization as the extension of social relations across world-space. Firstly, as many commentators now agree, the phenomenon of globalization is a relational process. That is, globalization is not a state of being or a given condition. The notion of a ‘global condition’ is addressed by the concept of globality, but even this concept does not imply that everything has or will become global. In these terms, globalization is not a totalizing condition; nor is it an end point that will be achieved when everything that is local becomes global. Rather it a series of relations that continue to be uneven and contingent, even as we can see dominant patterns emerging. Globalisms, in this sense, are the ideologies of globalization (again, see Chapter 3 below). Secondly, globalization is a spatial process. It involves social connections across space - organized and unorganized, intended and unintended, patterned and messy. More than that, the spatiality of this phenomenon needs to be specified as global in some way. Those inter-related points might seem an unnecessary thing to say given their obviousness. However, for the concept to have any meaning, globalization needs to carry global spatial implications of some kind. Despite this, there has been a tendency for some writers to define globalization in terms of transcontinental or inter-regional relations, or in terms of the demise or end of the nation-state. There is no good reason to make such relations or effects part of the definition. One possible analytical distinction that can be made between different kinds of globalization is the following: • Embodied globalization - the movements of peoples across the world. • Object-extended globalization - the movements of objects; in particular, traded commodities. • Agency-extended globalization - the movements of agents of institutions such as corporations and states. • Symbolically extended globalization - the movements of symbols; often carried as objects, but also now overwhelmingly as electronic images. • Disembodied globalization - the movements of immaterial things and processes, electronic texts, and encoded capital. (To see how this fits into the larger schema see Table 3 below; note how the objects of analysis relate to the ways of relating.)

24 Defining Development

Development in this part of the world, as elsewhere in the Global South, continues to be a struggle. The lives of the people that development is meant to enrich - whether it is corporate-led or state- led - are often being made more difficult by the very developmental process that purports to help them. It remains true that, despite well-intentioned attempts to the contrary, most development projects do not know how to engage with the complexity of community-life. In many cases, while a paradigm shift from ‘things’ to ‘people’ has been discussed and encouraged, this has not generally been translated into practice. Something of a consensus has emerged amongst commentators in the fields of education, anthropology, community development and political ecology that sustainable development is something that comes from within communities rather than something that can be imposed from the outside. This nevertheless leaves us with many questions. Within a landscape changed by the colonial experience and beset by the forces of globalization - most pressingly a global demand for natural resources - how are issues of self-determination, social equity and communality, ecological sustainability, grass-roots economic viability and respect for customary ways of life to be negotiated in practice? In this context, the term ‘development’ itself is complex and difficult. In the corporate sphere, this usually means generating physical infrastructure, political stability and workforce training that will enhance company profit-taking. In the state-led model of development, this commonly means building layers of civil administration and providing the legislative, infrastructural and educational framework for economic-based development, all understood in terms of the nation-building program. In the area of community and civil-society studies, ideas of development range from getting more things to the people or building social capital, to alternative notions of the enhancement of community sustainability, resilience, security and adaptability (our position). How then can we define development so that there is no presumption in this definition that development entails modernization or modern progress? How can we define development so that there is no presumption that all development is good? Here is our attempt: Development is defined as social change - with all its intended or unintended outcomes - that brings about a significant and patterned shift in the technologies, techniques, infrastructure, and/or associated life-forms of a place or people.

Preparing seed yams in Omarakana village, Trobriand Islands, 2009.

25 Defining Sustainability

Given the possibility of unintended consequences, reversals, and counterproductive outcomes, there is no suggestion in this definition that all ‘good development’ is sustainable. Nor, it should be said, is all ‘sustainable development’ good development. This last point is one rarely made in the mainstream Global North. The classic 1987 report Our Common Future, more commonly known as the Brundtland Report, defined sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.5 This definition still works, though its meaning turns on the undefined implications of the word ‘needs’ and the assumed importance of cultural, political and ecological needs rather than just economic material needs (see the reference below to the dialectic of needs and limits).

Community Sustainability The notion of ‘community sustainability’ is a more recent one. Depending on how it is defined, it can be both a more specific and a more expansive concept than that of ‘sustainable development’. It is more specific in that it looks at the practices and actions that are needed in relation to existing communities to achieve sustainable development, yet it is more expansive in that it has the potential to move beyond schematic or instrumental accounts of sustainable development to encompass the various domains of the social, including cultural aspects of how communities cohere through time. Beyond such general accounts, however, there is little agreement on what it means or entails, particularly in integrated social terms. While much research has been carried out on community sustainability from an economic or even ecological standpoint, little work exists on the potential of cultural or political practices in strengthening communities. Some writers point to the vagueness of the concept. Here we define ‘community sustainability’ as the long-term durability of a community as it negotiates changing practices and meanings across all the domains of culture, politics, economics and ecology. Again it should be clear that communities could be sustainable without being good places to live. Part of the significance of our work, then, lies in its attempt to address the gaps in the current literature on community sustainability, and to extend theoretical observations about a new qualitative conception of community sustainability informed by substantial and innovative empirical research. In this context, sustainability is conceived in terms that include not just practices tied to development, but also forms of wellbeing and social bonds, community-building, social support, and infrastructure renewal. In short, the concern with sustainability here entails undertaking an analysis of how communities are sustained through time, how they cohere and change, rather than being constrained within discourses and models of development. From another angle, this project presents an account of community sustainability detached from instrumental concerns with narrow economic development. While concerns about production and exchange continue to be imperative for community sustainability, this project will suggest that an approach driven by economistic concerns has a tendency to be reductive, and will fail to account for the real complexity of interactions and effects produced by the matrix of cultural, political, economic and ecological practices.

5 World Commission on Environment and Development 1997, Our common future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 8.

26 Defining Adaptation

Adaptation to social and natural pressures and forces is a diffuse and difficult task. Originally a concept developed in evolutionary biology, its definition and goals are largely place-based. They require an understanding not only of the impacts that are going to occur in a given place, but also, importantly, of the local fabric of economic, ecological, political and cultural systems (see the sections below on ‘Circles of Sustainability’). Given that climate-change adaptation is a central focus of Global Cities Institute on this theme, it is the climate-change adaption matrix that we will take here as focus of our discussion. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) definition of adaptation as ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects’ underlines the context-specific nature of adaptation. The definition does not, however, specify how ‘adjustments’ in systems should or will occur, or what these systems are. If ecological, economic, political and cultural domains, or combined socio-environmental ‘systems’, are considered the locus for climate change adaptation, a clear understanding of the system under consideration is necessary for defining effective goals and devising actions that will work towards these goals within the limits and opportunities provided by that system. Systems that bear relevance for responding to climate change can be identified at various scales - from the local to the global. Defining the nature of a system requires specifying the subjects or components that constitute the system (see the subdomains outlined in Chapter 1 below: for example, the flora and fauna of a particular defined zone, its habitat and land, and its constructions and settlements) as well as its boundaries - geographic or social boundaries. Due to its highly contextual nature adaptation differs from mitigation in that it mainly results in localized benefits. Although the distribution of adaptation costs across beneficiaries is often contested, the local nature of adaptation benefits can be a significant incentive for individuals, local businesses and local authorities to invest in adaptation measures in their geographic area. For example, tree-planting programs in dense urban areas with limited green space lead to a number of direct adaptation benefits in the city, including improved shading on hot days, improved micro- climate, and a reduction of the urban heat-island effect. Local adaptation approaches that draw on contextual knowledge of economic, ecological, political and cultural conditions can harness this potential, whereas local action on mitigation action is often impeded by concerns about the distribution of benefits and free-riding because localized investment can result in collective global benefits for those who have not invested. While significant progress on mitigation can be achieved by central regulation through binding intergovernmental and national agreements, adaptation requires place-based approaches that integrate multiple levels of governance, linking strategic top-down guidance with flexible, context- specific responses to local climate-related hazards. The required flexibility exposes adaptation goals to value-based judgement of all stakeholders involved, and views can differ substantially regarding what is to be protected from harm, which opportunities are to be exploited, and which vulnerabilities are worthwhile addressing. A success criterion for climate-change adaptation therefore is to develop a shared framing of what successful climate change adaptation means in a given context, to enable actors to collaboratively design and implement effective climate change responses. Knowledge of, and agreement on, key conceptual and operational terms relevant to adaptation processes can help establish such shared framing, but due to the ‘wickedness’ of the problem it can be expected that actions will need to evolve based on flexible and creative thinking (see Chapter 5 below).

27 Defining Community

Ever since Ferdinand Tönnies introduced the terms gemeinschaft and gesellschaft to describe a shift from a society dominated by relatively stable, mainly non-urban, communities that emphasized mutual obligation and trust (gemeinschaften) to more mobile, highly urbanized societies in which individual self-interest comes to the fore (gesellschaften), commentators have been interested in the ever-changing nature of community.6 Until recently, belonging to a community was usually seen as unqualifiedly positive. While community is now seen in more circumspect terms, the erosion of community is still predominantly interpreted as being the cause of social problems. In the West, the term ‘community’ is often used interchangeably with ‘neighbourhood’ to refer to the bonds that come with living cheek-by-jowl with others in a shared space. Alternatively, it is used to refer to people bound by a particular identity defined by nation, language-group, ethnicity, clan, race, religion or sexual orientation. Or, again, it refers to groupings of mutual self-interest such as a profession or association. Cutting across all of these, community can also be defined by a particular mode of interaction, such as virtual or online communities. Community often seems to be whatever people say it is, potentially incorporating every conceivable form of human grouping, even those that might otherwise strike one as contradictory. In the context of the supposed new ‘fluidity’ of global interchange, community has come in for sustained critique in relation to its effects on social wellbeing. Zygmunt Bauman, for example, has argued that communitarianism creates an ideal of community that is like the ‘home writ large’ in which there is no room for the homeless and which can also turn into an unexpected ‘prison’ for many of the residents. Bauman is believes that a new kind of unity is possible - ‘a unity put together through negotiation and reconciliation, not the denial, stifling or smothering out of difference’.7 However, under conditions of what he problematically calls globalizing ‘liquid modernity’, he sees community as entirely a matter of individual choice - a desire to redress the growing imbalance between individual freedom and security. This is clearly not the case in many of the cities that we study. It is our contention that the theorists of this ‘postmodern fluid world’ fail to understand the enduring, if changing and variable, possibilities of existing communities as they exist in a complex matrix of relations from the local to the global. In the contemporary world - whether it is Port Moresby or Paris - an emerging sense that one’s sense of community is changing and no longer lived as ‘given’ is in tension with powerful subjective continuities. That is, community is no longer a relationship that a person might be drawn into, or even born into, without being forced at some time to think about its meaning, but for the most part we take such social relations for granted. Given all the variations, retraditionalizations, continuities, and transformations, the distinction made by Tönnies between ‘the social’ cast in the predominance of stable and traditional gemeinschaften or the more fluid and displaced gesellschaften is too dichotomous to be useful. However, the metaphor of flows just reverses the previous misplaced emphasis on tribal and traditional societies as fixed. What is becoming more obviously necessary is to look at the ways in which forms of community identity are being created and re-created in relation to continuities under changing circumstances, both objectively and subjectively. The definition of community thus needs to be generalizing across quite different settings, but without simply being a matter of subjective and changing self-definition, and without including all forms of association or sociality that happen to be important such as the family.

6 Tönnies, F (1887) 1963, Community and society, Harper and Row, New York. 7 Bauman, Z 2000, Liquid modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, pp. 171-2.

28 Here we define community very broadly as a group or network of persons who are connected (objectively) to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties, and who mutually define that relationship (subjectively) as important to their social identity and social practice. This definition allows us to recognize that communities do not have natural or singular boundaries. The nature of all locales is that they are crossed by different and overlapping relations. The following discussion offers three ways of characterizing community relations: 1. grounded community relations, in which the salient feature of community life is taken to be people coming together in particular tangible settings based upon face-to-face engagement; 2. life-style community relations, in which the key feature bringing together a community is adherence to particular attitudes and practices; and 3. projected community relations, in which neither particularistic relations nor adherence to a particular way of life are pre-eminent, but rather the active establishment of a social space in which individuals engage in an open-ended processes of constructing, deconstructing and reconstructing identities and ethics for living (see Table 1).

People gather at the city square. Plock, Poland, August 2011.

29 Table 1: Community Formations

Forms of Community Relations Dominant Ontological Formations

Grounded community relations Tribal-Customary to Traditional

Life-style community relations Traditional to Modern

1. community-life as morally-bounded 2. community-life as interest-based 3. community-life as proximately-related

Projected community relations Modern to Postmodern

1. community-life as thin projection 2. community-life as reflexively but uncritically projected 3. community-life as reflexively and critically projected

Before elaborating these categories further, a couple of notes of caution ought to be sounded about how these different accounts of community relate to each other. Firstly, we are in the first instance distinguishing between forms of community relations, not types of communities. In other words, the distinctions between the community relations as embodied, as a life-style, or as projected, are intended as analytical distinctions and shorthand designations. In these terms, it is not being claimed that the bundle of relations in a given community exists in practice as one or other of those pure variations. Rather, the terms are intended as offering a way into an analytical framework across which the dominant, co-existent and/or subordinate manifestations of different community relations (and therefore different communities) can be mapped. Though one dimension of community relations can certainly predominate in a given community - and a community can thus be designated as such - the temptation to pigeonhole this or that community into a single way of constituting community should be resisted. Thirdly, in proposing this framework then, the terms grounded community, life-style community, and projected community are used here not as normatively charged descriptions, but as shorthand terms to refer to the dominant forms of social relations that constitute a given community. They refer to the way in which social relations are framed and enacted without making any implicit judgement about whether they are good or bad. The purpose here is to offer a way of thinking about how communities are constituted across different ways of living and relating to others; and to see how communities are constituted through the intersection of different forms of social integration.

Grounded Community Relations Attachment to particular places and particular people are the salient features of what we are calling ‘grounded community relations’. In other words, relations of mutual presence and placement are central to structuring the connections between people. Except for periods of stress or political intensification - usually in response to unwanted interventions from the outside - questions about active social projection are subordinate in accounts and practices of grounded community. Such projection is usually seen in terms of what is already given and in place. In such a setting, questions about the nature of one’s life-style are assumed to take care of themselves so long as a given social and physical environment is in place with appropriate infrastructure such as dwellings and amenities. Grounded community relations can sometimes be extended over spatial distances, stretched for example between the city and the country, to the extent that the diaspora continues to be connected by abiding embodied relations such as through regular powerful ceremonies of birth, marriage and death.

30 Thus, adherence to particular ways-of-life tends to spring from a taken-for-granted sense of commonality and continuity. It arises from the face-to-face bonds with other persons in one’s locale rather than from thinking about the life-style itself. People do not have to read from community- development tomes, self-help books or religious tracts to confirm how to act with one another. Norms of behaviour emerge from people in meaningful relations as the habitus of their being. Even when the religious observances of such communities break out of the confines of mythical time - in the sense that it transcendentally looks forward to a world to come and goes back to the beginning of time - the sense of community is strongly conditioned by local settings and is carried on through rituals and ways of living that are rooted in categories of embodiment and presence. Customary tribal communities and rural traditional communities are examples in which grounded community relations tend to be dominant.

The other side of grounded community-relations is life-style relations. This shop-front is in an area of Auckland that brings people together for coffee and life-style shopping. Auckland, New Zealand, 2011.

Life-style Community Relations In contrast with grounded community relations where the emphasis is on the particularities of people and place as the salient features of community, there are accounts and practices of community that give primacy to particular ways of living. In practice, this tends to take one of three forms. Morally framed community relations tend to arise wherever there are relationships of trust and mutual obligation between people who agree to abide by certain morally charged ways of life. They are formed around a specified normative boundary - certain norms of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. This is the form taken by many traditional religious communities. Community here is essentially a regulative space, a means of binding people into particular ways of living. Interest-based community relations form around an interest or aesthetic inclination, where life-style or activity, however superficial, is evoked as the basis of the relationship. In Papua New Guinea this includes sporting and leisure-based communities that come together for regular moments of engagement, and expatriate or diaspora communities who share commonalities of life-style or interest. Proximate community relations come together where neighbourhood or commonality of association forms a community of convenience. This is not the same as a grounded community, even though both are based in spatial proximity. As distinct from conceptions of grounded community, the cultural embeddedness of persons in this or that place does not define the coherence of community, nor does the continual embodied involvement of its members with each other.

31 Since the salience of life-style community relations lies in their morally framed, interest-based or proximate coherence, such communities can be de-linked from particular groups of people and particular locales. In other words, they can be deterritorialized. Face-to-face embodied relations may be subjectively important to such communities, but they might equally be constituted through virtual or technologically mediated relations where people agree to abide by certain conventions and bonds. In this regard, it is a potentially more open and mobile form of community. This is its strength but also its weakness. It tends to generate culturally thinner communities than grounded relations. On the other hand, life-style relations tend to allow for more adaptability to change.

Projected Community Relations Unlike the two other conceptions of community relations, this notion is not defined by attachment to a particular place or to a particular group of people. Neither is it primarily defined by adherence to a shared set of moral norms, traditions, or mutual interests. The salient feature of projected community relations is that a community is self-consciously treated as a created entity. It is because of this primacy accorded to the created, creative, active and projected dimension of community that the word ‘projected’ is used. This is perhaps the most difficult idea of community to grasp, partly because it is a much more nebulous idea of community. For the advocates of projected community, such relations are less about the particularities of place and bonds with particular others or adherence to a particular normative frame, and more an ongoing process of self-formation and transformation. It is a means by which people create and recreate their lives with others. Communities characterized by the dominance of projected relations can be conservative or radical, modern or postmodern. And they can be hybrid and uneven in their forms of projection. At one end of the spectrum this process can be deeply political and grass-roots-based projected communities, at least in their more self-reflexive political form, can take the form of ongoing associations of people who seek politically-expressed integration; communities of practice based on professional projects, associative communities which seek to enhance and support individual creativity, autonomy and mutuality. At the other end of the spectrum, projected communities can also be trivial or transitory, manipulative or misleading. They can be overgeneralized and more akin to advertising collations. They can live off the modern search for meaning rather than respond adequately to it. Realized in this way, notions of ‘community’ might be projected by a corporate advertiser or state spin-doctor around a succession of engagements in the so-called ‘third place’ of a Starbucks café or a self- named ‘creative city’ or ‘creative community’. Here older forms of community relations dissolve into postmodern fluidity where notions of settled, stable and abiding bonds between people recede into the background.

Page 33: Restoration work began on Christchurch Cathedral after superficial damage caused by the earthquake of 4 September 2010. However, since the photograph was taken the cathedral has collapsed. The devastating 6.3 magnitude earthquake of 22 February 2011, which killed 185 people in the city, destroyed the spire of the cathedral and compromised its walls and roof. The subsequent 6.4 magnitude earthquake of June 2011 significantly damaged the remaining building. Together with the swarm of aftershocks following, including the 23 December 2011 quake, it led to the decision to demolish the remnant structure. There is now uncertainty as to the nature of a future building on the site. Christchurch, New Zealand, January 2011.

32 33 Part 1. Engaged Theory: Methods

Chapter 1. Social Domains and Social Themes

Our approach begins with the social. Social domains are spheres of social life understood in the broadest possible sense. It is possible analytically to divide the social into any number of domains. In this case we have chosen the minimal number of domains that are useful for giving a complex sense of the whole of social life. Certainly, the lived demarcation of these domains is only possible as modern categorizations. In settings characterized by the dominance of customary-tribal and traditional ontologies (see Table 2 below) these domains would not have been recognized as such or distinguished as distinct areas of life. Nevertheless, we would argue that they remain useful for analysing sociality in all social settings across the human condition. This is notwithstanding the changing importance in different social formations of very different dominant ontological formations. • Economics • Ecology • Politics • Culture These social domains are treated as useful for analysing the patterns of social life considered primarily at the empirical level (see Table 3 below for a listing of different levels of theoretical analysis).

Heathrow Airport, London, August 2011.

34 Defining Social Domains and Subdomains

Each of the social domains - economics, ecology, politics and culture - can analytically be divided in the subdomains. This division becomes useful for giving a sense of the complexity of each of these domains and in turn of the human condition in general. It is against these subdomains, for example, that we map social indicators drawing a connection between the qualitative and the quantitative. • Each of these domains and subdomains can be understood in both objective and subjective terms. • Each of these domains and subdomains can be understood in terms of ideologies, imaginaries, and ontologies (see Chapter 3.) • Each of the subdomains is named in way that makes them meaningful within social settings constituted through the dominance of very different ontological formations. For example, ‘exchange and transfer’ is a subdomain rather than the more limited modern subdomain of ‘finance and trade’. By the same reasoning ‘air and water’ is a subdomain rather than ‘greenhouse gases and ocean temperatures’, where the latter is the more modern abstract naming.

Economics The economic is defined as the domain of practices and meanings associated with the production, use, management, and valuing of resources. Here the concept of ‘resources’ is used in the broadest sense of that word, including in settings where resources were/are not instrumentalized or reduced to a means to other ends, including accruing exchange value. Although the domain of economics was only abstracted as a named and practiced separate domain in the early modern period, previously deriving from the Greek oikonomia, meaning ‘household management’, this definition allows it to be used across different places and times, even if it prior to the seventeenth century it was not considered a separate domain as such. 1. Production and Resourcing 2. Exchange and Transfer 3. Accounting and Regulation 4. Consumption and Use 5. Labour and Welfare 6. Technology and Infrastructure 7. Wealth and Distribution

Ecology The ecological is defined as the domain of practices and meanings that occur across the intersection between the social and the natural realms, focusing on the important dimension of human engagement with and within nature. This means that the ecological domain focuses on questions of social/environmental interconnection, including human impact on the environment from the unintended consequences of living on the planet to issues of the built-environment. 1. Materials and Energy 2. Water and Air 3. Flora and Fauna 4. Habitat and Land 5. Place and Space 6. Constructions and Settlements 7. Emission and Waste

35 Politics The political is defined as the domain of practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power as they pertain to the organization, authorization, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common. The parameters of this area thus extend beyond the conventional sense of politics to include social relations in general. They cross the public/private divide, itself a modern construct. The key related concept here is a ‘social life held in common’. Not everything that is done in the private or public realm is political just because it may have consequences for issues of the organization, authorization, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common. 1. Organization and Governance 2. Law and Justice 3. Communication and Movement 4. Representation and Negotiation 5. Security and Accord 6. Dialogue and Reconciliation 7. Ethics and Accountability

Culture The cultural domain is defined as the practices, discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common. 1. Identity and Engagement 2. Performance and Creativity 3. Memory and Projection 4. Belief and Meaning 5. Gender and Reproduction 6. Enquiry and Learning 7. Health and Wellbeing

36 Figure 1: Domains and Subdomains of Sustainability (The figure depicts the sustainability of Melbourne in 2011)

ECONOMICSProduction & Resourcing ECOLOGYMaterials & Energy Exchange & Transfer Water & Air Accounting and Regulation Flora & Fauna Consumption & Use Habitat & Land Labour & Welfare Place & Space Technology & Infrastructure Constructions & Settlements Wealth & Distribution Emission & Waste

Organization & Governance Engagement & Identity Law & Justice Performance & Creativity Communication & Movement Memory & Projection Representation & Negotiation Belief & Meaning Security & Accord Gender & Reproduction Dialogue & Reconciliation Enquiry & Learning Ethics & Accountability Health & Wellbeing POLITICS CULTURE Vibrant Good Highly satisfactory Satisfactory+ Satisfactory Satisfactory– Highly unsatisfactory Bad Critical CIRCLES OF SUSTAINABILITY

37 Defining Social Themes

The Circles of Sustainability method provides us with a framework for judging the degree of sustainability across the four domains. However, this does not provide us with a way of judging what is ethically good. Instead of setting forth a series of standalone ethical principles, we have chosen instead to focus on a number of social themes that require negotiation. Seven social themes have been chosen as sufficient to give a sense of the complexity of the fundamental issues that affect the human condition. These are themes that, in effect, are constant issues in social life, even across different social formations. Although there is a tendency to valorize one side or other of the valencies, in the thematic couplets listed below they are presented as themes in tension. For example, the accumulation–distribution theme is highly contested across the world with the dominant ideological standpoint today emphasizing the primacy of accumulation. 1. Accumulation–Distribution (currently a dominant theme of contention in the domain of economics) 2. Risk–Security 3. Needs–Limits (currently a dominant theme of contention in the domain of ecology) 4. Wellbeing–Adversity 5. Authority–Autonomy (currently a dominant theme of contention in the domain of politics) 6. Inclusion–Exclusion 7. Identity–Difference (currently a dominant theme of contention in the domain of culture) The number of social themes contested across human history is open-ended. Other social themes that we could have chosen to focus upon include mobility–belonging, freedom–obligation, power– subjection, mediation–engagement, equality–difference, authority–participation, order–play, and comedy–tragedy, etc.

Table 2: Social Themes in relation to Domain Dominance and Dominant Ideologies Social themes in relation Social themes in relation to dominant ideological Social Themes to dominance within each contestations (global and domain national) 1. Accumulation-Distribution Economy Neo-liberal or market globalism v. justice globalism v. economic nationalism

2. Risk- Security Security globalism (and imperial globalism) v. justice globalism v. security nationalism

3. Needs-Limits Ecology Market globalism and market nationalism v. justice globalism

4. Wellbeing-Adversity Market globalism v. justice globalism

5. Authority-Autonomy Politics Market globalism v. democratic globalism v. jihadist globalism v. political nationalism

6. Inclusion-Exclusion Market globalism v. justice globalism v. cultural nationalism

7. Identity-Difference Culture Market globalism v. justice globalism v. jihadist globalism v. cultural nationalism

38 Distinguishing different domains of ‘the social’ requires moving across different levels of analysis, but once having defined those domains the analysis begins as an empirical task.

Table 3: Levels of the Social in Relation to Levels of Theoretical Analysis Levels of the Doing Acting Relating Being social Levels of I. Empirical II. Conjunctural III. Integrational IV. Ontological analysis Objects of Ideas, beliefs, Ideologies Imaginaries Ontologies analysis I intuitions, etc. Objects of Particularities Patterns of practice Patterns of inter- Patterns of analysis II of practice and and meaning relationship categorical meaning projection • Production • Face-to-face • Corporeality • Exchange • Agency- extended • Temporality • Communicaiton • Object-extended • Spatiality • Organization • Disembodied • Performativity • Enquiry • Epistemology

Objects of General patterns Modes and Modes and Modes and analysis III of practice and subjectivities subjectivities of subjectivities of meaning of practice and integration and being meaning differentiation • Tribal-customary • Traditional • Modern • Postmodern

The method thus begins by presuming the importance of a first-order abstraction, here called empirical analysis. It entails drawing out and generalizing from on-the-ground detailed descriptions of history and place. This does not mean accepting that what the person-in-the-street says is an adequate explanation of a particular phenomenon. However, it does take such descriptions seriously as expressive of the experience of the world. All social theories, whether they acknowledge it or not, are dependent upon such a process of first-order abstraction. This first level either involves generating empirical description based on observation, experience, recording or experiment - in other words, abstracting evidence from that which exists or occurs in the world - or it involves drawing upon the empirical research of others. The first level of analytical abstraction is an ordering of ‘things in the world’, before any kind of further analysis is applied to those ‘things’. From this often taken-for-granted level, many approaches work towards a second-order abstraction, a method of some kind for ordering and making sense of that empirical material. At the very least they occasionally move to an unacknowledged second level either to explain or to rationalize the first. As we move to this more abstract level of analysis we remain agnostic about how this is done. The steps of analysis listed below are just one possible way and have both a hermeneutic dimension (meaning focused) and structural dimension (pattern focused).

39 The second level of analysis, conjunctural analysis, involves identifying and more importantly examining the intersection (the conjunctures) of various patterns of practice and meaning. Here we draw upon established sociological, anthropological and political categories of analysis such as production, exchange, communication, organization and enquiry. This is the level of analysis at which it makes sense to map ideological patterns (see Chapter 3 below for a discussion of the various ideologies of globalization). The third level of entry into discussing the complexity of social relations, integrational analysis, examines the intersecting modes of social integration and differentiation. These different modes of integration are expressed here in terms of different ways of relating to and distinguishing oneself from others - from the face-to-face to the disembodied. Here we see a break with the dominant emphases of classical social theory and a movement towards a post-classical sensibility. In relation to the nation-state, for example, we can ask how it is possible to explain a phenomenon that, at least in its modern variant, subjectively explains itself by reference to face-to-face metaphors of blood and place - ties of genealogy, kinship and ethnicity - when the objective ‘reality’ of all nation- states is that they are disembodied communities of abstracted strangers who will never meet. In relation to globalization, we can distinguish between different kinds of global connection from the embodied movement of people to the disembodied interchange of electronic images and text. What we can also do is distinguish dominant social imaginaries. Finally, the most abstract level of analysis to be employed here is what might be called categorical analysis. This level of enquiry is based upon an exploration of the ontological categories such as temporality and spatiality. Here we are interested in modes of being and the dominant forms that they take in different social formations. If the previous level of analysis emphasizes the different modes through which people live their commonalities with or differences from others through such categories as blood, soil and history, at the level of categorical analysis those same categories are examined through more abstract analytical lenses. Blood, soil, history and knowledge are thus treated as phenomenal expressions of different grounding forms of life: respectively, embodiment, spatiality, temporality, performativity and epistemology. At this level, generalizations can be made about the dominant modes of categorization in a social formation or in its fields of practice and discourse. It is only at this level that it makes sense to generalize across modes of being and to talk of ontological formations, societies as formed in the uneven dominance of formations of tribalism, traditionalism, modernism or postmodernism.

Defining Ontological Formations

In the first chapter we defined different forms of settlement in terms of spatial distance and geographical configuration - urban to rural. However, these ways of thinking about locales need to be complemented by deeper layers of analysis. The spatial understanding of urban to remote communities that we have just conducted, for example, remains a flat understanding of spatiality unless it is accompanied by recognition of the possibility of the changing and layered nature of spatiality across all kinds of locales. In other words, beyond the question of the extension of social relations across space, there is also the question of how that space is lived. Here, briefly we want to define some terms that are used loosely in the literature to distinguish different modes of living. As shorthand designation, different dominant patterns of such categories are distinguished here as different ontological formations: the tribal-customary, the traditional, the modern, and the postmodern (see Table 4 below). Concepts such as ‘the modern’ or seemingly innocuous adjectives such as ‘traditional’ pass very easily into narratives of development. With the exception of ‘the tribal’, which is usually re-translated and hidden away under the heading of ‘the indigenous’ or the ‘traditional’, or put in inverted commas, they tend sneak into many commentaries completely without definition.

40 However, there is a profound danger in leaving this complicated area ill defined or subject to just passing discussion. Often narratives carry a taken-for-granted conception of ‘the modern’ counter- posed against other ways of life defined in the negative as ‘the pre-modern’. In other words, those living as ‘pre-modern’ communities do not have their dominant formations named except in the negative or in relation to the ‘higher order’. Sometimes, by inference, ‘pre-moderns’ become those who are on an inevitable or anticipated civilizational climb; they are those defined as peoples who are yet come to a modern realization of their ‘past’ identities and ‘future’ potentialities. The politics here are so important that we need to take an uncomfortable dive into the depths of social theory for a few paragraphs. The usual first step in overcoming this problem is to set up a divide between ‘the traditional’ and ‘the modern’. However, this quickly sets up the need to grapple with an earlier tendency across many fields of enquiry from political science to history and anthropology to set up a Great Divide between these ways of living. Most attempts to overcome bifurcation between the pre-modern and the modern are associated with a second form of blurring. The term ‘modernity’ is problematically used as an epochal period without recognizing that that can only have meaning as an ontological dominant, not as a completely encompassing or homogenizing formation. In the period that many called ‘modernity’, tribal and traditional relations continue to be important. Witness the way in which jihadist globalism or cultural nationalism are at once modern ideologies and draw upon older traditional cosmologies of meaning.

Table 4: Ontological Formations in Relation to Dominant Imaginaries

Dominant Imaginaries Ontological Formations Conjunctural Formations (See Chapter 3)

Tribal-Customary • Hunter-gatherer Mythological imaginaries • Reciprocal-exchange • The Yolgnu story of kinship • Peasant-based, etc. • The Trobriand story of origins Traditional • Slaveholding Cosmological imaginaries • Feudalism • Christendom • Patrimonialism, etc. • the Umma Modern • Capitalism Universalizing imaginaries • Communism • The national • Mediatism, etc. • The global Postmodern • Unbounded techno-scientism Relativizing imaginaries • Abstract fiduciary capitalism, etc.

41 A method that treats the modern as all encompassing makes it impossible to conceive of an alternative projection of a politics other than as subsumed by the modern and its dominant ideologies such as progress, and development. The concept of ‘projection’ is a key term in our analysis. It is true that any reflexive politics which ‘recognizes’ itself as it enacts its political project is by definition drawing on a standpoint made possible by a process of lifting knowledge out of customary and traditional ways of understanding, but that is only at one level and in relation to one mode of practice - namely, enquiry. It is true that the epistemologies of modernism (and postmodernism) are formed in the analytical abstraction of knowledge, forcing a process of constant reflection on the meaning of things rather than providing a relatively stable set of analogical or cosmological answers. But the fundamental point here is that the ‘encompassing’ of a social dominant, or what we describe as a constitutive overlaying of levels-in-dominance, is never totalizing. It is always just one level of the social. It is part a process of overlaying levels which may reconstitute prior practices and understandings and substantially dominate them, but it tends to generate ontological contradictions across the various intersecting levels of social being rather than simply encompass or destroy all that has gone before. The present engaged theory approach - in which the concepts ‘tribal’, ‘traditional’, ‘modern’ and ‘postmodern’ are employed as provisionally useful designations of ontological difference - helps to make sense of this complexity. That is, modes of social being from the tribal to the postmodern are defined in terms of how basic categories of the human condition are practiced, understood and lived. Those basic categories are taken to be time, space, embodiment and knowing. This is not to suggest that tribalism is the same in the Trobriand Islands and Timor Leste, let along in Rwanda, Bali or Australia. Nevertheless, the social form called here ‘customary tribalism’ distinguished as a mode of social being rather than as a distinct social practice, is thus defined by the dominance of particular socially-specific modalities of space, time, embodiment, performance and knowing.

The Traditional While much more could be said, the key intention of this brief discussion is simply to begin to evoke different life-ways (modes of being) and different patterns of practice (modes of practice). Continuing the example of the form of knowledge, traditionalism (as distinct from customary tribalism) abstracts from embodied nature and reframes the analogical and perceptual practices of tribalism in cosmological terms through entities such as Allah, God, Yahweh, and Nature. That is, some kind of Being or set of Beings with a capital ‘B’ come to connect and make sense of prior forms of more fragmentary mythological thinking and practice. Such cosmologies are extended through metaphorical and political reworkings of kinship or culture-nature such as the Line of David or the Great Chain of Being that are constantly re-embedded within the ‘social whole’. In terms of modes of practice (see Table 2), traditionalism tends to be associated with different dominant modes of production (overlaying manual production with techniques that abstract from direct muscle-power) of exchange (extended barter and trade relations), of communication (scriptural and written forms of address) of organization (patrimonial role-divided relations), and of enquiry (cosmological framing of nature and culture).

42 The Modern The modern can in the same way be defined as carrying forward prior forms of being, but fundamentally reconstituting (and sometimes turning up-side down) those forms in terms of technical-abstracted modes of time, space, embodiment and knowing. Time, for example, becomes understood and practiced not in terms of cosmological connection but through empty calendrical time-lines that can be filled with the details and wonders of history - events made by us. Space is territorialized and marked by abstract lines on maps - places drawn by our own histories. Embodiment becomes an individualized project separated out from the mind and used to project a choosing self. And knowing becomes an act of analytically dismembering and resynthesizing information. In practice, modernism is associated with the dominance of capitalist production relations, commodity and finance exchange, print and electronic communication, bureaucratic- rational organization and analytic enquiry, but there is no necessary connection here. It is a historical connection that lurches from periods of thriving to periods of crisis, but in all cases naturalizes itself as the taken-for-granted pathway to development.

Steps of Sustainability

In the translation from quantitative indicators to qualitative assessment of sustainability we require some terms that stand in as names for levels of sustainability. This is merely a technical consideration, but it needs to be done. • Distinguishing nine levels is done on the basis of usefulness. There is nothing magical about the number nine in the framework in which we work. Nine levels were chosen, firstly because it gives sufficient nuance to be useful without being too complex, and secondly it relates directly to the 1–9 scale used in the associated Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) that is employed to rank issues. • The scale runs from critical to exemplary sustainability with ‘tolerable’ taken to be the median level. In our terms, using the analogy of negative and positive liberty, ‘negative sustainability’ only aims for a tolerable or satisfactory condition, whereas ‘positive sustainability’ aims for a liveable, resilience and vibrant condition. This, we suggest, tends to be attained at the levels which we have labelled as ‘highly satisfactory sustainability’ and ‘exemplary sustainability’.

1. Critical Unsustainable 2. Bad 3. Highly Unsatisfactory

1. Satisfactory + Minimal Sustainability 2. Satisfactory 3. Satisfactory -

1. Highly Satisfactory Positive Sustainability 2. Good 3. Exemplary

43 Steps of Engagement

This set of steps is mapped against the UN Global Compact Management Model phases in relation to various tools developed by the Global Cities Institute.

Table 5: Steps of Engagement

Commit Commit to responding creatively to a complex or seemingly intractable problem: • Commit to principles of action; • Commit to engaging in a project that responds to a complex or seemingly intractable or inexplicable problem. Assess Assess the nature of the problem: • Develop a profile of the context to the problem; • Scope the possibilities for responding to the problem; • Run chosen assessment tools, e.g. ‘Social Sustainability Questionnaire’. Define Define the terms of the problem: • Define the general issue in question; • Define the normative goal in relation to that general issue; • Define the critical issues in relation to the general issue: • Define the objectives in relation to each critical issue; • Choose relevant indicators in relation to each critical issue; • Identify and analyse the relationship between indicators. Implement Implement measures to respond to the problem: • Implement the main project; • Implement relevant sub-projects. Measure Measure and Monitor activities, and assess progress towards achieving the normative goal and objectives of the project: • Collect data in relation to indicators; • Rerun assessment tools - e.g. Sustainability Questionnaire - or run them for the first time to generate base-line data for tracking changes over time. Communicate Communicate progress and strategies in relation to the project through public documentation, publication, and through engagement with stakeholders.

44 Table 6: Tool Box in Relation to Steps of Engagement

Steps Tool Box Templates and Software Background Papers Commitment Process Terms of Reference UNGC website (various) Letter of commitment Letter of Engagement On-line application form Template

Project Profile Process Project Profile Template

Urban Profile Process Urban Profile Template

Knowledge Assessment Tool

Sustainability Circles of Sustainability Assessment Tool (Figure 1)

Issue Identification ‘Issue Identification’ Process document

Indicator Selection Indicator data-base in Process process

Questionnaire Tool Questionnaire ‘Measuring Community Sustainability’ article

Scenarios Tool Forum template being developed

Photo-Narrative Tool Guidelines being developed

Intelligent Cities ‘Simulating Needs to go on our Simulator Tool Sustainability’ article website

45 Chapter 2. Social Mapping

Social mapping at its most complex involves working interpretatively across different layers of analysis. At the first and most basic level, good social mapping involves extensive empirical work (see Table 3 on ‘Levels of Analysis’). This can take the form of collecting data, interviewing individuals, or just walking around a city and recording images, or watching people and taking field notes as locals move through changing spaces. Such social mapping in the first instance will always be geared towards the central focus of a given project. These can then mapped against the social domains and themes relevant to the project. For example, a project on heritage might start with the social domain of culture, focusing on the subdomain of ‘memory and projection’ (see Figure 1) while mapping this against different ideological expressions of inclusion and exclusion or difference and identity. These could be then interpreted in terms of a series of levels of social analysis that form the theoretical apparatus of our methodology (for example, broader implications about social formations at work in how people define a given thematic).

In summary, if the focus is on cities the initial stage is to build up profiles of the different communities and places that will be involved in the project. If the focus is a theme or issue, then a profile can also be developed. This will be done by drawing on a range of sources through a variety of strategies. This can then mapped through increasingly abstracted modes of analysis. Our intention is to move from the empirical to the abstract and back again in a constant journey of return, testing each level against the others. Because of the diversity of research projects, we draw upon a flexible toolbox of methods for gathering research material. At this level of empirical date collection and analysis, the toolbox ranges across the following techniques amongst others: • Writing social profiles, including urban social profiles • Developing project profiles which providing background on a pressing social issue (see • Conducting community conversations • Conducting interviews and strategic conversations with individuals • Eliciting personal life-profile and stories • Eliciting photographic narratives or artistic representations • Conducting a survey questionnaire • Gathering quantitative data from official and unofficial sources • Collecting policy documents and contextualizing official discourses

46 Social Profiles

Researching a locale or city, a community, an organization, or a person. For example, a community profile is used to develop a sense of the larger composition of the individuals and communities in a locale. This includes finding out when and how a given community or group of communities came to be, as well as understanding the impact of different formative events and processes on the locale, including both local and global processes. Social profiles can be singular essays or developed over time as a series of interconnected thematic essays.

Individual Life-Profiles A life-profile in the way that we use the term, unlike an oral history or a biography, is more directed in that it is organized around a central theme. But at the same time it is more open textured, leaving room for more dynamically contextualized stories of the individual and for substantial passages of their words. Life-profiles are centred around themes of change, including shifting populations and social movements; events including major events that have joined or broken communities like wars, local celebrations, festivals, and catastrophes; people, including immigrants, refugees, children, the elderly and indigenous communities; and places incorporating social clusters and geographic boundaries; institutions and clubs organizations and civic forums. It should be noted that the examples given here are only intended as indicative, but are not exhaustive elements of life-profiles. Life-profiles are organized around individual life narratives that provide background and context to contemporary community life. They involve background research, lengthy interviews and collaboration with the subject to ensure that the story is told accurately and with a degree of depth and reflection relating to the life-world or social themes. They provide an opportunity to explore the ‘lived experience’ of changes over time and to capture dynamically-contextualized stories of local city and community life. Such life-profiles offer a deeply textured understanding of the mapping of person over time, through place, as well as enabling a dynamic history to be built without over- historicizing the project at the expense of the ‘now’.

Community Life-Profiles All kinds of stories already circulate in local communities and some untold stories deserve to go into broader public circulation. These can range from local histories and myths to oral histories to recent experiences and events. We are interested in eliciting local stories that are well-crafted and communicated as concisely as possible without losing their narrative richness. Such stories can be collected by community members, by ‘outside’ researchers, or by a combination of both. They can be collected in the form of written accounts or as ‘digital stories’ (see ‘Photo-Narratives’ below) that combine images and audio. In many cases they will touch on more than one of the social themes listed above. Community life-profiles are developed as a snapshot of local city and community life as it is experienced by individuals. They can be researched through interviews of ten to fifteen minutes that follow a schedule of questions relating to the subject’s direct experiences of the complexities and dynamics of local urban and community life (relevant to the life-world or social themes listed below). The interviewer turns this into a concise narrative that is returned to the subject for amendment and approval. Because this process is not very time-consuming it is possible to collect a large number of such community life-profiles over time and they can be used as background data for a wide range of research interests.

47 Project Profiles

Project profiles can also be made up of a series of thematic essays, written over time, but in this case they directly concern different domains and social themes relevant to the chosen project. These essays are more than just a description or plan of the project that is being undertaken by the locale or city. The essays involve the writer or writers exploring some focused aspect of social history or contemporary social life in relation to the chosen area of the project. Writing thematic essays relevant to the project is a way of providing context for understanding the complexity of the contemporary social issue that the city is taking on as a major point of intervention. A thematic essay could, for example, directly address one or more of the social domains and/or one or more of the social themes listed below. This might range, for example, from the social theme of ‘belonging-mobility’ - perhaps discussed in relation to pressing social issue of refugees or migrants - to the domain of ecology, perhaps discussed in relation to ‘place and habitat’. A thematic essay might stretch beyond the immediate locale to explore issues in the region, the nation, or globally, relating to the project theme. Thematic essays can present the outcomes of thematic research and/or they can include elements of creative or lyrical writing on a theme.

Community Conversations

At least in grounded and close-knit communities it is important early on in project that a community- wide discussion is held, initially working through relevant community leaders and organizations in these places. There is no doubt that such conversations are difficult to manage well, and they tend not work at all in relation to mobile modern locales with weak community ties. Here engaging local organizations becomes even more crucial. Inviting individuals to a public forum is an act of good faith. Community forums provide an opportunity to discuss what form the research might take, to introduce the basic questions, and to outline the research methods in layperson’s terms. Depending upon the situation and the person(s) in dialogue, discussions should be held in local or common languages, or with translation back and forth to the language of the researchers. The issues raised in these forums became important background for properly engaging in the ‘strategic conversations’ with individuals in that community around themes of particular importance to each community (see the next section). One of the important aspects of this research process is to be clear about the relationship with the community and what the project could and could not offer them. Dialogue what the project is about and how the information would be managed and used should be treated as a negotiation, not a given. If there are higher authorities co-involved in the research, for example an organ of the state, it is important to state explicitly that there was no pressure for communities or community members to participate. At this point the community can decide that the research should not go ahead. If there is a mutual decision to proceed, later community conversations also became an opportunity to gather and record background information as the basis of a brief community profile or general story of that community by way of an introduction to it. Community conversations are also an important way of sharing the outcomes of the research allowing it to be reviewed by the communities themselves.

48 Interviews and Strategic Conversations

We use two particular kinds of interviews to explore specific topics and themes with relevant people: the first kind of interview is a semi-structured interview as conventionally understood. It is framed by a series of interconnected questions designed to investigate a designated theme. The second kind is called a ‘strategic conversation’. It is still based on a set of semi-structured questions, but strategic conversions are developed as dialogical encounters across a longer process than the usual interview. Normally an interview occurs in a designated time-frame and the process generates a verbatim transcript of questions and answers. By comparison, while a strategic conversation includes an interview stage and begins with a verbatim transcript, it is a more comprehensive process. In a strategic conversation the ‘interviewer’ is more direct about what material being sought, for what reason, and by what method. The interviewer is more engaged, more challenging, and more probing. Then, by the last stage of the process - the writing up of the interview - the interviewer’s formal questions have been erased and the narrative of the ‘interviewee’ has either been reworked as a first-person soliloquy, a two-way dialogue or a third-person narrative. 1. A first-person narrative has only the interviewee’s voice carrying an interconnected narrative. It is a soliloquy in which the person explores various dimensions of a theme or themes; 2. A two-way dialogue is the most recognizable of these forms, retaining the structure of an interview with questions and answers. 3. A third-person narrative is written by the researcher(s) as an interpretative essay, but contains numerous long quotes from the interviewee to illustrate the interpretative line that is taken around that theme or themes. It can also contain quotes from their writings, other interviews, and relevant public documents. Up until the last stage of the writing the process for developing a first-person or third-person narrative is the same. Step 1. Develop the themes and structure for the interview and relate it to a background methodology. Just like a semi-structured interview, the process begins with a problematique, a theme, or an issue to be elucidated by an interviewee who knows something about that theme or themes. However, in developing the terms of the strategic conversation this stage involves more explicit reflection than a normal interview upon the relation between the terms of the interview and the underlying approach. If, for example, the interview were about a particular project in particular place and the interviewers were drawing on the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ approach, then questions should be posed cross all the domains of the social to include questions that elucidate economic, ecological, political and cultural concerns. If, to take another example, the interview was about a particular concept or ideology, and the interviews were drawing more deeply on the ‘Levels of Analysis’ approach then the interviewer(s) should be explicit about what they are doing, and bring to the interview a clear schedule of questions linked to the overall methodology. Step 2. Choose the interviewees. With strategic conversations considerable thought needs to go into the choice of people to be interviewed in relation to the nature of the topic. This entails two aspects: determining the kind of person relevant to the project; and secondly determining the most relevant particular individuals who represent the chosen profile. The interviews thus need to be preceded by background research, determination of the necessary profile of the interviewees, and discussions with others about key people that should be interviewed.

49 Step 3. Approach the interviewees. In approaching the interviewees they should be given briefing notes before the interview outlining the following: 1. the theme(s) and the schedule of questions that will sit behind the investigation of that theme or themes; 2. the interview method that will be used (notes like the one’s that you are reading now, or some variation, can be used) 3. the underlying methodology that the researchers will be using. Though it is not always possible, preliminary discussions could be had with the intended interviewees before the interview to go deeper into those three aspects. In such cases the interviewees can play a proactive and strategic role in the discussion of the topic under research. In all cases, our thinking is that an interviewee is an active and knowing subject. There is no pseudo-Freudian attempt to gain spontaneous depth by either surprising an interviewee or by lulling them into slips of uncomfortable disclosure. We seeking knowing reflection and, if possible, reflexivity about their views on the theme. Step 4. Conduct the interview. The term ‘strategic conversation’ indicates that an active dialogue has taken place in which the interviewer(s) and interviewee have pushed each other, based on some prior understanding of each other’s views on the subject. A strategic conversation in this sense goes beyond the usual research interview where an interviewer(s) faces an unknown or relatively respondent and asks them to answer a series of set questions on the designated topic. Step 5. Transcribe the interview and begin the post-interview stage. After the interview is done, the recording of the interview is transcribed and kept as a record of the moment. The transcript is then edited for grammar, syntax and repetition. At this point the two kinds of narratives take a different course. First-person narrative. The interviewers rework the transcript in order to develop a narrative structure that does not depend upon the interviewer’s questions being explicitly present in the final essay. In other words, the questions are taken out of the transcript and the transcript is gently edited and rewritten to allow for the interviewee’s voice to come to the fore. If there are passages where the interviewers feel that the interviewee can be pushed further then highlighted notes and queries are appended to the text asking the interviewee to fill out more detail or explain with more clarity. Subheadings are used if there are narrative breaks and thematic sections. The redrafted transcript is send back and forth between interviewer(s) and interviewee (using tracked changes) until all parties are satisfied that the first-person narrative is the developed, accurate, and clear. On of the skills in this process is to create a hybrid outcome of the initial moment and the later reflections. The interviewee needs to be happy that the subtleties of their position have been appropriately expressed, and the interviewer needs to be satisfied that both some of the initial energy of the oral form has been retained and that further depth has been achieved by interrogating specific points of contention in written form. Two-way dialogue. This form takes the original transcript, but refines the dialogue from both sides, clarifying both the questions and the answers, until both the interviewers and interviewee believe if represents what they were trying to say. Third-person narrative. The interviewer(s) rework the transcript as a third-person essay with themselves as the interpretative narrator(s). This takes much more work that the first-person narrative, including additional background research. Long quotes are retained, but they are wrapped in an interpretative gloss that explains, interprets and critically develops the material. This is then sent back to the interviewee to respond to the points of interpretation and analysis. This is then incorporated into the penultimate draft. Thus, like the first-person narrative form, the redrafted transcript is send back and forth between interviewer(s) and interviewee (using tracked changes) until all parties are satisfied that the first-person narrative is the developed, accurate, and clear. The difference here is that the interviewers as the ‘authors’ of the third-person narrative have ultimate responsibility for the interpretation, and as such can take the penultimate draft and write into it again without taking it back to the interviewee for final approval. Strategic conversations in both first-person and third-person narratives, we suggest, set the conditions for a more nuanced public expression of the interviewee’s standpoint than the usual transcribed thirty minutes of semi-structured interviewing. These narratives lose something of the spontaneity of the initial moment, but they gain much in depth and acuity, becoming hybrid oral- written narratives which have been interrogated over a series of stages.

50 Interviews and strategic conversations are always used in conjunction with other forms of data collection. Sometimes, for example they are used to capture deeper and more nuanced information about topics that are included in the Social Sustainability Questionnaire and sometimes to get a deep understanding of an issue in question that begins with library research.

Photo-Narratives

There are two forms of photo-narratives. The first is where the researcher takes an interconnected series of photos of a community, and brings them together into an essay with an explanatory text. Another way draws community participants further into the project by using photography as tool for interviewing. The approach that will be used is known is reflexive photography or photo- narration. In this approach, community participant observers are given a camera and invited to take photographs of people, places and things in their communities in relation to a particular theme. Reflexive photography assumes that community members possess a great deal of ‘inside knowledge’ about the communities to which they belong. Community participant observers will also be invited to supplement their photos with meaningful photographs from their own collections as well as other personal artefacts that they believe expresses something about their community. They will also be given a mini-photo album and will be asked to arrange their photos and to think about the connections between them. The purpose of this is to encouraging the community researchers to begin to construct reflexively meaningful narratives about the places and events depicted in the photos. Reflexive photography supplements one of the other research tools - interviews and strategic conversations.

Local-Global Questionnaire

We have developed a questionnaire that is used as a quantitative indicator drawing upon some of domain themes and social themes of the project. The questionnaire allows for comparative analysis across the different places of research. The questionnaire has been used in many countries around the world with a common core set of questions, and modular additions developed for the key determined issue in each locale (see Chapter 6 for an extended treatment of this tool).

Quantitative Data

This includes gathering a whole series of objective indicators that inform our interpretive work. Ideally, the indicators would go back as far as possible. Carrying through the themes of the project, these will include population and demographic data, rates of mortality, fertility rates, incidence of illness, pollution levels, and measures of arts and economic activities of the communities involved in the project.

Relevant Policy Documents

This refers to the ways in which communities and cities are constituted via official documents and reports, including those put out by civic and professional organizations and representative bodies. These might include tourist brochures and pamphlets, information regarding cultural activities and events in the communities, business planning documents, health reports and information and the like. Official discourse might also include official mappings of community against which our own social mappings can be compared.

51 Chapter 3. Social Imaginaries and Ontologies

How can we better understand the powerful subjective dynamics that occur in different social formations?8 As a way of approaching this question, here we propose a method of analysis that works across three interrelated levels (see Table 3 above): • ideologies • imaginaries • ontologies Each of these three layers of lived consciousness is constituted in practice at an ever-greater generality, durability, and depth. For example, ideologies tend to move in and out of contestation. Imaginaries move at a deeper level and, in different ways, enter the commonsense of an age. Ontologies - such as how we live temporally or spatially - constitute the relatively enduring ground on which we walk. Processes of globalization has been changing all of these three layers - at times, even at revolutionary speed - and this has been intensified by processes of urbanization. But the deeper the processes of change, the slower the tendency for the new pattern to take hold as dominant and encompassing. At the risk of oversimplifying our three principal concepts, we like to offer the following minimal definitions: 1. Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. They are conceptual maps that help people navigate the complexity of their political universe. They carry claims to social truth as for example, expressed in the five principal ideologies of the national imaginary: liberalism, conservatism, socialism, communism, and fascism/Nazism. 2. Imaginaries are patterned convocations of the social whole. These deep-seated modes of understanding provide largely pre-reflexive parameters within which people imagine their social existence - expressed, for example, in conceptions of ‘the global’, ‘the national’, ‘the moral order of our time’. They are the convocations that express our inter-relation. 3. Ontologies are patterned ways-of-being-in-the-world that are lived and experienced as the grounding conditions of the social. For example, the modern ontologies of linear time, territorial space, and individualized embodiment, frame the way in which we walk about the modern city, even if prior ontologies affect how we see things like sacred spaces and events.

8 This chapter is drawn from a longer article by Steger, M & James, P 2011, ‘Three Dimensions of Subjective Globalization’, Proto-Sociology: An International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, vol. 27, pp. 53–70.

52 The city of Washington has made a tourist industry out of its politics. In one of the sanctioned memorabilia shops near the White House there are patriotic shirts for sale alongside photos of the ‘first couple’ Barak and Michelle Obama in fond embrace - Michelle smiling with her eyes closed. The shirt depicted in this photo is called a ‘Polo US Flag Shirt’ and is made by the American Summer Clothing Company. Although not listed on the garment itself, manufacturers who supply garments or fabric to that company include the Shenzhen Splendid Garment Company based in Guongdong, China, and Akesh International based in Uttar Pradesh, India. Washington, USA, February 2011.

53 Globalisms as Ideologies

Like other major social phenomena, globalization is associated with patterns of ideas related to and about forms of material practice. The relationship between those practices and ideas are extraordinarily complicated and mutually constitutive. Just as the formation of nations is associated with the ideologies of the national imaginary - that is, politically contested ideas about who should achieve the desired end of forging the ‘natural’ connection between nation and state - processes of globalization are associated with ideologies expressing the global imaginary that both influence and make sense of practices. Here our key notion is that full-blown ideologies are patterned and conceptually thick enough to form relatively coherent and persistent articulations of the underlying social imaginary. One or two statements of contention do not an ideology make. Specifically, the following four variants are conceptually thick enough to warrant the status of mature ideologies (see Table 1 above). Market globalism constitutes today’s dominant ideology. Its chief codifiers are corporate managers, executives of large transnational corporations, corporate lobbyists, high-level military officers, journalists and public-relations specialists, intellectuals writing to large audiences, state bureaucrats, and politicians. These global power elites assert that, notwithstanding the cyclical downturns of the world economy, the global integration of markets along laissez-faire lines is not only a fundamentally ‘good’ thing but also represents the given outcome and natural progression of the human condition. The morphology of market globalism is built around a number of interrelated central claims: that globalization is about the liberalization and worldwide integration of markets (neoliberalism); that it is powered by neutral techno-economic forces; that the process is inexorable; that the process is leaderless and anonymous; that everyone will be better off in the long run; that globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world; and that the city is its natural home.9 Justice globalism, by comparison, can be defined by its emphasis on equity, rights, sustainability, and diversity. Championed by forces of the political Left, it articulates a very different set of claims suggesting that the process of globalization is powered by corporate interests; that the process can take different pathways; that the democracy carried by global processes tends to be thin and procedural; and that ‘globalization-from-above’ or ‘corporate globalization’ is associated with increasing inequities within and between nation-states, greater environmental destruction and a marginalization of the poor. Although the alter-globalization movement argues for an alternative form of globalization, it is globalization nevertheless. And as such, more than just another description of the world, the core concepts and central claims of justice globalism constitute, we suggest, one lineage in a family of contesting ideologies. That makes justice globalism akin to its main competitors in the sense that it draws upon a generalizing, deep-seated imaginary of global connectedness. For a time, one line of justice globalism was associated with an anti-urban back-to-country sensibility, but this has changed fundamentally over the past few decades. The third constellation includes various religious globalisms of the political Right. Its most spectacular strain today is jihadist Islamism. Based on the populist evocation of an exceptional spiritual and political crisis, jihadist Islamists bemoan the contemporary age of jahiliyya (ignorance and pagan idolatry) and call for a renewed universalism of a global umma (a reworked meaning of a global Islamic community). In the Christian version the City of Man is sinful and requires a renewed orientation to the City of God.

9 For a sustained discussion and critical analysis of these claims that draws on hundreds of examples, see Steger, B 2005, Globalisms, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham.

54 A fourth variant, imperial globalism, has been weakening over the last two years as a result of the incoming Obama administration’s renewed multilateralism and the fracturing Washington Consensus in the wake of the Great Recession. Developing out of market globalism and still retaining some of its central features, imperial globalism is the publicly weakest of these ideological clusters, even though for a time it informed the so-called ‘Global War on Terror’ and the joint actions of the ‘Coalition of the Willing’ spearheaded by the unilateralist Bush administration. Despite the waning influence of these hawks, imperial globalism still operates as a powerful background force to the extent that its central claim - that global peace depends upon the global economic reach and military assertiveness of an informal American Empire and its allies - is still taken for granted within many governing and elite circles. For all their complexity as ideologies, and despite the obvious tensions between them and the differences across different settings, these four globalisms are part of a complex, roughly-woven, but patterned ideational fabric that increasingly figures the global as a defining condition of the present while still remaining entangled in the national. People who accept their central claims - whether from the political Right or Left - internalize the apparent inevitability and relative virtue of global interconnectivity and mobility across global time and space. However one might seek to understand global history, and whatever reversals we might face in the future, the perception of intensifying social interconnections have come to define the nature of our times. Even though proponents of justice globalism strenuously insist that ‘another world is possible’, they hardly question that growing global interdependence remains a central part of most, if not all, alternative futures. Indeed, one unmistaken sign of a maturing ideological constellation is that it comes to be represented in discourse as ‘post-ideological’.

Poland, Warsaw, August 2011.

55 Social Imaginaries Expressed in Various Ideologies

Part of common twenty-first century parlance, the buzzword ‘globalization’ reflects a generalized recognition that global processes inform social life - from the way we borrow money and source basic commodities to the digital modes of keeping in touch with friends and family via social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace. The various ideologies associated with globalization have come to coalesce around a new sense of a global social whole - a global social imaginary of profound, generalizing, and deep impact. In the last decades, a number of prominent social thinkers have grappled with the notion that this is more than an ideologically-contested representation of social integration and differentiation. Claude Lefort, for example, argues that, ‘In this sense, the examination of ideology confronts us with the determination of a type of society in which a specific regime of the imaginary can be identified’.10 Cornelius Castoriadis takes the concept of the ‘imaginary’ in a different direction that provides, nonetheless, a useful means of indicating how we are not using the term in this article. For Castoriadis, the imaginary is that which expresses the creative excess of our human condition. It always exceeds the possibilities of the material conditions of life.11 Our use of the term is more akin to Pierre Bourdieu’s conception of the pre-reflexive habitus - that is, ‘systems of durable, transposable dispositions, structured structures predisposed to function as structuring structures, that is, as principles which generate and organize practices and representations’.12 And yet, the concept of the habitus is too normatively driven while the concept of the ‘social imaginary’ has a stronger sense of the social whole or the general ‘given’ social order. What is important to take from Bourdieu, however, is a sense of how patterns of practice and ideas can be seen to be objectively outside of the particular practices and ideas of persons, even as those patterns were generated subjectively by persons acting in and through the habitus. Charles Taylor provides perhaps the most useful way forward in defining the social imaginary as, ‘The ways people imagine their social existence, how they fit together with others, how things go on between them and their fellows, the expectations that are normally met, and the deeper normative notions and images that underlie these expectations’. These set the common-sense background of lived social experience.13 In Taylor’s exposition, the modern social imaginary has been built by three dynamics. The first is the separating out of the economy as a distinct domain, treated as an objectified reality. The second is the simultaneous emergence of the public sphere as the place of increasingly mediated interchange and (counter-posed) the intimate or private sphere in which ordinary life is affirmed. The third is the sovereignty of the people, treated as a new collective agency even as it is made up of individuals who see self-affirmation in the other spheres. These are three historical developments, among others, that are relevant to what might be called a modern ontological formation (of which more later), but listing such factors neither help us to define a social imaginary in general or to understand what we are calling the ‘national imaginary’ and the ‘global imaginary’. Our definition of the social imaginary contains another crucial insight, namely, that it constitutes patterned convocations of the lived social whole. The notion of ‘convocation’ is important since it is the calling together—the gathering (not the self-consciously defending or active decontesting activity associated with ideologies) of an assemblage of meanings, ideas, sensibilities—that are taken to be self-evident. The concept of ‘the social whole’ points to the way in which certain apparently simple terms such as ‘our society’, ‘we’, ‘the city’, and ‘the market’ carry taken-for-granted and interconnected meanings. This concept allows us to define the imaginary as broader than the dominant sense of community. A social whole, in other words, is not necessarily co-extensive with a projection of community relations or ‘the ways people imagine their social existence’ (Taylor). Nor

10 Lefort, C 1986, The political forms of modern society, Cambridge, Polity Press, p. 197. He is quoted here without our endorsement of the position that frames his approach. 11 Castoriadis, C 1991, The Imaginary constitution of society, Cambridge, Polity Press. 12 Bourdieu, P 1990, The logic of practice, Cambridge, Polity Press, p. 53. 13 Taylor, C 2004, Modern social imaginaries, Duke University Press, Durham, p. 23. This formulation dovetails to some extent with Antonio Gramsci’s notion of ‘cultural hegemony’.

56 does it need to be named as such. It can encompass a time, for example, when there exists only an inchoate sense of global community, but there is today paradoxically an almost pre-reflexive sense that at one level ‘we’ as individuals, peoples, and nations have a common global fate. Put in different terms, the medium and the message—the practice of interrelation on a global scale and the content of messages of global interconnection and naturalized power—have become increasingly bound up with each other. As recently as forty years ago, notions of the social whole - including ‘the market’ - were stretched across relations between nation-states and would, therefore, have been seen as co-extensive with the nation-state. Hence, the then wide-spread use of the term ‘international relations’. When most sociologists and political scientists analyzed ‘society’, they tended to assume the boundaries of the nation - in the relevant literature this is referred to as ‘methodological nationalism’. In other words, the social whole was a national imaginary that tended to be equated with the community of the nation-state. Now we find either that such concepts as ‘society’ have become terms of ambivalence because they have become stretched between two contesting yet interdependent imaginaries: the national and the global. To summarize: thus far, we have suggested that ideologies of globalization are part of an extended family that translate a generalized global imaginary into competing political programs and agendas. Moving to the final layer of our investigation of the dimensions of subjective globalization, we must grapple with ontological categories such as time and space.

Ontologies Grounding Ideologies and Imaginaries

We use the concept of ‘ontologies’ here as a short-hand term referring to the most basic framing categories of social existence: temporality, spatiality, corporeality, epistemology and so on. These are categories of being-in-the-world, historically constituted in the structures of human interrelations. To talk of ‘being’ in this way does not imply a given or unchanging human essence, nor is it confined to the generation of meaning in the sphere of selfhood. If questions of ontology are fundamentally about matters of being, then everything involving ‘being human’ is ontological. Still, we are using the concept more precisely to refer to categories of existence such as ‘space’ and ‘time’ that on the one hand are always talked about, and, on the other, are rarely interrogated, analyzed, or historically contextualized except by philosophers and social theorists. A brief illustration of the themes of time and space will help bring this largely taken-for-granted connection between ontological categories and globalization to the surface. Let us start with the ontological category of spatiality. It is crucial, since ‘globalization’ is obviously a spatial concept. Indeed, the academic observation that to globalize means to compress time and space has long entered into public discourse. However, to be more historically specific, contemporary globalization is predominantly lived through a modern conception of spatiality linked to an abstracted geometry of territory and sovereignty, rather than as a traditional cosmological sense of spatiality held together by God, Nature or some other generalized Supreme Being. This is a claim about forms of dominance rather than a simple epochal shift from or replacement of an older form of temporality. It accords with the view of globalization as generating new hybrid modernities anchored in changing conceptions of time and space. For example, those ideological codifiers who espouse a Jihadist or Pentecostalist variant of religious globalism tend to be stretched between a modern- territorial sense of space and a neotraditional sense of a universalizing umma or Christendom, respectively. In this neotraditional understanding, then, the social whole exists in, prior to, and beyond, modern global space. (For how such ontological categories are patterned as ontological formations see the section called ‘Defining Ontological Formations’ in Chapter 1 above).

57 On the other hand, we also find instances of ambiguous modern spatialities sliding into postmodern sensibilities that relate to contemporary globalization. Take, for example, airline advertising maps that are post-territorial (postmodern) to the extent that they show multiple abstract vectors of travel - lines that criss-cross between multiple city-nodes and travel across empty space without reference to the conventional mapping expressions of land and sea, nation-state and continental boundaries. To such a backdrop and with no global outline, an advertisement for KLM airlines assures potential customers that, ‘You could fly from anywhere in the world to any destination’. Our point here is that one comfortably knows how to read those maps despite the limited points of orientation, and one also knows that they are global before reading the fine print - ‘anywhere in the world’. At the same time, dominant representations of global spatiality often retain some modern features. But even for those (one example is Google Earth released in June 2005), we no longer need the old-style icons of planet Earth to know that the local and the global are deeply interconnected. Another promotion close to the aforementioned KLM advertisement presents us with a picture of a country lane and an old-fashioned British mailbox. These images are used as the backdrop to the slogan, ‘It’s all about picking up your Email anywhere’. Nothing has to be said about the web being world-wide or the metal mail box with the royal emblem of ER (Elizabeth Regina II) being anachronistically local- national. People living at the transition from a national to a global imaginary simply know how to read these images. The ontological category of temporality is also important to the contemporary global imaginary even if the notion of ‘time’ does not seem to be contained in the concept of globalization. Modern time is the demarcated, linear, and empty time of the calendar and clock. But the ontological sense that time passes second-per-second is a modern convention rather than being intrinsically natural, scientifically verifiable, or continuous with older cosmological senses of time. Modern time is abstracted from nature, and verifiable only within a particular mode of modern scientific enquiry - the Newtonian treatment of time as unitary, linear and uniform. It reached one of its defining moments in 1974 when the second came to be measured in atomic vibrations, allowing the post-phenomenal concept of nanoseconds - one-billionth of a second. This sense of time-precision has been globalized as the regulative framework for electronic transactions in the global marketplace. It drives the billions of transactions on Wall Street just as much as it imposes a non-regressive discipline on the millions of bidders on ebay. This then is our first point: a modern sense of time has been globalized and now overlays older ontologies of temporality without fully erasing them. Our second point is that ideological codifiers tend to draw upon an assumed connection between modern time and globalizing processes to project their truth claims which linked together such concepts such ‘progress’, ‘efficiency’, ‘perfectibility’, and ‘just- in-time’. Indeed, concepts of ‘time’ and ‘the global’ are commonly used by market globalists to sell high-end commodities from expensive watches and clothes to computers, mobile phones, and digital devices. Take, for example, an advertisement for New York’s Columbus Circle clothing stores: ‘6.10pm. Think globally. Act Stylishly’. These words are linked to an image framed by the outlines of a clock that show a woman jumping out of a taxi to go shopping. This image-text makes sense when you consider that the eight most commonly-used words in the English language today are time, person, year, way, thing, man, world.14 And, of course, English itself is being globalized!

14 As found in an Oxford English Dictionary project ‘English Corpus’.

58 In this context, let us note that we employ the concepts of ‘the tribal’, ‘the traditional’, ‘the modern’ and ‘the postmodern’ as provisionally useful designations of ontological difference.15 Customary tribalism is defined by the dominance of particular socially-specific modalities of space, time, embodiment, and knowing that can be characterized by analogical, genealogical and mythological practices and subjectivities. This, for example, would include notions of genealogical placement, the importance of mythological time connecting past and present, and the centrality of relations of embodied reciprocity. Traditionalism can be characterized as carrying forward prior ontological forms from customary tribalism, but reconstituted in terms of universalizing cosmologies and political- metaphorical relations. An example here is the institution of the Christian Church. It may have modernized its practices of organization and become enmeshed in a modern monetary economy, but the various denominations of the Church, and most manifestly its Pentecostal variations, remain deeply bound up with a traditional cosmology of meaning and ritual. The truth of Jesus is not analytically relative or a question of modern proof. In this sense, a “return” to traditionalism characterizes many of the expressions of contemporary religious globalisms. Modernism carries forward prior forms of being, but fundamentally reconstituting (and sometimes turning up-side down) those forms in terms of technical-abstracted modes of time, space, embodiment and knowing. Time, as we noted above, becomes understood and practiced not in terms of cosmological connection with a capital ‘C’ but through empty linear time-lines that can be filled with the details of the past and present as well as events made by us with an eye toward a ‘better’ future. Indeed, one of the key dynamics of modernity is the continuous transformation of present time by political designs for the future. The consciousness of modernity arose as a vision that human beings can create community in a new image. What has changed with the emergence of the global imaginary is not this modernist vision itself, but the sense that ‘community’ or ‘society’ now refers to the entire world as much as to a particular nation. Modern space is territorialized and marked by abstract lines on maps - with places drawn in by our own histories. Modern embodiment becomes an individualized project separated out from the mind and used to project a choosing self. And modern knowing becomes an act of analytically dismembering and re-synthesizing information. In practice, modernism is associated with the dominance of capitalist production relations, commodity and finance exchange, print and electronic communication, bureaucratic-rational organization and analytic enquiry. Postmodernism, too, carries forward modern forms of being while at the same time altering ontological categories in the direction of new ideas and sensibilities of simultaneity, ‘real-time’, deterritorialization, relativization, and virtuality. We thus resist linear considerations of postmodernity as a stage that replaces the modern. Rather it problematizes the ideologies, imaginaries, and ontologies of modernity established within traditions it attempted to exclude or overcome. In today’s globalizing world, we find different formations of traditionalism, modernism and postmodernism in complex intersection with each other. In spite of these continuities, however, it would be a serious mistake to close one’s eyes to the formation of new ideas, meanings, sensibilities, subjectivities. This novelty is perhaps most obviously in the proliferation of the prefix ‘neo’ that has attached itself to nearly all major ‘isms’ of our time: neoliberalism, neoconservatism, neo-Marxism, neofascism, and so on. There is, in fact, something new about political ideologies: a new global imaginary is on the rise. It erupts with increasing frequency within and onto the familiar framework of the national, spewing its fiery lava across all geographical scales. Stoked, among other things, by technological change and scientific innovation, this global imaginary destabilizes the grand political ideologies codified by social elites during the national age. Thus, our changing ideational landscape is intimately related to the forces of globalization.

15 For a more detailed discussion of this subject, see James, P 2006, Globalism, nationalism, tribalism, Sage Publications, London.

59 Part 2. Engaged Theory: Protocols

Chapter 4. Community Engagement

Community-engaged research intends to restore the distinctive roles of insiders and outsiders, providing perhaps a more open and fruitful dialogue between the research partners as well. Of course, such dialogue needs time, and it requires considerable negotiation, skill and goodwill from both sides to move across cultural and epistemological boundaries. This whole process of building relationships involves a process of dealing with ‘the cultural other’, whether from another ontological setting or even just another region. This occurs most productively in face-to-face dialogue. This dialogue is about acquiring deeper understanding and new perspectives through listening and talking - not just listening and gathering data. To come into conversation with a diverse group of people with different cultural and epistemological backgrounds and locations can be a disturbing thing, exposing and altering, but it is also imaginatively charging and positively transforming. In Decolonizing Methodologies, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, talks of the importance of the ‘seen face’, turning up at cultural events, returning again and again to the community, and being aware of the indigenous and local protocols for being present.16 Smith’s notion of the ‘seen face’ has inspired us with one important layer of our engaged social theory, and relates strongly to our distinction between modes of social integration ranging from face-to-face relations to the disembodied relations at a distance. While as researchers we do not aspire to be integrated into communities at the level of the face-to-face - for example as fictive kin or through ritual rites of passage - we do seek meaningful face-to-face interaction such that we always return as significant outsiders.

Community theatre, San Francisco, USA 2011.

16 Smith, LT 1999, Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples, Zed Books, London.

60 General Principles

When working with communities there are a number of general principles associated with the research, monitoring and evaluation process that can be drawn out as relevant across different projects: • The research should aim to be meaningfully participatory. The aim is that participants develop an ownership of the initiative and its evaluation and are active partners in decision-making, conducted as an honest and transparent process. Researchers should also be aware of regional and national interests and seek where appropriate to engage institutions from civil society and authorities from the state. Participatory approaches can be linked to human rights such as the right to be heard and to be empowered, based on various UN conventions. The researcher/evaluator has an obligation to explain the evaluation and feedback results to participants in the research. • The research should involve participants working together to actively integrate research, monitoring and evaluation into the project cycle. Ideally this should begin from the conception, design, and planning stages, rather than seeing these as separate prior processes. In this way, local participants become an integral part of the iterative process of developing, implementing, improving and adjusting the outcomes of the project. • The research should effectively engage in initial discussions about the meaning of fundamental concepts and the tensions between them. This includes the tensions between participation and authority, inclusion and exclusion, sustainability and change, identity and difference. Researchers and evaluators have a responsibility to be explicit and clear about the meaning of concepts used so as to demystify the theory and practices of research and evaluation. These include, where appropriate, UN conventions such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The research should treat evaluation as a continuous critical reflection and learning process that focuses on policy, program and organizational improvement, process outcomes and capacity strengthening. Researchers and evaluators take responsibility to gather lessons from across evaluations and contribute to the wider body of knowledge about how sustainable development is undertaken and works. • The research should be planned with sufficient funding, time and resources to be done effectively and appropriately. This requires taking a long-term view of the research, monitoring and evaluation process and the long-term benefits of adopting a participatory approach. It means not raising the expectations of the community beyond what is reasonably achievable with the resources available. • The research should aim to develop capacity and ensure that findings are used to inform learning and program improvements which lead to sustainable outcomes. This includes nurturing longer-term evaluation and learning processes that are an integral part of wider organizational development and change processes. • The research should be open to negative findings, weaknesses and failures, as well as success stories. This means that the process should seek to ensure a high level of independence, integrity and honesty of the evaluation. • The research should look for project-specific objectives and intended and expected results, but also be open to unplanned and unexpected results at both the community-level and the institutional level. • The research should, where possible, locate the project in local, regional, national and global context, considering such issues as social norms, current policies, gender and power relations across all the domains of the social: economic, ecological, political and cultural. • The research should attempt to understand how and why social change happens.

61 Evaluation Framework

• Use an approach that is not rushed, allowing for extended dialogue in the early stages of the process. • At the start of the evaluation process, provide time for participants to reach agreement about the objectives and outcomes of the initiative and their roles in achieving these outcomes. • At the start of the process, clarify the purpose of the evaluation for participants and discuss their expectations of the evaluation. This includes discussing what information they need to know, when they want it by, the forms in which they want it, for whom they want it and how they plan to use it. The aim is that the evaluation is useful to the end-users of the initiative and that results and findings are used to improve initiatives and understandings about social change. • Take the scale of the project into account when planning the evaluation so that the evaluation is proportionate to the program. Considering the extent to which it involves using untested approaches, which might be high risk or high cost, and weigh these against potential gains if it goes well. • Considering the possible risks and benefits of the evaluation. • In consultation with a range of participants, developing flexible and realistic plans and timeframes for the whole research, monitoring and evaluation process. Use an organic approach that is responsive to unfolding developments. • Treat indicators as just one part of a research, monitoring and evaluation strategy. Develop locally derived indicators (including indicators of social change) using participatory methods, as well as drawing upon externally derived indicators. Project responsiveness and adaptation can also be seen as measures of success. Indicators should be meaningful and flexible, kept quite small in number, and strongly linked to project aims and objectives. They should reflect the need for data that is disaggregated for gender, age, identity and other key considerations. The indicators should aim to encompass complexity across the domains of economics, ecology, politics and culture. Alternatives to indicators, such as most significant change stories, should be used as appropriate.

Design and Methodology

• Use an approach that respects, legitimizes, contextualizes and draws on the knowledge and experience of relevant participants. The aim is to enable the voices of diverse groups of participants to be given a consequential standing. This enables participants to create shared meaning of their experiences over time. • Focus on both intended beneficiaries and other social groups or communities that may be affected by the initiative, either directly or indirectly. • Use openness and flexibility in selecting tools from our current toolbox or in going beyond the toolbox to other frameworks, approaches, methodologies, methods and tools. This means that if some methodologies and methods prove unsuitable others are readily available for use in the evaluation. The tools or approaches chosen should be the most appropriate for different issues and purposes, different types of initiatives, and the aims of the evaluation. They should be able to handle the complexity of the system in which they are implemented. They should be culturally appropriate for the people involved, used in culturally sensitive ways, and as simple and practical as possible. Constraints of the project and the organizational context and resources need to be taken into account. • Clarify the particular research and evaluation paradigm that is being used given that mixing paradigms can result in confusion and inappropriate compromises. • Using a mixed-tool approach that combines complementary and varied ways to collect, analyze and interpret data. • Continuously monitor the communications environment.

62 Impact Assessment Process

• Draw on previous research and the knowledge and experience of community members to inform the process of identifying indicators, outcomes and impacts, including indicators of social change, community dialogue, participation, empowerment and capacity development. • Use longitudinal studies to assess lasting and sustainable change. • If appropriate, develop a dynamic, moving theory of change which is tracked and adapted as part of the ongoing evaluation process. • Consider the short-term, intermediate and long-term outcomes and impacts of initiatives, based on the project’s vision of success and theory of change, which is regularly reviewed and revised by participants. • Reach agreement with participants on a realistic timeframe that is likely to be needed to expect some evidence of the proposed outcomes. This timeframe may need to be adjusted over time, given changes to local, national and global contexts and other factors. • Identify process outcomes (associated with the implementation of a project) so that lessons can be learned about how the objectives of the initiative were achieved and the conditions required to achieve them. • Look for unexpected, indirect and negative impacts as well as intended, direct and positive impacts. • Adjust baseline information as necessary to recognize changes in the social context. Using a moving baseline as necessary to track change.

Communication and Information-Sharing Processes

• Open, appropriate and effective communication and feedback systems and processes are established at the beginning of an evaluation to regularly keep participants informed and involved in the R, M&E process. • A range of communication methods is used to feedback findings to participants, senior management, funders and others, and to share learnings and experiences. Creative and engaging communication methods such as digital storytelling and sharing stories of significant change are used where possible. • Positive and negative, intended and unexpected impact assessment findings are shared openly and honestly with participants, donors and funders and the larger development community.

63 Chapter 5. Climate Change Adaptation

The reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions has since the early 1990s been central to the agenda of decision-makers at all administrative scales in relation to climate change. The central objective is to mitigate anthropogenic (human-made) climate change. Much of the attention at the international level focused on the task of the United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in facilitating a binding greenhouse gas reduction agreement among national governments that could come into force once the Kyoto Protocol expired in 2012. The InterGovernmental Panel on Climate Change, however, provided scientific evidence that climate change was already occurring and thus provided a strong case for simultaneously addressing the impacts of climate change through adaptation. In international negotiations on climate change, this paradigm shift has resulted in the UNFCCC expanding its focus to include negotiations on governance regimes for responding to the impacts of climate change.

The Airbus A380 is supposedly the ‘most environmentally friendly aircraft’. However, for each person flying between Sydney and Los Angeles a tonne of carbon is produced. View out of Sydney, Australia, 2011.

Since 2007, climate change mitigation and adaptation have become recognized in the policy and practice communities as complementary strategies for responding to climate change. While mitigation and adaptation are commonly distinguished from each other and usually defined as different responses and requiring different processes, they are inherently linked. Understanding current and future climate-change impacts, and how best to respond, are major challenges for all communities. Decision-makers need to consider the range of potential impacts that climate might have in the future, where and when these may occur, and how different industries or parts of the community might respond. Such complex challenges are often labelled as ‘wicked’ and are best addressed using collaborative approaches involving shared learning across institutions.

64 This chapter describes what adapting to climate change means. It clarifies commonly used terminology and discusses how these different concepts are used in policy development.

Approaches to Adaption

The framing of adaptation can be explicit in strategies, policy documents, or procedural guidelines, but is often implicit in discussions, choices about planning approaches and processes, and the selection of assessment methodologies. Making such framings explicit is important for establishing a collaborative process for adaptation. Explicit consideration of framing is also likely to influence the types of adaptation options and pathways considered. The most commonly used framings of adaptation are the following: 1. A hazards approach. ‘Hazards’ are closely linked to disaster risk-management. This natural disasters frame has been a dominant consideration in policy discussion on climate change. Increasingly broader notions of climatic hazards are being adopted, linked with other socio- economic and environmental trends, for example population expansion into bushfire prone areas in Southeast Australia or coastal zones likely to be affected by sea-level rise or storm surges. This approach uses quantitative data where available, leading to quantifiable estimates that are often sought after by policy-developers and decision-makers in order to justify pursuing particular strategies. However, uncertainty is a major problem because climate models are not able to give accurate local and regional scenarios for many climatic variables. The process of downscaling to regions and localities can also be resource intensive and time consuming. 2. A risk-management approach. This is the dominant, organizational practice for dealing with many types of uncertainties in local government and the private sector. Central to the notion of risk are uncertainty and perception. Risk is defined as the combined product of hazards, exposure and vulnerability and there is a close connection between hazards and risk-management approaches. Risk-assessment-and-management processes are suitable for organizations of various sizes, can fit well with existing organizational procedures and be readily integrated into existing risk-management systems. However, the approach can lead government to be focused inwardly, often to the neglect of the interests of other departments or external stakeholders. 3. A vulnerability approach. This focuses on who or what will be affected and in what way. A wide range of possible policy responses to vulnerability is possible. For example, outcome vulnerability relates to the residual impacts (e.g. on a habitat, an ecosystem, or a municipality) after all feasible adaptation responses have been taken into account. A contextual framing of vulnerability considers vulnerability in the broader context of interactions between climate and society. Vulnerability assessments can add valuable, bottom-up, perspectives for adaptation and be used to build the case for adaptation based on local data and information, thus ensuring that adaptation options are designed in direct response to local needs, enhancing the potential for tangible local adaptation outcomes. The range of vulnerability assessment methods in use means it is difficult to compare the results from different assessments, or understand the spatial variability of vulnerability beyond the scope of the immediate analysis. 4. A resilience approach. The ‘resilience’ concept originated in ecology but is now being translated and applied to human systems. It is defined as the ability of groups or communities to cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political, or environmental change. Each of these approaches has been influential in the development of climate-change assessment methods. How assessment methods are framed is important given the role that assessments play in adaptation planning in government. The framing can determine which departments are involved and which minister is considered to have responsibility for addressing climate impacts. Therefore, clarity of the framing and qualities and limitations of different assessment approaches will inform the methods used to assess impacts and adaptation responses. The choice of frame can lead to different types of climate-change assessments.

65 In summary, climate change adaptation can be considered a process of continuous social and institutional learning, adjustment and transformation. Understanding adaptation as an ongoing process of learning is particularly relevant for local and regional scale decision-making. Understanding local vulnerability and perceived risk using a combination of quantitative and qualitative data can provide a bottom-up perspective of adaptation needs that is specific to a particular location. In a situation of constrained time and financial resources, the choice of a particular adaptation approach or a combination of approaches will be highly influential in stablishing a particular dominant framing for an adaptation process. Ideally, policy-developers and decision- makers should pause and query why a type of approach or method will be applied to any particular adaptation project and ascertain the relevance of the underlying concepts for the purposes of the activity.

Table 7: Examples of Climatic Stressors and Key Impacts 17

17 Smit, B, Burton, I, Klein, R.J.T. & Wandel, J 2000, ‘An Anatomy of Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability’, Climatic Change, vol. 45, pp. 223–251.

66 Framing Adaptation

Setting Goals for Adaptation Setting high-level aims and subordinate objectives for climate change adaptation needs to be an iterative process so that emerging information on climate change impacts, policy context and stakeholders can be incorporated at regular intervals. Like all goal statements, adaptation objectives need to be achievable and time-bound to be able to effectively drive adaptation processes. However, the definition of aims and objectives needs to take place iteratively, to be able to accommodate changing climatic or local context parameters. While broad visioning and goal setting is needed at the adaptation policy level (e.g. at the level of state government), more detailed, involved sectoral planning is needed to specify sectoral adaptation objectives, define concrete targets and a set of indicators, prior to identifying, implementing and evaluating adaptation options. Adaptation objectives also need to strike a delicate balance between providing clear guidance on the one hand and allowing for a certain degree of flexibility on the other. Some of the flexibility needed can be offset by revisiting objectives statements more frequently, although this may prove difficult under the constraints of established financial and political processes.

How Does Adaptation Occur? Developing a shared understanding of current and future climatic stressors and their impacts, which ones are critical to a particular location, and what elements of a chosen system are at risk are essential starting points for adaptation processes that are workable at local and regional scale. Even though it may be impossible to achieve a truly shared framing on adaptation, making different views explicit paves the way for a discussion about the goals of adaptation and the processes to be used to achieve these goals, including a process for developing a suite of adaptation measures that respond to climate-related impacts in alignment with local needs and capacities. Arguably, the question of how adaptation is going to occur is the one most critical and contentious for local and regional scale adaptation, as it connects reflections on the purpose of adaptation with decisions on the methodology to be used. Adaptation as a process can take place through various activities, leading to different types of ‘adaptation outcomes’, and clarity is needed about the intended outcomes as well as the methods, tools and processes used for achieving them. For the purposes of reflecting on different ways of framing adaptation, it is useful to briefly examine these two uses of the term in more detail.

Framing Adaptation as an Outcome At the level of international climate negotiations, adaptation is often referred to as a necessary result of dealing with the negative impacts of climate change. This view follows the argument that adaptation is a critical aspect of responding to climate change, because a certain degree of global climate change can no longer be avoided. The amount of adaptation needed, however, will depend on the success of climate change mitigation efforts. Adaptation is framed as an outcome, thereby providing a central argument in negotiations on climate-change mitigation. It emphasizes questions of what a desired state of ‘being adapted’ would look like, what degree of adaptation is technologically possible, and who should be held legally responsible for the costs of adaptation. This outcome frame also relates to what has been described as the metaphor of adaptation ‘fitting into’ existing processes and systems, where adaptation is considered to be a known, predetermined addition to a given situation (e.g. incorporating climate change adaptation considerations into existing land-use policies). Adaptation is primarily seen as yet another consideration in mostly linear planning and decision-making processes, which, if considered appropriately, will lead to a future state of being more adapted.

67 While the ‘outcome frame’ is useful for arguing the case for mitigation and can provide an impetus for agreeing on adaptation goals, its usefulness is limited in regard to working towards adaptation options and devising practical adaptation measures. Questions of ‘how to’ are usually addressed using conventional planning and technology that can be readily applied to climate change. Typically, technological adaptation options feature prominently in outcome-focused adaptation as measures to reduce or compensate the negative effects of climatic climate. Arguably, a focus on an outcome framing for adaptation is one of the reasons why infrastructure responses, such as building sea walls and flood barriers, are often the first port of call and sometimes favoured over alternative ‘soft’ adaptation options. The validity of an outcome framing to adaptation lies in developing a better understanding of what different futures may look like, for example, as part of scenario-planning exercises.

Framing Adaptation as a Process Adaptation framing which focuses on ‘process’ aspects tends to place greater emphasis on adapting to climate-change impacts by adopting a systems perspective. Such framing recognizes that adaptation is a continuous process of interaction between human social ‘systems’ and their environment, characterized by social learning. Process framing of adaptation inevitably emphasizes the role of people and institutions, their evolving capacity of effectively dealing with climate change impacts (commonly referred to as ‘adaptive capacity’), and the role of non-technological adaptation measures. While the downscaling of climate-change models can certainly prove useful for decision-making, they can be complemented by more reflexive bottom-up approaches to adaptation planning. This approach acknowledges that effective adaptation needs to be deeply embedded in local knowledge. Framing climate-change adaptation as a learning process is useful in providing answers to the question of how adaptation is going to occur at local level, and therefore should be considered a vital component of any operational adaptation framework. In embracing a process of institutional and individual learning for climate-change adaptation, local decision-makers are enabled to explore a broad range of adaptation options that will become more sophisticated as their adaptive capacity increases.

Identifying Different Types of Adaptation Measures

Decision-makers can come up with an infinite number of adaptation measures to achieve stated objectives, and the broad range of options available can often be overwhelming to practitioners. Different measures may have different temporal scopes (e.g., short-term versus long-term implementation), different spatial or administrative scope (e.g., local, regional or national), and they may be devised in reaction to an existing climate impact, during the occurrence of an impact, or in anticipation of an expected climate impact. Using these three dimensions of spatial scope, temporal scope and the timing of action in relation to an impact as descriptors (Table 8 below) provides a typology of possible climate change adaptation measures, which can help understand broad options available to policy developers and decision-makers. Five distinct categories of adaptation measures are proposed: namely behavioural measures, institutional capacity-building, technological measures, and financial and regulatory measures for adaptation. All of these measures can be implemented at different levels of government using a combination of policies, market-based and non-market-based incentives.

68 Table 8: Types of Adaptation Measures

Type of adaptation measure Local/regional examples

Behavioural • Awareness-raising program on heat-wave response; • Promoting a per capita water saving target to address increasing water scarcity; • Educating community members on making homes bushfire-proof; and • Disseminating up-to-date information on extreme weather events via the mass media.

Institutional capacity-building • Local government staff training on climate-change science; • Conducting scenario planning exercises; • Inviting community groups and local leaders to participate in adaptation planning processes; • Devising a local process for developing an adaptation plan; • Establishing a climate-change working group in a local government; and • Changing the organizational structure to increase the ability to respond to climate change.

Technology • Building a sea-wall as a response to sea-level rise; • Retrofitting buildings to better protect from extreme heat; • Constructing a desalinization plant to address water scarcity; and • Improving the capacity of urban drainage systems.

Financial • Bulk-buying schemes for domestic rain water tanks; • Transferring climate risks to insurance providers; and • Provide funding for conducting local climate-impact assessments.

Regulatory • Committing to a ‘native trees’ policy for increasing the resilience of urban parks and gardens; • Mandating the development of heatwave response strategies; • Setting development controls in coastal hazard zones; and • Amending planning schemes to take climate-change impacts into account.

69 What is Good Adaptation?

Decision-making on local adaptation measures requires some form of qualitative or quantitative evaluation of the various adaptation options available. For each identified climate-change impact, a range of options exist that could potentially be equally effective in combating negative climate- change impacts, or alternatively, harnessing new opportunities. For example, to decrease the urban heat island effect in densely built up areas a combination of the following options may be found appropriate: • Increasing shading of buildings and sealed surfaces; for example, by planting trees; • Increasing evapotranspiration in the area, for example, by converting sealed areas into green space and constructing water features; • Ensuring better ventilation of the area; for example, by creating corridors that enable cooler air flow into the area; and • Rendering buildings in reflective colour to decrease head absorption into thermal mass. Each of these measures comes with an associated financial cost, a specific minimum time-line for implementation, and a series of secondary environmental and social effects that will inform public opinion and decision-making. Decision-makers, however, are expected and required to use evidence and best knowledge as the basis for decisions on adaptation measures. In the example of the heat-island effect, adaptation metrics can be employed to assess cost-benefit ratios of the various options available ex ante, under current and projected climate change. In the context of mid-term to long-term adaptation and whenever non-technological adaptation is included in the equation, it is, however, far less straightforward to establish which adaptation options are most suitable, because many of the potential benefits may be unknown and lie in the future. While cost-benefit analysis can be a suitable tool for many technological adaptations (for example, building or upgrading of infrastructure to protect from flooding), it has significant methodological limitations when it comes to measuring the expected costs and benefits of non-financial factors. Ex post evaluation of adaptation measures is similarly difficult, in particular in terms of providing guidance for adaptation to future extreme events, which occur infrequently, at irregular intervals, but with potentially devastating impacts. Current extreme events may provide a significant trigger and incentive for adaptive action, which are likely to also reduce future vulnerabilities. It may be prove politically difficult, however, to justify and agree upon large-scale investment into costly adaptation measures for preventing future catastrophic impacts, in particular when an empirical evaluation of the suitability and effectiveness of measures already implemented cannot be ascertained within standard planning and political cycles because, for example, the infrequent occurrence of extreme events or the absence of an evidence base for the effectiveness of preventative measures. This conundrum points to the limited suitability of cost-benefit analyses for guiding effective climate change adaptation at the local and regional levels. Cost-benefit analyses and similar economic tools need to be supplemented and informed by additional qualitative studies, for example exploratory research investigating past and present local practice of dealing with climate change. Such climate analogues can provide important contextual information on how socio-ecological systems are likely to respond to particular adaptation measures. Furthermore, the limitations of applying a cost-benefit approach towards evaluating different adaptation options highlight the need for applying alternative metrics to the costing of climate change impacts that are able to accommodate non-financial costs and take into account contextual economic parameters. The shortcoming of economic assessment tools also reiterate that a focus on the process aspects of adaptation may provide a more flexible way forward in adaptation planning, rather than relying mainly on substantive adaptation outcomes that have been determined using conventional economically rational decision-making.

70 Avoiding Maladaptation In the absence of a large evidence base on what constitutes good adaptation, adaptation efforts should therefore at a minimum endeavour to avoid any ‘bad’ adaptations, including the following: • Measures that increase greenhouse gas emissions; • Measures that disproportionately burden the most vulnerable social groups; • Measures that come with high opportunity costs - that is, high economic, ecological, political or cultural costs in comparison with alternatives; • Measures that reduce the incentive for actors to adapt - for example, by increasing the reliance of actors on others’ actions; and • Measures that create a path dependency - that is, measures that adopt trajectories that are difficult to change in the future due to high costs involved in such change.18 From a government perspective, such maladaptations do not only pose a risk of significant social, environmental and economic costs, they can also undermine the support of key adaptation actors.

Climate Risk Assessment

In the previous section we have provided an overview of what we consider to be key issues in the context of adaptation framing. In this section we examine a selected number of common approaches used in adaptation processes and unpack the conceptual framings inherent in these approaches.

Objectives and Methods Risk assessment, as part of a risk-management approach, provides a process for dealing with uncertainty. Although risk can be quantified using various formulas, qualitative, perception-based approaches often inform risk assessments, in particular when socio-economic systems are the subject of risk assessments. Standard risk-assessment matrices are used to assess the likelihood and expected consequences of a climate change impact under different scenarios, resulting in ratings of ‘low’, ‘medium’, ‘high’ or ‘extreme’ risk, which indicate the level of priority with which a risk should be treated (Table 9).

Table 9: Priority Risk-Rating Matrix

Consequences Likelihood Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Catestrophic Almost certain Medium Medium High Extreme Extreme LIkely Low Medium High High Extreme Possible Low Medium Medium High High Unlikely Low Low Medium Medium Medium Rare Low Low Low Low Medium Source: Australian Government (2006).

18 Barnett, J & O’Neill, S, 2010, ‘Maladaptation’, Global Environmental Change, vol. 20, pp. 211–13.

71 The Australian Government’s (2006) Climate Change Impacts and Risk Management guide suggests a sequential process for climate risk assessment and management is suggested, consisting of five major steps (Figure 2). This relies on the active participation of stakeholders: establishing the context, identifying, analysing and evaluating climate change risks, and treating the risks by identifying adaptation options. The process, although sequential, relies on ongoing monitoring and evaluation.

Figure 2: Steps in the Risk-Management Process

Communicate and consult

Establish the Identify the Analyse the Evaluate the Treat the context risks risks risks risks

Objectives What can Review controls Evaluate risks Identify options happen? Stakeholders Likelihoods Rank risks Select the best How could it Criteria happen? Consequences Screen minor Develop plans risks Key elements Level of risk Implement Climate scenarios

Monitor and review

Source: Australian Government (2006).

As part of establishing the context for climate risk-management, the guide recommends carrying out a scoping exercise, which includes setting clear objectives, identifying key stakeholders, setting success criteria to be used for evaluating the outcomes of the risk management process, as well as identifying key elements at risk and choosing one or several climate scenarios that will inform the process. To ensure the validity of the process and its outcomes, it is critical that a diverse group of key stakeholders participates in the process. Part of the initial scoping process is also developing context-specific scales that define different levels of risk likelihood and consequence. These likelihood and consequence scales are to be developed based on strategic organizational objectives (referring back to the understanding that risk means a threat to an organisation achieving its objectives), and usually contain qualitative and quantitative elements. The second step in the process involves identifying climate-change risks that various key elements (or exposure units, in the language of impact assessment) will be exposed to under different climate- change scenarios, using participatory brainstorming and data-gathering techniques. Qualitative cause-effect statements can help clarify why a particular issue is considered a risk. Risk analysis is conducted mainly qualitatively, by assigning each risk a level of priority based on the likelihood of the risk eventuating under different climate change scenarios and its expected consequences. The likelihood and consequence scales developed during the first step are applied here. Where possible, qualitative risk analysis and priority rating should be supported by quantitative studies that explain why a particular likelihood or consequence rating is appropriate.

72 During the third step, assigned priority risk-ratings are evaluated by ensuring they are consistent with one another and match the stakeholders’ interpretation of the local context in which they are operating. This assessment process, consisting of risk identification, analysis and evaluation, then forms the basis for exploring options for ‘risk treatment’ - that is, the development, selection and implementation of adaptation measures that reduce the levels of risk. Climate risk-management processes are suitable for organizations of various sizes, from community organizations to government departments. Due to their reliance on qualitative data and expert knowledge, engaging a suitable group of stakeholders from different backgrounds is essential to the success of the process, i.e. the effectiveness of the adaptation options developed in the final stage of the process. One of the strengths of risk-assessment approaches to climate change is that they can fit with existing organizational procedures and can readily be integrated into existing risk-management systems and structures. A risk-based approach to climate-change assessments enables stakeholders to establish likely cause-effect type linkages between projected climatic changes and the operational context in their department, their community or their organisation. By getting stakeholders to engage with projected changes in climatic parameters through understanding how these relate back to organizational objectives and services, ownership for adaptation processes can be created, which is critical for ensuring that adaptation measures derived from risk assessments are meaningful, feasible and effective. In the context of governmental organizations, the implementation of risk-assessment processes tends to be focused inwardly, sometimes to the neglect of external stakeholders, services and activities that are considered peripheral to an organization. In the local government sector, for example, a risk-management approach to climate change typically focuses on corporate risk - that is, risks that threaten the key objectives of the organization. However, such assessment processes, if conducted properly, will eventually lead to considering climate risks to the community (for example, via organizational objectives that relate to service delivery, community satisfaction and well-being) and they thus can be a suitable entry point to a more holistic approach to adaptation. Another limitation of templated climate risk-management processes, such as the one outlined by the Australian Government’s guide, is that it relies to a significant extent on the views of individual stakeholders. In this context, it is important to acknowledge that an ideal-world scenario of equal representation and engagement of key stakeholders from different disciplinary backgrounds is rarely achieved in adaptation processes. It is more likely that some individuals will be more involved in the process than others, some will be able to dominate the discussions more than others, and that some stakeholders may choose not to participate or express their views. Therefore, careful and professional facilitation is required for any climate-change assessment, including climate risk- assessment processes, and transparency about who is involved in what role needs to be achieved early in the process.

73 Vulnerability Assessment

Vulnerability assessment has emerged as a common practice in climate change adaptation processes, and, due to a lack of standardization and the multi-faceted nature of the concept of vulnerability, it is implemented in many different ways, using a range of definitions of vulnerability and various assessment methods. The following sections are an attempt to provide an overview, acknowledging that it is difficult to do full justice to this diversity.

Objectives and Methods Conducting a vulnerability assessment is seen by many as a critical component of climate change adaptation processes at the local level, as it can elicit knowledge about the expected distribution of impacts across a system. Vulnerability assessments typically consist of assessing the characteristics of a vulnerable system, the type and number of stressors affecting that system, and the effects these have on the system. The widely used IPCC definition of vulnerability suggests that assessing vulnerability becomes meaningful and practicable only if it is conducted only in relation to a specified hazard, a range of hazards, or a specific system. As opposed to climate impact-assessment and risk assessment, vulnerability assessment is less rigidly defined, and processes labelled as vulnerability assessments reveal a great diversity in approach and methodologies used. Over the past decade, vulnerability assessment methodologies have moved from an exclusive focus on the biophysical environment and questions of physical vulnerability towards the inclusion of, and a greater focus on, an assessment of the social vulnerability of segments of the local population. Different types of vulnerability assessment continue to co-exist, however, reflecting the broad applicability of the vulnerability concept across different social and environmental phenomena. A biophysical vulnerability assessment may, for example, focus on evaluating the impact of increasing average night-time temperatures on the evapotranspiration of trees in an urban park. A social vulnerability assessment of heat stress will identify groups within the population that are particularly under threat of suffering health and well-being impacts during a heat wave. A combined biophysical and social assessment may analyse, among other factors, the combined effects of changing evapotranspiration patterns of urban trees and the effect of heat fatigue due to warmer night- time temperatures. In many vulnerability assessment methodologies, four elements stand out as particular relevant: 1. A focus on a vulnerable system, which forms the scope for analysis and assessment. Depending on the disciplinary perspective and the scoping process, these typically comprise a coupled socio-ecological system, a social system or sub-systems (such as a social group), or a particular geographic region or area. 2. Elements at risk within the system under consideration. Examples of typical elements at risk to climate change impacts are human lives, flora and fauna species, habitats, cultural and religious values, buildings and infrastructure. 3. The identification of a particularhazard , which denotes a potentially damaging influence on the system of analysis. Hazards are sometimes differentiated into discrete hazards, or perturbations, and continuous hazards, or stress/stressors. 4. A temporal reference, which scopes out the time frame used for vulnerability assessment. Applying an explicit time frame is particularly relevant in the context of climate change adaptation, where impacts, to a large extent, lie in the future.19

19 Füssel, H-M 2007,‘Vulnerability: A Generally Applicable Conceptual Framework for Climate Change Research’, Global Environmental Change, vol. 17, pp. 155–167.

74 A technical paper informing the UNDP’s Adaptation Policy Framework20 serves as an example of how these elements are translated into a method for assessing social vulnerability, consisting of five discrete steps (Table 10). Similar to other types of assessment approaches discussed above, a definition phase is outlined, focusing predominantly on specifying a conceptual framework and a workable definition for vulnerability. The identification of vulnerable groups (Step Two) focuses on the scoping of system boundaries, including which groups are exposed to hazards. This is followed by an assessment of sensitivity of the system and identified vulnerable groups, i.e. gaining an understanding of how climate hazards translate into climate impacts, risks and disasters. Importantly, the approach uses the identification of the drivers of current vulnerability to assess how future vulnerability is likely to be determined, and what role processes of autonomous adaptation can play in the reduction of vulnerability (step four). In a final step, assessment outcomes inform adaptation policy and decision-making.

Table 10: Five-Step Approach to Vulnerability Assessment21

No. Objective of activity Description

1 Structuring the vulnerability Clarifying the conceptual framework and analytical assessment: Definitions, definitions of vulnerability being used for the frameworks and objectives assessment.

2 Identifying vulnerable groups: Defining the system chosen for the assessment, Exposure and assessment including who is vulnerable, to what, in what way, and boundaries where. System characteristics to be defined include sectors, stakeholders and institutions, geographical regions and scales, and time periods.

3 Assessing sensitivity: Current Developing an understanding of the process vulnerability of the selected by which climate outcomes (e.g., hydrological system and vulnerable group and meteorological variables) translate into risks and disasters. This includes identifying points of intervention and options for response to vulnerability.

4 Assessing future vulnerability Developing a qualitative understanding of current drivers of vulnerability in order to better understand possible future vulnerability, including ways in which planned or autonomous adaptation may modify climate risks.

5 Linking vulnerability Relating vulnerability assessment outputs (2-4 above) assessment outputs with to stakeholder decision-making, public awareness and adaptation policy further assessments.

One alternative extended approach to vulnerability assessment puts greater emphasis on qualitative aspects and the need for embedding vulnerability assessment as a bottom-up process in local knowledge and traditional ‘wisdom’. Step Two in the eight-step model outlined in Figure 3 (below) therefore emphasizes the need for getting to know the study location (assuming an external researcher is conducting the assessment). Also, this approach explicitly mentions the use of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indicators, which constitute a model of vulnerability used for assessment (Steps Five and Six).

20 Lim, B & Spanger-Siegried, E (eds) 2005, Adaptation policy frameworks for climate change: Developing strategies, policies and measures, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 21 Downing, E & Patwardhan, A 2005, in Lim, B & Spanger-Siegried, E (eds), Adaptation policy frameworks for climate change: Developing strategies, policies and measures, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

75 Figure 3: Eight-Step Model for Global Change Vulnerability Assessment22

1 Define study area (spatial and temporal scale) and stakeholders

2 Get to know place over time

3 Hypothesize who is vulnerable to what Pre-modelling steps

4 Develop a casual model of vulnerability

5 Find indicators for exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity

6 Operationalize model(s) of vulnerability

7 Project future vulnerability using scenarios Steps that involve modelling 8 Communicate vulnerability creatively

Using various approaches to vulnerability assessment, numerous studies have tried to develop composite local vulnerability indices, to assist communicating assessment outcomes, with mixed results. For example, overlaying vulnerability indicator data collected during an assessment with demographic information can produce maps of relative vulnerability and its variation across space.

Strengths and limitations Vulnerability assessments can add a valuable, bottom-up perspective to climate change adaptation processes. Their strength is that they build the case for adaptation based on local data and information, thus helping ensure that adaptation options developed during planning processes can be designed in a way that they directly respond to local needs. If implemented in a participatory way, drawing on the knowledge and views of various local stakeholders, vulnerability assessments have the potential to pave the way for tangible local adaptation outcomes. Also, through the analysis carried out as part of vulnerability assessments, future climate impacts become directly linked to current contextual drivers of vulnerability (e.g., broader socio-economic processes affecting a particular place), hence enabling the identification of ‘starting points’ for adaptation by focusing on current vulnerability.

22 Schröter, D & Polsky, C & Patt, A 2005, ‘Assessing Vulnerabilities to the Effects of Global Change: An Eight Step Approach’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, vol. 10, pp. 573–95.

76 Vulnerability assessment is most useful for analysing how current climate variability and projected climate change impacts may affect different populations (or other system components), in different ways. Depending on the approach used the can add a quantitative or qualitative layer of local knowledge and information to decision-making processes, focused on the needs of vulnerable groups or system components. Where vulnerability assessments mainly produce qualitative data on the expected consequences of climate change, their outputs often don’t meet current needs for an evidence-base to decision-making, for example in relation to costly infrastructure investments. This limitation, however, applies to other types of assessments as well, and purely quantitative assessment outputs, on the other hand, can suggest a degree of certainty that doesn’t reflect the complex and variable nature of climate change. The heterogeneity of the various vulnerability assessment methods used also means that it is difficult to compare the results from different assessments, e.g. in order to understand the spatial variability of vulnerability. For example, maps of relative vulnerability, which are popular with planners and decision-makers in outcome-orientated organisations, suggest that vulnerability is quantifiable. While such maps can be a useful visualization tool for communicating projected climate change impacts at local level, they contain a range of assumptions inherent in the methodology, including significant degrees of uncertainty, which need to be discussed with stakeholders and end-users.

Reconstruction along the Mississippi River after Hurricane Katrina. New Orleans, USA, February 2010.

77 Part 3. Engaged Theory: Tools

Chapter 6. Sustainability Questionnaire

Measuring community sustainability is a difficult process that is prone to subjectivism and lack of systemic rigour. In response to these kinds of problems there has been a tendency in the literature to move towards overly rigid and positivist mechanisms of enquiry. Moreover, measuring community sustainability tends to suffer from a fundamental tension that arises in developing a generally applicable mechanism of research that at the same time is able to handle local differences and requirements. The tension is redoubled when the surveys are used in various settings that cross the Global South and Global North. This chapter critically narrates the development of a community sustainability questionnaire in the context of consideration about the pitfalls of developing social indicators. The project was in many ways too ambitious. However, instead of suggesting that the project backtrack on its generalizing-particularizing ambitions, we describe a series of steps for beginning to overcome the limitations of such enquiry. The questionnaire appended at the end of the chapter is the outcome of that work. How is it possible to develop a method that overcomes the subjectivism/objectivism divide? On the one hand, some social researchers, anthropologists and ethnographers have progressively adjusted, refined and calibrated their tools of research to reflect the intricacies, sensitivities, and subject- positions of the communities they have sought to understand, including acknowledging the effect of their own subjectivities on what they are trying to understand. At its worse, however, this trend has led to an inability to say much about the patterns of social life beyond soft allusion, inference, or hermeneutic projection. On the other hand, recent attention to environmental and economic risks, and the corresponding rise of sustainability discourses, has led to an emphasis on rigorous objective measurement. At its perverse extreme, however, this search for objective understanding has led to the re-projection of scientific, positivist universals into the categories and variables of its methodological framework. An alternative synthesis is clearly necessary. In broad terms, the search is on for methodologies that bring together both objective and subjective understandings through using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Part of that task is to generate sensitivity to local conditions has led to various forms of subject-centred methodologies that still maintain a strong interest in social patterns and structures. The growth of global ethnography, grounded theory, hermeneutically-inspired strategies, even our own engaged theory are at least in part responses to the limitations of either postmodern subjectivism or wholesale co-option of natural modern scientific method. In narrower terms, the key question is how else is it possible to assess adequately the viability, resilience and sustainability of communities other than through objectively measured indicators which are globally applicable across time and space, including across different dominant formations of practice - tribal, traditional, modern and postmodern? This imperative is particularly critical for marginalized, at-risk communities, and communities in the Global South where sustainability assessments form - or ought to form - the basis for subsequent policy development and action. Moreover, it is equally important that indicators reflect not only objectively measurable conditions of the social and natural environment, but also the subjectively understood sense of sustainability, as experienced by the community itself.

78 It is in this context that we discuss the development of survey tool, the Social Sustainability Questionnaire, which endeavours to convey a picture of the subjective attitudes of community members towards the sustainability of their communities. The Questionnaire has been applied to around 3,300 members of various communities between 2006 and 2010, predominantly in the South East Asian region, but across very different settings, North and South. In aiming to be encompassing of all dimensions of sustainability, the indicator set is similar to other holistic approaches. However, it differs in a number of respects. One key difference is that we treat questions in a questionnaire as also constituting an index - in this case an index to objectively measure subjective beliefs that always needs to be correlated against other forms of data gathering (see the chapter on ‘Social Mapping’ above). Secondly, and more profoundly, we contrast the orientation of our model with triple-bottom-line approaches, both by revising the underlying structural basis of understanding sustainability, and by focusing on this understanding from the experiential standpoint of community participants. In this respect the survey shares common features with the psychometric perspectives of the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index, the World Values Survey and the World Database of Happiness - and indeed certain constructs of the Wellbeing Index and World Values Survey are incorporated into our indicator set. Thirdly, we further differentiate our approach by suggesting it aims to measure the intersubjective character of a community - how members of that community not only feel about their social and natural environment, but also how they view the future prospects of that environment. Understanding how a community understands its own sustainability complements existing subjective and objective sustainability measures of a city as whole, and, we argue, extends the localization of such measures to those for whom they are most relevant. While, as we will show, the questionnaire in its previous incarnation had limitations in terms of scientific validity and reliability, the exploratory analysis that follows demonstrates how the current iteration might complement a sustainability assessor’s existing toolkit. The analysis also makes a contribution in its own right into understanding key factors and relationships of the sampled communities.

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, May 2010.

79 History and Methodology of the Social Sustainability Survey

The Social Sustainability Questionnaire was first developed and administered to a number of rural and urban communities in Victoria in 2006.23 Over the next four years it has been further administered to a number of diverse communities in the Southeast Asian, South Asian and Middle Eastern region, including Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste, Sri Lanka, India, Israel/Palestine as well as Cameroon. The sites thus crossed the Global North / Global South divide, and the questions were formulated to make sense is cross-cultural contexts. While using a similar apparatus to numerous other surveys, the aim was not to assess community sustainability in a benchmarking or simple comparative fashion. In the case of the work in Papua New Guinea the results did become the basis for a sea-change in the formulation of government policy around community development. However, in Papua New Guinea as elsewhere, the results were intended as complementary to accompanying research interventions, including publicly available metrics. Additionally, the questionnaire was always used in relation to more extensive qualitative engagement (social mapping), through a series of ethnographic, interview-based and observational inquiries into urban sustainability. This was also notably the case in studies of sustainability in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the tsunami from 2004 to the present. At the same time, additional sets of questions were used in addition to a consistent ‘core’ set of sustainability indicators to reflect regional, localized, project-based and time-based differences. For example, our work in Sri Lanka and India after the tsunami included a module of additional questions on disaster recovery. Nevertheless, the core set of questions was consistently measured across repeated applications of the survey, and it is these which are the basis of the discussion below. The core set reflects a socially holistic conception of sustainability, evident in a range of approaches to sustainability reporting. The background framework to the current approach, Circles of Sustainability, arose from the background work carried out by the Global Cities Institute and the Globalism Research Centre at RMIT University over the period in which the survey was administered. Rather than the three central categories of the triple-bottom-line approach, which treats the economic as the master category outside the social, it adumbrates four domains against which social sustainability can be assessed. They are the domains of the economy, ecology, politics, and culture. The category of the social here is not erased, but rather is treated as imbricated in each of these domains - sustainability, in this conception, is thus irremediably social in character. Most of the core set of indicators represent one of these four facets of sustainability. The remaining common survey questions capture administrative and demographic variables - the complete set is listed at the end of this chapter. In spite of the care undertaken in the data-aggregation process, a number of concerns remain concerning both validity and reliability. While the survey in its current iteration makes few claims of hypothesis testing, these do compromise the extent of inference drawn from the findings. Addressing these concerns will be important for future iterations of the survey and have informed the revisionary design of the next version, intended for launch in 2011 and discussed further below. Principal among the concerns are the following: 1. Articulation of latent variables. What facets of sustainability are being measured? 2. Construct validity. Are the constructs separately necessary measures of sustainability? 3. Construct comprehensiveness. Are the constructs collectively sufficient measures of sustainability? 4. Construct reliability. Is the language sufficiently clear and capable of being reliably interpreted by a broad range of respondents, across different locations and times? 5. Co-ordination with other sustainability measures. How do perceptions of members of a community relate to other measures of its sustainability? 6. Sampling strategy. How wide a range of sampling forms can be adopted in different settings, including convenience, snowball, purposive and cluster sampling, before the statistical comparability between those setting breaks down?

23 This initial project was led by Martin Mulligan, Paul James, Kim Humphery, Chris Scanlon, Pia Smith, and Nicky Welch, culminating in the report, Creating Community: Celebrations, Arts and Wellbeing within and across Local Communities, VicHealth, Melbourne, 2007, 231pp.

80 A series of descriptive statistics were obtained for this variable set, both to observe tendencies in the data and to cross-check the data-cleaning process, to ensure absence of out-of-bound data. Similarly, a series of pair-wise correlations were run over all scalar variables. We then conducted a factor analysis with varimax rotation, to view whether variables clustered together intelligibly. We hypothesized also that characteristic demographic data could be useful predictors for some of the behavioural and attitudinal data, and ran a series of regression tests to test this. Finally, ANOVA and further correlation tests were administered to determine whether meaningful differences existed, for the core attitudinal variables, between the various communities participating in the survey. Interpretation of these tests on the viability of the questionnaire is discussed below.

Findings

Descriptive Statistics After the data was consolidated, total sample size was 3,368. Country distribution was heavily oriented towards Papua New Guinea, Australia, East Timor and Sri Lanka. Gender distribution was approximately even (Female = 49.4 per cent; Male = 50.2 per cent), while age distribution is skewed towards a younger demographic, with over 75 per cent of respondents under the age of 50. Self- assessments of health, wealth and education - variables related to indices such as the HDI - reflect the application of the survey to large number of developing countries. The majority of respondents described themselves financially as ‘Struggling’ (50 per cent), with only 9.1 per cent stating they were ‘Well-off’. 45.2 per cent of respondents stated they had primary school or no formal education at all, while only 18.4 per cent had completed secondary school. Conversely, against the health measurement-construct, 48.6 per cent self-assessed as ‘my health is generally good’. A proxy HDI index variable, termed ‘HDI Self-Assessment’ was composed out of the normalized values of health, financial and education self-assessment variables. The frequency distribution of this composite variable demonstrates that in fact the relative skews of these variables collectively cancel out, leaving a close approximation to a normal distribution. Of the 15 common attitudinal variables, all but three had median, and all but one had mode values of ‘Agree’ (4). As all Likert items were phrased in such a way that agreement tended to endorse the underlying variable being measured, this indicates a degree of correlation between responses is likely. The average mean value was 3.65, while the average standard deviation was 1.06, a relatively low dispersion which confirms the clustering of responses on the positive end of the scale. Inferential tests suggest, however, that there are some interesting differences between communities sampled.

Correlations Both Spearman’s rho and Pearson’s correlation coefficient were obtained of all core scalar variables, 22 in total, and separately, of all attitudinal variables, 15 in total. Of 231 possible scalar correlations, 179 (77.5 per cent) were significant at the 0.01 level, with a further eight significant at the 0.05 level (81.0 per cent). Of the 105 possible correlations of the 15 attitudinal variables, 100 were significant at the 0.01 level. Together these results suggest a very high degree of dependence between the variables, a feature discussed further below in both the factor analysis and survey redesign sections. Given the sample size, use of five-point scales for attitudinal variables, and potential for skew in both wording of question probes and sampling strategy, such coalescence is perhaps not surprising.

81 Principal Component Analysis A factor analysis was conducted on all attitudinal variables. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.843, a very high level for conducting factor analysis. Varimax rotation was selected, due to potential dependencies between discovered factors. The factors themselves have been interpolated as follows: 1. Satisfaction with various aspects conditions (life as a whole, involvement with community, personal relationships, the environment, sense of safety, work/life balance). 2. Trust and confidence in political conditions (ability to influence authority, belief decisions are in interest of whole community, trust in experts and government). 3. Trust and confidence in cultural conditions (enjoy meeting and trust in others, influence of history, importance and use of technology). The three factors are interpreted here as accounting for each of the four domains in the underlying Circles of Sustainability model. The first factor combines all six satisfaction constructs, taken from the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index. These have been - very liberally - interpreted as reflecting general contentment with economic and ecological circumstances, where ‘ecology’ is considered as both social and natural context. The following two factors more directly aggregate items reflecting political and cultural engagement, respectively. Since missing values caused a large number of cases (1,593 or 47.3 per cent of 3,368) to be ignored in the analysis, a separate analysis was conducted with mean values substituted back in. The analysis showed a weaker sampling adequacy result, but no change in the variables or factors identified. A series of composite indices, termed respectively ‘Attitudes towards Economy and Ecology’, ‘Attitudes towards Politics’ and ‘Attitudes towards Culture’, were constructed from the normalized values of the relevant underlying indicators. These in turn were compiled into an overall ‘Attitudinal Self-Assessment’ index, similar to the ‘HDI Self-Assessment’ variable described above. All five computed variables were then used in subsequent regression and ANOVA tests.

Predicting Sustainability Assessments - Regression Results A series of regression tests were conducted to note the significance and direction of relationships between the principal component clusters of attitudinal variables, and demographic and self- assessment characteristics. For the Well-being Index satisfaction levels (interpreted, as suggested above, so as to cover economic and ecological domains), and attitudes relating to the political domain, only the financial self-assessment variable stands out as a strong - and negative - predictor, suggesting that those who assess themselves poorly nonetheless score highly against satisfaction and political engagement indicators. Conversely, all variables other than ‘Financial Assessment’ and ‘Years lived in previous neighbourhood’ have a strong predictive relationship on the aggregated cultural engagement indicator.

Comparing Communities - ANOVA and Correlation Results An ANOVA test was also conducted using the community as the grouping variable. Of particular interest was whether the first three principal components identified in the component analysis had significant differences between communities. Similarly we examined the composite ‘Attitudinal Self- Assessment’ and ‘HDI Self-Assessment’ variables across the groups. Each of the five computed variables showed significant differences across the different community groups at both 0.05 and 0.01 levels.

82 Table 1 compares both mean values and rank for the five composite variables across each of the seven communities (Melbourne (2009) and Timor are incomplete due to certain items not being included in their respective surveys). As the ranks make clear, HDI self-assessment means appears to correlate with attitudes towards economy, ecology and culture, with ‘Australian Towns’ and ‘Be’er Sheva’ ranking highly for each of these four variables. ‘Attitudes towards Politics’, on the contrary, correlate inversely. This suggest that communities which are generally satisfied and confident regarding economic, ecological and cultural dimensions are sceptical of prevailing power systems and structures; those which on the other hand self-assess poorly and are dissatisfied with present material conditions nonetheless have trust and confidence in political mechanisms.

Table 11: Composite Variable Mean Comparison

Mean values

Values Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudinal HDI Self- towards towards towards Self- Assessment Economy Politics Culture Assessment and Ecology

AusTowns(2006) 24.2 11.5 21.4 72.8 65.5

Be’er Sheva 24.3 11.7 22.7 74.8 78.4

Malaysia 21.4 13.1 15.8 65.2 46.5

Melbourne (2009) - - - - 53.6

Papua New Guinea 24.2 13.8 17.1 70.9 41.6

Sri Lanka 22.5 13.5 19.7 72.7 38.4

Timor Leste - 14.0 15.3 - 36.0 Mean rank

Values Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudinal HDI Self- towards towards towards Self- Assessment Economy Politics Culture Assessment and Ecology

AusTowns (2006) 3 6 2 2 2

Be’er Sheva 1 5 1 1 1

Malaysia 5 4 5 5 4

Melbourne (2009) - - - - 3

Papua New Guinea 2 2 4 4 5

Sri Lanka 4 3 3 3 6

Timor Leste - 1 6 - 7

A further pair-wise set of correlations was ran over the composite variables, which confirm the above findings across the whole data set - all variables correlate significantly at 0.05, 0.01 and even 0.001 levels, with ‘Attitudes towards Politics’ the only variable correlating negatively with the others.

83 Discussion

Of greatest interest in the results was the strong relationship between the first three factors of the factor analysis, and the four domains articulated in the model. This suggests the survey instrument successfully measures community values towards these different domains of sustainability. Several confounds need to be noted, however. Firstly, these factors only account for 47.2 per cent of the total variation - leaving a large amount of attitudinal variance unexplained by the four-domain model. Secondly, the limitations around the survey design and administration discussed earlier suggest higher levels of significance testing are needed at the very least before results can be inferred to the broader community populations. Thirdly, both economic and ecological constructs were coalesced in the primary factor identified. Given a key claim of the four-domain model is that each of the domains is at least potentially in conflict with others, the moderate sample size and range of communities ought to bring out greater variation between constructs measuring each domain. Of course both the domain-construct relationship and the factor analysis have been conducted ex post; an important feature to exhibit in results of follow-up surveys would be a stronger correlation between ex ante and ex post alignment of variables to co-ordinating factors. Nevertheless, the coalescence of principal components with the independently derived domains suggests these remain a sound basis for the construction of future iterations of the indicator set. While the aims of the survey were exploratory - and emphatically not intended to introduce ranking considerations - the correlation, regression and ANOVA tests do demonstrate a series of significant relationships and high degrees of deviance between the communities who have participated. The key finding from the exploration appears to be the inverse relationship between levels of political engagement and satisfaction and all other subjective indicators - economic, ecological and cultural. Results for ‘Australian Towns’ and ‘Be’er Sheba’, in particular, demonstrate that those with high levels of general satisfaction, education and material contentment tend to be more sceptical and pessimistic with regard to their involvement in structures of power. This clearly needs more robust study but points to a potential series of hypotheses to be tested in future rounds of the survey.

A Measure for Sustainability? Some Limitations of the Survey It is clear that the first version of the survey showed potential but did not yet deliver as an assessment instrument of community sustainability. At best it could augment other methods of both quantitative, objective, and qualitative, subjective assessment. However, with the serious revision we believe it can play a distinct role positioned against current indicator sets and their respective orientations by assessing sustainability at an intersubjective communal level. In additional to a series of methodological strictures discussed above, this has required several further analytic distinctions to co-ordinate indicators of the revised survey re-design. These are discussed in the section below. Bench-marking surveys and models are frequently criticized as being of arguable utility to communities at greatest risk. There is little comfort in knowing how unsustainable one is relative to others. However, there are several affordances which arise out of the search for general assessment instruments: 1. For all the limitations of bench-marking, when coupled with other methods they provide a basis for comparability across diverse communities. Such comparisons can in turn be provocations for further diagnosis and action. 2. They provide community members with a quantification of their sense of sustainability. This can not only be contrasted with other communities, but also with other objective and subjective sustainability quantifications - levels of air pollution, GDP, corruption or psychological wellbeing assessments, for instance. Such contrasts can provide both internal members and external agents with advanced warnings of potential threats. 3. Quantified assessments also provide some basis for longitudinal comparison.

84 The prior survey design was not considered sufficiently robust for fulfilling these extended aims. Both in the conduct and analysis of surveys, a number of criticisms were raised. While individual item-bias can be controlled by counteracted items - and indeed in the first version of the survey, some effort had been made in this direction - no explicit strategy was adopted, leading to irregular and hard to identify sources of skew. Moreover, the extent of bias in some cases leads to lack of variance in response to items which already offer only a limited 5-point range. Where most results cluster around ‘Agree’–’Strongly Agree’ (or their inverse), attempts to derive even ordinal correlations tend to be misleading. Clustered, low-variance responses were found frequently in the analysis. More critically still, generalized surveys of this sort do need to make claims towards quasi- universality, in order to ensure reliability in survey applications in different times and places. As opposed to the ‘grounded theory’ approach adopted for the first version, here we have needed to articulate a positive theory of sustainability (‘engaged theory’) in order to know just of what the survey indicators are indicative. Since the survey measures of course community member perceptions of sustainability - leaving aside which objective measures, if any, these might conceivably correlate - this instrument may not be a useful predictive tool in and of itself, even if it certainly complements other instruments making use of global indicators.

Measuring Social Sustainability, Version 2.0 To overcome these limitations, a series of workshops were scheduled over the latter part of 2010 and into 2011. A revised set of indicators/questions was drafted, with an associated set of ‘reference’ questions and responses. These retained consonance with the existing survey yet sought to address the identified limitations. Version 2.0 now measures sustainability explicitly against the four domains and their subdomains, which only formed the background to the original survey. More explicitly, community sustainability is assessed with reference to the following: • Economic prosperity - the extent to which the community can engage in activities relevant to their economic wellbeing and feel confident about the consequence of changing structures and pressures beyond their locale. • Ecological resilience - the extent to which the surrounding natural environment can withstand and recover from the community’s actions. • Political engagement - the extent to which members of the community can participate and collaborate in structures and processes of power which affect them. • Cultural vitality - the extent to which the community is able to maintain and develop its beliefs, celebrate its practices and rituals, and cultivate diverse systems of meaning. This basic taxonomy is elaborated through a series of sub-domains (seven per domain). It is also set against a matrix of cross-cutting social themes, which intersect with each of the domains, for example, authority–autonomy and needs–limits. In total, the revised structure of the indicator set proposes a total of seven of these cross-cutting categories, covering, in addition to the four domains, what we have termed holistic social variables. The holistic variables include those commonly incorporated into generalized surveys of wellbeing, happiness and satisfaction, such as the relation between inclusion and exclusion and between identity and difference. However, unlike the usual approaches these dialectical themes have been mapped systematically across the questionnaire in a way that allows for an assessment of the nature of community integration in the locale being studied, not just the degree of community sustainability. When cross-correlated against the administrative variables in relation to community context and the demographic variables in relation to the characteristics of survey participants (gender, level of education, etc.), these holistic social variables are intended to give a nuanced sense of the ways in which respondents understand and live in social context.

85 In response to the survey results, we have further extended the indicator model to take account of spatial and social scope, as well as temporal tense or orientation. To capture the former, we have mapped the indicators by a three-fold division into the following categories: • Personal - sustainability as experienced by the self; mode is subjective • Communal - sustainability relating to the immediate communal group; mode is intersubjective • Global (regional, national) - sustainability relating to the globe; mode is objective To capture temporal impressions of sustainability, we suggest a simple distinction between: • Present (and immediate future) - satisfaction with current state of affairs • Future (medium and long term) - confidence in eventual or anticipated state of affairs Finally, we have also included two variables per domain in order to rank importance and significance of the domain itself, or potentially of specific issues within the domain (for example, unemployment in the economic domain, or pollution in the environmental domain). These variables can be used as initial points in a causal analysis, using DPSIR or some other causal model. A sample of variables taken from the economic domain is presented below: 1. Present economic prosperity of person 2. Confidence in future economic prosperity of person 3. Present economic prosperity of local community 4. Confidence in future economic prosperity of local community 5. Present economic prosperity of global community 6. Confidence in future economic prosperity of global community 7. Impact of global economy on economic prosperity of person 8. Impact of global economy on economic prosperity of community 9. Relative importance [DPSIR: IMPACT] of economic prosperity (relative to the other three domains) 10. Relative significance [DPSIR: PRESSURE] of economic prosperity (relative to the other three domains) In total, the revised structure of 50 questions presents 74 indicators of sustainability. In addition, in order to maintain the specificity of each project and place, we have continued the approach of allowing optional modules covering specific sociological aspects of a community, such as work, education, communication and so on. We have now also mapped the questions in the survey in relation to the Human Development (Creating Capabilities) approach,24 and this has indicated further areas for refinement. The work of refining the indicators into suitable questionnaire constructs, and conducting further pilot studies in the usefulness of the results, is scheduled to take place in conjunction with a number of urban communities in 2011 and 2012. A series of approaches for generating composite, orderable indices from the indicators, based upon the composite factors presented above but using a mixture of weighted and unweighted averages, will also be trialled. We also note this instrument will sit alongside others piloted under the same project rubric, which will aim to complement the standardized subjective indicators of sustainability outlined here with locally developed, issue-based indicators.

24 Nussbaum, M 2011, Creating capabilities: The human development approach, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

86 Oddusuddan School near Mullaitivu was at the centre of fighting between the Singhalese government and the Tamil Tigers until the war finished in 2009. The school girl pictured here was a former child-soldier. Now, with support from local health activists, she attends daily lessons and is a senior student at the school. Oddusuddan Maha Vidyalayam, Sri Lanka, October 2011. 87 Chapter 7. Sustainability Reporting

Sustainability reporting is now thoroughly on the agenda. Deepening attention to the concepts of ‘sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’ go back to the release of the Club of Rome Limits to Growth Report of 1972, the Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) and the UN Conference on Environment and Development’s subsequent Agenda 21 (1992). In the past decade that attention has translated into the increasingly widespread organizational practice of regular sustainability reporting. The term ‘sustainability reporting’ itself has come to describe a broad spectrum of reporting practices, from ‘top-down’ annual reporting against standardised indicator sets, with varying degrees of auditing assurance, to ad hoc, one-off or semi- periodic assessments against ‘bottom-up’ and locally-grown measures. Top-down approaches include corporate reporting against Global Reporting Initiative indicators and guidelines, while bottom-up approaches have tended to be adopted by non-governmental organisations (NGOs), sub-national or municipal authorities, and community groups. Common to both approaches is a more or less explicit framework - a collection of measures, procedures, tools and principles that guide reporting practices. As a number of studies suggest, frameworks may not be sufficient but they are very much necessary to the development of robust and relevant reporting, as well as to associated planning, decision-making, monitoring and implementation activities. Prominent examples of standardised frameworks for sustainability reporting and indicator sets include the Global Reporting Initiative, the ISO 14031, and the AA1000. These are largely developed for and by corporate, government and scientific NGO organisations. However, they typically suffer poor translation when applied to other entities such as communities, and smaller and less resourced organisations such as municipal governments or small businesses. This poses a common dilemma in choosing the appropriate approach to pursue. On the one hand, while some level of reporting or monitoring of sustainable development and its impacts is unequivocally important, the difficulty for many would-be reporting entities is that they invariably define sustainability in terms that are radically incommensurable with existing standardised definitions. In many local or smaller-scale contexts, sustainability definitions do not necessarily lean towards universality, comprehensiveness, comparability or defensibility beyond contextual limits. On the contrary, definitions in these contexts are often desirably local, partial and particular. This approach tends to best reflect a given community’s qualitative and interpretative understandings of what sustainability means to various actors embedded within their own situation. A further source of apprehension in relation to using sustainability indicator frameworks in community settings is that they are frequently synonymous with complex and techno-scientifically oriented standards, often associated with insidious forms of governmentality and control. Such complexities can limit genuine participatory and deliberative efforts towards consensus and action.

88 On the other hand, while rigid interpretations of the notion of a ‘framework’ has lent it bureaucratic and doctrinaire overtones, avoiding frameworks altogether can all too readily yield reporting procedures which are unrepeatable, unreliable, and subject to various forms of distortion. This in turn leads to disenchantment and apathy regarding the possibility, except in subjective terms, of measuring and reporting on sustainability initiatives. Accordingly, the entire apparatus dedicated to improving community or organisational sustainability should, we contend, be capable of being erected within terms elaborated by that community or organisation itself, but it must simultaneously have an objectifiable and generalising capacity. In other words, the method needs to work both ways - from the general to the particular and back again. By a parallel argument, a positively- sustainable sustainability framework needs to work from the global to local and then back again. How is this possible? Is it not the case, on the one hand, that for global comparability a framework logically requires a tight band of specified indicators, most of which will be always used, and deployed in the same way via a common protocol? On the other hand, is it not also the case that communities, cities, organisations, corporations, public-sector institutions, non-government organisations, and so on, have different needs according to the nature of the reporting entity and the local specificity of its needs? We argue here that this seemingly unsolvable quandary can best be negotiated by a shift in orientation. This shift begins by acknowledging the necessity of a general framework but it moves the focus of that framework from the task of specifying what is to be reported on - the specific indicators common to the reporting standard - to an analytical and practical articulation of how these items are to be arrived at by stakeholders to ensure immediate and ongoing salience within a given community or organisational context. This shift requires some rethinking the nature of the categories within which any particular reporting indicators are chosen. Those categories, we suggest, need to be framed, at the level of first principles, by general considerations of the human condition, rather than chosen as categories with generalising pretensions - for example, the triple-bottom-line approach - while in fact directing them towards a particular consideration: in this case making a market-driven organisation environmentally sensitive. Even within this double re-orientation of the methodology and underpinning categories of sustainability reporting, commensurability with other reporting contexts ought not to be dismissed or diminished. A downstream consideration needs to be established between what can be termed the local sustainability reporting ‘ontology’ - that is, the particularised conceptualisation of categories, issues and indicators developed by the local community or organisation in question - and the various globalised conceptualisations underpinning the various standards set by international standards agencies. A further desirable feature, then, would be a subsidiary technical component that permits development of semantic connections across seemingly heterogeneous indicator sets. Together these two features - firstly, a methodology for constructing robust, reusable and relevant indicator sets, and secondly, a toolkit for helping translate those indicators to other sets - could assist actors within communities and organisations to meet their own goals, and yet conform to the ever-increasing imperatives to adopt standards, to ensure regulation compliance, to apply for funding and finance, and to achieve transparency and accountability benchmarks. Most importantly, sustainability reporting becomes a robust and reproducible process that supports comparability across time and space, and with other groups, organisations or institutions. Here we present one possible method for building a sustainability reporting framework that foregrounds bottom-up sustainability considerations, but at the same time allows for concordance and commensurability with global, top-down reporting requirements.

89 A Methodology for Engaged Sustainability Reporting

In our characterization of sustainability reporting, we distinguish broadly between the construction and the administration of the framework. Our methodology is primarily directed towards the construction phase, assuming the administration - the collection, preparation and auditing of data - is largely a process governed by the specific nature (size, type, context) of the reporting community. The methodology consists of a domain model comprising conceptual entities such as issues and indicators; a process for constructing the entities of the model according to a series of rules (for example, an indicator must measure one or more issues); and a software system for supporting the process. We begin by outlining the model, then we describe the steps for using the model, and finally we provide an overview of the system.

Model Overview The model consists of five main conceptual tiers: 1. Domains and subdomains 2. Issues, normative goals and objectives 3. Indicators, indicator sets and targets 4. Networked relationships between issues, indicator sets and individual indicators 5. Data collected against the indicators The first tier consists of a domain model, consisting ofdomains and subdomains. These form the uppermost categories of a conforming reporting framework. The most common example of a domain model is the highly publicized triple-bottom line approaches, composed of three domain- level spheres: the environment, the economy and society. As shown in Figure 1 (Chapter 1 above), the grounding taxonomy consists of four domains: economy, ecology, politics and culture. Unlike the triple-bottom-line approach, which locates both the economy and ecology as distinct from the social, all of these domains are considered categories of properly social concern. Furthermore, unlike the triple-bottom-line approach, the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ model also assumes the domains cannot be simply treated as analytically distinct categories. Economic, ecological, political and cultural features all interrelate within social formations, conceived as systems within, and inextricable from, the surrounding environment. This systemic and holistic focus transfers to the downstream concern with understanding the relationships between different domain issues and indicators. In this respect, the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ model - and by extension, the general methodology proposed here - shares an affinity with integrated-assessment and transition-management approaches of Grosskurth and Rotmans. In the second tier we assume the central concept of any reporting process is that of the issue - a reporting category residing between the overall reporting context (an organization, or key organizational project), the domain model, and the specific variables or indicators against which data is collected. Issues can be further distinguished between those which are general - which encompass the entire reporting scope - and those which are particular: viz., those which have been identified as salient, and requiring some level of attention and address, within the reporting scope. Issues can be varied, but notionally express some kind of concern on behalf of one or more stakeholders - parties, actors or agents who directly or indirectly are affected by or have interest in the general issue at hand. Corresponding to the general issue is some kind of normative goal, a consensually determined and shared aim or intention at the heart of the endeavour. Corresponding to individual, subordinate issues are objectives, expressing some particular desirable state of affairs for a given issue - determined, ideally, by a consensus of the stakeholders. If the context demands, issues can have further subsidiary components: aspects or features of an issue that in turn require separate specification. These too may have specific objectives. The third tier consists of a series of indicators and associated targets. Indicators are directly observable and measureable variables that indicate something about one or more issues.

90 The fourth tier consists of a series of relationships between domains and subdomains, issues, indicator sets and indicators. The most fundamental relationship describes the state of an issue through some combination of indicators, typically once these have been appropriately normalized, weighted and aggregated. The term indicator composition is used to describe the process of modelling the relationship of one or more indicators to issues. Other kinds of relationships may be stipulated between two or more issues, between two or more indicator sets, or between two or more individual indicators. A common use-case for such relationships is the need to translate locally- developed indicators to global standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative. A relationship of synonymy could be made between a local and a standard indicator set to describe this. Taken all together, the set of relationships are as follows: • Issue categorisation - states that an issue belongs to a given domain or subdomain • Indicator categorisation - states that an indicator belongs to a given domain or subdomain • Issue composition - states that one issue is a component of another • Indicator composition - states that one or more indicators measure the state of a given issue. Where more than one indicator is involves, the relative contribution or weight of each indicator to the measurement of an issue can be stipulated • Indicator set membership - states that an indicator belongs to a particular indicator set • Issue, indicator set and indicator similarity - states that two given issues or indicators are semantically similar, or more strongly, synonymous The final tier is comprised of data collected during the administration of the reporting framework. As mentioned earlier, we envisage this data is collected during the ordinary administration of the framework, and this process is not further discussed here.

Applying the Model In applying the model we identify the following key steps (see Figure 4 below): 1. Definition of general issue and associated normative goal 2. Determination of critical issues and associated objectives 3. Selection of indicators and associated targets 4. Establishment of relationships between domains and subdomains, issue sets, issues and indicators 5. Reporting against chosen indicators 6. Developing and monitoring a response 7. Reviewing and adapting the indicator model

91 Figure 4: Methodology Overview

1. Define and Describe 1a. Set Associated General Issue Normative Goal

2. Determine and Rank 2a. Set Associated Critical Issues Objectives

7. Review and 3. Identify and Choose 3a. Set Associated Targets Adapt Model Indicators

4a. Identify Conflicts 4. Relate Issues and between Objectives, Indicators Targets

5. Compile Report 5a. Assess Progress against Indicators towards Objectives, Targets

6. Develop and Monitor Response

The first step develops out of a general concern, problem, project or issue raised by among one or more organisational or community stakeholders. Before or as formal roles associated with the project are identified (the second step), the focus of the project is concretised as the General Issue, and an associated desirable state of affairs - the Normative Goal - is also stipulated. The second step involves the identification and involvement of three key actors or actor groups: a Sustainability Project Facilitator (SPF), a Critical Reference Group (CRG) and a Sustainability Reporting Team (SRT). The Project Facilitator acts as a facilitator for the application of the methodology, and convenor of any associated meetings and workshops; the Critical Reference Group comprises representatives of stakeholders, who determine, rank and relate issues and indicators; and the Sustainability Reporting Team is responsible for the eventual application of the framework in preparing the sustainability report. Typically the Project Facilitator and Reporting Team are employed by the sponsoring organisation, while the Critical Reference Group is brought together by the Project Facilitator from various identified stakeholder groups. Naturally, other roles - auditors, IT support, executive and management teams - may be involved in various stages, according to available resources.

92 Having identified and invited members into the Critical Reference Group, the Project Facilitator convenes an inaugural workshop, termed the Issue Selection Workshop, for introducing the project, general issue and normative goal, and for beginning the process of selecting a list of subsidiary critical issues and associated objectives. The outcome of this workshop is, ideally, an exhaustive and comprehensive list of issues that matter most in realising the normative goal of the project. A second workshop, termed the Issue Ratification Workshop, is provisionally scheduled between two and six weeks after the first. The purpose of the second meeting is to work through a more formal process for weighting, ranking and relating issues. Here the qualitative, brain-storming character of the first workshop is replaced by an emphasis on quantifying preferences on issues. In the intervening period, supplementary mechanisms, such as surveys, interviews and content analysis, can be used to extend the list of issues, and to develop preliminary rankings for them, again subject to available resources. The process for formally ratifying issues in the subsequent Issue Ratification Workshop is described more fully in Magee and Scerri (in press); in essence it adopts the Analytic Hierarchy Process as a means for quantifying preferences for issues, and uses the recently introduced Transition Management-based Qualitative System Sustainability Index (QSSI) model put forward by Grosskurth and Rotmans (2007) to outline a causal matrix of issues. This process supplies a well-documented and robust evidentiary measure for identifying the most salient and material issues put forward at the preceding workshop. The resulting short-list list of issues comprises the basis of the sustainability report framework. The Sustainability Reporting Team - possibly with support from the Critical Reference Group and from other sources - then need to develop a set of indicators for measuring these issues, characterised by the third step in Figure 2 above. Indicators ought to be directly and easily observable variables. In mature organisational contexts, many indicators and associated historical data sets will no doubt already exist. For complex issues, where no direct relationship to a single indicator can be readily identified, the reporting team will need to undertake a subordinate process of normalising, weighting and aggregating multiple indicators (Bohringer and Jochem, 2007). The Reporting Team, working ab initio, would undoubtedly need to consult specific members of the Critical Reference Group, as well as source data, such as statistical and demographic surveys, key documents and other informational artefacts, using the minutes of Critical Reference Group meetings as guidelines for action to source the relevant data. In the fourth step, to complete the composition of the framework, the Sustainability Reporting Team may want to describe a series of supplementary relationships, both between issues, and between indicators. This ought to mirror and extend the existing set of relationships, just between issues, already laid down by the Critical Reference Group. A matrix, based on a modified form of Grosskurth and Rotmans’ QSSI model (2007), of these relationships provides the basis for interpreting eventual indicator data. To take a simple example, a relationship that stipulates use of available product recycling approaches places additional cost pressures on waste disposal can provide explanatory power to the eventual reporting model (in the form of alarm triggers and automatically generated notes). At the completion of this Composition Phase of the methodology, the Sustainability Reporting Team should have a general project definition (comprising the general issue and associated normative goal), a series of subsidiary, critical issues (and associated objectives), a database of indicators (and associated targets) and, finally, a series of relationships between issues and indicators. This definitional structure can then direct the fifth step: the production of a sustainability report, through the specification of indicator types and rules, and, less obvious but equally critical, through the generation of an interpretive mesh for understanding the often complex constellation of relationships between issues and indicators. Coming to terms with the impositions, compromises, trade-offs and affordances around the general issue of the project allows stakeholders to employ the resulting framework in policy development and monitoring, and in adjusting that framework to evolving issues (steps six and seven).

93 In spite of the apparent linearity of the presentation, we also emphasise that both procedurally, and in terms of the practical system support discussed below, the methodology can be employed iteratively both within and between reporting cycles, at micro and macro levels. In particular critical issues, indicators and relationships can be continuously recalibrated with the aim of promoting a broader, deliberatively arrived at and, so, consensual picture of sustainability among stakeholders. As a common example, many civil society and corporate organisations already measure against a range of indicators. In such scenarios, selection of issues (step 2) will need to be cognisant of a priori data sets and relationships (steps 3 and 4). Similarly, the steps can be abbreviated to a minimal critical path, or be expanded to invoke richer sub-processes, such as the AHP and QSSI discussed above.

A Software System for Engaged Sustainability Reporting

To accompany the methodology, a supporting web-based open-source software system is in development. This system incorporates the conceptual model outlined above in the form of a knowledge-base repository, including both locally grown and internationally standardized indicator sets. It makes use of an agent based system for assisting users in achieving particular goals associated with the methodology; for example, ensuring there are critical issues which cover each of the four domains, or providing advice on appropriate indicators for a given issue, based on other project definitions captured in an underlying knowledge base. While a prototype of the software system is still in progress, the key use cases and design have been developed. Figure 5 captures the main workflow and use cases of the software. The software system makes use of an agent-based architecture, with the aim of providing sophisticated reasoning support at various stages. For example, a software agent could recommend use of a particular indicator for a given issue, based on heuristics such as issue or objective name similarity, frequency of indicator use, provenance of the indicator - whether it is sourced from a standard indicator set such as the Global Reporting Initiative for example - and so on. A key affordance of this added reasoning support is the robust defensibility of relationships between issues and indicators; report compilers can readily retrieve and justify the particular rationale for measuring an issue with a chosen indicator. The software system similarly plans to make use of heuristics to correlate local, user-defined indicators to global standards like the Global Reporting Initiative. This feature exploits the semantic definition of indicators to infer possible concordances with global indicators. These concordances will be presented to users for review, and provide a pathway to the partial automation of standardised reporting via standards such as XBRL (XML Business Reporting Language). While no immediate panacea to the reconciliation of top-down and bottom-up reporting is available without a lot of interpretative work by the participants, we believe even in prototype form the system will help organisations struggling with building both relevant and compliant reporting frameworks. The agent based system can potentially assist the critical reference group to recognise situations where there are inherent conflicts between the issues (or indicators) that may not be immediately obvious (ref that paper we looked at with the matrix). By identifying the nature of inherent conflicts, the agent system can assist the users to determine priorities and develop targets which are not in tension – or if they are in tension there is an informed compromise. An important aspect of the software system is its ability to be both goal directed, in attempting to guide the users towards a balanced set of indicators, and towards covering the different stages of the methodology, as well as reactive to user preferences. Agent based systems are particularly effective in balancing this pro-activity and reactivity. Consequently the software support system is not simply a menu driven interface that steps the use through fixed methodological steps. Rather it is able to respond to the user’s goals, allowing them to enter where they wish, but at the same time maintaining an overarching goal to guide and assist the user towards fulfilment of the various stages.

94 Figure 5: Software Workflow and Use Cases

NO General Issue Define General Define Normative Defined? Issue Goal

YES

NO Critical Issues Derive Objectives Specify Issues Specified? from Issues

NO

YES Relate Issues to YES All Domains Domains and Covered? Subdomains

NO Indicators Browse Indicator Add Indicator to Chosen? KB KB

YES

NO More YES Indicators Needed?

Specify Impacts Conflicts YES Relationships Flag Conflicts for between Issues between Identified? Monitoring and Indicators Issues?

NO YES

Develop and Review and Adapt Prepare Report Monitor Response Model

Conclusion

One of the main fissures in the sustainability literature is between advocates of top-down and bottom-up reporting. By and large, current approaches assume for the most part an ‘either-or’ scenario, placing themselves on one side of the fissure. In this paper we presented a methodology for developing indicator sets that reflects the demands and needs of community stakeholders, while permitting some level of concordance with global reporting standards such as the Global Reporting Initiative. We outlined the methodology, and presented a conceptual outline for a supporting software system currently under development. With application of the methodology, organisations are better able to develop sustainability reporting practices that are replicable over time and under different circumstances; engaging in a process of standardisation without incumbent universalising claims about sustainability, or the ‘correct’ path to sustainable development. Applying this methodology results in a novel balance, then, between the merits of top-down and bottom-up reporting.

95 Chapter 8. Scenario Method

In this chapter,25 we set out the various stages of the basic scenario process. It is focused on development of multiple scenarios that explore the ‘limits of possibility’ for the future, rather than upon the development of singular, ‘normative’ scenarios of some aspired future. The initial approaches to scenario development that are outlined have the common feature of enabling individuals and groups to explore the limits of possibility for the unfolding of the issue under consideration over a specified time-scale, within the confines of what is currently known, knowable and plausible. Actual implementation of the method may take place across a range of time-scales, from one day to several iterations over months. Whichever approach you adopt to conduct group scenario-building, we provide a set of basic ground rules that should be followed closely. These set the context for challenge to business-as-usual thinking, support inclusiveness and the expression of multiple viewpoints on the matter at hand, and minimize the risk of inter-personal challenge and conflict between participants. If these ground rules are not followed, there is a serious risk of breakdown of the process, with some individuals becoming alienated and excluded and powerful actors dominating and closing down the discussion. The following is a list of the main stages into which we sub-divide the basic scenario process. Stage 1. Setting the Agenda - defining the issue and process and setting the scenario time-scale. Stage 2. Determining the Driving Forces - working first individually then as a group. Stage 3. Clustering the Driving Forces - group discussion to develop, test and name the clusters. Stage 4. Defining the Cluster Outcomes - defining two extreme, but yet highly plausible, and hence, possible outcomes for each of the clusters over the scenario time-scale. Stage 5. Impact/Uncertainty Matrix - determining the key scenario factors, A and B. Stage 6. Framing the Scenarios - defining the extreme outcomes of the key factors, A1/A2 and B1/B2. Stage 7. Scoping the Scenarios - building the set of broad descriptors for four scenarios. Stage 8. Developing the Scenarios - working in sub-groups to develop scenario story-lines, including key events, their chrono-logical structure, and the who and why of what happens. This scenario method offers one approach to understanding and analysing seemingly intractable problems where there are ‘critical uncertainties’ that span a range of subject areas or disciplinary boundaries. It is an approach that is inclusive rather than selective. As such, it can be used in conjunction with, can incorporate information and data from, and can provide input to other methods in our toolbox.

25 This chapter is a condensed and edited version from Wright, G & Cairnes, G 2011, Scenario thinking: Practical approaches to the future, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. Copyright remains with the authors. For elaboration we suggest reading the book.

96 It can be used by individuals, but is particularly suited to groups with different organizational, social and disciplinary backgrounds. Groups make sense of the issue by using all available sources, including quantitative and qualitative research data, published reports, and media outputs - any material that is relevant and informs thinking. Scenario method is a democratic process where all viewpoints are considered equal and all ideas can be aired and discussed using an open and non- confrontational approach. In it, we do not consider the degree of probability of whether or not any event will happen, only its plausibility and the possibility that it could happen. Scenario method does not provide ‘the answer’ to the problem. Scenario stories themselves are not predictions of the future. Rather, they offer a range of future possibilities against which to test current plans, develop and appraise new options and, hopefully, make better-informed and more robust decisions on action. Scenarios provide a means of better understanding the complexity and ambiguity of the present.

1. Guiding Principles Whatever the scale or context of the project, these principles should be known and held to by all participants. 1. The scenario process is one of creative thinking where the aim is to open up consideration of all possibilities in a complex and ambiguous world, not to close down thinking through selectivity and exclusion. 2. Whilst the process is one of innovative and creative thinking, we prescribe a very structured approach set out in clear stages. This structure is designed to avoid either a decline into chaos or domination by powerful individuals, with the result that some members may be marginalized or drop out. It should be followed with some degree of rigour. 3. The structure should be seen as providing guidelines rather than being prescriptive. It can be flexibly adapted to suit specific needs, but this needs to be done systematically rather than on an ad hoc basis. 4. At any stage in the process new ideas can be added. This is particularly relevant at the later stages when it might be thought that only those ideas that have emerged at the earlier stages can be allowed to enter the scenario stories. 5. Keep an open mind to all possibilities and be willing to challenge your own business-as-usual thinking.

An ice sculpture simulating the melting ice caps. An installation at a ‘Scenarios Planning’ workshop in Vietnam run by the Nautilus Institute and the Global Cities Institute. Ho Chi Mihn City, Vietnam, November 2007.

97 2. Ground Rules The following ground rules should be agreed by team members and adhered to at all times: When discussing issues as a group, use a round-robin approach where each member gets to express her/his opinion in turn, working around the group and starting with a different person at each issue. 1. As opinions are expressed, allow only questions of clarification, such as ‘Why do you think that…?’, ‘What would happen if…?’ 2. Accept that the outcome of the round robin may be consensus, majority/minority viewpoints, or complete fragmentation. Conflict of ideas is to be encouraged. 3. Take note of all generated viewpoints and build them into your consideration of the broadest range of possibilities. 4. Throughout the process, do not allow any idea to be challenged or excluded on the basis that it is ‘wrong’ or ‘nonsense’ unless it can be proved so without doubt and with everyone’s agreement. 5. Roles should be allocated at the outset as necessary. As a minimum, groups should agree a chair to guide the process, an assertive timekeeper to keep it flowing in accordance with the agreed timetable, and a scribe to take notes and keep control of the paperwork. Experience has shown that the best learning approach to scenario method is through active participation. Our role is as process facilitators, not as content providers. The participants are always the focus of content generation and context expertise - so, it is the participants’ thinking and analysis that determines the end result, not that of the facilitators.

3. Preparation Before coming to any scenario workshop, participants should be asked to undertake some initial reading on the issue that will form the focus of the event. How this is structured and directed will vary considerably, depending upon the type of scenario project and its time-scale. At a basic level, if you are running a one-day scenario project in order to explore the ‘limits of possibility’ for a predetermined uncertainty that all are aware of, you can ask participants to do homework on it, or you can direct them to specific readings. If, however, you are setting up a complex project that involves a wide range of stakeholders who are not yet aware of what the critical uncertainty is, you will need to set up some more in-depth prior investigation. We suggest that this is best done through following the process set out in Stage 1, below. If you are following this approach, you should identify the broadest range of key decision-making, power-holding, and directly affected stakeholders and arrange to conduct a series of semi- structured interviews or strategic conversations with them (see Chapter 2 above). Interviews or conversations allow interviewees to express their own views about what is important and how they feel about these matters, and offers some direction towards what is necessary to inform a scenario project. The use of a set of interviews also allows consideration of the degree of convergence/ divergence that exists amongst key decision-makers in relation to specific issues. The degree of such agreement or diversity can provide early indication as to whether such issues are largely predetermined in terms of outcomes, or represent critical uncertainties. Since scenarios are concerned with exploring the future in order to inform the present, we generally adopt the question structure set out in Stage 1 in order to guide the interview process. Having collated and transcribed the individual interviews, we undertake ‘content analysis’. This involves reading and re-reading the interviews in order to identify relevant issues being raised and discussed. With many hundreds of statements and a wide range of issues identified, we group the issues to identify a smaller range of higher-level themes which encapsulate sets of issues.

98 For example, within a theme of ‘management structures’, there may well be a range of more specific issues that emerge in relation to matters such as authority/autonomy, inclusion/exclusion, openness/detachment, etc. The range of overarching themes might, for example, relate to management or political structures, to economic conditions, to social relationships, to geographic or climatic conditions. The key element of content analysis is that the issues and themes emerge from the interview content and what the interviewees have found important, not from the reader’s mind and what she/he thinks should be important. From this content analysis, a report is compiled in which all statements are included under these emergent theme/issue titles, and where none are attributed to individuals. Once the process of content analysis is completed, which may involve several iterations of reading and ‘coding’ (identifying themes and issues), with changes of themes and refinement of their content, the interview content can be restructured into a project report. This report presents all of the interview statements, but set out under the theme and issue headings, and without attribution to the individual who originally said each (Note: Editing may be required to remove names within a quotation, or text that links a contentious statement back to an identifiable source. Any such editing should be minimal and must not change the meaning). This may appear a lengthy and resource-intensive process. However, we would say that it is invaluable in setting the scene for a scenario project involving diverse and possibly conflicting stakeholder concerns. The report provides background reading that enables project participants to gain an overview and understanding of the broad range of views and opinions held about the context of the project. Frequently, it raises awareness in individuals of viewpoints to which they were previously oblivious. Whether you are leading a simple or a complex scenario project, we advise that you should direct participants’ initial thinking about the issue as follows. You should ask them to consider what they see as the driving forces - economic, ecological, political, and cultural factors - that will impact upon it over the coming years (see Figure 1. Circles of Sustainability’ above in Chapter 1). Identifying the greatest possible range of driving forces forms the starting point for our exploration. Participant should be asked to bring with them any notes they prepare, key documents that they have read, press cuttings they consider of interest, etc. for use and reference during the workshop.

4. Organizing a ‘Scenario Process Workbook’ Since the most productive scenario projects are participatory and engaging, we suggest that every participant should have reference documentation that enables her/him to follow the process. In many projects, we have constructed, printed and distributed a ‘Scenario Process Workbook’ which is issued to every participant in advance of the event, and which they are required to bring to the workshop. Not only does this enable them to follow the process, stage by stage, it allows them to be aware in advance of what the full process is, what each stage involves, and hopefully to understand why early stages may appear to be restrictive and directive, not allowing the type of creative thinking that we advocate.

5. For the Future The scenario approach that we outline below is designed to enable groups of individuals to engage in structured analysis and consideration of a complex issue over time - whether one day or six months. It involves a number of stages that may appear, individually, time consuming and resource intensive. However, scenario method as an approach can be used in relation to any and every problem. We urge you to seek to develop a way of being in which, if you are given half an hour to come up with the answer to a problem, you do not immediately look for ‘the answer’. Rather, we urge you to start by thinking through the possible futures in which the outcome will be enacted then to consider options for action against these futures. Then, and only then, posit a solution which offers either the ‘right’ answer for any future, the ‘best’ answer for the range of possible futures, or the ‘set’ of answers to cover any likelihood.

99 The Scenario Process in Action

Stage 1. Setting the Scenario Agenda Scenario method is used to analyse and make sense of the broad context in which the issue is situated - the economic, ecological, political and cultural context. It explores the range of possible and plausible futures that might unfold and in which the key issue will evolve in response to both the external environment and the different strategies and actions by stakeholders. The first stage in the process is to determine the key critical uncertainty faced by a group, organization, or community about the future.

Examples: ‘In this exercise, you will be exploring the potential of social networking sites as enablers of community engagement in political process at the local government level in West County.’ Or, ‘This project will explore the sustainability of your city over the next 10-20 years - will it survive and thrive, or decay and decline?’

Having determined the focal issue, you then decide upon an appropriate future time-frame with which to work. This should not extend so far into the future as to require ‘science fiction’ thinking, or be so close that the future is fairly predictable. It should represent a reasonable long-term planning horizon in relation to the business issue. This timeframe varies. For the computer software industry the time-horizon is likely to fairly close. In considering future care needs for the elderly it is likely to be much further ahead. In projects involving large organizations or groups of organizations, where there is a range of uncertainties about how the future might unfold, it is common to start the whole process with a series of semi-structured interviews, as outlined earlier (see 3. Preparation). These are held with a range of involved and affected stakeholders in order to gain a broad understanding of the context in which the issue sits. These interviews are loosely structured around an agenda which starts with individuals’ personal ideas about an ideal future, comes back to consideration of the present and, finally, probes ideas about how history has brought the group to where they now stand. Questions might include: 1. How would you, personally, like to be able to describe an ideal future for the (organization/ group/region/city/community) in (five/ten) years time? 2. What do you think will be the key factors and events which will be necessary to make this happen? 3. Who do you think will be the key players in making this happen? 4. What factors at the present time do you see as forming foundations for the ideal future? 5. What obstacles do you see in the present which might prevent this future happening? 6. What do you think have been the main factors over the past five years in bringing us to where we are now? From these interviews we undertake the content-analysis process, to identify the common themes and issues in order to compile a project briefing report. In presenting the content of different interviews under the headings of common themes and issues, the report will also show up differences in opinion about how these issues are perceived by different stakeholders. The interview report forms the agenda for the first stage of working, where the group identifies the key issue around which the scenarios are developed. The report also sensitizes participants to consider the full range of ‘driving forces’ that might impact the issue. It asks them to think beyond their own immediate context of operation, and to consider whether they forces point towards predetermined outcomes, or to uncertainties for further consideration.

100 Stage 2. Determining the Driving Forces Driving forces are those ‘fundamental forces that bring about change or movement in the patterns and trends that we identify as underpinning observable events in the world. Understanding of the inter-relatedness of these forces will provide insight into the systemic structure of the problem that we are exploring.’26 Here, we must stress that the driving forces we are considering are those in the contextual environment. They are, for example, by and large outside an organization’s direct control. They might concern the macro-economic, the geopolitical, the constitutional and other higher-level drivers. At the detailed level, to which we will point you below, individual driving forces may bring in some element of the stakeholder environment and action, but the focus must always be on external cause/internal effect relationships, not internal action/external impact. The process of driving-force identification is conducted first on an individual basis, to elicit multiple perspectives on the focal issue and to ensure that they are recorded and presented as such. In order to do this, it helps to encourage thinking in terms of the broad ‘Circles of Sustainability’ framework (economic, political, social, technological, ecological and legal). The ‘Circles’ domains and subdomains are, however, mere topics and, as such, they do not constitute driving forces by themselves. Driving forces should be defined in as few words as necessary, but sufficient to make them understandable to everyone without further explanation. Driving forces are distinguished from subjects, topics or events by pointing to an outcome. Driving force terminology might usefully include terms like ‘Outcome of…’, ‘Extent of…’, ‘Changing attitudes to…’, ‘Number of…’, etc. The terminology used should not assume a particular outcome (for example, ‘Increase in…’). You are encouraged to think broadly to identify the range of driving forces, whilst thinking very specifically and with focus to define individual driving forces. Every driving force must be recorded on an individual Post-it® note (Note: Once the group has collated all its driving force notes, they should be coded numerically, 1, 2, 3… etc.). In large, complex projects the stage of individual noting of driving forces should not be time constrained. In addition, if the lead in to a project enables it to happen, it is useful to encourage participants to think of driving forces in advance of the event, and to bring notes on these with them. In shorter projects, however, it may be necessary to set a time limit. In either case, participants should be asked to define the forces, as above, in fairly simple terms, focused on individual issues and indicating a point of impact relevant to the focal issue. After individuals have completed their driving-force identification, use a round-robin approach to go through them all as a group, to clarify wording and meaning. At this stage, it is only required that there should be agreement on the meaning of the terminology used, not on the nature and impact of the force defined.

26 van der Heijden, K, Bradfield, R, Burt, G, Cairns, G & Wright, G 2002, The sixth sense: Accelerating organizational learning with scenarios, Wiley, Chichester, p. 282.

101 Stage 3. Clustering the Driving Forces According to psychologists the human brain can comfortably make sense of a maximum of about a dozen concepts at one time in relation to each other. In large scenario projects hundreds of driving forces may be generated. How do we make sense of this mass of ideas? One option is to jump to making decisions about ‘what is important’. In scenario thinking this is seen as risking that a key issue which may have a major impact is excluded from discussion. The approach taken here is that of clustering - holding a group conversation about how the driving forces relate to one another in one of two ways: • By cause/effect - that the emergence of the outcome of one driving force will have a direct impact on the outcome of another.

Example: It might be reasonably assumed that the outcome of a driving force of ‘Effectiveness of Internet security for online banking’ will have some impact on one which posits ‘Extent of cyber-fraud in retail banking’, which might in turn impact one on ‘Degree of customer confidence in Internet banking’.

• By chronology - that the outcome of one driving force is dependent upon the prior reconciliation of another.

Example: The outcome of a driving force on ‘Changing focus of US carbon- pricing policy’ will likely be influenced over, say, a ten-year time horizon by ones relating to the outcome of Presidential elections that will take place in November 2012 and November 2016.

The aim of the clustering exercise is to find one set out of an indefinite number of possibilities of linkages to identify a smaller number (around 10-12 maximum) of higher-level factors which directly affect the focal issue. Figure 6 (below) indicates what a completed cluster diagram might typically look like from a scenario project on futures of urban transport networks. This cluster addresses possible levels of growth in inner-city housing, which relates to intensification of land-use and will compare with suburban development and increasing urban sprawl. Once the driving forces are clustered, the logic of the clusters is tested in two ways: 1. By drawing linkages of cause/effect and chronology between the elements within each cluster so that every component driving force is linked in some way to every other one; and 2. By ‘naming’ the cluster in terms of the higher-level factor then checking that every driving force is relevant to this factor. If any driving force is not encapsulated by the selected name, either revisit the name or check what other cluster the driving force to which does relate. There may be a single driving force that does not fit within any of the named clusters. It is perfectly justifiable to have a ‘cluster’ of one.)

102 Figure 6: Representative Cluster

Degree of confidence in housing market Demand for buy- Stability/ to-rent instability of property interest Availability of rates funding for housing development Zoning of land for Interest of residential or developers industrial use in inner city Availability of projects Low-cost Release of brownfield land for sites redevelopment LEVEL OF GROWTH IN INNER CITY HOUSING

Stage 4. Defining the Cluster Outcomes For each cluster, the group debates and discusses the range of possible extreme outcomes that might arise from it over the scenario time-scale - say, seven to ten years. These can be described as the two extreme, but very plausible - and hence very possible - outcomes. However, as with individual driving forces, they may be very complex in their make up and not capable of being defined along a single continuum. It may be helpful to think of the extreme outcomes like two of many lines of dominoes, stacked to run out from the ‘epicentre’ of the cluster. They may not run straight, possibly not in opposite directions to each other, but when - not if - the dominoes fall, these two sets will create the greatest impact on their surroundings. The group should brainstorm short descriptions of how they envisage the extreme outcomes of each factor, again thinking of extremes that are both possible and plausible - scenario method in the form used here does not engage with implausible extremes beyond what is knowable within the scenario timeframe. In considering the extreme outcomes of each factor, do not confine thinking only to descriptors that are directly related to that factor - for example, the outcomes of the individual driving forces within it. Rather, develop thinking here on impacts across other fields to start to explore and understand the inherent cause and effect linkages that exist between them. The set of outcomes for each factor should be recorded on flip chart sheets, or butcher’s paper.

Example: Consider how structural failure in the US sub-prime mortgage market had rolling impacts, first, on banks across the US, Europe and other areas, then on broader financial markets; affecting investment fund availability and investor confidence; and ultimately, on country economies and the entire global financial system.

103 Stage 5. Impact/Uncertainty Matrix Having determined the higher-level factors we now move towards a framework for construction of the scenario stories. This framework is structured around two key factors (labelled Factor A and Factor B). In order to identify these key factors, we first draw a matrix with two axes (see Figures 3D and 3E), with which we work sequentially, as follows: • Horizontal Axis: High/Low Impact - First, we consider the relative degree of impact of each of the factors on the focal issue over the project time-scale. This is done through a critically discursive debate on the range of possible events and impacts that each might generate and the relative significance of these in determining the overall focal issue outturn. We place the factor name Post-its® along the full length of this axis by a process of negotiation and debate (see Figure 6). • Vertical Axis: High/Low Uncertainty - Once we have completed the above, and not before, we consider the relative degree of uncertainty about their impact on the focal issue over the project time-scale. Here, we must be absolutely clear that we are not discussing certainty/uncertainty about whether there will be an impact, but about what that impact may be.

Example: We may be considering a factor that we are absolutely certain will occur, such as ‘Impact of climate change’, on the basis that there does seem to be consensus that the Earth’s climate is changing. However, we may remain very uncertain about the actual outcomes. At present, there remains a wide discrepancy in the views of different scientific and political bodies as to both the cause of change and the possible extent of its impacts. In this example, the factor ‘Impact of climate change’ would likely be rated as a ‘high uncertainty’ factor due to the differences in opinion on the possibleoutcomes of change, despite any consensus on the existence of change.

Factors A and B are the two higher level factors which are considered to combine the highest impact on the focal issue with the greatest uncertainty about what that impact may be. A crucial step is to test whether the two Factors that have been selected are independent of one another. To do this, consider the resolution of the contents of Factor A as the outcome A1. Consider also the resolution of the contents of Factor B as the outcome B1. Could A1 and B1 plausibly co-exist in the same future? If so, consider A1 and B2 and ask the same question. Next, consider A2 and B1 and then A2 and B2. If all four combinations are plausible, Factor A and Factor B are viewed as independent of one another and it will be possible to develop four scenarios. If one or more of the four combinations is viewed by the scenario team as implausible, then Factors A and B are not independent of one another. At this point, Factors A and B could be combined as one Factor and another possible factor, Factor C, should be selected as a potential second factor from the previously developed impact/predictability matrix.

Example: In the example of the scenario project on urban transport networks, referred to above, it is likely that outcomes of a cluster on ‘Policy decisions on road vs. rail networks’ will be intrinsically linked to those for one on ‘Level of investment in suburban rail network’. On the other hand, the outcomes of a cluster on ‘Public demand for suburban rail travel’ will not necessarily be closely linked to levels of investment.

You should note here, that whilst other decision analysis tools might draw upon probability analysis or similar in order to make choices about what is most likely to happen, scenario method moves forward without such probability assessments. Rather, it maintains consideration only of everything that might feasibly happen and prepares us for any eventuality. Any use of probability analysis should follow completion of the scenario program, as a separate exercise.

104 Stage 6. Framing the Scenarios Whilst each of the higher-level factors from Stage 3 is seen to be impacting upon the focal issue and have an influence on its future outturn, the nature of its outcome is likely to vary across different future scenarios. At this point, we return to consideration of the extreme outcomes of the various factors that we outlined in Stage 4. We discuss the range of outcomes from all the factors, but specifically in relation to those of Factors A and B. Do they make sense as an overall set? Can we identify gaps in logic, scale, information, etc? Do we need to bring in other factors and outcomes in order to complete our understanding? As we outline previously, the process structure we set out here should not become a straightjacket. It is designed to enable and support creative and lateral thinking, not exclude it. However, whatever confirmation, augmentation, amendment or addition to the Stage 4 extreme outcomes is developed here, the recording should again be methodical, on flip chart or butcher’s paper for future reference as necessary. On longer scenario projects that are not tightly time-constrained, particularly where they involve multiple iterations of scenario generation with research undertaken between, this stage is expanded by consideration of a much wider set of extreme outcomes, derived from consideration of individual driving forces rather than just the clusters. In longer projects, this stage of can lead to much more focused analytic thinking and can provide ‘reality checks’ on cause/effect relationships. In short projects with limited time and prior research, it can become an exercise in ‘holding a finger to the wind’ for a more basic ‘sanity check’. Having reflected upon and refined the various sets of extreme outcomes in terms of general logic, we now move to build them into four internally consistent, separate-but-related scenario outlines.

Stage 7. Scoping the Scenarios Drawing first upon the extreme outcomes of Factors A and B, we consider how the sets of conditions defined by the two extreme outcomes of each interact with each other in the four possible combinations (A1/B1, A1/B2, A2/B1 and A2/B2) in order to produce what - in simplistic terms - might be described as best/best, best/worst, worst/best and worst/worst ‘worlds’ in which the future will unfold. Again, we brainstorm a very broad range of descriptors of each of these future ‘worlds’. For each, we consider: what would be the state of: society, economy, technology, national politics, local government, local business, employment, climate, migration, education, crime, transport, cost of living, optimism, pessimism, etc., etc. Arriving at these sets of descriptors involves critical discussion and debate, engaging with questions of who, what, why, where and when. This is done in order to build a logical structure to each future that can be shown to have some justifiable foundation for its possibility and plausibility in terms of what is currently either known or knowable. Adoption of a ‘devil’s advocate’ approach is highly valuable at this stage, and the group sceptic should be allowed free reign to probe and challenge (but without breaking the Ground Rules set out previously). At this stage, the group should draw upon all of the extreme outcomes for all the factors in order to give ‘body’ to the emerging scenarios. This again involves critical discussion and debate on relationships of cause and effect, action and outcome, and chronology since the aim is to place every significant outcome into the scenario (or scenarios) where it logically sits. Here, it should be clear that there are relationships between factors that will make some linkages immediately credible and others nonsensical. Also, there may be factors that were identified earlier as having a great impact, but as being highly predictable in terms of what that impact will be. Such factors will need to be incorporated into every scenario, with the actual impact fine-tuned as necessary in order to take account to any mediating impact from other factors.

Example: If we have a set of extreme outcomes that outline a world in which economic uncertainty and instability have led to governments adopting policies of protectionism through the application of non-tariff barriers, it would be unrealistic to match these to another set of extreme outcomes that describe a world of free trade that is blossoming due to the removal of tariff barriers.

105 Whilst not all linkages will be so obvious the strategic conversation around the full range of issues will generally point to them fitting into one or two scenarios. Any item which falls into more than one scenario can be duplicated if it is an important issue, or it can be placed where it has maximum impact. These combination descriptors form the basis of our four scenario storylines. The four scenarios which will be developed are not stand-alone stories or individual ‘predictions’ of a possible future. Rather, they must be read as a group, framing the ‘limits of possibility’ for what might reasonably be expected to happen over time. Together, they act as a set of tools for making sense of complexity and ambiguity and for understanding the linkages across different areas of interest. Since history has never so far unfolded with a combination of all factors being at their best or worst, it is often in the mediation of some ‘good’ outcomes by the impact of other ‘bad’ ones (the A1/B2 and A2/B1 scenarios) that broader and more challenging possibilities for the future start to unfold.

Stage 8. Developing the Scenarios At this stage, the scenario outlines consist of a set of descriptors of four possible futures framed by the interaction of Factors A and B, defined in terms of their extreme outcomes at the scenario horizon-date. Now, we move to building the storylines that will show, logically and consistently, how we might get from where we are today to each of these future states. As the storylines are developed some elements may be omitted from the stories where they add little or no impact and detract from the core story. Remember that the focus of scenario analysis is on understanding the complexity and ambiguity of the world outside the organization. In a full scenario project the aim of the group is to outline a set of scenario stories which start in some coherent and plausible explanation of the present, then move through a series of further plausible and possible events in order to outline a set of futures which are internally consistent and coherent and follow on from the logic of the events outlined. Remember that there are events in the future which, barring the unknowable (which scenarios do not deal with), will happen, often with known key actors.

Example: We know at the time of writing that there will be Presidential elections in the US in November 2012, November 2016 and every four years thereafter. At this time, we know that, barring the unknowable, Barack Obama will be his party’s candidate in 2012, since he will be eligible to stand for re-election and, unlike the UK and Australia, there is no history of incumbent leaders being deposed by their own party. We also know that Barack Obama will not be a candidate in the 2016 election, since any President’s tenure is limited to a maximum of two terms.

Whilst the dates of elections in other countries are not set in tablets of stone as in the US, there are often maximum terms between elections, so dates can be reasonably assumed in scenario development. Whilst we state here that scenarios do not deal with unknowable events, you may say that it is often these very occurrences that have the greatest impact on what follows. For example, events of 9/11 had an impact on air travel globally. In addition, there are also trends that we may see as likely to continue - for example, that IT will continue to get faster and more powerful…. but will continue to fail to deliver the results that its designers’ claim for it. These, like known events, can be incorporated, where relevant, into all scenarios.

106 In working as a group to develop the scenario storylines, it can be very helpful to set up a whiteboard or some other appropriate surface and to draw a time line for the scenario period. The various events that are considered and discussed can then be set out and discussed in relation to links of cause and effect and chronology. This is particularly helpful in enabling discussion of the cross-linkages between factors and events that have previously been located in different cluster groupings. The key aim in writing scenarios is to grab the attention of the intended audience in order to convey clear and plausible stories about what types of futures might unfold as a direct outcome of decisions made in the present and over time in relation to the focal issue. The ways in which this can be done are many. Scenarios can be presented as fairly simple texts that recount what might happen in future. They can be delivered as mock newspaper or magazine articles that recount what has already happened at the scenario end-date. Scenarios can be presented as live performances to the target audience, or can take the form of a telecast debate. Whatever approach is used, the focus is on the deep impact of the content, not the superficiality of the presentation media.

Beyond Scenario Development: Strategic Decision-Making

Scenario stories in isolation serve no purpose per se. Whilst some approaches to scenario work place an emphasis on the scenario stories themselves as narratives of some ‘real world’ futures, we see them as providing primarily a better understanding of, and a broader range of perspectives on the present. We view their function within the strategic planning process as threefold: first, to open up a wider set of perspectives on the present than currently exists. Second, the process aims to provide a set of ‘wind tunnel’ conditions under which to test existing strategies in order to check their robustness under the different ‘climatic conditions’ of the full range of plausible and possible futures that they outline. Third, it aims to provide ‘feedback’ from the future to the present in order to support development of new strategies and plans in response to perceived alternative future contexts.

Tony Dalton at a ‘Scenarios Planning’ workshop in Vietnam run by the Nautilus Institute and the Global Cities Institute. Ho Chi Mihn City, Vietnam, November 2007.

107 Chapter 9. Scenario Simulation

Cities face immense pressures. In the context of intensifying global trends, cities are presented with manifold and cross-cutting issues to which they must respond. Among the most pressing is the immediate need to accommodate surging populations while maintaining economic prosperity, environmental sustainability and cultural diversity into the future. In this process of planning the future, harnessing technological innovation and initiating programs for positive development hold out much promise. However, all too often such programs succumb to the common pitfalls of lack of integration, a reductive emphasis on technological fixes, and a lack of attention to anticipating unintended consequences. Innovation needs to be balanced against multiple ongoing imperatives, from governing equitably in a world that is becoming more unequal to enhancing liveability in urban settings where resources are becoming more strained. Simulation tools present opportunities for those faced with future planning to experiment, to explore different scenarios. It allows a city to ‘fail’ softly. With the growing diversity and complexity of such tools, however, some of the basic affordances and flexibilities of good modelling have tended to get lost. This chapter presents a city simulator which incorporates an innovative blend of elements intended to overcome these problems: an integrated approach to sustainability, a ‘whole of city’ focus on inter-related programs, a modelling approach built on empirical research, and an easy-to-use wizard-driven user-interface. The chapter outlines the philosophical background to the simulator, presents initial findings, and projects future directions.

Introducing the Simulator

Simulating change in cities has become an industry. Different versions of software are constantly being created that simulate growth in cities, map sustainability in cities, and track infrastructure issues in cities. They range from readily available Sim-City-like software to proprietary software that is only available as part of an expensive consultancy arrangement. The tendency is for designers to build a software package that is big on the front-end - designed to enthral with beautiful ‘flash’ graphics - and small on back-end analytic capability. In the context of the crisis-level environmental and social issues facing cities today, there is a pressing need for a simulation package that is relatively easy to use, can be tailored for different city configurations, does not require a consultant to interpret the data, and is based on sound analytically derived algorithms that track both linear and non-linear change. The Intelligent City Simulator, version 2.0, represents a collaborative partnership between Accenture and RMIT University. Its development took place in Australia, France and India across 2010. Version 1.0 of the software already represented an innovative approach to modelling particular program effects on urban environments. Many of these programs are dedicated to technological infrastructure, reflecting Accenture’s expertise in this domain. Results could be seen in large-scale variables like emissions, as well as particular indicators such as electrical vehicle (EV) uptake.

108 The new version of the software pursues three additional goals: 1. The incorporation of a robust and comprehensive social theoretic framework, ‘Circles of Sustainability’; 2. The inclusion of a range of additional socially-oriented programs and associated indicators to broaden the perspective and context of the simulated urban environment, such as crime rate and housing density; and 3. The extension of modelling research methods to incorporate statistical, computational and theoretical findings from relevant academic, government and industry literature. While these goals were pursued with a view towards realistically capturing both ‘business-as-usual’ and program intervention scenarios, the ultimate aim has not been simply to predict program effects, albeit within given margins of error. Rather, our efforts are directed towards describing the anticipated impacts of radically diverse activities as they intersect with each other in a field of other possible programmed activities and measured against their effects on well-know indicator sets. In other words, each program is placed within a range of other broadly commensurable possibilities and these are related to each algorithmically based on best-case current social science research. This integrated field of programs and indicators is then presented for the user in a readily understandable fashion through a software interface. As the findings suggest, even this more limited aim met with partial rather than comprehensive success. That said, given the complexity of the social world and the difficulty of representing it algorithmically, the outcomes were encouraging. They suggest that the general paradigm and specific research inputs to the simulator warrant further discussion and pursuit. In particular, we conclude that those involved in city planning have much to gain from thinking through, in a strategic planning context, the relative costs and benefits of various social and technological initiatives in a holistic, ‘whole-of-city’ fashion, prior to subjecting candidate programs to more exacting analysis.

The World of City Simulators

In the past two decades, considerable academic and commercial attention has been directed towards various kinds of simulation of urban environments. Simulators have been further classified by methodological approaches, scope, subject and user interface. An example of the first distinction is whether a simulator uses equation-based or agent-based models. The latter class has become increasingly popular as a means of handling processes with high degrees of unknown or stochastic variables. Equation-based models meanwhile continue to be widely applied to problem domains with greater degrees of determinacy (either in the real situations being modelled, or in the level of confidence in the information contained in the model). Urban simulators also differ depending on the scale of their attention, ranging in focus from general city-wide contexts to specific problems like traffic control and demographic changes. Examples of large-scale simulations include, most famously, SimCity and its derivatives, while simulations of discrete scenarios are prolific throughout planning, economic and environment literatures. Simulators can further be distinguished on the basis of their user interface and run-time environments. The earliest simulations tools - dating back to Conway’s Game of Life in 1970 - used simple command-line and basic two-dimensional tile-based interfaces. In the past decade, the proliferation of faster graphic rendering engines, web-based applications and increasingly sophisticated users has led to adoption of a number of alternative interface styles. These include game-based interfaces (of which SimCity is again the most widely recognized example), in which a simulated city can be configured using variants of a turn-based system; ‘wizard’-styled point-and- click interfaces, where users select parameters and view delta changes of key indicators; GIS-based interfaces, in which users are able to interact with photorealistic versions of a city; and agent-based interfaces, where evolutions of a model are shown through a series of animated sequences, as agents explore their simulated worlds.

109 Simulators also differ in terms of underlying methodological approach towards what is simulated. SimCity-styled simulators typically assume a ‘blank slate’ or highly simplified and artificial urban environment. Such fictional environments allow for considerable ‘free play’, and are especially useful in pedagogical contexts. However, it can be difficult to relate and apply the results of such simulations to real-world situations. This became one of our key considerations. Other approaches endeavour to use actual city statistics and formulae derived from empirical research when constructing models. These can, on the other hand, be brittle and inflexible, and make it difficult to speculate on effects for cities with non-existent conditions - such as what might take place in a tropical city of 100 million inhabitants and a globally warmed environment. This became a second key consideration. Finally simulators can be classed as either desktop or online applications. Stand-alone applications run on a user’s desktop, with minimal or no network connectivity required or used. Online applications are deployed on the web, and typically require an initial or permanent Internet connection. A clear affordance of online applications is collaboration with other users; this can facilitate a range of engaging gaming and discursive scenarios, where simulation inputs and results are immediately visible to a wider audience. Against these distinctions, the Intelligent City Simulator presented here can be described as: • Equation-based (rather than agent-based) • Holistic city-wide rather than particular, problem-specific focus • Employing a wizard-style interface for user input and navigation • Using statistics and equations derived from empirical research • Hosted online (but with no collaboration features currently) With regard to city simulators, no other simulator presently combines this series of characteristics. The use of existing city data and equations means the simulator can quickly show effects of programs to audiences familiar with traditional forms of modelling. The city-wide focus means that the modelling activity can however be extended to a broad range of relevant urban indicators. Hosting the application online provides opportunity for users to discuss and share simulator results. The simulator can therefore suit a range of scenarios for which other approaches either require too much configuration (agent-based, gaming approaches) or expertise (problem-specific, equation- based approaches). Consensus in the simulation community seems to have settled on agreement that no ‘one size fits all’ - different problem domains and contexts warrant different approaches. The Intelligent City Simulator exhibits a useful set of features not currently employed by existing city simulator tools surveyed. The following discussion examines how these features of the simulator work within a broader framework addressing urban sustainability.

Circling the Question of Sustainability: A Holistic Approach

Another of the key considerations of the current iteration of the simulator - the foundational consideration - was to found the approach upon a robust philosophical framework that systematically describes the dimensions of a city’s sustainability. This meant, in our view, treating urban sustainability as field that crossed the human condition of social sustainability in general. Attempts to develop such a holistic approach to sustainability are not novel. However, two contemporary tendencies have militated against this sense of integrated investigation. The first, ironically, came out of an attempt to sensitize practitioners to the importance of thinking ‘holistically’ and beyond market-oriented determinations. It projected the concept of ‘the environmental’ as the master adjective in relation to ‘sustainability’, thus attempting to naturalize the phrase ‘environmental sustainability’ as part of a taken-for-granted discourse on sustainability.

110 The second tendency, still however dominant in relation to the first, is to treat economics as the master domain against which the environment is accounted for as an externality. In this tendency, the concept of ‘sustainability’ becomes a second order concern in relation to a taken-for-granted privileging of the economic bottom line - hence all the limitations of the triple-bottom-line approach. Arguably the voluminous literature on sustainability thus departs from the insight that one-sided or partial views of survival, directed by specific disciplines such as the bio-sciences or economics, cast aside many of the features that we as rational and socialized beings regard as most worthy of sustaining: preserves of meaning in the arts and sciences; accomplishments of historical consequence enshrined in legal, political and economic institutions; findings of scientific enquiry which suggest that uninhibited production cycles affect natural and social environments, and so on. The task of developing taxonomic structures which reflect the inherent complications in any holistic notion of social relations is however immensely difficult. Such structures need, on the one hand, to reflect certain social generalities - relations of power, representations of culture, practices of economic production - and, on the other hand, be applicable to the extraordinary diversity of societies, urban and otherwise, modern and otherwise. These twin imperatives may be analytically possible to meet, but in practice they remain essentially contested. In practice, any claim to taxonomic generality struggles to gain consensus across the broad disciplinary gamut of the social and natural sciences. Nevertheless, we contend, a taxonomy which states its categories circumspectly and with awareness of their historical and contextual contingency can lay claim to being useful as a mechanism for orienting and organizing ‘downstream’ concerns, such as human interventions into an urban environment context. Here the turnkeys are usefulness, applicability and generality. The ‘Circles of Sustainability’ framework is one such effort. It represents an alternative to prevailing ‘triple bottom line’ models, adopting a broad engaged theory perspective. The ‘social’ is not some partial, delimitable segment of human action; instead it defines the very landscape under which that activity takes place. Within that frame, human agents organize around what can be understood in modern terms as four overlaid spheres or domains of activity: the economic, the ecological, the political and the cultural. These are not readily partitioned, as per triple-bottom-line models, but rather reflect different dimensions of any given social experience or activity. Nevertheless, some activities belong conspicuously more to one domain than another. As discussed below, the domains, and a series of analytically derived but more specific subdomains, become the instrument for navigating through the programs modelled by the simulator. In addition to being an orientation tool, though, the four domains also serve to remind users of the broader balance required of a sustainable future, prompting questions of: • Are all domains and subdomains of a city sufficiently satisfied by a series of proposed initiatives? • What domains and subdomains are potentially in tension, on the basis of some proposed program - most obviously, perhaps, the economic and ecological? • What kinds of causal dependencies, linear and nonlinear, directional and cyclic, exist between specific actions, programs and interventions across different domains and subdomains?

111 From Universals to Particulars: A Methodology for Simulation

As might be expected when trying to weld a framework of such apparent abstraction to a concrete set of programs, a number of difficulties were encountered early on during the design process. These were partially navigated by the introduction of several methodological working principles, which translated or bridged the respective worlds of theoretical constructs and empirical indicators. These principles informed the designing of program models in particular. The principles include: • Social scientific literature is a key input into understanding effects, but it requires considerable interpolation for a number of variables: size, range and rigour of documented empirical studies; estimation of centrality, variance and outlier status of city cases studied; and consistency with other available studies. While documented effects were therefore used typically as bases for program models, they were often adjusted - with documented rationales - to correct for perceived distortions in the cases used. • Not all affected variables change in a linear fashion in themselves; or with respect to each other. City size in particular is a vital determinant of program effect. Different variables are therefore programmed to increase sub-linearly, linearly, or super-linearly with respect to the city’s size (measured either as population or density). • Similarly, programs themselves are understood to have complex nonlinear effects, with various forms of reinforcing and undermining feedback loops at work between them. Simulation desigher need to be sensitive to compounding or undercutting effects in underlying variables, as well as to the more straightforward case of program dependencies. As discussed below, this design desideratum could not, due to practical constraints, be easily accommodated in practice - at least for the present version. • The ‘business-as-usual’ case is not static. With or without particular interventions, cities continually change and evolve. The simulator must reflect these changes, even at the expense of ease of interpretation of program effects (as discussed below). • Effects on standardized indexes such as the Human Development Index and Liveability Index are logarithmic. The higher a city’s existing ranking, the more difficult it is for that city to raise its ranking still further - especially since other highly ranked cities are, in practice, likely to be undertaking just the same programs themselves. • In contrast to all of the above, there is a requirement for useability to ‘Keep It Simple, Stupid’. Where possible, simplifications were made to program models, in order to keep algorithms relatively transparent and, more critically, to keep program effects comprehensible to people who are not domain experts. As suggested in the language used, systems theory proved a key instrument for galvanizing many of these principles with the ‘Circles of Sustainability’ framework. Moreover, systems theory provided useful points of translation across social and natural scientific boundaries, as well as between the academic and corporate research groups.

112 Building Models: Putting Theory into Practice

In May 2010, teams from RMIT and Accenture began work revising existing and developing new programs for the simulator. From an initial pool of 23 programs in version 1.0, 36 programs were to be included in version 2.0. Initially this work was due to be completed in mid June, in order to ‘brush up’ the simulator for an early July launch. However, in practice, despite a large dedicated team, a soft launch of the tool did not take place until late October, and the programs were refined continually throughout the intervening period. The software was developed by an Accenture in team in France, supported by programmers in India, using a combination of Java, Flex and Flash technologies, and deployed on Accenture infrastructure. Each program followed more or less the same development trajectory: • If a program existed, its input and output parameters were examined. If no program existed, a brief description was written, and some initial parameters developed. • An extensive literature review was undertaken, to refine parameters, understand what relationships exist between inputs and outputs, and to establish some degree of variance in the results of available studies. For some of the more obscure programs, this proved exceedingly difficult; programs had been documented in either too much or too little in available literature, and quantitative relationships documented in either too fine strokes, or not at all. • Assumptions, calculations, discussion points and references were then included in program design documents. • The research group met regularly to review and debate the effects described in the documents. • Refined, base-lined versions of the design documents were sent to the simulator development team, for further review and implementation. • An extensive period of testing and review of the simulator, followed by further refinements to the design documents, was then undertaken. • Prior to launch, the simulator was demonstrated in both university and corporate contexts, to elicit further feedback and commentary. Where warranted and practical, this feedback was also incorporated (hastily) in the weeks leading up to the launch. The following section describes one of the thirty-six models developed. The first describes the effects of an increasing population density in a city.

113 Scenario: Changing Population Density

In this scenario, we consider a city that is considering strategic options for population density. We have chosen this example because population density is one of the hardest variables to model. The relationship between density and emissions is highly complex and widely debated. In North America, lower densities have been shown to lead to higher vehicle use and fuel consumption and to increased energy consumption generally. Conversely studies in Australian cities suggest that, once both operational and embodied energy factors are taken into account, very high densities apartment buildings fare little better than detached houses, and much worse than medium density (low-rise apartments and townhouses) land use on a per capita basis. A broad review of the relationship between density and climate change conducted by Dodman in 2009 on behalf of the United Nations Population Fund similarly finds a complex relationship between the two, and one that is further confounded by the relative prosperity and geographic form of the city. Meanwhile, density also impacts upon social sustainability areas in important, though not necessarily readily identifiable ways. Higher density has been heralded in terms of its positive network effects on urban communities, most notably in the New Urbanism movement. Under optimal conditions, it can promote greater physical health, greater community integration, and associated levels of wealth, innovation and education, and lower civic administration and regulation costs. However, it has also been argued that lower density has important and overriding liveability consequences for residents: large housing blocks, high levels of privacy and security, and relatively uncongested and decentralized traffic routes. More recent studies suggest that density of urban form also correlates strongly with social equity dimensions of area dissatisfaction and neighbourhood problems, notwithstanding the improved amenity and access to services. They also highlight a fundamental theme we try to capture in our model - namely, that policy and programme initiatives are often faced with trade-offs between different aspects of urban sustainability and social impact. The inclusion of the density program in the simulator is not designed to answer this argument. Rather, it acts as a provocation to further discussion, around the potential - and differential - effects of higher density on key indicators such as liveability, the Human Development Index and CO2 emissions. The simulator also presents some effects on more specific indicators of crime-rate and transport-related emissions, to capture the complex effects of density change (upwards or downwards) on particular strategic issues of a city. The following scenario discusses how the Increasing Housing Density program affects cities, which have been modelled in the simulator. We have selected the city of Amsterdam for the scenario. The table below shows how this city compares with several others also included in the simulator, in terms of both their current population and density levels expressed in approximate terms, as of 2010:

City Population City Surface (km2) Density (in millions) (People / km2) Amsterdam 0.72 218 3,303

Milan 1.27 181 7,017

Paris 2.18 108 20,185

The Increasing Housing Density program operates a little differently in the simulator to many of the other programs. Firstly, it is possible to specify a decrease as well as an increase in housing density. The default rate considered here is 10 per cent over a specified period, meaning that Amsterdam would house approximately 3,600 people per square kilometre at the end of the period. Since the default period is ten years, this equates to (roughly) a 1 per cent increase per annum. As we suggested earlier, an increase in density is not necessarily desirable, so we also allow the possibility of a decrease.

114 The program also has no cost parameters. This is not because specific measures undertaken by a city administration to increase (or decrease) density are without costs. However, such costs are presumed to vary very widely depending on the city considered and the approach adopted (changed land use versus high density construction for example) - and moreover, these costs are not always borne by the city directly. Rather than try to average or consolidate for cost, we elected to leave it out altogether, with the consequence that this program cannot be readily compared with others in the simulator. Finally, while many of the programs have specific and localizable effects, our research has also suggested, perhaps unsurprisingly, that density impacts virtually all urban indicators in some way. Moreover, while these effects can be classified in different ways, they are a highly complex mix of good and bad - there is no simple case to be made for or against changes in density. We have selected three indicators that capture the range and variability of these effects: • Transport carbon emissions - the rate of emissions will decrease as the city-size increases; • Overall Carbon emissions - the rate of overall emissions will stay constant as the city-size increases; and • Crime rate - this will increase as the city size increases.

Amsterdam Amsterdam has relatively low emissions and crime-rates. How might these characteristics change in the light of increases in population and density in the years ahead? To magnify the visibility of the effect, we will consider an extreme case, of a 50 per cent increase in density over a ten-year period. First we check the ‘percentage population change’ and set the value to 50 as shown below in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Setting The Expected Increase in Housing Density

115 Figure 8: Viewing The Overall Effects of Density Change

As shown in Figure 8, at first glace these results seem to contradict our expectations. Certainly the projected crime rate shows a big increase over the ten-year period; but so too do the two emissions graphs. In our model we assume that increased density has a flow-on effect on population city as well - the city can house more people more efficiently, and therefore attracts migration. Hence gross emissions increase accordingly. Examining just the figures shows a different story; results are more in line with our forecasts. Figure 9 shows transport CO2 emissions decrease at a (very slightly) faster pace than the business-as-usual case; similarly overall CO2 emissions track business-as-usual (no change in size and density) rates exactly. Crime-rate figures however continue to notably increase during the ten- year period of accelerated density. It is worth noting that this, as well as the perhaps less tangible effects of higher density, cause Amsterdam to drop one place in the Liveability index as well. What does all of this suggest? Firstly, we are of course not factoring in many other studied effects of increasing density, including greater capacity for cultural and technological innovation, education and wealth production. Secondly, our ‘cost-less’ scenario glosses over the very substantial costs of provided for both the larger populations and densities this program introduces. Thirdly, many of the existing conditions of cities - including their GDP, existing populations and densities, and general geographical, economic and social outlooks - will impact very considerably on both positive and negative effects of this program. Finally, here we are only using one input - increased density - with no consideration for how this increase would be produced: greater medium- density or high-density housing; reclaimed landfill sites or public parks; rezoning and conversion of industrial to residential sites, and so on. Clearly these in turn have different side-effects and consequences that are important to model.

116 Figure 9: Viewing The Per-Capita Effects of Density Change

Notwithstanding its limitations, the simulator does provide helpful insight into the differential effects of population and density changes. Here crime rate is clearly a negative network externality brought about by greater numbers and proximity of people. Less evidently - since in the case of Amsterdam numbers of transport-related emissions are low and falling at any rate - these figures start to fall at an even greater rate on a per capita basis, since higher densities require less travel, and hence less resource consumption and infrastructure. These variable effects demonstrate that cities, like any other organic system, cannot be treated as merely a deterministic set of linear inputs and outputs. Rather, its outputs vary, depending upon both the nature and degree of the input, and the particular kind of output. In less formal terms, it is a highly sensitive organic system, and interventions into features like density - planned or otherwise - need to be modelled and analysed with considerable care.

117 Simulating the Future: What does it take to build an Intelligent City?

Version 2.0 of the City Simulator provided a series of useful demonstrations of how given programs and interventions would impact upon a city. However, a number of limitations of the simulator have become apparent during the design and testing of the tool. First and foremost - and in spite of the self-reflexive understanding of the design team that even a holistic approach cannot model everything about the world and needs to be indicative - the simulator needs greater sensitivity both to the effects of given programs and to the conditions of given cities. Invariably this requires a more extensive knowledge base, modelling a larger number of variables and data points. Related to this, the tool also needs capture relationships between programs in a quantitative fashion. Presently relationships are expressed as fairly simple dependencies, which do not reflect how the relative change in an independent program affects variables in dependent ones. More generally, it would also be useful to allow users to compare the effects of different programs side-by-side, according to different general parameters: cost, CO2 emissions and Human Development Index and livability indexes, for example. Similarly, we would like to display how different cities fare given the same program. The metrics for both sets of comparisons are currently available. The task here is largely one of user interface design. Yet a further extension would permit users to see optimized program plans, given the particularities of the city and desired cost, emissions and other targets. The web-based nature of the tool would also make possible simultaneous collaboration and discussion between different users, opening up new possibilities for simulation and optimization. More generally still, a tool like this is still a long way from delivering planners, decision-makers and other stakeholders in urban contexts what it takes to build an ‘Intelligent City’. There are a large set of epistemological considerations involved in such an ambitious undertaking. Simulation tools and the like are at best robust approximations rather than precise predictive instruments. However, exhibiting ‘intelligence’ is frequently an approximating affair. Tools such as the simulator presented here can go a long way towards providing concrete cases for human planning and action. Certainly we feel one feature of this ‘intelligence’ is an orientation towards holism - the view that a city’s future is not determined by a series of discrete but unrelated activities, but is rather woven together from a series of interconnected strands, which spread across a multitude of areas including technological infrastructure, economic activity, political security and stability, cultural diversity, and environmental sustainability. Here the simulator is at least on the right path, building upon the theoretical rubric of the ‘Circles of Sustainability’; however considerably more work needs to be done, to understand quantitatively how diverse sets of programs and variables interrelate, and to work on how to convey the potential richness of this data to end-users. Another feature is resilience: the capacity for planning with margins for error, recovery strategies, flexibility and adaptability to changing circumstances. This feature is captured algorithmically by introducing stochastic variables, which show some degree of randomness. Since our best views of the future are tainted by both chance, and its sometimes non-linear effects, a simulation tool needs to show, in addition to a calculated effect, bands of confidence, degrees of probability, and respond to ‘what-if’ scenario modelling. Yet another feature of intelligence can be described in the concept of reflexivity. Participants in an intelligent city are continuously and everywhere engaged in the creative planning of its future, through processes of taking stock, reviewing, forecasting, deliberating and debating. These in turn lead to the virtuous cycle of vibrant communities, where different ‘flows’ within the economic, cultural, political and ecological domains are optimally self-reinforcing rather than constantly in tension. Such pragmatic utopias are at least partially realizable through critical and reflexive analysis, in conjunction with the right kinds of civic structures and tools for facilitating action. While the Intelligent City Simulator is a small step towards the realization of intelligent cities, and will always form part of a much greater assemblage, its promise is one of translating the intellectual density and rigour of various disciplinary literature into a series of visual motifs. These in turn can be readily demonstrated and explained to a variety of audiences without much sacrifice of rigour. It therefore can help stakeholders in urban environments learn, plan and build our future Intelligent Cities.

118 In 2009 a greenhouse-gas counter was erected at the corner of 33rd Street and 7th Avenue. Using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s 2007 Fourth Assessment Report as a starting point, the base figure for global gases was 3.64 trillion metric tonnes. At the time of the photograph, eighteen months later, this had increased by approximately 33 billion tonnes. By the time of the printing of this Review, it had increased by 54 billion tonnes. New York, USA, February 2011.

119 120 Hundreds of people were killed when the Catholic Church at Mullaitivu was hit by a tsunami on the morning of 26 December 2004. Rebuilt marble columns in the Church now bear the names of the dead. Researchers in the Global Cities Institute have been working with communities affected both by the tsunami and the war since 2004. Mullaitivu, Sri Lanka, October 2011. N.B. This image has been transposed.

121 3. Researchers

Research Program Members

Iftekhar Ahmed, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Yoko Akama, School of Media and Communication Mary Myla Andamon, Centre for Design Paula Arcari, Centre for Design Colin Arrowsmith, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Alperhan Babacan, Graduate School of Business and Law Naomi Bailey, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Sarah Bekessy, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Iftekhar Ahmed Iris Bergmann, College of Design and Social Context Mike Berry, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Beau Beza, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Karyn Bosomworth, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Carlene Boucher, School of Management Amy Brown, Centre for Design Tim Butcher. School of Management Mexie Butler, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Michael Buxton, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Chris Chamberlain Anuja Cabraal, Graduate School of Business and Law George Cairns, School of Management Robin Cameron, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Iain Campbell, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Andrew Carre, Centre for Design Chris Chamberlain, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Susan Chaplin, School of Management Esther Charlesworth, School of Architecture and Design Sarah Charlesworth, College of Design and Social Context Guosheng Chen, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Guosheng Chen France Cheong, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Prem Chhetri, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Melek Cigdem, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Steven Clune, Centre for Design Bronwyn Coate, School of Economics, Finance and Marketing Val Colic-Peisker, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Nicole Cook, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Brian Corbitt, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Jonathon Corcoran, University of Queensland Prem Chhetri Enda Crossin, Centre for Design Tony Dalton, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Hepu Deng, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics

122 Tommaso Durante, Research and Innovation Bart Durlinger, Centre for Design Toni Erskine, Research and Innovation Peter Fairbrother, School of Management John Fien, College of Design and Social Context David Forrest, School of Education Colin Fudge, College of Design and Social Context

Hartmut Fünfgeld, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences John Fien Stephen Gaunson, School of Media and Communication Susana Gavidia-Payne, School of Health Sciences Victor Gekara, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Lida Ghahremanloo, Post Graduate Student Robin Goodman, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Ascelin Gordon, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Annette Gough, School of Education Damian Grenfell, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Elizabeth Grierson, School of Art John Handmer Jose Roberto Guevara, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning John Handmer, School of School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Vandra Harris, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Peter Hayes, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning David Hayward, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Kathryn Hegarty, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Georgina Heydon, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Sarah Hickmott, School of Computer Science and Information Technology Larissa Hjorth, School of Media and Communication Lynnel Hoare, School of Management Ralph Horne Ralph Horne, Centre for Design Peter Horsfield, School of Media and Communication Chris Hudson, School of Media and Communication Kim Humphery, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Shae Hunter, Centre for Design Joe Hurley, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Usha Iyer-Raniga, School of Property Construction and Project Management Margaret Jackson, Graduate School of Business and Law John Jackson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Chris Hudson Paul James, Director of the Global Cities Research Institute Saleem Janjua, Nautilus Institute at RMIT Gaya Jayatilleke, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics

123 Guy Johnson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Ian Jones, Centre for Design Elizabeth Kath, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Adriana Keating, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Shahadat Khan, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Daniel Kong, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Jo Lang, School of Education Bill Langford, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Julia Lawson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Elizabeth Kath Helen Lewis, Centre for Design Jeff Lewis, School of Media and Communication Tania Lewis, School of Media and Communication Simon Lockrey, Centre for Design Liam Magee, Research and Innovation Cecily Maller, Centre for Design Andrew Martel, Centre for Design Jenny Martin, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Marietta Martinovic, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Darryn McEvoy Jan Matthews, School of Health Sciences Grant McBurnie, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Jock McCulloch, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Darryn McEvoy, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, and School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Blythe McLennan, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Adela McMurray, Research and Innovation Anne McNevin, School of School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Bernard Mees, School of Management Paul Mees, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Anne McNevin David Mercer, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Denise Meredyth, College of Design and Social Context Bronwyn Meyrick, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Pavla Miller, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Alemayehu Molla, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Susie Moloney, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Tom Molyneaux, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Trivess Moore, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Brian Morris, School of Media and Communication

John Morrissey, College of Design and Social Context Jane Mullett Nuttawuth Muenjohn, School of Management Jane Mullett, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Martin Mulligan, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning

124 Suellen Murray, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Yaso Nadarajah, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Anitra Nelson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Larissa Nicholls, Centre for Design Berenice Nyland, School of Education Mandy Oakham, School of Media and Communication Lin Padgham, School of Computer Science and Information Technologies Sharon Parkinson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Christine Peacock, Graduate School of Business and Law Martin Mulligan Alan Pears, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Simon Perry, School of Art Richard Phillips, School of Management Peter Phipps, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Nattavud Pimpa, School of Management Shams Rahman, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Izabela Ratajczak, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Adreana Reale, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Dominic Redfern, School of Art Yaso Nadarajah Karin Reinke, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Shanthi Robertson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Felicity Roddick, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Patricia Rogers, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Rob Roggema, Centre for Design James Rowe, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Angelina Russo, School of Media and Communication Selver Sahin, Research and Innovation Katelyn Samson, College of Design and Social Context

Pradipta Sarkar, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Andy Scerri Andy Scerri, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning David Scerri, School of Computer Science and Information Technology Jan Scheurer, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Sujeeva Setunge, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Kristen Sharp, School of Art Elizabeth Shi, Graduate School of Business and Law Mohini Singh, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Supriya Singh, Graduate School of Business and Law Joseph Siracusa, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Marianne Sison, School of Media and Communication Supriya Singh Judith Smart, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Jodi-Anne Smith, Northern Partnerships Unit Agnes Soh, Centre for Design

125 Helaine Stanley, Centre for Design Victoria Stead, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Manfred Steger, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Kaye Stevens, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Yolande Strengers, Research and Innovation Ke Sun, School of Computer Science and Information Technologies Jo Tacchi, School of Media and Communication Richard Tanter, Nautilus Institute at RMIT Elizabeth Taylor, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Victoria Stead Jacqui Theobald, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning James Thom, School of Computer Science and Information Technologies Ian Thomas, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Keith Toh, School of Management Ly Tran, School of Education Anna Trembath, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Meagan Tyler, School of Management Karli Verghese, Centre for Design Yoland Wadsworth, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Manfred Steger Ron Wakefield, School of Property Construction and Property Management Mayra Walsh, Post Graduate Student Julia Werner, School of Architecture and Design Leone Wheeler, School of Education Joshua Whittaker, School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences Nilmini Wickramasinghe, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Nicola Willand, School of Architecture and Design Linda Williams, School of Art Bradley Wilson, School of Media and Communication Bruce Wilson, European Union Centre at RMIT Erin Wilson Erin Wilson, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Tony Wilson, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak James Wong, Centre for Design Tammy Wong, School of Art Gavin Wood, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Leslie Young, School of Business Information Technology and Logistics Fabio Zambetta, School of Computer Science and Information Technologies Kevin Zhang, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering

Gavin Wood

126 Megawatti Street in Colombo is home to a Muslim community and the Madhrasathul Noor Islamic Religious Institute. Colombo, Sri Lanka, October 2011.

127 128 Most of these fifteen and sixteen-year-old boys are men. All but one of them has all been through an initiation ceremony. This status makes it more difficult for them to attend school. Here they are pictured in front of a mural which says ‘Youth Outreach Team. Incite Youth Arts and CAAC AHYS Gap Youth Centre’. The Youth Outreach bus operates three nights a week and drives home 3,000 boys and youths per year. Alice Springs, Australia, July 2011.

129 4. Administrative Structure

Administrative Team

Paul James, Director Liam Magee, Technology Directions Manager Melissa Postma, Research Administrator Nevzat Soguk, Deputy Director Frank Yardley, Manager

College Reference Group

John Fien, College of Business Denise Meredyth, College of Design and Social Context Felicity Roddick, College of Science, Engineering and Health

Research Leaders Group

Robin Cameron, Program Manager, Human Security Prem Chhetri, Program Manager, Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures Tommaso Durante , PhD Representative John Fien, Co-Program Leader, Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures John Handmer, Co-Program Leader, Human Security Ralph Horne, Co-Program Leader, Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures Chris Hudson, Co-Program Leader, Globalization and Culture Kim Humphrey, School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning Paul James, Director, Global Cities Institute Jeff Lewis, Co-Program Leader, Human Security Darryn McEvoy, Program Leader, Climate Change Adaptation Jane Mullett, Program Manager, Climate Change Adaptation Yaso Nadarajah, Program Manager, Community Sustainability Lin Padgham, Program Leader, Urban Decision-Making and Complex Systems Felicity Roddick, Senior Advisor, Climate Change Adaptation Liz Ryan, Program Manager, Global Compact Cities Programme Supriya Singh, Program Leader, Community Sustainability Manfred Steger, Co-Program Leader, Globalization and Culture Jo Tacchi, School of Media and Communications Anna Trembath, PhD Representative Frank Yardley, Manager, Global Cities Institute

130 Advisory Board

Michael Barlow, Director, Urbis (Advisory Board Chair) Cheryl Batagol, Chair, Environmental Protection Agency, Victoria Charles Berger, Director of Strategic Ideas, Australian Conservation Foundation Naomi Brown, Chief Executive Officer, Australasian Fire Authorities Council Prue Digby, Deputy Secretary, Department of Planning and Community Development Neil Furlong, Professor Emeritus, RMIT University Dick Gross, Former President, Municipal Association of Victoria Paul James, Director, Global Cities Institute Andrew Jaspan, Co-Founder and Editor of The Conversation Kevin Love, Deputy Secretary, Department of Sustainability and Environment Graeme Pearman, Climate Change Scientist Cath Smith, Chief Executive Officer, Victorian Council of Social Services Marcus Spiller, Director, SGS Economics and Planning David Waldren, Sustainability Manager, GROCON Melbourne Andrew Wisdom, Director, ARUP Australia

Tokyo, Japan, 2009. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

131 Devon ‘Do the Right Thing’ Smith describes himself as a community-engagement worker. He makes his money though comic conversation with people on the street in Manhattan—‘If you laugh, I eat’, is one of his refrains. He is a former mental-health counsellor but since 2001 has been largely unemployed. He prides himself on having been a successful street-comedian for more than a decade. New York, USA, February 2011. 132 133 5. Visiting Scholars

Fellows and Distinguished Visitors 2007-2010

Ibrahim G Aoudé, University of Hawai’i (2009) Lijun Gou, Tianjin (2010) Clyde Barrow, University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth (2008) Rupert Maclean, Hong Kong Institute of Education Roland Benedikter, University of Vienna (2008) (2007, 2008, 2009, 2010) Stephen Berry, DEWHA (2009) Neville Mars, Rotterdam (2008) Roland Bleiker, University of Queensland (2008) Josse Materu, UN Habitat, Nairobi (2008, 2009) Sofie Bouteligier, University of Leuven (2010) James Mittelman, American University (2009) Neil Brenner, New York University (2008) Dr Daniela Molinari, Milano Polytechnica (2010) Michaela Bruel, City of Copenhagen (2008) Laurence Murphy, University of Auckland (2010) Harriet Bulkeley, Durham University (2008) Rob O’Donoghue, Rhodes University (2009) Terrell Carver, University of Bristol (2008, 2009, 2010) Rencheng Jin, Tianjin (2010) Rick Clugston, Talloire Secretariat (2008, 2009) Santha Sheela Nair, New Delhi (2008) Lee Coates, Sydney (2010) Nguyen Duc Vinh, Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences (2008) Peter Corcoran, Gulf Coast University (2007, 2008) Carmenesa Moniz Noronha, Timor-Leste (2008) Bernard Crick (2008) Helena Norberg-Hodge, International Society for Ecology and Lane Crothers, Illinois State University (2007) Culture, UK (2008) Simon Dalby, Carleton University (2008) Susan Ossman, University of California-Riverside (2008) Jennifer Dixon, University of Auckland (2010) Susan Park, University of Sydney (2008) Chris Paris, University John Doggart, Sustainable Energy Academy, UK (2009) of Ulster (2007) Miriam Glucksmann, University of Essex (2010) Phan Ngoc Thach, Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences (2008) Jon Goldberg-Hiller, University of Hawai’i (2007) Chris Radford, Fukuoka (2008) James Goodman, UTS (2008, 2009, 2010) Fazal Rizvi, University of Illinois (2009) Stephen Gough, University of Bath (2008, 2010) Saskia Sassen, Columbia University (2008) Kushil Gunasekera (Foundation of Goodness (2007, 2010) Michael Shapiro, University of Hawai’i (2008) Michael Harloe, University of Salford (2009) Shibo Genh, Bejing (2010) Mark Harvey, University of Essex (2010) Shigao Wang, Hai’an (2010) Siri Hettige, University of Colombo (2008, 2009, 2010) Lisa Schipper, Stockholm Environment Institute (2010) Robert Holton, Trinity College, Dublin (2007, 2009) Elizabeth Shove, Lancaster University (2009) Helge Hveem, University of Oslo (2008) James Spencer, University of Hawai’i (2008) Mark Juergensmeyer, UC-Santa Barbara (2009) Stephen Sterling, Plymouth University (2010) Haider A. Khan, University of Denver (2010) Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka, UN Habitat, Nairobi (2009) Gordon Laxer, University of Alberta (2007) Lyman Tower-Sargent, University of Missouri (2008) Scott Leckie, Geneva (2010) Martin Weber, University of Queensland (2009) Gavin Killip, Oxford University (2009) Frank Xinhua Zhang, Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Le Thanh Sang, Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences (2008) (2007) Le Vu Cuong, Vietnam Green Building Council (2009) Zhihua Yao, Tianjin (2010)

134 Fellows and Distinguished Visitors 2011

Dr Senad Burka, University of Sarajevo Professor Dr Faruk Caklovia, University of Sarajevo Professor Terrell Carver, University of Bristol Mr Hans de Moel, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Dr Stephen Gough, University of Bath Professor Liah Greenfeld, Boston University Professor Siri Hettige, University of Colombo Professor Rupert Maclean, Hong Kong Institute of Education Dr Daniela Molinari, Milano Polytechnica Professor Deane Neubauer, University of Hawai’i Dr John Postill, Sheffield Hallam University Professor Stephen Rosow, State University of New York-Oswego Associate Professor Hans Schattle, Yonsei University Professor Nevzat Soguk, University of Hawai’i Dr Rebecca Whittle, Lancaster University Associate Professor Zinail Abidin Sanusi, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Professor Nevzat Soguk, formerly of University of Hawai’i is now the Deputy Director of Global Cities Institute, 2012.

135 Malls are a recent development in China. ‘Solana Lifestyle Shopping Park’, pictured here, proclaims itself as the first such lifestyle precinct in China. It is expensive but child-friendly. According to its website it ‘brings in a widespread commercial style by borrowing ideas from world-famous shopping centers integrated with popular consumption trends in Beijing … It is not only regarded as the place where walk-signs meet the international fashion but also a shopping kingdom and gathering space full of bright sunshine and limpid water.’ The cinema pictured in this photograph is the flagship house of the South China Film, built at a cost of $US40 million. Beijing, China, May 2010. 136 137 6. Research Programs

Climate Change Adaptation

Research Leader: Darryn McEvoy Research Manager: Jane Mullett Senior Advisor: Felicity Roddick Research Team: Iftekhar Ahmed, Karyn Bosomworth, George Cairns, Prem Chhetri, Guoshen Chen, Brian Corbitt, Jonathan Corcoran, Hartmut Fünfgeld, Victor Gekara, Sarah Hickmott, Ralph Horne, Saleem Janjua, Gaya Jayatilleke, Daniel Kong, David Law, Tom Molyneaux, Lin Padgham, Prita Puspita, Izabela Ratajczak, David Scerri, Sujeeva Setunge, Julia Werner, Nilmini Wickramasinghe and Kevin Zhang

How can cities and communities best plan for climate change?

This Program seeks to understand future climate risks, and to explore how cities, communities, and individuals can best adapt to climate change in the context of complex socio-ecological stress.

Research Focus

The Climate Change Adaptation Program focuses on how cities and communities might best respond to the complexity of global environmental change and adapt to the on-the-ground issues associated with a changing climate. The approach of the Program is based on the integration of quantitative, qualitative, and participatory methodologies. Its activity is deliberately multi-disciplinary, cutting across academic schools and disciplines, as well as being shaped by new forms of engagement between scientific, policy, and wider stakeholder communities.

The Alps region, including in Italy where this photo was taken, represents one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in Europe. Alps in northern Italy, 2009.

138 Description of Program

Whilst adaptation of the urban environment is the centre of research attention, the Program applies an analytical prism that enables research questions to be tackled according to different hazards, sectors, spatial scales and case-study locations. This allows us to gain wider insight into the conceptual and applied understanding of risk, vulnerability and adaptation. The geographical scope of the Program ranges from the local to the global, with the Asia-Pacific region a particularly important international focus for the program. In pursuit of this multi-level agenda, strong collaborative links are fostered both nationally and across the world. The research agenda is structured according to six themes:

1. Conceptual: Critical Analysis of Adaptation Discourses Critical assessment of what is meant by adaptation in different arenas, and how it can be practically applied by decision-makers is central here. Topics of interest include disciplinary framings, scenarios planning methods, adaptation metrics, synergies and conflicts between adaptation and mitigation, and other emerging societal objectives.

2. Applied: Assessment of Climate-Related Risks and Evaluation of Potential Adaptation Options Research in this area includes systemic analysis of cities, towns, and communities; as well as more detailed analyses of different elements at risk in the urban environment including infrastructure, buildings, the space between buildings, and people. Urban–rural linkages, and thematic and sectoral studies also form part of the research portfolio.

3. Institutional: Analysis of the Institutional Dimensions of Adaptation This theme considers institutional driving forces (political, economic, and cultural), institutional adaptive management and the barriers to, and opportunities for, change. It examines adaptation as a learning process. Of particular interest is the interaction and fit between multi-level activities - that is, bottom-up approaches such as local narratives, equity issues, the building of adaptive capacity - with top-down processes (international climate change agreements and national strategies).

4. Bridging: Crossing the Science–Policy Interface This theme considers the translation of conceptual and applied understanding of adaptation into best practice guidance for a range of different policy and practitioner end-users. This activity distils knowledge from Research Themes 1–3, seeking to link adaptation issues to mainstream governance issues and policy processes, and to promote more strategic pathways to climate resilient communities. More innovative aspects are also being explored: for instance, new ways of communicating climate change, and cities as laboratories of innovation.

5. Capacity-Building: Adaptation in the Asia-Pacific Region A combination of training and joint research activity centres on climate change adaptation and sustainable urban development in the Asia-Pacific region. A key component is to promote actively the exchange of knowledge and toolkits in order to contribute to the building of local adaptive capacity. Special emphasis is being placed on activity in Vietnam, Bangladesh, and the Pacific Islands.

6. Engagement: Involvement with Global Networks Members of the core research team are involved with a range of different international networks, and are active participants in the sharing of good adaptation practice (in support of cities as laboratories of innovation).

139 Current Projects

AdaptNet Researchers: Saleem Janjua, Darryn McEvoy, Peter Hayes and Jane Mullett Funding provider: CCAP A fortnightly bulletin of information and research related to urban adaption is produced, which aims to create common knowledge and reference points for readers and to support creative thinking in relation to climate change adaptation. It is currently published in English and Vietnamese. Partners include the Nautilus Institute of Security and Sustainability and The Vietnam Green Building Council.

Application of AOPs in Recycling Municipal Wastewater Researchers: Felicity Roddick and Prita Puspita Funding provider: Smart Water Fund Climate change means decreasing rainfall over much of populated Australia resulting in decreasing quantity and quality of traditional water sources, and the consequential need to use alternative sources such as waste water. Advanced treatment, such as advanced oxidation processes, can produce high-quality water from waste water. This project will investigate the application of advanced oxidation processes to secondary effluent, using effluent from a Victorian wastewater treatment plant as an example.

Influence of Rising Temperatures Affecting Drinking Water Researchers: Felicity Roddick and Stephen Grist Funding provider: Water Quality Research Australia There has been increasing incidence of customer complaints regarding taint in some of Melbourne’s water supplies over the warmer months. This has been associated with lower water-flows and generally higher temperatures over recent years. The aim of this project is to identify the cause of the taste and odour, the factors that control its generation, and to develop prevention strategies.

Improved Understanding and Enhancement of Community and Organizational Resilience to Extreme Events Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Lin Padgham, Gaya Jayatilleke, Karyn Bosomworth, Sarah Hickmott and Dave Scerri Funding provider: National Climate Change and Adaptation Research Facility A multi-disciplinary project that is exploring the value of using agent-based modelling as a decision support tool for better informing responses to, in this instance, bush fires. This project aims to develop a modular agent-based simulation platform, tailored to end-user needs, that allows exploration of complex multi-scalar, multi-actor, emergency management interactions in order to promote more effective governance arrangements. The first funded stage of the project is developing a discrete scenario within a bushfire emergency response context. The scenario is being developed in close partnership with key stakeholders in Victoria’s emergency services sector.

140 Enhancing the Resilience of Seaports to a Changing Climate Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Jane Mullett, Sujeeva Setunge, Tom Molyneaux, David Law, Prem Chhetri, Victor Gekara, Nilmini Wickramasinghe, Kevin Zhang, Daniel Kong and Brian Corbitt Funding provider: National Climate Change and Adaptation Research Facility To better understand the vulnerability of critical port infrastructure, and to develop new knowledge and assessment methodologies for enhancing port resilience to future climate change. This project has four discrete research objectives: 1. to gain a better understanding of the complex mix of climate and non-climate drivers that are likely to affect future port operations; 2. to assess the vulnerability of core port infrastructure, and identify appropriate adaptation options; 3. to assess the vulnerability of other elements at risk in the wider port environs and identify appropriate adaptation options; and, 4. to synthesize the findings and explore the implications for policy and practice, and create an integrated decision support toolkit. Project stakeholders include CSIRO, Ports Australia, Engineers Australia, Transport & Logistics Industry Skills Council, National Transport Commission, Maritime Union of Australia and others. Case study partners include Sydney Ports Corporation, Port Kembla Port Corporation, and Gladstone Ports Corporation.

Framing Adaptation Responses in the Victorian Context Researchers: Darryn McEvoy and Hartmut Fünfgeld Funding provider: Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research This project aims to develop and test an operational framing of climate change adaptation, which will act as a decision-making ‘roadmap’ to better inform policy and practice by Victorian authorities at the local and regional levels. This project seeks to translate scientific and conceptual discourse on adaptation into a language more accessible to end-users, such as state and local decision-makers, to effectively support adaptation activity and the building of local adaptive capacity. Four areas of inquiry will address the following framing issues: 1. development of an overarching framework for adaptation (the ‘roadmap’); 2. economic impact assessment and preliminary costing of climate change for vulnerable sectors in Victoria; 3. iterative testing of the adaptation framework in selected case-study locations; and 4. perceptions, attitudes and local narratives on climate-related risks and the management of uncertainty. Project partners include DSE, the Municipal Association of Victoria (MAV), CSIRO, the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF) and local governments in the case study locations (Port Fairy, City of Melbourne, and Bendigo).

Tourism in Nepal Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Carolina Roman and Prem Chhetri Funding provider: GTZ This project focuses on tourism and climate change, to identify and assess the opportunities and risks of climate change for tourism in the Mount Kailash Sacred Landscape region of Nepal, as well as evaluate options for tourism as a feasible adaptation strategy for its communities. This research project has been commissioned by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH to support the Mount Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative (KSLCI) Strengthening Project. This initiative, run by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), is intended to improve the understanding of environmental change within the Kailash Sacred Landscape area in Nepal and identify livelihoods strategies that can enhance socio-ecological resilience in the region.

141 RMIT Risk Assessment Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Karyn Bosomworth, Ifte Ahmed, Craig Stagoll, Katherine O’Neill, Graham Bell, Linda Stevenson and Craig Allen Funding provider: RMIT Sustainability Committee This project aims to assess RMIT’s climate change risks and develop an adaptation response for the university. The concept of adaptation as a ‘learning process’ underpins the approach, which will draw on and collaborate with different scientific disciplines and other areas of expertise across the RMIT community. The work seeks to: 1. understand how recent extreme events have affected the operation of the university; 2. assess the risks that a changing climate might bring; 3. identify vulnerability ‘hotspots’ on various RMIT campuses; and 4. use the ‘hotspots’ as case studies in order to assess different adaptation options that will enhance the future resilience of university infrastructure and institutional arrangements. Findings will be mainstreamed into different university strategic policies.

Responding to the Urban Heat Island: Optimizing the Implementation of Green Infrastructure Researchers: Darryn McEvoy and Karyn Bosomworth Funding provider: Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research This project aims to assess the effectiveness of different green infrastructure systems for urban cooling and to develop a systematic approach for urban land-managers to optimize the selection and implementation of green infrastructure options. The CCAP team are working on analysing the institutional opportunities and barriers to implementation, as well as assisting in the development of a systematic approach for selecting and implementing green infrastructure that considers the more vulnerable sections of society, heat exposure ‘hot spots’ and the local context. The project will translate the scientific findings into user-friendly guidance material for use by policy-makers and practitioners. Active partners include University of Melbourne, Monash University, DPCD, DSE, City of Melbourne, City of Port Phillip, City West Water and the Bureau of Meteorology.

Developing the Content on Urban Disaster Risk-Management Primer Researchers: Ifte Ahmed and Darryn McEvoy Funding provider: Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre This project involves the development of a course module, ‘Vulnerabilities in the Dynamic Urban Environment’ for the training program on ‘Climate Change and Climate Risk Management in a Changing Urban Environment’ to be delivered internationally through the ADPC. The project will also create a primer on Urban Disaster Risk Management, to which CCAP will contribute. CCAP will also sit on the Technical Advisory Committee.

142 Integrated Disaster and Climate Change Capacity, Vulnerability and Assessment Methodologies and Tools Researchers: Ifte Ahmed, Hartmut Fünfgeld, and Darryn McEvoy Funding provider: Oxfam Australia This project continues the process of developing methodologies for incorporating issues of disaster and climate risk into new and existing sustainable livelihoods, disaster risk reduction and water management programs. It focuses on developing a toolkit of Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability Assessment (PCVA). The toolkit aligns with current Oxfam Australia and Oxfam International policies, in particular the newly developed Oxfam Australia Climate Change Plan of Action and the Oxfam International DRR policy. It also aligns with the International Standards ISO 31000:2009 for risk management. Field testing of the toolkit will occur through Oxfam Australia’s DRR and climate change programs.

Impact of the 2009 Heatwave on Victoria’s Critical Infrastructure Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Ifte Ahmed and Jane Mullett Funding provider: NCCARF - Synthesis and Integrative Research Program This research was commissioned as part of a larger project: ‘Impacts and Adaptation Response of Infrastructure and Communities to Heatwaves’. The research consortium is led by Queensland University of Technology. CCAP research activity focused specifically on Melbourne’s critical urban infrastructure. Findings, derived from actor-based research, highlighted the most significant impacts as being on the electricity and transport systems.

CCAP researchers joined the United Nations’ campaign for “Making Cities Resilient” at the Third Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and World Reconstruction Conference. Geneva, Switzerland, 2011.

143 Climate Change Risks and Adaptation Options for Cities in North-Western Bangladesh and Central Vietnam Researchers: Darryn McEvoy and Ifte Ahmed Funding Provider: Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research This project aims to develop and test a methodology for the assessment of climate risks in the context of secondary cities of vulnerable regions in Bangladesh and Vietnam with a view to informing adaptation guidance. With due cognizance of the substantial body of recently generated literature, the research is grounded empirically, drawing strongly on local knowledge. It promotes links between governmental and non-governmental organizations, and facilitates local capacity building as well as regional cross-learning. The project outcomes will be disseminated through partner networks to better inform local and national policy and practice. The project will create adaptation toolkits that will be tested in parallel in Satkhira, Bangladesh and Hué, Vietnam and then disseminated through regional, national, and international networks.

Climate Change and Sustainable Urban Development in Vietnam Researchers: Darryn McEvoy, Ifte Ahmed and Hartmut Fünfgeld Funding provider: RMIT Capacity-strengthening and research-development workshops have been held in Vietnam in 2010 and 2011 led by CCAP in partnership with the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences. The workshop in 2010 was held in Hue, central Vietnam and included a range of key stakeholders. The 2011 workshop partners included Tra Vinh University and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and was partly funded by RMIT International University Vietnam.

Local Adaptation Researchers: Hartmut Fünfgeld and Darryn McEvoy Funding Provider: Department of Sustainability and Environment This collaborative project works closely with the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment’s Environmental Policy and Climate Change division, to develop guidance materials on how DSE staff can successfully conduct and support planning for climate change adaptation at the local and regional scales. There is growing recognition of the need for organizations to plan for and adapt to a changing climate. For the DSE, climate change will have implications for the way programs and services are designed and delivered. This project is carried out in collaboration with DSE’s Local Adaptation Project Team. The project draws on the VCCCAR funded project ‘Framing Multi-level and Multi-actor Adaptation Responses in the Victorian Context’.

Page 145: Fires in Jambi and other Sumatran provinces of Indonesia produced the haze in the background of this photograph of Singapore. The fires are used to clear rainforest. Transboundary haze has been a recurring event in Singapore since the 1990s. Singapore, September 2011.

144 145 Globalization and Culture

Research Leaders: Manfred Steger and Chris Hudson Research Team: Colin Arrowsmith, Sarah Bekessy, Carlene Boucher, Bronwyn Coate, Tommaso Durante, Stephen Gaunson, Larissa Hjorth, Peter Horsfield, Paul James, Tania Lewis, Jenny Martin, Marietta Martinovic, Jock McCulloch, Anne McNevin, Pavla Miller, Brian Morris, Nuttawuth Muenjohn, Mandy Oakham, Christine Peacock, Simon Perry, Peter Phipps, Dominic Redfern, Angelina Russo, Kristen Sharp, Elizabeth Shi, Marianne Sison, Jo Tacchi, Linda Williams, Bradley Wilson and Erin Wilson Assoc. Researchers: Irene Barberis, Mick Douglas, Aramiha Harwood, Geoff Hogg, Kim Humphery, Peter King, Jeff Lewis, Maggie McCormick, Leslie Morgan, Andrew Scerri, Gyorgy Scrinis, Sue Anne Ware and Tony Wilson

How can we understand the intensification and expansion of cultural flows through globalizing cities and their regions?

This program investigates cultural aspects of globalization in its local and global forms in cities across the world.

Research Focus

This program examines the tensions and complexities of transnational cultural flows in terms of homogenization, fragmentation, hybridity and commodification. Analysis is focused on urban arenas for cultural contestation and ideological dissent. The program envisages creative solutions to global challenges by encouraging long-term thinking and designing alternative global futures. This approach enables research in such areas as ethical global visions, global governance, and imaginaries of hope. It brings together theoretical enquiry with empirically grounded and socially engaged research. Program members use diverse methodologies in order to understand how globalization impacts upon cultural expression and how culture manifests in urban settings. Culture is understood broadly as shared webs of meaning through which we experience and interpret the world around us. Culture manifests in symbolic acts, everyday routines, identities and desires. It shapes our social relations, built environments, and relations with the non-human world. The program investigates culture through a range of social phenomena, institutions and symbolic expressions.

146 Description of Program

Research within the Globalization and Culture Program is clustered into three broad themes:

1. Transforming Identities and Subjectivities This theme concerns the transformation of identities in Asian-Pacific cities through processes of globalization. Cities are nodes in vast global networks of people, governance, ideas and industry as well as distinctly local places that generate diverse responses to globalization. As the world becomes increasingly urbanized, city-life shapes our sense of self in new ways. As we move between cities, we experience new modes of trans-local belonging. Accordingly, we ask how various global processes such as migration, economic development, or technological change manifest in cities and impact upon our subjectivities. This theme addresses the means through which identities are shaped and contested, from modes of governmentality to forms of artistic expression. The ideologically induced transformation of citizens into neoliberal subjects constitutes one potential area of inquiry. Of equal interest are the social movements and cultural currents that resist subordination to hegemonic norms and enact alternative subjectivities.

2. Culture and Ideology Key questions in this research theme include: what is the relationship between globalization, culture and ideology? How do social imaginaries, narratives, metaphors, symbols and myths contribute to ideological change? How do language and space intersect in the cultural milieus of Asian-Pacific cities? Hierarchies based on sharp distinctions between local, national, regional and global scales no longer hold in the global age. Established boundaries are defended, erased, or redrawn. Consequently, we investigate the transformation of our conventional cultural-spatial frameworks into multi-directional constellations and multi-nodal networks. The shifting grounds of discourse emerging in advance of clearly articulated ideological platforms are also key sites of inquiry. This theme recognizes cities as principal hubs for the construction, dissemination and contestation of cultural and ideological discourse.

3. Material Cultures This theme approaches material culture as an expression of the critical disputes and tensions characterising globalization and global cities. We investigate the conditions for the creation of new cultural spaces and the role of technology in cultural production. How do text and image, art and performance, media and communication combine to construct new cultural forms? Potential areas of investigation include critical analyses of artworks, urban screens, advertising, global-branding, media representations and alternative forms of communication.

President Obama depicted as the Joker, sold illegally outside the Metropolitan Museum. New York, USA, February 2011.

147 Current Projects

Mapping Justice Globalism: Reassessing the Ideological Landscape of the Twenty-First Century Researchers: Manfred Steger and James Goodman Funding provider: Australian Research Council This project investigates and assesses the ideological status of justice globalism - the political ideas and public policy vision associated with the global justice movement. Through qualitative textual analysis and in-depth interviews, the project scrutinizes key documents of justice globalism generated by the 150 civil society organizations associated with the World Social Forum. The outcome of this research will be a detailed conceptual mapping and policy analysis of justice globalism that furthers our understanding of the ideas, values, and policy proposals behind one of the major global political forces shaping the twenty-first century.

Irregular Migrants and Political Belonging in Global Cities Researchers: Paul James and Anne McNevin Funding provider: Australian Research Council This project investigates the transformation of citizenship in four globalizing cities with respect to irregular migration. We ask how irregular migrants (persons living in a country without the state’s official sanction) are becoming politically active and claiming rights and membership in places from which they are technically excluded. The project involves case studies and in-depth interviews with irregular migrants in Melbourne, Los Angeles, Berlin and Kuala Lumpur. We attempt to build new conceptual approaches to belonging and political community that can capture both the agency and vulnerability of irregular migrants’ civic status.

Globalizing Indigeneity: Indigenous Cultural Festivals and Wellbeing in Australia and the Asia-Pacific Researchers: Paul James, Manfred Steger, Peter Phipps and Lisa Slater Funding providers: Australian Research Council and the Telstra Foundation This project investigates the role of cultural festivals in Indigenous community wellbeing. Festivals are understood as domains which both deploy and exceed a rights-based discourse as an assertion of Indigenous presence. The project’s starting point is that festivals are a particularly effective forum for communities to assert and re-frame this presence, engage and educate other communities, institutions and levels of government on Indigenous terms, garner resources and strengthen the transmission of cultural knowledge across generations - all with varied wellbeing outcomes. We investigate these outcomes in the context of very different impacts of globalization upon the communities and festivals in question.

The Role of the Wittenoom Asbestos Mine in the Lives and Deaths of Italian Transnational Workers Researchers: Jock McCulloch and Pavla Miller Funding providers: Australian Research Council and the Italian-Australia Institute Reconstructing the lives of Italian workers in the context of transnational migration and the mining of one of the world’s most hazardous minerals is significant in itself as part of the Australian historical record. To the Italian community, the story exemplifies the disproportionate contributions and sacrifices of post-war migration. Importantly, the evidence produced will be of use in improving public health and policy responses to the legacy of asbestos disease, both in Australia and in Italy.

148 Silicosis on South African Gold Mines: The History and Politics of an Occupational Disease, 1902 to 2005 Researcher: Jock McCulloch Funding provider: Australian Research Council This is the first transnational history of silicosis, perhaps the most important occupational disease of the twentieth century. The project explores the roles of medical knowledge, capital, trade unions, legislatures, and the state in the identification of risk and the provision of compensation. Using archival sources, and medical literatures, it examines the transfers of knowledge and compensation systems across the Anglo-American jurisdictions of South Africa, Australia, the UK and the US. It seeks to illuminate key aspects of knowledge and to provide tools for those seeking improved working conditions and legal redress.

Online@Asia-Pacific: Social Networking Systems and Online Communities in the Region Researcher: Larissa Hjorth Funding provider: Australian Research Council One way to investigate the emerging forms of sociality, creativity and politics within networked media is through the relationship between emerging and remediated forms of user-created content and the social networking systems. Through the lens of localized notions of online communities (and their relationship to offline life), Online@AsiaPacific explores the material and symbolic practices of media literacy, creativity and new politics. Drawing from six locations - Manila, Tokyo, Seoul, Singapore, Shanghai and Melbourne - Online@AsiaPacific analyses and brings new insights into localized and regional online communities that are, like the Internet, dynamic and ever-evolving.

Still Mobile 2010, artwork by Larissa Hjorth.

149 Lifestyle Television in Transforming Culture, Citizenship and Selfhood: Australia, China, Taiwan, Singapore, India Researchers: Tania Lewis with Fran Martin (University of Melbourne), Wanning Sun (UTS), Ramaswami Harindranath (University of Melbourne) and John Sinclair (University of Melbourne) Funding provider: Australian Research Council Over the past decade or so, TV schedules around the world have undergone something of a lifestyle revolution on prime-time television with advice television increasingly directed towards a broader prime-time audience. This study uses lifestyle programming as a lens through which to examine broader social changes in Asia. Seeing such programs as etiquette manuals for the twenty-first century, we are interested in what the rise of such programing might tell us about a range of broader shifts in Asian societies in relation to identity, culture and citizenship. Furthermore, we are concerned with the cultural and political roles played by television and lifestyle media more generally in shaping and legitimating particular kinds of lifestyle and consumer practices, values and identities. If the rise of lifestyle TV in the West can be linked to broader political and cultural shifts in the nature of late modernity, to what extent can these developments be applied to other contexts such as Asia? What are the potentials and limits of using concepts such as ‘neoliberalism’, or indeed terms such as the ‘middle class’, ‘lifestyle’, ‘reflexive individualization’, and ‘consumer-citizenship’, in the context of Asia, given that such concepts and concerns emerge out of a specifically Anglo- European sociological tradition and temporal mapping of modernity and industrial capitalism? This study addresses these complex questions through a large-scale comparative study of lifestyle programming in China, India, Taiwan and Singapore. The project applies a three-pronged approach at each national site, focusing on industry, textual and audience analysis.

Star TV Headquarters, Mumbai, India, 2010.

Spatial Dialogues: Public Art and Climate Change Researchers: Linda Williams, Philip Samartzis, Simon Perry, Dominic Redfern and Larissa Hjorth Funding providers: Australian Research Council, Grocon and Fairfax Media Management

This project will yield both social and environmental benefits through the creative ways it combines highly innovative public art projects with electronic social network systems to initiate transnational civic dialogues on the problem of adaptation to climate change. It extends our sense of urban space to include the regional and global ecologies upon which cities are dependent. The role of water in the city will not only be represented as a vital resource, but as an element essential to life and, as such, replete with deep cultural values frequently overlooked in the expedience of everyday urban life.

150 Theatre in the Asia-Pacific: Regional Culture in a Modern Global Context Researchers: Chris Hudson with Denise Varney (University of Melbourne), Peter Eckersall (University of Melbourne) and Barbara Hatley (University of Tasmania) Funding provider: Australian Research Council Focusing on the region’s diverse traditions of theatre and performance, ranging from customary to postmodern forms, this study offers a multi-regional perspective on contemporary culture in the Asia-Pacific region. An enabling premise is that theatre and performance are significant cultural sites charged with both preserving ancient and customary modes of performance, and also with displaying the vibrancy of contemporary arts practice. Changes in theatre practice are motivated by historical, philosophical and other social transformations. Theatre is not an autonomous aesthetic sphere but part of the social and material world. The project’s case studies explore theatre practice in Australia, Indonesia, Japan and Singapore and show how theatre bears witness to transformations at the level of the global, the national and the local.

Determining Necessary Survey Effort for Detecting Invasive Weeds in Native Vegetation Communities Researchers: Sarah Bekessy, Georgia Garrard and Brendan Wintle (University of Melbourne) Funding provider: Australian Centre of Excellence for Risk Analysis When new invasive species are discovered a decision must be made about whether to attempt eradication. The feasibility of eradicating an infestation is critically influenced by the amount of search effort applied relative to the detectability of invasive organisms. Furthermore, if eradication is to be achieved not only must the area invaded be treated, but a barrier zone around the invasion must also be treated to prevent invaders from escaping and colonising new areas. These issues have been studied by our research team in the context of weed invasions in a homogeneous environment. A particular innovation of this work is the application of search theory, which offers a framework for defining and measuring detectability, taking account of searcher ability, biological factors and the search environment. This project extends previous research and will develop methods to incorporate search-theory concepts into spatially-explicit population models and then use decision analysis to identify efficient management responses. The analysis will consider the rate of spread of the invasion, the costs of search and control, and the economic and environmental benefits of early response. The project will provide a tool to estimate the cost and duration of eradication programs to assist in prioritising infestations for control as well as to determine how best to allocate limited resources. While the focus will continue to be on invasive plants, generalisation of the tool for application to other classes of invasive organisms will be explored.

ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions Researchers: Sarah Bekessy and 21 national and international researchers from UQ, RMIT University, ANU, University of Melbourne, University of Western Australia, Hebrew University, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, UFZ, Stellenbosch University, Imperial College, University of Helsinki and the US Geological Survey Funding Provider: Australian Research Council Despite facing the sixth global mass extinction of species, most conservation management is unevaluated and inefficient. The ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions provides international research leadership in tackling the complex problems of environmental management and monitoring in an uncertain world. Working through six Australian universities and six international organizations, the Centre will forge new approaches and tools from ecology, mathematics, statistics, economics and the social sciences. It will lead the world in developing and delivering predictive models and decision-making approaches to improve outcomes in conservation management, habitat restoration, spatial planning and threat adaptation under a changing climate. Bekessy leads the research theme ‘Rapidly Transforming Landscapes’.

151 Research Hub for Environmental Decisions Researchers: Sarah Bekessy and 20 researchers from RMIT University, UQ, ANU, University of Melbourne and the University of Western Australia Funding Provider: National Environment Research Program Biodiversity underpins the cultural and economic prosperity of Australia. The multidisciplinary Australian Centre for Terrestrial Biodiversity Research (ACTBR) will carry out the high-quality applied research on all forms of terrestrial biodiversity, in a wide range of environments, necessary to help Australian governments protect and restore Australia’s biodiversity. The research will include new tools, data, models and authoritative syntheses that enable Australian governments to make evidence-based decisions that halt, then reverse, the decline in biodiversity. The ACTBR research program is structured around delivering outcomes on each of the five NERP research priorities: values, ecosystems, threats, sustainable use and markets.

Assessing Communication for Social Change: Impact Assessment for Development Initiatives Researchers: Sarah Bekessy and Andrew Skuse (University of Adelaide) Funding providers: Australian Research Council and Equal Access (San Francisco) Communication-for-development initiatives aim to stimulate positive social change, for example, by encouraging beneficial health-related behaviour. Social change is typically assessed qualitatively because social or behavioural changes are difficult to accurately quantify. However, the current trend is increasingly towards the setting of quantifiable targets and many initiatives in mass media, new ICTs and social communication are seeking new ways to assess impact. This project integrates work on participatory monitoring and evaluation with ethnography and action research to develop new ‘hybrid’ impact evaluation methods that allow longer-term ethnographic approaches to qualify and triangulate community-generated indicators and data.

Cultural Precincts Researchers: Peter Phipps, Martin Mulligan and Tommaso Durante Funding providers: City of Melbourne and the Victorian Multicultural Commission This project is concerned with three inner-city cultural precincts in Lonsdale, Lygon and Little Bourke streets in Melbourne. The project explores the policy settings around cultural precincts here and internationally, conducts research on the cultural history of these precincts, and makes specific policy and implementation recommendations. The project is an example of theoretical questions around cultural identity and community in conditions of globalization offering insights in applied cultural policy. The policy recommendations in the final report will be considered closely by the state government in framing state-wide cultural precincts policy.

Globalization: The Career of a Key Concept Researchers: Paul James and Manfred Steger Funding providers: Australian Research Council This project will assemble the first comprehensive history of the concept ‘globalization’, one of the most important keywords of our time. Examining relevant texts and conducting interviews with the most prominent experts on the subject from professional communities of practice in the English- speaking world, this research will shed light on which meanings of ‘globalization’ became dominant in public and academic discourse, and how these understandings shape the heated debates on globalization. Thus, this project will go a long way toward explaining how people around the world came to be in thrall with this powerful keyword.

152 Chinese Museum in China Town, Melbourne, Australia, 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

153 6. Research Programs

Community Sustainability

Research Leader: Supriya Singh Research Manager: Yaso Nadarajah Research Team: Alperhan Babacan, Naomi Bailey, Anuja Cabraal, Chris Chamberlain, France Cheong, Val Colic-Peisker, Susana Gavidia-Payne, David Hayward, Kim Humphery, Margaret Jackson, Paul James, Guy Johnson, Shahadat Khan, Liam Magee, Jan Matthews, Alemayehu Molla, Martin Mulligan, Suellen Murray, Shanthi Robertson, Patricia Rogers, James Rowe, Andy Scerri, Mohini Singh, Kaye Stevens and Yoland Wadsworth

How do communities shape, and how are they shaped by, processes of globalization and the use of information and communication technologies?

This program translates research into more effective theory and policies around community sustainability, and develops policy tools for measuring indices of community sustainability across cities.

Research Focus

The study of communities is vital to understanding how cities can sustain themselves, given their unprecedented global growth. It is critical to think of community as in a constant process of formation and reformation in response to ever-changing local and global conditions. We are increasingly interested in diasporic communities in the Asia-Pacific region and their influence on national identities and the changing nature of citizenship. The focus on communities connects lived urban experience with the broad theme of urbanization, drawing on studies of demography, urban planning, infrastructure and development, transportation and affordable housing, environmental politics and citizenship. Beyond this, by reinvigorating the study of community formation and adaptation within changing city environments, particularly in the Global South, we aim to establish a new theoretical and methodological agenda for addressing the big social challenges of city life. This program offers an important opportunity to rethink the question of community sustainability at local, national and international levels from multi-disciplinary perspectives. Our transnational collaborations involve incremental and long-term engagement - which influences the theoretical contributions which the Community Sustainability group brings to research and to ways of deepening discourses on resilience and sustainability of local communities.

Description of Program

Current research in the Community Sustainability Program falls into the following major themes: 1. Community Sustainability Indicators 2. Connecting the Local and Global 3. Building Communities 4. Information and Community Sustainability 5. Migration and Diaspora Communities 6. Civic Repair

154 Current Projects

Community Sustainability Indicators Researchers: Paul James, Andy Scerri and Liam Magee Funding providers and partners: Australian Research Council, City of Melbourne, FujiXerox Australia, Cambridge International College-Melbourne, Common Ground Publishing, Microsoft Corporation, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver City Council and Cambridge Western College-Vancouver. This project is developing a set of tools for integrating quantitative with qualitative methods of assessing and monitoring community sustainability. Framed by sociological accounts of public deliberation and participation in science, the project will develop a web-based software tool using agent-based decision-support modelling. This tool will provide an immediately visible dashboard that measures changes in key indices of community sustainability across the key global cities. This project will contribute to policy and theory, building on the detailed empirical work across the sites. The research uses critical social theory to examine some of the issues that arise when setting out to develop and implement qualitative indicators of sustainability that incorporate quantitative metrics.

Geodesic Dome, Vancouver, Canada, April 2009.

The Local-Global Researchers: Yaso Nadarajah, Martin Mulligan, Paul James and Andy Scerri This long-term research project, studying localities around the globe, seeks to determine if and how communities are negotiating transformations across the complex layers of social life from the local to the global. The research is engaged with multiple communities within each site, ranging from the urban to the rural, and from those embedded in face-to-face communities to those which are closely integrated into global flows of exchange and information. The research is located at sites in Melbourne and regional Victoria, nationally around Australia and globally, with a particular emphasis on countries in the Asia-Pacific region. These include Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Ecuador, and Australia. Relationships in these sites vary according to the scale, depth and layers of networks established previously. Research has been going for a number of years already, with the aim of maintaining at least, initially a ten-year relationship, first as an expression of an underlying ethic of commitment to a long-term relationship, and secondly to enable us to draw temporal as well as global comparisons.

155 Identity and Belonging in Modernizing Malaysia Researcher: Yaso Nadarajah Funding providers and partners: The Institute of Malaysian and International Studies, Sisters-in-Islam Forum, (with University Malaya, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, and University Science, Malaysia) This research draws from nearly three years of ethnographic fieldwork of community life in a large squatter settlement in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, as part of broader community sustainability research across four countries in the Asia-Pacific. To date it has involved in-depth and ongoing mapping of the transition of squatter settlements communities to their new low-cost high rise housing complexes in the same location, focusing on the relationship between the notion of community in the context of the recent national elections and current contestations surrounding constitutional perspectives on freedom of religion, secularism and national public life, and the affect of Tamil community mobilization activities, such as the Hindu Rights Action Force (HINDRAF). While the project has continued to focus on the developments at the housing complexes, the unexpected results of the 2008 National Elections heralding a new political chapter in Malaysian history and the new socio-political consciousness and struggle for changes particularly from the working- class Indians have both been drawn into the study to more deeply explore the complexities and opportunities intimated in relationships within a common ground of identity, belonging and nationhood. Since 2009, Yaso Nadarajah as senior research associate in IKMAS and the Sister-in-Islam Forum has continued to be actively engaged as one of the lead researchers in a nationwide study on the impact of polygamy on Muslim family-life. This study is carried out in collaboration with key universities in Malaysia: Kebangsaan Malaysia, University Malaya and University Sains Malaysia. This multi-disciplinary study, involves fourteen other Malaysia based co-researchers, whilst linking with key international Islamic women movements. It has focused on marriage and family law and seeks an understanding of the practice of polygamy among Muslims in peninsular Malaysia, which is legally provided for under the State Islamic Family Law Enactments. The research is done with a view to advocate for reform of Islamic family laws and the administration of justice in relation to polygamy; conduct a public awareness campaign; and provide input into policy formulation on government programs and activities related to ‘keluarga bahagia’ (family wellbeing) and ‘kursus perkahwinan’ (marriage courses).

A ceremony in Desa Mentari to welcome a child into the world. Since then waves of violence have broken out in this housing estate and others in response to the state-sponsored bulldozing of Hindu temples. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, August 2008.

156 Negotiating the Local-Global in the Hamilton Region Researchers: Yaso Nadarajah, Martin Mulligan, Terrie Nicholson, Cicely Fenton, Lakshmi Venugopal and Priyanka Patel Funding providers: Helen and Geoff Handbury Fellowships Program and the Federal Collaborative and Structural Regional Development Fund Critical Reference Group: John Callinan, Cicely Fenton, John Fenton, Terrie Nicholson, Sue Pizzey, Judy Warne, Coralie Coulson, Olive McVicker, Vicki Finch, Bob Cadden and Jenny Kane (with Suzy Clarke, Tony MacGillivray, Ken Saunders and Damien Bell as correspondence members) The project was developed by Yaso Nadarajah to strengthen ideas and community practices in the Western Victoria region, through community-led university research partnerships. Since 2002, twenty fellowships have funded local projects ranging from the development of low-costs strategies for using reclaimed water in integrated enterprise systems to evaluating the benefit of arts festivals to community wellbeing. An evaluation through 2010 has helped towards framing the third phase - which will primarily work towards five priority areas: economy and livelihoods; community health; cultural diversity; food security; and ecology benefits for the region. The Fellowship program is particularly interested in the ideas and work of local people who might fall outside of other grant processes or who would not see themselves as capable of applying for a grant. Community researchers are also linked to existing and potential research interests in RMIT Globalism Research Centre and RMIT Global Cities Institute. Reports and publications from the Fellowship program are available through the website: www.rmit.edu.au/globalism/communityformation/handburyfellowship

The Coleraine Enterprise Researchers: Yaso Nadarajah with Martin Mulligan, Lakshmi Venugopal and Priyanka Patel with John Kane, Jenny Kane (Fellowship holders, Coleraine), Heinz De Chelard (Fellowship holder, Hamilton), and also Michael McCarthy (Southern Grampians Shire Council) and Ian Bail (Wannon Water) This project, which is also a combination of three Handbury Fellowship Programs works as a catalytic team of researchers (university and community), local government, statutory bodies and a research reference group to test the scale and scope of a developing climate-change-adaptation enterprise project that is both economically and culturally vital and viable as a small-town model. This project is an integration of water reclamation, organic bioremediation, food production and biofuel production. The project is based at the Wastewater Reclamation Facility managed by Wannon Water in the Western Victoria farming town of Coleraine.

157 Reconstructing Community Livelihood after Tsunami Researchers: Martin Mulligan, Yaso Nadarajah, Dave Mercer, Judith Shaw (Monash University), with Professor Siri Hettige (University of Colombo), Kaleel Aqeel (South Eastern University, Pottuvil), Ashraff Ahmed (NESDO, Sainthamaruthu) and Kushil Gunasegara (Foundation of Goodness, Seenigama) Funding provider: Australian Research Council This project, one of the longest running and most intense study of social recovery from the 2004 tsunami, has investigated how communities have been rebuilt, thereby evaluating the long-term benefit of disaster aid. It has generated detailed empirical work across five case study sites - Seenigama, Hambantota, Thirukkovil, Sainthamuruthu, and Chennai. The ‘community-engaged’ research methodology involved consultation with local advisors and reliance on local guides and research assistants. Research methods included: the construction of social profiles of case-study areas, surveys, community member profiles, lengthy interviews, and the collection of relevant local stories. A book on this study is being published by Routledge, New Delhi, in 2011. The focus of the research team headed by Martin Mulligan and Yaso Nadarajah has now turned to post-conflict reconciliation in the Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka.

Sustainable Community Development in Tamil Nadu, South India Researchers: Yaso Nadarajah, Martin Mulligan, and Sona Thomas, with Thangavelu Vasantha Kumaran, Guna Narasinga and Kavi Arasan (University of Madras); D. Sivakumar and S. Raji (Thillagar Nagar community leaders) and Sylvester (University of Madras postgraduate student) The focus of this project is on sustainable community development, with a particular emphasis on the implementation of participatory methodologies to enhance sustainability at the community level. Partnership with the University of Madras has been in part a process of developing comparative basis for developing changing indicators of social wellbeing and community sustainability. This includes a research focus on livelihood trajectories, communal conflict/politics, and traditional and local knowledge systems. In 2009 and 2010, the study focused on two of the fishing slum- communities (Chennai) who were relocated after the Tsunami disaster as part of the larger study entitled ‘Rebuilding communities after the 2004 Tsunami’.

ReGenerating Community: Arts, Community and Governance Researchers: Martin Mulligan and Pia Smith Funding providers: Australia Council for the Arts, Arts Victoria, Arts NSW and Arts Queensland This project examined the role of community art projects in enhancing local government in Australia. It tracked the development of the national ‘Generations Project’ in five local government areas across Victoria, NSW and Queensland and resulted in both a national conference - held at RMIT - and a research report to be circulated nationally by the Australia Council for the Arts. Researchers worked closely with the Melbourne-based Cultural Development Network to complete the research and communicate its key findings within the local government sector nationally. The project report was completed in 2010 and the work has led to a further collaboration with the Centre for Cultural Partnerships at the University of Melbourne on better ways to evaluate the social benefits of community artwork.

158 Community-Based Cultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Australia Researchers: Martin Mulligan, Lesley Duxbury, Kevin McDonald and Erin Wilson This project team was formed around the development of an application for an ARC Discovery Grant in 2011, which has led to an ongoing collaboration. The project is focused on embodied experiences of climate and climate change and it is interested in new ways of working with people and communities on the future uncertainties that will accompany climate change. It is also interested in working with local government on their strategies for better engaging with local communities on the challenges of climate change.

Information and Communication Technology Programs in E-Government and E-Learning Researcher: Mohini Singh This research examined the outcomes and impact of publicly funded ICT-based initiatives on e-government and e-learning on rural and regional communities. It included case studies from Victoria and Queensland to determine a strategy for reducing the digital divide. Key findings of this research indicate that e-government and e-learning initiatives delivered in rural Australia through Neighbourhood and Community Houses, Social Clubs, Rural Transaction Centres and TAFE Institutes result in an improved profile of the rural community, create business opportunities, improved governance and enhance inclusion and social capital. It recommends strategic alliances with technology providers, state government agencies, trainers and community groups to further augment the adoption of ICT-based programs with rural communities.

The Implementation and Management of Mobile Technologies with Victoria Police Researcher: Mohini Singh This research evaluated the implementation, use and impact of mobile technologies with Victoria Police. It identified implementation issues, information-management issues, relevance of technologies to tasks, security issues, performance outcomes and innovation of police processes and operations with these technologies. Information in this report has been compiled from an analysis of data gathered from informal interviews, observations and focus groups guided by the theory of Task Technology Fit. The findings of this research highlight that mobile technologies lead to a more efficient and effective operational police work, based on the relevance of technologies to the context of tasks. This research highlights that mobile technologies are important tools for police organizations that are ‘intelligence-led and information intensive’. It confirms that the implementation of mobile technologies with Victoria Police is analogous to police organizations in the UK, Europe and USA, and an essential requirement to better service the community.

ICTs and Eco-Sustainability Researchers: Alemayehu Molla, Hepu Deng, Vanessa Cooper, Siddhi Pittayachawan and Brian Corbitt This project is developing an understanding of the direct and indirect effects of information and communications technologies on environmental sustainability at community and organizational levels. The project is contributing to Green readiness and Green ICT capability-assessment tools to help IT-using organizations and the IT industry towards sustainability.

159 Cash in Remote Districts of Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea Researchers: Supriya Singh and Yaso Nadarajah The aim is to explore proposals for mobile money in Papua New Guinea and to see how the needs of remote communities differ from urban and other rural communities. This empirical study of the use of cash in remote areas of Papua New Guinea will be used to develop a community centred approach to building a mobile money system that will respond to the needs of remote communities. It will emphasise the common needs of the community that will supplement policy that is focused on the provision of services and technology. An important focus of this research is the role of women in money management and the effects of financial exclusion of their ability to contribute to the wellbeing of their families. The aim is to increase financial inclusion, and to empower women across PNG. The need for such initiatives is particularly urgent in remote communities as there are no formal financial services.

Money, Migration and Family Researchers: Supriya Singh and Anuja Cabraal This is a study of the Indian diaspora in Australia, with a particular emphasis on family and community remittances and issues of identity and belonging. The study covers the experiences of first and second-generation migrants, as well as recently arrived Indian students.

Migration and Mobility Researchers: Val Colic-Peisker, Supriya Singh and Anuja Cabraal The Migration and Mobility project established as a research network brings together an interdisciplinary group of academics from Melbourne universities together with policy-makers, people from NGOs and anyone else interested in the themes of migration and mobility. The network is a forum to exchange current research and forge research collaborations with academics, government and NGOs.

Rough Sleeping in Rural and Regional Victoria Researchers: Chris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie (Swinburne University) Funding provider: Department of Human Services (Victoria) This project investigates homelessness in rural and regional Victoria in order to improve the evidence base regarding rough sleeping. The findings will inform new approaches to reducing rough sleeping in regional communities. The research will also consider the feasibility of transferring service models from metropolitan Melbourne to regional settings.

160 Brunswick, Melbourne, Australia, 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

161 The Street to Home Program in Providing Pathways out of Homelessness for Adult Rough Sleepers Researchers: Chris Chamberlain and Guy Johnson Funding providers: Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, the Salvation Army Crisis Services and HomeGround Services One of the headline goals in the Australian Government’s White paper, The Road Home, is to offer supported accommodation to all rough sleepers who want it by 2020. The Streets to Home program is being implemented in each jurisdiction in order to advance this objective. The program is designed to assist people who have been sleeping rough to make the transition to sustainable supported housing. In Victoria, a consortium consisting of HomeGround Services, The Salvation Army Adult Services and The Salvation Army Crisis Services have been funded for three years to assist approximately 300 chronically homeless people into stable, sustainable housing. This project will undertake the evaluation of the Streets to Home initiative in Victoria.

Breaking the Cycle: The Role of Housing and Support in Resolving Chronic Homelessness Researchers: Chris Chamberlain, Guy Johnson with Naomi Bailey Funding provider: Australian Research Council Research partner: Sacred Heart Mission This is a longitudinal study of formerly chronically homeless people who reside in a supportive housing facility in inner Melbourne. It will interview 40 residents twice over a 12-month period, analysing what factors enable people who have been chronically homeless to maintain their housing. The project will provide vital information on the best ways to assist chronically homeless people to remain housed and to address their social exclusion. It will enable policy makers and service providers to identify appropriate housing configurations and to develop support programs that better assist the chronically homeless.

On the Margins: Caravan-Park Dwellers and Boarding-House Residents Researchers: Chris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie (Swinburne University) Funding provider: Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs This study will investigate the social characteristics and housing situation of people living in caravan parks and boarding houses. The study will involve a telephone survey of all caravan parks across Victoria, a review of the data available through the Victorian Boarding House Inspectorate, and field visits to boarding houses and caravan parks in 50 localities. The research will provide up-to-date information on changes in boarding houses and caravan parks across Victoria and investigate the feasibility of a national study.

Care-Leavers: Access to Records and Identity Researchers: Suellen Murray and Cathy Humphreys (University of Melbourne) Funding providers and partners: Australian Research Council, Centre for Excellence in Child and Family Welfare, Department of Human Services, VACCA and others This research is considering the impact of access to care records on the construction of care- leavers’ identity and their health and wellbeing. It is providing evidence of the significance of these records and documenting care-leavers’ experiences of seeking access to their care records. The research aims to inform improvements in record keeping, access and release of care records.

162 Surveying HIV and Need Throughout the Unregulated Sex Industry Researcher: James Rowe Funding provider: Inner South Community Health Service The project engages with individuals in the unregulated sex industry to understand levels of HIV as well as the broader notion of ‘need’ on the part of those involved in the industry. Field research was conducted over the course of 12 months and 145 individuals gave of their time and experiences to contribute to our understandings of the street-based sex market, migrant workers in the illicit sex market and individuals who negotiate the sale of sexual services via the internet. While there were numerous key findings to emerge, the link between these findings was that those who are at risk of exposure to sexually transmissible disease and vulnerable to harm as a consequence of their involvement in the unregulated sex industry are not in such a position due to decisions or a ‘lifestyle choice’ they have made. Those whose lives are characterized by ill-health, poverty, homelessness and drug dependence did not make unencumbered ‘choices’ to survive by selling sex. Rather, their vulnerability is a result of inequality, disadvantage and abuse. Their lived experiences will only be addressed when policy recognizes ‘involuntary’ involvement in the unregulated sex industry as a response to need.

Living Next to Street Sex-Work Researcher: James Rowe Funding provider: City of Port Phillip Although the presence of St Kilda’s street sex-workers has been the subject of numerous studies and reports, there has been very little detailed and independent research conducted on the experiences of residents who live in areas of high sex-work activity. The research provided an overview of the experiences of residents’ who live in the vicinity of street sex-work activity in order to determine if more could be done to improve the liveability of the St Kilda community. Because of the complexity of this issue, this project did not propose to find an ‘answer’ that met all parties’ expectations by addressing the problems associated with street sex-work. Instead, the research sought to deliver detailed information on local residents’ perspectives to Council, police, State Government, street sex-workers, health and welfare agencies and the broader community.

Narrative Evaluation Action Research Project Researchers: Yoland Wadsworth, Karen Goltz (DHS N&WMR), John Wiseman (University of Melbourne), Gai Wilson (University of Melbourne) and Ani Wierenga (University of Melbourne) Funding provider: Department of Health The project was initiated in 2003 by the then Victorian Department of Human Services, Western Metropolitan Region as a workforce development project with a strong emphasis on reflective change-oriented practice. The aim of the project has been to build the capacity of community health agencies to evaluate and report on their Integrated Health Promotion programming using strengthened narrative annual reporting. It is designed as a process to enable health-promotion staff, practitioners, community members and management to have an increased opportunity to reflect upon their activities as part of annual work plan evaluation cycles.

163 Strengthening Impact Evaluation for Learning and Development Researchers: Patricia Rogers and David Bonbright (Keystone Accountability, UK) Funding provider: Global Action Network, USA The work of the Global Action Network focuses on innovation and further development of social innovations for scaling positive change in the world. This project is designed to broaden and deepen the range of rigorous methods and approaches to impact evaluation that are credible, readily accessible, and useable by those working in development. Patricia Rogers is one of the six writers engaged to produce a series of written inputs leading up to a publication that consolidates the new generation of rigorous mixed-method approaches for impact planning and learning for development.

Building Evidence through the Evaluation of Parenting and Early Childhood Intervention Programs Researchers: Patricia Rogers, Kaye Stevens, Susana Gavidia-Payne, Andrew Anderson (Benevolent Society) Jan Matthews, Naomi Hackworth and Leonie Symes (Centre for Community Child Health / Early Childhood Intervention Australia) Funding provider: Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth This collaboration, involving RMIT, The Benevolent Society, the Parenting Research Centre and the Centre for Community Child Health, is building practice-based evidence about parenting and early childhood interventions through program evaluation. Researchers and practitioners work together to explore a range of perspectives on evaluation issues in parenting and early childhood programs, to identify priorities for longer-term and more in-depth collaborative research, and to identify opportunities for building capacity for learning from practice. Practice-based evidence is important for learning about how to effectively translate evidence into practice, while taking into account the impact of family values and priorities, and identifying differential outcomes for sub-groups of program participants.

Evaluation of Alzheimer’s Australia services to improve access for special needs groups Researchers: Kaye Stevens, Patricia Rogers, Chris Chamberlain and Carmel Laragy Commonwealth funding was provided to Alzheimer’s Australia to improve the inclusiveness of dementia services by promoting partnerships to address issues in accessing mainstream dementia care and support services for specific target groups: Indigenous people; People from CALD backgrounds; People from gay and lesbian communities; People with younger onset dementia (aged under 65); Regional, rural and remote populations. The evaluation documented the outcomes of 11 projects implemented by State and Territory Alzheimer’s Australia organisations.

164 Damien Bell is from the Gunditjmara people in the far southwest of Victoria. He is the Executive Officer of the Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Corporation associated with Lake Condah in Victoria. Here he is photographed at the Kurtonitj Protected Area speaking to a group of Israelis and Palestinians about the meaning of place. Kurtonitj, Australia, July 2011.

165 Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures

Research Leader: Ralph Horne and John Fien Research Manager: Prem Chhetri Research Team: Yoko Akama, Mary Myla Andamon, Paula Arcari, Sarah Bekessy, Iris Bergman, Michael Berry, Beau Beza, Amy Brown, Tim Butcher, Mexie Butler, Michael Buxton, Iain Campbell, Andrew Carre, Chris Chamberlain, Susan Chaplin, Esther Charlesworth ,Sara Charlesworth, Melek Cigdem ,Stephen Clune, Val Colic-Peisker, Nicole Cook, Jonathan Corcoran, Enda Crossin, Tony Dalton, Bart Durlinger, Peter Fairbrother, David Forrest, Colin Fudge, Victor Gekara, Robin Goodman, Ascelin Gordon, Annette Gough, Elizabeth Grierson, Jose Roberto Guevara, David Hayward, Kathryn Hegarty, Lynnel Hoare, Shae Hunter, Joe Hurley, Usha Iyer-Raniga, John Jackson, Guy Johnson, Ian Jones, Jo Lang, Bill Langford, Julie Lawson, Helen Lewis, Simon Lockrey, Cecily Maller, Andrew Martel, Grant McBurnie, Adela McMurray, Bernard Mees, Paul Mees, David Mercer, Denise Meredyth, Bronwyn Meyrick, Susie Moloney, Trivess Moore, John Morrissey, Suellen Murray, Anitra Nelson, Larissa Nicholls, Berenice Nyland, Sharon Parkinson, Alan Pears, Richard Phillips, Nattavud Pimpa, Shams Rahman, Rob Roggema, Katelyn Samson, Pradipta Sarkar, Jan Scheurer, Judith Smart, Jodi-Anne Smith, Agnes Soh, Helaine Stanley, Yolande Strengers, Elizabeth Taylor, Jacqui Theobald, Ian Thomas, Keith Toh, Ly Tran, Meagan Tyler, Karli Verghese, Ron Wakefield, Julia Werner, Leone Wheeler, Nicola Willand, Bruce Wilson, James Wong, Tammy Wong, Gavin Wood and Leslie Young

How will cities respond to the increasing demands on infrastructure in knowledge economies?

This program address issues of social and environmental sustainability in urban areas experiencing global economic forces and climate change.

Diorama of the city of Singapore used for planning purposes. Singapore, September 2011.

166 Research Focus

The growing social footprints of cities include an intensification of the consumption of natural resources. This phenomenon conflicts with the need to reduce urban ecological footprints, implying significant reconfiguration of the social and technical dimensions of the urban realm. This program investigates this tension, as well as its effects on socio-spatial inequality, problems of social exclusion, and increasing urban social conflict.

Description of Program

In addressing these challenges the program is organized around seven overlapping themes:

1. Housing and Urban Planning While focusing on housing this theme broadly addresses urban planning and policy, as well as the urban governance and political economy of cities, city-region infrastructure and urban mobility systems.

2. Climate Change and Social Context This theme investigates housing and social-environmental change in the context of climate change issues. It examines socio-technical systems, and niche possibilities for enhancing transition towards carbon-neutral communities.

3. Urban and Regional Transitions Greening economies and regions will require pathways of transition to low-carbon futures. This theme emphasizes equity and justice in regional transitions to a low-carbon economy.

4. Learning Cities Social learning is central to sustainable cities. This theme is researched in relation to the role of knowledge in low-carbon economies, the importance of education and training in innovation and sustainability systems, and the possibilities of green skills and community-learning partnerships.

5. Urban Metabolism and Low-Carbon Systems This theme focuses on the following issues: sustainable production and consumption systems, closed-loop design, product stewardship, life-cycle assessment, eco-footprinting, and environmental assessment and modelling.

6. Sustainable Business Practices Sustainable logistics and supply chain management are fundamental to sustainable cities. This theme investigates these and related issues such as sustainable procurement, sustainability indicators and reporting, ethical governance and finance, corporate social responsibility, and carbon accounting and management.

7. Sustainable Built Environments Under this heading we research issues such as affordable housing, sustainable construction management and procurement, environmental performance assessment and modelling of buildings, innovative building materials and fabrication, retrofitting for climate change, and building life-cycle assessment.

167 Current Projects

Design-Led Decision Support for Regional Climate Adaptation Researchers: Rob Roggema, Ralph Horne, Julia Werner, Agnes Soh, Shae Hunter and Stephen Clune, John Martin (La Trobe University) and Roger Jones (Victoria University) Funding provider: Victorian Climate Change Adaptation Research Centre Given the fact that climate change will have an impact even if reducing carbon emissions is very successful, designing regions in a way they become adaptive to climate change is necessary. This project aims to bring together knowledge of different local stakeholders, council members, state government representatives, science and the design community to develop future, climate adaptive, visions for three localities. In two consecutive charrettes, a multi-day intensive design workshop, these visions are designed. In between the two charrettes the results will be assessed, before being elaborated in greater detail. The findings will be used by the individual councils and by policy makers to stimulate a wider uptake of the method in other regions.

Adaptation Opportunities under Climate Change on the Coastal Suburban and Regional Fringe Researchers: Susie Moloney, Yolande Strengers and Cecily Maller Funding providers and partners: The Victorian Climate Change Adaptation Research Centre and Monash University The challenge for this project is to address directly how and why housing aspirations and expectations are changing in relation to house design, size, layout, fixtures and furnishings, and what impact this has on climate-change-adaptation issues and opportunities. The project will have a practical orientation, focused on identifying avenues for altering or facilitating adaptive expectations and aspirations.

Benchmarking Social Infrastructure: A Guide for Shaping Communities for Wellbeing Researchers: Ralph Horne, Shae Hunter, Leonie Wheeler, with representatives of the City of Whittlesea Funding provider: Melbourne Community Foundation’s Macro Melbourne Strategy This project aims to assist in the delivery of responsive, flexible, well-resourced and timely human services for Victorian periurban communities to help avoid social problems that can lead to entrenched disadvantage in the future. Stage One, now complete, comprised of a literature review of contemporary published studies examining social development issues, resource allocation of social services and community capacity in rapidly growing urban fringe areas.

Place-Making for Urban Renewal Researchers: Colin Fudge, Susie Moloney, Beau Beza, Prem Chhetri, John Fien and Amy Brown Funding provider: VicUrban This study is exploring the role of place-making in ensuring that urban renewal projects integrate economic competitiveness, social inclusion and environmental sustainability, in different urban settings (inner suburbs, middle-ring development, urban-fringe low density), but especially in relation to urban renewal. The project is focusing also on the interrelationships between health, wellbeing and liveability that can flow from privileging walking, cycling and public transport. Drawing on these findings, the project will generate strategies through which place-making can be used in specific urban settings confronting the Victorian Government’s urban renewal policies. Initial projects are in the Docklands, Fisherman’s Bend, E-Gate, Richmond Station, and Maribyrnong.

168 Selandra Speaks: Evaluating the Health and Wellbeing Outcomes of a Master-Planned Community Researchers: Cecily Maller, Larissa Nicholls, Shae Hunter and Ralph Horne Funding providers: VicHealth with support from Stockland, the Growth Areas Authority, the Planning Institute of Australia, and the City of Casey In order to explore how good planning at a neighbourhood scale can lead to better health and wellbeing outcomes for residents, this project evaluates and measures the planned, emerging and accidental health outcomes of Selandra Rise. Selandra is a demonstration residential development in Cranbourne North in Melbourne’s south-east. In a social model of health, housing is recognized as a key determinant of health and wellbeing. More specifically, the impact of place on health is well established. It is widely acknowledged that unhealthy places can have long-term implications for current residents and future generations. In the context of increasing demand for housing, issues of housing affordability and climate change, the research is shedding light on how health and wellbeing can be optimized and sustained for communities in new housing developments.

Pilot Study: NRCL Community Development Site Researchers: Ralph Horne and Paula Arcari Funding provider: Natural Resources Conservation League The aim of this project is to realize an innovative new form of sustainable development on Melbourne’s urban fringe. Working with NRCL and a range of key stakeholders in urban, community and eco-sensitive development, a three-day charrette process will be used to develop creative and transformative concepts for site development.

Labelling for Recyclability Researchers: Helen Lewis, Stephen Clune and Karli Verghese Funding provider: Australian Food and Grocery Council Recycling claims and labels are generally intended to provide consumers with information that will help them to sort their packaging correctly after use - that is, to put recyclable packaging in their recycling bin, to put non-recyclable packaging in their waste bin, and to correctly separate recyclable and non-recyclable components of a package if required to do so. This project reviewed recycling labels on packaging in Australia and recommended strategies to improve both their legal compliance and their effectiveness in supporting recycling programs. The review focused on labelling for mechanical material recycling of consumer packaging (primarily collected at kerbside).

Comparative Regional Policy: Europe, Asia, Australia Researchers: Bruce Wilson, Colin Fudge and John Fien Funding provider: The European Union Centre at RMIT This project is drawing on a comparative study of Regional Policy in Europe and in selected Asian countries to inform regional policy and program development in Australia. The project is focused in the early stages on identifying the sources of data used for monitoring social, economic and environmental status in European regions, and assessing the availability of similar sources in Australia. The outcome of this first stage will be the mapping of the extent of ‘patchwork’ regional development in Australia, and identifying more specific research questions which can be addressed in the second phase. The project is led by the European Union Centre at RMIT which receives core funding from the European Commission.

169 Sustainable Rural Futures Researchers: Bruce Wilson, Colin Fudge, Kaye Schofield, Mexie Butler and others Funding provider: Potter Foundation This project is focused on the development of the Potter Rural Community Research Network, as a means of addressing a range of sustainable agricultural and social issues which affect the future of southern Grampians and its relationship with metropoles.

Resilient Urban Systems: A Study of Community-Scale Climate Change Adaptation Initiatives Researchers: Ralph Horne, Chris Ryan (University of Melbourne), Yolande Strengers, Cecily Maller, Paula Arcari and Che Biggs (University of Melbourne) Funding providers and partners: The Victorian Climate Change Adaptation Research Centre and the University of Melbourne Victorian Eco Innovation Lab (VEIL) Resilient energy and water systems are required to reduce Victoria’s vulnerability to climate change, which, if not addressed, could have serious impacts on health and wellbeing. This project addresses knowledge gaps concerning these systems, such as how households and communities use them, and how and why local stakeholders develop these systems. The findings are intended to be used by policy-makers aiming to encourage wider uptake of community energy and water systems resilient to the impacts of climate change.

Current Labour Processes and Management of Subcontractors: Impacts on the Housing Construction Industry Researchers: Tony Dalton, Ron Wakefield and Ralph Horne Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This research assesses the impact of current work processes and management of subcontractors on productivity in the housing construction industry. The extensive use of sub-contractors has been a ubiquitous model in residential construction for decades and it is widely believed to be the most efficient modus operandi structuring the building industry. This project’s findings promise widespread implications for Australia’s residential housing construction sector and associated policies addressing the undersupply of housing. We expect to recommend government policy and industry strategies for overcoming unequivocal and significant challenges and to define outstanding areas for further investigation.

Housing Supply Bonds: A Suitable Instrument to Channel Investment towards Affordable Housing in Australia? Researchers: Julie Lawson, Vivienne Milligan (UNSW) and Judith Yates (UNSW) Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This research aims to develop a sustainable and low-cost private financing instrument, based on the adaptation of Housing Construction Convertible Bonds, in order to expand the supply of affordable rental housing and contribute towards Australian housing needs in the long term.

170 Marginal Rental Housing and Marginal Renters: A Typology for Policy Researchers: Robin Goodman, Anitra Nelson, Tony Dalton, Elizabeth Taylor and Keith Jacobs (University of Tasmania) Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This project is carefully designed using a mixed-methods approach and will enable analysis of the 2011 Census data. The evidence and typology will be used to enable appropriate and targeted policy-making.

Cost-Effective Methods for Evaluation of Neighbourhood-Renewal Programs Researchers: Gavin Wood and Melek Cigdem Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute The aim of this research project is to fill this existing void in the evidence base by utilizing cost- effective quantitative methods to measure the effectiveness of neighbourhood renewal in fulfilling its objectives. According to urban economists, real estate values are significantly influenced by a set of locational amenities and disamenities whose neighbourhood effects, whether adverse or positive, ‘spill over’ into the property market and, in turn, affect house prices. An enormous number of studies have used hedonic price models to provide strong empirical support for this proposition. Based on this economic theory, we hypothesize that, if a renewal program is successful, the ensuing enhancements in housing quality, neighbourhood amenities and improvements in the average level of health and wellbeing will be capitalized into the selling price of property values within and in the vicinity of a renewal site. This will lead to an increase in both the sales prices of properties that are located within renewal site boundaries (direct effects) as well as proximate properties that lie outside of the renewal site (indirect, spillover effects).

Commission housing in Fitzroy, Melbourne, Australia, 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

171 Objections and Appeals Against Planning Applications: Implications for Medium Density and Social Housing Researchers: Nicole Cook, Val Colic-Peisker, Joe Hurley and Elizabeth Taylor Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This project focuses on residents’ concerns about changing neighbourhoods. The context for the research is democratic ethos of public participation in planning. Many jurisdictions provide third- party rights of objection and appeal to interested groups. These rights have the potential to influence development approval processes and housing-market outcomes. They also have the capacity to significantly affect, and potentially inhibit, the achievement of compact city and social housing objectives. As debates around the merits of third-party objection and appeal attract increasing attention in international planning communities, and the stakes for compact cities and affordable housing outcomes are raised, an assessment of the efficacy and equity of third-party objection and appeal rights is urgently required.

Housing Security: Consequences of Underemployment Researchers: Iain Campbell, Sharon Parkinson and Gavin Wood Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This research project aims to provide a comprehensive population-wide analysis of the consequences of time-related underemployment as it relates to different housing tenures and household groups. Time-related underemployment can be measured in several ways. The simplest definition refers to those working less than 35 hours in a given week who would prefer to work more paid hours. Although underemployment is associated with substantial disadvantage and affects large numbers in Australia, some 874,000 in August 2010, its precise impact on housing remains an unjustly neglected area of study.

Sustaining Homeownership in the Twenty-First Century: Emerging Policy Concerns Researchers: Gavin Wood and Rachel Ong (Curtin University) Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute The research aims to chart the challenges to homeownership in the twenty-first century, and to explore the possible policy responses to these challenges. The research will develop ideas about how housing policy might reform the tax treatment of homeowners in ways that might implement the goals sought by direct housing assistance measures.

Spatial Network Analysis for Multimodel Urban Transport Systems: Planning for Public Transport Networks Researchers: Paul Mees, Jan Scheurer and Kristen Bell Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute Through exploring the concept of accessibility in relation to best-practice public transport networks, the research will contribute to the understanding of the effects of transport policies and programs on the spatial distribution of housing.

172 Reframing Affordability to take Stock of the Environmental Sustainability of Housing Researchers: Mike Berry, John Morrissey and Bronwyn Meyrick Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute This research focuses on households in the private rental-housing sector, which it argues are more likely to experience housing-affordability problems and are vulnerable to increasing energy costs. The research investigates the financial and non-financial barriers to improving environmental performance of the Australian private rental-housing sector and how these barriers may be overcome. The research concentrates on households, as constituted by tenants of existing and new housing. It investigates the hypothesis that a ‘principal agent problem’ or split incentive besets these households and that this is a significant barrier to improving the energy and water efficiency of housing in this sector. The impact of regulatory, financial and social/cultural barriers are being examined.

The City as a Curated Space Researchers: Elizabeth Grierson, David Forrest and Tammy Wong Funding provider: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute The research study is considering the current global and local social climate of the culture of cities and how this impacts upon the role of the visual artist in the Australian cities of Melbourne and Sydney. This research evaluates the current climate and will be important in documenting the current status of the methods which have been used to date in planning the city as a curated space. The study considers and rethinks contemporary issues in the area of curating art exhibitions in the urban environment and is intended to assist those working in the area of cultural planning in the future.

Beyond Behaviour Change Researchers: Yolande Strengers, Cecily Maller, Ralph Horne, Susie Moloney, Stephen Clune, Paula Arcari, Helaine Stanley, Larissa Nicholls, Shae Hunter, Katelyn Sampson and Ian Jones This is a cluster of projects convened by Yolande Strengers and based on the application of social practice theory to attempts by policy and program-makers and deliverers to alter household practices towards low-carbon futures. Case studies to date include the use of design, interventions in behaviour-change program design, and applications of social practice theory to household ‘greening’.

Sustainable Families Researchers: Susie Moloney and Cecily Maller Funding provider and partners: Department of Sustainability and Environment Sustainability Fund, Kildonan Uniting Care, Yarra Valley Water and Department of Human Services This pilot project introduces sustainability to family-services clients of Kildonan Uniting Care. The project involves discussion with family-services clients (low-income households) about ways to reduce energy, water and waste at a household level. The data collection will be interview based over three years. 144 households will be visited up to four times by a Family Services worker and a trained energy-auditor to collect longitudinal data.

173 School-Community Learning Partnerships Researchers: Jose Roberto Guevara, Annette Gough, John Fien, Jodi-Anne Smith, Leone Wheeler, Jo Lang and Susan Elliott Funding provider: Australian Research Council School-community partnerships in peri-urban regions have the potential to contribute to the ‘community resilience trinity’ of social, human and natural capital. Eighteen case studies of successful learning partnerships have been conducted in and around Melbourne, Brisbane, the Sunshine Coast, Townsville and Cairns. Each case study has been written in three phases through student, teacher and community workshops using the Most Significant Change Technique. An analysis of the case studies is being undertaken; 1. to analyse patterns of approaches and outcomes of the range of existing school-community learning partnerships for sustainability; 2. to identify the factors that are facilitating and limiting the enhancement of educational as well as social and natural capital outcomes of different approaches to school-community learning partnerships; 3. to identify principles for the establishment and management of effective learning partnerships; 4. to identify the capabilities required of the different stakeholders in building effective community learning partnerships for sustainability; and 5. to identify the factors that influence the adoption of the lessons learned about effective community learning partnerships for sustainability. The project is in its third year and researchers presented findings at the World Environmental Educators Congress (2011) are currently analysing the results, and drafting a guide-book of good practice.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fire Safety Programs in Emergency Services Management Researchers: Prem Chhetri and Jonathan Corcoran (University of Queensland) Funding providers and partners: Australian Research Council, Queensland Fire and Rescue Service Project Summary Measuring the effectiveness of fire safety programs is critical to minimising economic costs, optimising resource utilisation and mitigating risk to individuals of injury and death. This project will be the first study to develop a methodological framework that integrates geographical, statistical and temporal analyses for their evaluation.

A Regional Perspective on Work and Family Balance and Changes in Employment Regulation Researchers: Sara Charlesworth, Iain Campbell and Marian Baird (University of Sydney) Funding provider and partners: Australian Research Council, Workforce Victoria and Regional Development Victoria Work/family balance is given significant attention at the community, national and international level. This project will generate new knowledge about the ways in which employment regulation directly and indirectly impacts on employee work/family balance outcomes within different regional and industry contexts. A growing body of research recognizes the linkages between employment regulation and effects on child and parent wellbeing and health, labour-force supply, and economic outcomes. However, little is known about how geographical location shapes work/family balance. The research will thus contribute to improved understandings and to better social policy at the local, state and federal levels.

174 Australian Domestic Violence Public Policy: History, Discourse and Impact, 1985–2005 Researcher: Suellen Murray Funding provider: Australian Research Council Domestic violence has significant costs to the community and this project will have national benefits by identifying effective policy directions. Through a combination of textual analysis and interviews with key policy makers, the research is documenting the history of public-policy responses to domestic violence in Australia for the past 20 years and analysing the range of approaches and their implications over this time. The project will provide better understandings of the ways in which domestic violence policy has developed over time and, in doing so, provide assistance to state, territory and federal governments in formulating future policy in this area.

150 Low-Income Australians: A Group Biography over Time Researchers: Suellen Murray, John Murphy (University of Melbourne), Jenny Chalmers (UNSW, formerly RMIT), Greg Marston (University of Queensland), Belinda Probert (La Trobe University) and Mark Peel (Monash University) Funding provider and partners: Australian Research Council and Jobs Australia This project examines how welfare-to-work policies are experienced. The project aims to illuminate how incentives and obstacles are perceived; describe patterns of interdependency; and understand people’s discourses and values about welfare and obligation.

History of the Women’s Refuge Movement, 1974 to 2004 Researchers: Suellen Murray, Judith Smart and Jacqui Theobald Funding provider and partners: Australian Research Council and Domestic Violence Victoria Using a rich archive of source material and in-depth interviews, this project traces the unique history of the women’s refuge movement in Victoria, from its initiation in 1974 through to a period of significant change in 2004. The doctoral student, Jacqui Theobald, began work on the project in 2007. The research will make a substantial contribution to the body of knowledge concerned with the history of domestic violence and these longer-term perspectives will be beneficial to future policy and program development.

175 Human Security

Research Leaders: John Handmer and Jeff Lewis Research Manager: Robin Cameron Research Team: Toni Erskine, Damian Grenfell, Vandra Harris, Georgina Heydon, Paul James, Elizabeth Kath, Adriana Keating, Blythe McLennan, Andreana Reale, Karin Reinke, Selver Sahin, Joseph Siracusa, Victoria Stead, Richard Tanter, Anna Trembath, Mayra Walsh and Joshua Whittaker

How can cities harness their immense resources to cope with crises?

This program focuses on the pathways for recovering from conflict, for building resilience, and for reducing disaster-vulnerability.

Research Focus

From the perspective taken by this program, security is human-centred. It focuses primarily on communities and persons rather than only on abstracted understandings of state sovereignty, military defence, or border security. Promotion of health, protection against violence and projection of sustainable environmental and economic practices requires reflexive policies that effectively build upon existing communal and political-cultural dynamics in order to foster resilience and harness creative and productive responses to crises and conflict. Human security in this sense encompasses both material and existential security - with the latter emphasizing relational and subjectivity-based senses of security. The scope of necessary policy-responses thus is not restricted to formal governmental interventions. Indeed governmental policy needs to be understood as subject to political and cultural exigencies. Policy-making institutions in this sense are similarly complex communities that, however bureaucratically structured, interact with the layers of overlapping communities constituting society. In short, by conceptualizing the available resources of the city in terms of human security the productivity and creativity of communities can be more effectively harnessed.

Description of Program

Metropolitan concentrations are the focus of human creativity and desire. They are able to harness immense resources to cope with crises, and are able to project themselves to the world through being the focal point for international media and politics. However, they are also concentrations of diverse and often conflicting cultures, sources of insecurity from natural, technological and social agents. The sense of insecurity has been made more acute by globalized violence and the War on Terror. Our immediate region provides numerous examples. We are frequently reminded that Australia is situated within an ‘arc of instability’; and the massive destruction and resilience of Asian communities following the recent tsunami is an instance of disaster striking at cities from environmental forces that go a long way beyond the locale or immediate region. Disasters halt development in poorer cities. This Program focuses on pathways for recovering from conflict, building resilience and reducing disaster vulnerability. This can be achieved by understanding and building on the strengths of cities and working to reduce the forces promoting violence and vulnerability to disaster. For many cities in our region, and throughout the world, this is a key factor in any hope of sustainability.

176 Current Projects

A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race Researcher: Joseph Siracusa This research will look at the political ambitions or reactions, scientific ambition or curiosity, and the military’s insatiable appetite for nuclear weaponry, beginning with the Soviet-American Cold War rivalry through to the other nuclear powers. A two-volume work is under contract with Praeger for publication in 2012.

American Foreign Relations since Independence Researcher: Joseph Siracusa This project will provide a realist critique of US foreign policy from 1776 to the present. A book is under contract with Praeger.

Globalization and Customary Land Tenures in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste Researcher: Victoria Stead Funding provider: Australian Government Employing a methodology which draws upon both social theory and ethnography, with empirical research in three countries in the Pacific region - Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste - the research addresses itself to the following question: Under conditions of globalization, how are systems of customary land usage and tenure in the three countries under consideration being transformed, and with what effect on structures and relationships of power? Theoretically, the research is framed by attentiveness to the intersection of different social formations - customary, traditional and modern - which provides a conceptual basis for theorizing and making sense of the transformations which are underway. Philosophically, the research is driven by a concern with questions of change, power, conflict and agency; particularly, with the ways in which people and communities in politically marginalized parts of the world are impacted by, and in turn respond to, conditions of massive social change.

Learning Centre in Port Moresby, Papua-New Guinea, November 2011.

177 The Bali Bombings Monument: Global Cosmopolis Researchers: Jeff Lewis, I. Nyoman Darma Putra (Udayana University) and Belinda Lewis (Monash University) This project examines the current changes in Balinese culture and economy through a study of the Bali bombings monument. The study uses a range of heuristic tools, including an analysis of the monument design features and an observational study of visitor uses. The study examines the site as a sacred and public space. The study examines the complex inter-national and inter-cultural relationships that are generated through the monument site.

Crime War: The Global Intersections of Crime, Violence and International Law Researchers: Joseph Siracusa, Paul Battersby and Sasho Ripiloski This work examines criminalization of the developing world, opening up debate about the nature and causes of acts that transgress laws, rules, and social norms. An outcome of the research, a book of the same name, was published by Praeger Press in 2011.

Foreign Affairs and the Founding Fathers: From Confederation to Constitution, 1776-1787 Researchers: Joseph Siracusa, Norman A. Graebner and Richard Dean Burns Arguing that the United States’ ‘Founding Fathers’ essentially thought and acted in terms of power- ranking matters of national interest and security over ideology and moral concerns - this research offers important guideposts on US foreign affairs for our own times.

Gender and Contemporary East Timorese Social Relations: Meanings, Importance and Possibilities Researcher: Anna Trembath Funding provider: Australian Government Project Description: This project seeks to understand the importance of gender in contemporary East Timorese social relations. It is argued that Timor-Leste is a society that is complex and unevenly integrated across different ontological formations. Moreover, it is undergoing unprecedented change in this period of nation-building and globalization. In this context, gender is deeply implicated in contested processes of social integration, disintegration, change and continuity. Mapping possible routes for the pursuit of greater gender equality suitable to the East Timorese context requires understanding how gender figures in these complex social relations.

Insecurity and Cultural Challenge in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia Researchers: Jeff Lewis, Selver Sahin and Belinda Lewis (Monash University) This research is a collaborative project designed as a pilot study funded by the Human Security program. It aims to explore major human development and security challenges in West Timor, one of the poorest parts of Indonesia. We have recently submitted a joint paper examining Indonesia’s democratic decentralization experience and its reflections in West Timor such as manganese mining activities.

178 Global Reconciliation Researchers: Elizabeth Kath, Paul James, Damian Grenfell, Martin Mulligan and Paul Komesaroff (Monash University) Funding providers: B2B Lawyers, Costa Foundation, Drapac This series of projects is linked to Global Reconciliation - an Australian-initiated network of people and organizations around the world seeking to promote reconciliation - that is, communication and dialogue across national, cultural, religious and racial differences. Global Reconciliation is an ambitious and innovative partnership that draws together the vast resources of communities in Australia and elsewhere to establish specific, outcome-focused collaborative projects around the world, particularly in the areas of health, education, sport, the arts, spirituality, livelihoods and money, justice and ethics, and environment. Current projects are being conducted in Sri Lanka, Australia, Palestine, Brazil and Papua New Guinea.

A border guard confronts a traveller, Ramallah, Palestinian Territories, December 2011.

Global Media Crisis: Desire, Displeasure and Transformation Researcher: Jeff Lewis Crisis in the Global Mediasphere examines the evolution of contemporary global crises as an effect of mediation and cultural change. While the project focuses on the conditions and episteme of contemporary crisis, the foundations of this crisis emerges through the ecological and social changes associated with holocene global warming and the rise of agriculture and surplus economy. The project argues that a crisis of consciousness has emerged through the interaction of crisis conditions and a more expansive human desire for pleasure. Contemporary crisis is, therefore, articulated in the mediation of economy, sexuality, ecological change, terrorism and war.

179 Living Down the Past: Criminal Record Checks and Access to Employment for Ex-offenders Researchers: Georgina Heydon with B. Naylor, M. Paterson and M. Pittard (Monash University) Funding provider: Australian Research Council One of the aims of this project is to identify the current practices of employers Australia-wide. We are inviting human resource managers and other employment decision-makers from various industries to participate in a survey, and subsequently interviews and focus groups, in an endeavour to obtain a clearer picture of the issues, policies, legislation and/or practices which are currently guiding the use of criminal record checks in Australia. This research is motivated by the fact that employment is considered to be essential to the rehabilitation of offenders, but the increased demand for criminal record checks in pre-employment processes can have a negative impact on this population’s employment prospects. At the same time, more and more employers are faced with weighing up the significance of a criminal history and evaluating its predictive force as a risk management tool, whilst negotiating privacy, anti-discrimination and spent convictions schemes.

Peace-Building in Timor-Leste Researchers: Damian Grenfell, Carmenesa Noronha Josephine Flint, Jessica McGrath-Swan and Lynsze Woon Following the socio-political crisis of 2006 and 2007, many development agencies, non-government organizations and government institutions focused their efforts on peace-building measures in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of a return to violence. This research project has sought to engage with staff from a range of local and international organizations in an effort to evaluate the longer- term impacts and underpinning logic of each of these projects. This research has been conducted alongside a community-based survey across five sites in Dili that attempts to understand the level of security that the community is now experiencing and the longer-term effects of the crisis.

Poster of Xanana Gusmao promoting the second congress for the CNRT party of which he is the leader, Dili, East Timor, May 2011.

Model of Uma-Lulik (sacred house) made of LA cigarette packets, Arte Moris, Dili, East Timor, July 2011 180 Politics of Security-Sector Reform in ‘Fragile’ and Post-conflict Countries Researcher: Selver Sahin This project examines the major political and cultural aspects of the UN-assisted security-sector reform process in Timor-Leste in the post-2006 period. A co-authored paper with Don Feaver from RMIT’s Graduate School of Business and Law is currently under review. There are plans to expand the scope of this project to include other countries, such as the Solomon Islands and Kosovo, where the UN and other international actors have also actively supported security-sector reform implementation.

Reconciling Cultural Heritage with Development Needs in Fener-Balat from a Human Security Perspective Researcher: Selver Sahin This research, funded by the Human Security Program, looks at the humanitarian and community aspects of a currently developed city renewal program for Fener-Balat districts, located in the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul, Turkey. A short field-study was conducted in July 2011.

Rethinking Interventions: Human Security and Limits of Humanitarian Intervention Researchers: Robin Cameron, Damian Grenfell and Paul James This project critically engages with the regional interventions undertaken by Australia provide in East Timor, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and within its own borders in the Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory. The project is being developed as a series of essays for an anthology. These essays highlight the new doctrines and approaches pioneered by Australia’s interventions, which emphasize not just military intervention but inter-agency co-operation around themes of policing, governance, security and development. These essays suggest a broadly conceived notion of state-building within each country and a dramatic attempt to reshape regional order. Australia in this sense is on the cutting edge of emerging approaches to intervention being taken by Western governments. This project is the culmination and expansion of the Human Security workshop, ‘Interrogating Australia’s Regional Interventions’. Rethinking Interventions is to be published as a book (under contract) and a special edition of Arena Journal.

Subjects of Security: Foreign Policy, War on Terror and the Constitution of Social Order Researcher: Robin Cameron This project examines how foreign policy regulates its own domestic sphere. This an original framework that inverts the traditional analysis of foreign policy in order to interpret the impact of ‘external’ foreign policy on ‘domestic’ individual subjectivity and social order. This framework demonstrates how the subjectivity of citizens is shaped by notions of security stemming from the pervasion of norms and stereotypes of foreign policy into domestic politics. Furthermore, notions of security derived from foreign policy inform how liberty is perceived and what it means to be free, constituting a vital part of social order. Security practices are not limited solely to their intended external audience; indeed profound impacts occur upon domestic audiences of the state in question. Foreign policy in the sense is not just foreign. A manuscript is under review with Routledge Press through its Critical Studies on Terrorism Series.

181 6. Research Programs

Urban Decision-Making and Complex Systems

Research Leader: Lin Padgham Research Team: Karyn Bosomworth, Hepu Deng, Colin Fudge, Lida Ghahremanloo, Sarah Hickmott, Shae Hunter, Paul James, Liam Magee, David Scerri, Andy Scerri, Ke Sun, James Thom and Fabio Zambetta

How can technology assist in decision-making regarding such things as urban planning and risk analysis?

This is a cross-disciplinary Program to use and develop advanced technologies in areas such as agent-based simulation to support urban decision-making.

Research Focus

Many decisions in planning for our cities, involve an understanding of complex interactions between different aspects of the city - from its infrastructure, its buildings to its inhabitants and culture. This program focuses on leading-edge information technology and techniques, and how they can be applied to specific questions and issues in urban decision-making. One specific focus of the program is simulation, in particular agent-based simulation. There is a particular focus on developing a platform that supports integration of separately developed simulation modules within a larger whole, as well as re-usability of modules where possible.

Description of Program

The program seeks to develop general approaches and tools that can be applied to a range of urban decision-making issues and questions. This involves the development and exploration of technologies and techniques to assist urban decision-makers in understanding the complex systems in which they are developing policies and infrastructure. The program aims to take specific questions and issues, and explore the use of leading-edge technology to contribute to addressing these questions and issues, with a view to building strong expertise in the interdisciplinary space between the social sciences and technology.

Current Projects

Agent-Based Simulation Framework for Enhancement of Resilience to Extreme Events Researchers: Lin Padgham, Darryn McEvoy, Dave Scerri, Sarah Hickmott and Karyn Bosomworth Funding provider: NCCARF This project aims to develop a modular agent-based simulation platform that allows emergency management stakeholders to explore complex multi-scalar, multi-actor, emergency management interactions under uncertain future conditions, in order to promote more effective governance arrangements. The platform is also intended to be a long-term decision-support tool suitable for the development of agent-based simulations which address a range of extreme events, such as coastal flooding and heat stress. We developed a prototype tool simulating evacuation of a coastal town in Victoria. This could be further developed to be a tool for interactively exploring evacuation options in different towns.

182 An Extensible Agent-Based Framework for Exploring Climate Change Adaptation Researchers: Lin Padgham, Colin Fudge, Fabio Zambetta, Sarah Hickmott and David Scerri Funding provider: Australia Research Council The goal of this project is to facilitate exploration of possible climate-change-adaptation strategies using an interactive platform incorporating multiple agent-based simulation modules. The aim is to build up complex simulations by incrementally adding new agent-based models created by members of a large distributed community, interested in the application area. Each module will capture a different aspect of the situation, and could potentially be created independently by people with expertise relating only to that aspect. We are thus developing an extensible, open-source framework that allows individual modules, possibly pre-existing and implemented under different paradigms, to be integrated in a common environment. This agent-based modelling approach will be enhanced by our proposed inclusion of entities based on the Belief Desire Intention agent- architecture, which facilitates more complex reasoning agents than are commonly used in ABM modelling. These entities may include complex social organizations or groups as well as individuals. The extension of ABM to an interactive platform builds on the technology developed for games, using it in a manner similar that described as serious games. The project is a cross-disciplinary one, involving both technical and social science challenges.

Marina Bay, Singapore, September 2011.

Tools for Simulation Modules: Water Sustainability Researchers: Sarah Hickmott, Fabio Zambetta and David Scerri Funding provider: School of CSIT This project will look at tools and paradigms for simulation, in the context of issues around water sustainability. We will develop a set of characteristics that make one modelling paradigm more suitable than another for a particular category of problem or aspect of a domain. We will then develop a methodology, to allow modellers of a climate change adaptation domain to identify the best modelling approach for each aspect of the domain/problem. We will investigate modelling tools used within the industry, as well as agent-based tools which are the specialty of the research group. The team is proposing to work with a small company, NetBalance, whose business is adaptation and risk management related to climate change. They have several clients whose concerns centre around water sustainability.

183 6. Research Programs

Ecological Simulation Researchers: Lin Padgham and Sarah Hickmott, with Sandeep Pulla and Raman Sukumar (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore) Funding provider: Australia-India Council This project is investigating Agent-Based Modelling techniques to explore issues of climate change on biodiversity in the Western Ghats region of Southern India. The objectives are to build an ongoing strategic collaboration between the Indian Institute of Science and RMIT University. We aim to showcase the technical computer-science research strength in Intelligent Agents, while accessing the strong scientific strength in climate change ecology of Indian Institute of Science as a domain for refining and developing our agent based simulation platform. We initiated work on 2 prototype simulation systems using Agent Based Modelling (ABM): one was to explore the issues relating to climate change adaptation of various plant species in the Western Ghats region of India, with a particular focus on fire behaviour and management. The second was on elephants and how they are being affected by the changing ecology.

Accounting for Sustainability: Developing an Integrated Approach for Sustainability Assessments Researchers: Paul James, Lin Padgham, James Thom, Andy Scerri, Liam Magee, Sarah Hickmott, Ke Sun, Hepu Deng and Lida Ghahremanloo Funding provider and partners: Australian Research Council with Fuji Xerox, Cambridge International College, City of Melbourne, Common Ground Publishing, Augusta Systems and Microsoft This is a cross-disciplinary project involving social science and computer science. It aims to develop a new approach to sustainability in our cities and organizations. Current approaches with a focus on reporting against a proliferation of indicator sets, often result in cities and organizations losing sight of the underlying sustainability goals, and in particular the local opportunities and issues. This project will develop a new approach to defining sustainability in locally meaningful terms, while at the same time linking this to global indicators. A leading edge software system will be developed to provide the technological support to assist cities and organizations in management of their sustainability goals.

Page 185: The city of Singapore has undergone massive changes over the last decade. The Marina Bay project, depicted here, includes the Marina Bay Sands Hotel in the left foreground, comprising three interlinked 55-storey towers. It was developed by Las Vegas Sands and promoted at the world’s most expensive standalone casino. The complex opened in June 2010. The bay itself was formed through land reclamation in the 1980s, and this is now being developed as a fresh-water reserve to be filtered for drinking. Singapore, June 2010.

184 185 The city of Be’er Sheva encapsulates some of the complexity of Israel–Palestine. In 1930s, the Bedouin population constituted over 90 per cent of the regional population; now Be’er Sheva is 99 per cent Jewish. In the process, the Bedouin market depicted here was displaced from the centre of economic life to a dusty mound on the outskirts of town. Be’er Sheva, Israel–Palestine, December 2010.

186 187 7. Affiliated Research Centres

Centre for Applied Social Research

The Centre for Applied Social Research (CASR) is located in the School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning. CASR conducts nationally significant research on key areas of social change and social policy. The research team are committed to the idea that informed public-policy debate requires theoretically grounded, applied social research. Research staff in CASR have a broad range of interests, but their work converges around three themes. One group of researchers have particular expertise in the changing character of paid work and employment relations. Their work focuses on the themes of quality part-time work, work and family balance in regional areas, casual and precarious work, the intersection of work and family, and the impact of employment regulation. Another group focuses on the changing nature of welfare provision and related policy issues. These researchers have particular expertise in the following areas: the enumeration of the homeless population; pathways in and out of homelessness; issues related to domestic violence policy; the life-histories of people who grew up in institutional care; people with intellectual and learning disabilities; and the history of the women’s refuge movement. A third group of researchers works across disciplines on practice-informed evidence-based policy and practice in health and wellbeing. Projects focus on both developing and applying evidence about complicated and complex interventions. Processes and methods include program theory, systems theory, action research, narrative and developmental evaluation, non-experimental impact evaluation, and realist synthesis. CASR researchers conduct projects funded by competitive grant bodies such as the Australian Research Council (ARC). In addition, they conduct shorter-term contract research and consultancies for government departments and community agencies. In 2010, CASR staff were involved in seven ARC Linkage grants and four ARC Discovery grants. The Centre conducted 24 contract research projects and 11 commercial projects.

This is a run-down commercial area of Rio with active street-life during the day and night. Close by, many people live in shanty housing. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, March 2010.

188 Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute

The Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI) is a national organization funded through contributions from federal and state governments and ten participating universities. RMIT has its own AHURI Research Centre located in the School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, and there are six other research centres around Australia which all have access to research grants distributed annually. The RMIT Centre was established in 1999 under the direction of Professor Mike Berry, foundation CEO of the national Institute (1993–1998), and Associate Professor Robin Goodman has been the Director since the start of 2010. There are now three broad streams of research promoted by AHURI around housing, homelessness and cities. The Centre fosters opportunities for researchers to exchange information, work collectively and publish locally, nationally and internationally. The Centre is committed to strengthening the links between teaching and research staff in the university and promoting a vibrant research culture. This is achieved by bringing people together in joint activities such as the Centre’s seminar program, by secondment of staff to AHURI for study leave, by involvement of AHURI staff in teaching (guest lectures, etc.), and by joint publications and grant applications. The AHURI RMIT Research Centre specializes in applied research, particularly in housing and urban policy. Emphasis is on the role of housing in the economic, social and environmental sustainability of cities and regions. At the present time the Centre has staff whose work focuses on the links between housing and economics, on housing policy (both generally, and as it relates to particular groups such as women, migrants and indigenous people), on urban planning and issues around sustainable cities including transport and accessibility, on homelessness and on the intersections between housing and labour market issues.

These flats at the corner of Nicholson and Elgin Streets Fitzroy were built in the 1960s as part of a controversial slum reclamation project. Melbourne, Australia, September 2010.

189 The Centre for Design

The Centre for Design promotes sustainability through research, consulting, and capacity building. The Centre is recognized internationally for its innovative design methods and tools, developed to support sustainable design of products and services. Its assessment tools cover everything from packaging and consumer products to buildings, suburbs and cities, adding up to an integrated focus on life-cycle assessment. As Australia’s key node of activity in life-cycle assessment, the Centre is dedicated to all aspects of achieving environmental sustainability outcomes and to undertaking fundamental research to inform policy and practice. The Centre for Design is based in the College of Design and Social Context College at RMIT’s city campus in Melbourne. The Centre has a long history dating back to 1988. Its reputation as a national and international leader in eco-design was established in the 1990s, and the Centre’s research interest in sustainable built-environments grew in the later part of the decade. In 2006, the Centre for Design affiliated with the Global Cities Institute and its members set up a continuing program in urban infrastructure now called ‘Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures’ (SURF), and under the leadership of Professors Ralph Horne (also Director of the Centre) and John Fien. One key research project of the Centre, which examined the sustainability of building materials and interiors, led to EcospecifierTM, widely regarded as pivotal in assisting designers and specifiers to develop green office buildings across Australia. The Centre for Design now has a worldwide reputation as a key provider of ecologically sustainable design and life-cycle assessment expertise to the building-design and construction sectors, and to related policy-makers. The Centre for Design’s ‘Ecohome’ Australian Research Council Linkage grant project won ‘Energy Efficient Project Home’ award in the Victorian Housing Awards. In partnership with Natural Integrated Living, the Centre received an HIA National GreenSmart ‘Partnership Award’, and it was awarded a further commendation under the ‘Towards Sustainable Communities’ category of Australia’s Year of the Built Environment National Awards. More recently a Centre for Design study analysed the potential environmental impacts of various Nestlé coffee packaging formats, and was fed directly into the marketing and procurement strategy, informing both on pack messaging, social media promotions and a complimentary educational campaign.

Nescafé smart pack for Nestlé, February 2012.

190 Centre for Sustainable Organisations and Work

The Centre for Sustainable Organisations and Work brings together social-science research expertise from across the RMIT College of Business and other areas of the University. The Centre has an interdisciplinary focus, covering employment relations, organizational studies, industrial relations, gender studies, globalization and logistics, business and labour history, political economy and sociology, with particular attention given to the Asia-Pacific Region. It promotes and facilitates social science research in these areas and encourages theoretically informed analyses that lay the foundation for evidence-based policy and practice. Research in the Centre is both theoretical and empirical, developing studies of people in the context of social change, focusing upon significant economic and organizational change. In other words, the Centre develops theoretically informed analyses that lay the foundation for evidence-based policy and practice. This includes provision of advisory and consultancy services to public agencies, corporations, labour organizations and non-governmental agencies. A distinctive feature of this research program is its multidisciplinary, historical, sociological and comparative approach, concerned with contemporary issues. For example, the Climate Change and Sustainable Transitions research cluster in the Centre brings together teams of multidisciplinary researchers to investigate the social dimensions of the transition to a more economically and environmentally sustainable world. Complementing this focus is a concern to explore the ways in which communities as localities and neighbourhoods organize and adapt to the severe events, such as bushfires and floods. It examines the historical and contemporary dimensions of climate change and transition. It fosters applied research to promote and facilitate informed debate and dialogue about climate change and sustainable transitions.

In Papua New Guinea, only 5 per cent of people find employment in the formal sector. The Port Moresby docks provide one place of formal work. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, November 2011.

191 Globalism Research Centre

The Globalism Research Centre started life at RMIT as the Globalism Institute in 2002 under the foundation directorship of Paul James. It celebrates its tenth anniversary in early 2012; with 17 full members and 33 RMIT and non-RMIT associate members. In 2012 Dr Damian Grenfell takes over as GRC Director, succeeding Dr Martin Mulligan, and before him, Professor Manfred Steger. The research co-ordinator is Michelle Farley. Based within the School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, the Globalism Research Centre provides a critical research concentration and approach from the ethnographic to social policy underpinned by social theory. Moreover, by locating processes of globalization in the large sweep of history, the brief of the Globalism Research Centre is to understand long-term social change in a period of intense globalization. This research is done by working across societies rather than focusing specifically on cities, and as such the Centre undertakes projects in both urban and rural communities, including in Australia, Papua New Guinea, East Timor, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, India, and the Middle East. Members of the Globalism Research Centre work closely with the Global Studies teaching program and many play a significant role in teaching. The aim is to build research capacity in the School and to provide an avenue for greater interconnection between teaching and research. The Centre publishes the Local Global: Identity, Security, Community journal and runs a successful, monthly seminar series, and provides a number of different programs to support the work of its membership. The Centre members members have also played a significant role with others across RMIT University in contributing towards the setting up of the Global Cities Institute. Research undertaken within Globalism Research Centre intersects productively with the Global Cities Institute through an interest in ideologies of globalization, sources of insecurity, relationships between the local and the global, and issues of governance ranging from the local to the global. People who are active in the Globalism Research Centre continue to play key roles in the three programs of the Global Cities Institute: the Globalization and Culture Program, the Human Security Program, and the Community Sustainability Program, particularly on research that focuses on cities. In this way, the capacity to tender for both national-level as well as international research projects with is researchers from all disciplines across the university are also greatly strengthened for success.

Page 193: The present building of St Paul’s Cathedral was built in the late-seventeenth century as part of a major reconstruction of the city after the Great Fire of London. First built as an outpost of globalizing religion, in the nineteenth century it became a symbol of British imperialism. In the twentieth century it became a national icon for English identity. In this photograph, St Pauls forms the backdrop to a vehicle owned by the global corporation FedEx, the world’s largest mover of airfreight. FedEx is headquartered in the United States. Since 2009 its advertising slogan has been ‘The world on time’. London, United Kingdom, May 2011.

192 193 The MV Hiri Chief is a cargo vessel purchased by the PNG company, Steamships, in 2009. It was used in 2010 to carry the rig and associated mining equipment to Panakawa-1 well in PNG’s Western Province. It runs on a global software operating system provided by the UK-based Marine Software Ltd. Less than a generation ago, the dominant trading system on the south coast of Papua New Guinea was very different. Hiri traders travelled by canoe from Boera Village to the west and back again on the Lauabada monsoon winds. Researchers from the Global Cities Institute are conducting research on both sides of this trading history. Port Moresby dock, Papua New Guinea, November 2011.

194 195 8. Publications

Books 2006–2009

These are books published by researchers at the Global Cities Institute during their time as members of the Institute, sometimes in collaboration with scholars at other universities. For more recent books see the following 2010 and 2011 lists.

Babacan, A & Briskman, L (ed.), 2008, Asylum seekers: International perspectives on the interdiction and deterrence of asylum seekers, Cambridge Scholars Press, Newcastle. Battersby, P & Siracusa, J 2009, Globalization and human security, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham. Bessant, J, Watts, R, Dalton, T & Smyth, P (eds), 2007, Talking policy: Australian social policy, Allen and Unwin, Sydney. Buxton, M, Tieman, G, Bekessy, S, Budge T, Butt, A, Coote, M, Lechner, A, Mercer, D, O’Neill, D & Riddington, C 2007, Change and continuity in peri-urban Australia, RMIT University Publishing, Melbourne. Calame, J & Charlesworth, E 2009, Divided cities: Belfast, Beirut, Jerusalem, Mostar, and Nicosia, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Chamberlain, C & MacKenzie, D 2008, Counting the homeless, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Colic-Peisker, V 2008, Migration, class and transnational identities: Croatians in Australia and America, Illinois University Press, Urbana. Elliott, M & Thomas, I 2009, Environmental impact assessment in Australia: Theory and practice, Federation Press, Australia. Goodman, J & James, P (eds), 2007, Nationalism and global solidarities: Alternative projections to neoliberal globalisation, Routledge, London. Grenfell, D & James, P (eds), 2009, Rethinking insecurity, war and violence: Beyond savage globalization?, Routledge, London. Handmer, J & Dovers, S 2007, The handbook of disaster and emergency policy and institutions, Earthscan, London. Handmer, J & Haynes, K (eds), 2008, Community bushfire safety, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Horne, R, Grant, T & Verghese, K 2009, Life-cycle assessment: Principles, practice and prospects, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. James, P & Gills, B (eds), 2007, Globalization and economy: Vol. 1, Global markets and capitalism, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Patomäki, H (eds), 2007, Globalization and economy: Vol. 2, Global finance and the new global economy, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Palan, R (eds), 2007, Globalization and economy: Vol. 3, Global economic regimes and institutions, Sage Publications, London. James, P & O’Brien, R (eds), 2007, Globalization and economy: Vol. 4, Globalizing labour, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Nairn, T (eds), 2006, Globalization and violence: Vol. 1, Globalizing empires, old and new, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Darby, P (eds), 2006, Globalization and violence: Vol. 2, Colonial and postcolonial globalizations, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Friedman, J (eds), 2006, Globalization and Violence: Vol. 3, Globalizing war and intervention, Sage Publications, London. James, P & Sharma, RR (eds), 2006, Globalization and Violence: Vol. 4, Transnational conflict, Sage Publications, London. James, P 2006, Globalism, nationalism tribalism: Bringing theory back in, Sage Publications, London. Johnson, G, Gronda, H & Coutts, S 2008, On the outside: Pathways in and out of homelessness, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne. Lewis, J 2008, Cultural studies, Second edition, Sage Publications, London. Lewis, J 2008, Bali: Forbidden crisis, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham. Lewis, J & Lewis, B 2009, Bali’s silent crisis: Desire, tragedy and transition, Lexington Books, Lanham. McBurnie, G & Ziguras, C 2007, Transnational education: Issues and trends in offshore higher education, Routledge, London. Nelson A (ed.), 2007, Steering sustainability in an urbanizing world: Policy, practice and performance, Ashgate Publishing, Hampshire. Patomäki, H 2008, The political economy of global security. War, future crises and changes in global governance, Routledge, London.

196 Patomäki, H 2007, Uusliberalismi Suomessa, Lyhyt historia ja tulevaisuuden vaihtoehdot (Neoliberalism in Finland. A short history and future alternatives), WSOY, Helsinki. Siracusa, J 2008, Nuclear weapons: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, London. Siracusa, J & Burns, R (ed.), 2008, The politics of nuclear weaponry, Regina Books, Claremont. Siracusa, J, Graebner, A & Burns, R, 2008, Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the end of the cold war, Praeger Security International, Westport. Steger, MB 2008, The Rise of the Global Imaginary: Political Ideologies from the French Revolution to the War on Terror, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Steger, MB 2008, Globalization: a Very Short Introduction, 2003, translated into Arabic, Latvian, Kurdish, Chinese and Greek, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Steger, MB 2009, Globalisms: The great ideological struggle of the twenty-first century, Rowan and Littlefield, Lanham. Steger, MB 2009, Globalization: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Thomas, I, 2007, Environmental policy: Australian practice in the context of theory, Federation Press, Sydney. Verhoeven, D 2009, Jane Campion, Routledge, London. Wilson, T 2009, Understanding media users, Wiley Interscience, Malden.

Books 2010

Graebner, N, Burns, R & Siracusa, J 2010, America and the cold war, 1941-1991: A realist iInterpretation, Praeger Security International, Santa Barbara. Humphery, K 2010, Excess: Anti-consumerism in the west, Polity Press, UK. James, P & Tulloch, J (eds), 2010, Globalization and culture: Vol. 1, Globalizing communications, Sage, London. James, P & Mandaville, P (eds), 2010, Globalization and culture: Vol. 2, Globalizing religions, Sage, London. James, P & Szeman, I (eds), 2S010, Globalization and culture: Vol. 3, Global-local consumption, Sage, London. James, P & Steger, MB (eds), 2010, Globalization and culture: Vol. 4, Ideologies of globalism, Sage, London. Kath, E 2010, Social relations and the Cuban health miracle, Transaction Books, New Brunswick. Martin, J & Hawkins, L 2010, Information communication technologies for human services education and delivery: Concepts and cases, IGI Global, Hershey. Mees, P 2010, Transport for Suburbia: Beyond the Automobile Age, Earthscan, Abington. Muenjohn, N, Armstrong, A & Francis, R 2010, Leadership in Asia Pacific: readings and research, Cengage Learning Australia, Melbourne. Siracusa, J 2010, Diplomacy: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Steger, MB & Roy, R 2010, Neoliberalism: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wadsworth, Y 2010, Building in research and evaluation, Allen and Unwin, Sydney. Wise, C, & James, P (eds), 2010, Being Arab: Arabism and the politics of recognition, Arena Publications, Melbourne.

197 Book Chapters 2010

Baker, P & Butcher, T 2010, ‘Processes and systems requirements’, in Baker, P (ed.), The principles of warehouse design, Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (UK), Corby, pp. 42-48. Bali, R, Baskaran, V, Gibbons, M & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Making sense of urban health knowledge’, in Gibbons, M, Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N (ed.), Perspectives of knowledge management in urban health, Springer, USA, pp. 201-212. Berry, M & Dalton, T 2010, ‘Trading on housing wealth: Political risk in an aging society’, in Smith, S & Searle, B (ed.), The Blackwell companion to the economics of housing: The housing wealth of nations, Wiley-Blackwell, USA, pp. 238-256. Berry, M 2010, ‘Housing wealth and mortgage debt in Australia’, in Smith, S & Searle, B (ed.), The Blackwell companion to the economics of housing: The housing wealth of nations, Wiley-Blackwell, USA, pp. 126-146. Cairns, G 2010, ‘Briefing for the future’, in Managing the brief for better design, Routledge, London and New York. Campbell, I 2010, ‘The rise in precarious employment and union responses in Australia’, in Thornley, C, Jefferys, S & Appay, B (eds), Globalization and precarious forms of production and employment: Challenges for workers and unions, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 114-132. Charlesworth, S 2010, ‘The sex discrimination act: Advancing gender equality and decent work’, in Thornton, M (ed.), Sex discrimination in uncertain times, ANU E Press, Canberra, pp. 133-151. Clarke, M & Murray, S 2010,’The voices of international NGO staff’, in Post-disaster reconstruction: Lessons from Aceh, Earthscan, USA. Colic-Peisker, V, Johnson, G & Smith, S 2010, ‘’Pots of gold’: Australian housing wealth and economic wellbeing’, in Smith, S & Searle, B (eds), The Blackwell companion to the economics of housing: The housing wealth of nations, Wiley-Blackwell, USA, pp. 316-338. Dalton, T 2010, ‘Housing policy in Australia: Big problems but well down the agenda’, in McClelland, A & Smyth, P (eds), Social policy in Australia: Understanding for action, Second edition, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp. 176-193. Duan, X, Deng, H & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘A multi-criteria analysis approach for the evaluation and selection of electronic market in electronic business in small and medium enterprises’, in Lecture notes in computer science, Vol. 6318, Springer. Erskine, T 2010, ‘As rays of light to the human soul? Moral agents and intelligence gathering’, in Goldman, J (ed.), Ethics of Spying: A Reader for the Intelligence Professional, Vol. 2, Scarecrow Press, Lanham, MD, pp. 120-143. Forrest, D 2010, ‘On curating in the academy’, in The curator in the academy, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Forrest, D 2010, ‘Sing for our time too: Doctoral research in art education’, in The doctoral journey in art education: Reflections on doctoral studies by Australian and New Zealand art educators, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Forrest, D 2010, ‘A pioneer in art education: An interview with Geoff Hammond’, in The Doctoral journey in art education: reflections on doctoral studies by Australian and New Zealand art educators, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Gibbons, M, Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Knowledge management for the urban health context’, in Gibbons, M, Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N (ed.), Perspectives of knowledge management in urban health, Springer, USA, pp. 3-20. Gibbons, M, Bali, R, Marshall, I, Naguib, R & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘The potential of serious games for improving health and reducing urban health inequalities’, in Gibbons, M, Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N (eds), Perspectives of knowledge management in urban health, Springer, USA, pp. 129-138. Goldsmith, A & Harris, V 2010, ‘Police/Military cooperation in foreign interventions: Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands’, in Lemieux, F (ed.), International police cooperation: Emerging issues, theory and practice, Willan Publishing, Devon, pp. 221-237. Grierson, E 2010, ‘Curiosity, criticality and care: Curating as a way of thinking and being’, in The curator in the academy, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Grierson, E 2010, ‘Global mobility: interfacing through public art’, in Hogg G & Sharp, K (eds), Outer Site: the intercultural projects of RMIT art in public space, McCulloch & McCulloch, Balnarring, pp. 1-7. Grierson, E 2010, ‘The art of migration through contemporary jewellery’, in Australian jewellery topos talking about place, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Grierson, E 2010, ‘Thoughts on a doctorate: Another mountain to climb’, in Forrest, D & Grierson, E (ed.), The doctoral journey in art education reflections on doctoral studies by Australian and New Zealand art educators, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 116-140. Hegarty, K & De La Harpe, B 2010, ‘Revisiting higher education’s heartland: (Inter)disciplinary ways of knowing and doing for sustainability education’, in Interdisciplinary higher education: perspectives and practicalities, Emerald Publishing, UK.

198 Hinkel, J, Bisaro, T, Downing, M, Hofmann, K, Lonsdale, K, McEvoy, D & Tabara, J 2010, ‘Learning to adapt: re-framing climate change adaptation’, in Hulme, M & Neufeldt, H (eds), Making climate change work for us: European perspectives on adaptation and mitigation strategies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 113-134. Hjorth, L 2010, ‘Computer: online and console gaming’, in Turner, G & Cunningham, S (ed.), The media and communications in Australia 3rd edition, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW, pp. 259-272. Hjorth, L 2010, ‘Still mobile: Networked mobile media, video content and users in seoul’, in R. Somers Miles (ed.), Video vortex reader, Institute of Networked Cultures, Amsterdam, pp. 195-210. Hjorth, L 2010, ‘The price of being mobile: youth, gender and mobile media’, in Donald, S, Anderson T & Spry, D (eds), Youth, society and mobile media in asia, Routledge, New York, pp. 73-87. Hudson, C 2010, ‘Global cities’, in Turner, B (ed.), Routledge international handbook of globalization studies, Routledge, Abingdon, pp. 1-2. Iyer-Raniga, U & Willand, N 2010, ‘Sustainable built environments’, in Stafford, J (ed.), Australian master environment guide, CCH Australia Limited, Sydney, pp. 287-333. James, P 2010, ‘Displacement: In cities of the unrecognized’, in Wise, C & James, P (eds), Being Arab: Arabism and the politics of recognition, Arena Publications, Fitzroy, pp.64-89. Kelly, L & Russo, A 2010, ‘Museum 3.0 engaging museum staff in web 2.0 as a community of practice’, in Hot topics, public culture and museums, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle, UK. Mandaville, P & James, P 2010, ‘Introduction: Globalizing religions’, in Globalization and culture: Vol. 2, Globalizing religions, Sage Publications, London. Martin, J & McKay, E 2010, ‘Developing information communication technologies for the human services: Mental health and employment’, in Martin, J & Hawkins, L (ed.), Information communication technologies for human services education and delivery: Concepts and cases, IGI Global, USA, pp. 152-166. Martin, J & Tan, D 2010, ‘Freeware solutions and international work integrated learning in higher education: Case study of WIL in Vietnam’, in J.Burton Browning (ed.), Open-source solutions in education: Theory and practice, Informing Science Press, California, pp. 133-150. Martin, J, McKay, E & Hawkins, L 2010, ‘Educating a multidisciplinary human services workforce: Using a blended approach’, in Martin, J & Hawkins, L (ed.), Information communication technologies for human services education and delivery: Concepts and cases, IGI Global, USA, pp. 1-14. Mechler, R, Hochrainer, S, Asjorn, A, Kundzewicz, S, Lugeri, N, Moriondo, M, Banaszak, I, Bindi, M, Chorynski, A, Genovese, E, Kalirai, H, Lavalle, C, Linnerooth, J, Matczak, P, McEvoy, D, Radziejewski, M, Rubbelke, D, Saelen, H, Schelhaas, M, Szwed, M & Wreford, A 2010, ‘A risk management approach for assessing adaptation to changing flood and drought risks in Europe’, in Hulme, M & Neufeldt, H (eds), Making climate change work for us: European perspectives on adaptation and mitigation strategies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 200-229. Neufeldt, H, Jochem, E, Hinkel, J, Huitma, D, Massey, E, Watkiss, P, McEvoy, D, Rayner, T, Hof, A & Lonsdale, K 2010, ‘Climate policy and inter-linkages between adaptation and mitigation’, in Hulme M & Neufeldt, H (eds), Making climate change work for us: European perspectives on adaptation and mitigation strategies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 3-30. Rogers, P & Goodrick, D 2010, ‘Qualitative data analysis’, in Wholey, J, Hatry, H & Newcomer, K (eds), Handbook of practical program evaluation (third edition), John Wiley & Sons Inc, San Francisco, pp. 429-453. Russo, A 2010, ‘Media Museum: towards an ontology for social networking and digital cultural content creation’, in Griffin, D, Anderson, M & Paroissien, L (eds), Museums in Australia 1970-2007, National Museum of Australia, Canberra. Setunge, S & Kumar, A 2010, ‘Knowledge infrastructure: Managing the assets of creative urban regions’, in Yigitcanlar, T (ed.), Sustainable urban and regional infrastructure development technologies applications and management, IGI Global, New York, pp. 102-116. Sharp, K 2010, ‘Travelling the distance’, in Hogg, J & Sharp, K (eds), OuterSite: The intercultural projects of RMIT art in public space, McCulloch & McCulloch, Balnarring, pp. 26-39. Steger, MB & James, P 2010, ‘Introduction: Ideologies of globalism’, in James, P & Steger, MB (eds), Globalization and culture: Vol. 4, Ideologies of globalism, Sage, London. Steger, MB 2010, ‘The emergence of global studies’, in Globalization: the greatest hits - a global studies reader, Paradigm Publishers, USA. Szeman, I & James, P 2010, ‘Global local consumption’, in James, P & Szeman, I (eds), Globalization and culture: Vol. 3, Global- Local Consumption, Sage, London, pp. 9-29.

199 Tulloch, J & James, P 2010, ‘Globalizing communications’, in Globalization and culture: Vol. 1, Globalizing communications, Sage, London. Werners, S, Tabara, J, Neufeldt, H, Dai, X, Flachner, Z, West, J, Cots, F, Trombi, G, McEvoy, D, Matczak, P & Nabuurs, G 2010, ‘Mainstreaming adaptation in regional land use and water management’, in Hulme M, & Neufeldt, H (eds), Making climate change work for us: European perspectives on adaptation and mitigation strategies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 230-260. Wickramasinghe, N Troshani, I & Goldberg, S 2010, ‘An investigation into the use of pervasive wireless technologies to support diabetes self-care’, in Coronato, A & De Pietro, J (eds), Pervasive and smart technologies for healthcare: Ubiquitous methodologies and tools, IGI, Hershey, pp. 114-129. Wickramasinghe, N, Troshani, I & Goldberg, S 2010, ‘A pervasive wireless knowledge management solution to address urban health inequalities with indigenous Australians’, in Gibbons, M, Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N (eds), Perspectives of knowledge management in urban health, Springer, USA, pp. 95-115. Wilson, B 2010, ‘Learning and innovation: implications for community networks and policy’, in Longworth, N & Osborne, M (eds), Perspectives on learning cities and tegions: Policy, practice and participation, Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth, pp. 127- 140. Wilson, B 2010, ‘Social processes in regional development’, in Inman P & Schuetze, H (eds), The community engagement and service mission of universities, Niace, Gosport, pp. 51-68. Wilson, B 2010, ‘Using PLS to investigate interaction effects between higher order brand constructs’, in Esposito Vinzi, V, Chin, W, Henseler, J & Wang, H (eds), Handbook of partial least squares: Concepts, methods and applications, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, pp. 621-654. Wong, T 2010, ‘Framing the city as curated space’, in The curator in the academy, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Wood, G, & Nygaard, C 2010, ‘Housing equity withdrawal and retirement: Evidence from the household, income, and labor dynamics in Australia Survey (HILDA)’, in Smith, S & Searle, B (ed.), AF Blackwell companion to the economics of housing: The housing wealth of nations, Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, 2010. Wood, G, Ong, R & Stewart, M 2010, ‘Housing taxes and the supply of private rental housing’ in Stewart, M (ed.), Housing and tax policy, Australian tax research foundation, Conference series No. 26. Zhang, Z, Thangarajah, J & Padgham, L 2010, ‘Automated testing for intelligent agent systems’, in Gleizes, M & Gomez-Sanz, J (eds), Agent-oriented software engineering X, Springer, Budapest, pp. 66-79.

Journal Articles 2010

Ahmed, I Sager, J & Cuong, L 2010, ‘Sustainable low-income urban housing in Vietnam: Context and strategies’, Open House International, vol. 35, pp. 56-65. Al-Dubikhi, S & Mees, P 2010, ‘Bus rapid transit in Ottawa, 1978 to 2008’, Town Planning Review, vol. 81, pp. 407-424. Arkoudis, S & Tran, L 2010, ‘Writing Blah, Blah, Blah: Lecturers’ approaches and challenges in supporting international students’, The International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, vol. 22, pp. 169-178. Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘RAD and other innovative approaches to facilitate superior project management’, International Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation, vol. 2, pp. 33-39. Bali, R & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘The critical success factors in the management of projects using innovative approaches’, International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations, vol. 7, pp. 497-504. Baskaran, V, Bali, R, Arochena, H, Naguib, R, Shah, B, Guergachi, A & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Knowledge management as a holistic tool for superior project management’, International Journal of Innovation and Learning, vol. 7, pp. 113-133. Baskaran, V, Bali, R, Arochena, H, Naguib, R, Wheaton, M, Wallis, M, Benson, T & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Physician intervention via knowledge management: using HL7 messaging to increase breast screening uptake’, International Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, vol. 4, pp. 276-296. Beale, D, Kaserzon, S, Porter, N, Roddick, F & Carpenter, P 2010, ‘Detection of s-Triazine pesticides in natural waters by modified large-volume direct injection HPLC’, Talanta, vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 668-674. Bekessy, S, Wintle, B, Lindenmayer, D, McCarthy, M, Colyvan, M, Burgman, M & Possingham, H 2010, ‘The biodiversity bank cannot be a lending bank’, Conservation Letters, vol. 3, pp. 151-158. Bergmann, I 2010, ‘What is the role of the arts in the face of this? An exploration in the context of systems thinking and the transition to sustainability’, PAN: Philosophy Activism Nature, no. 7, pp. 23-32. Berry, M, Dalton, T & Nelson, A 2010, ‘Mortgage default in Australia: Nature, causes and impacts’, AHURI Positioning Paper series, pp. 1-102.

200 Beza, B 2010, ‘The aesthetic value of a mountain landscape: A study of the Mt. Everest Trek’, Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 306-317. Blismas, N, Wakefield, R & Hauser, B 2010, ‘Concrete prefabricated housing via advances in systems technologies: development of a technology roadmap’, Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 99-110. Buelow, S, Lewis, H & Sonneveld, K 2010, ‘The role of labels in directing consumer packaging waste’, Management of Environmental Quality, vol. 21, p. 198. Cairns, G, Sliwa, M & Wright, G 2010, ‘Problematizing international business futures through a ‘critical scenario method’, Futures, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 971-979. Charlesworth, S 2010, ‘The regulation of paid care workers’ wages and conditions in the non-profit sector: A Toronto case study’, Relations Industrielles-Industrial Relations, vol. 65, pp. 380-399. Cheong, F & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘From childhood poverty to catfish: A conceptual participatory modelling framework for strategic decision making’, International Journal of Strategic Decision Sciences, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 14-32. Chhetri, P, Corcoran, J, Stimson, R & Inbakaran, R 2010, ‘Modelling Potential Socio-economic Determinants of Building Fires in South East Queensland’, Geographical Research, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 75-85. Chhetri, P, Stimson, R & Western, J 2010, ‘Understanding the downshifting phenomenon: A case study of South East Australia’, Australian Journal of Social Issues, vol. 44, pp. 345-362. Clune, S 2010, ‘Design and behavioural change’, Journal of Design Strategies, vol. 4, pp. 68-75. Colic-Peisker, V & Johnson, G 2010, ‘Security and anxiety of homeownership: Perceptions of middle-class Australians at different stages of their housing careers’, Housing, Theory and Society, vol. 27, pp. 351 - 371. Colic-Peisker, V 2010, ‘Free floating in the cosmopolis? Exploring the identity-belonging of transnational knowledge workers’, Global Networks-A Journal of Transnational Affairs, vol. 10, pp. 467-488. Colic-Peisker, V, Berry, M, Ong, R, & Wood, G 2010, ‘Asset-poverty and older Australian’s transitions onto housing assistance programs’, Final Report No. 156, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Colic-Peisker, V, Ong, R, Berry, M, Wood, G & Bailey, N, 2010, ‘Housing needs of asset-poor older Australians: other countries’ policy initiatives and their implications for Australia’, Positioning Paper No. 133, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Creighton, W & Shi, E 2010, ‘The transfer of business provisions of the fair work act in national and international context’, Australian Journal of Labour Law, vol. 23, pp. 39-59. Curtis, C & Scheurer, J 2010, ‘Planning for sustainable Accessibility: Developing tools to aid discussion and decision-making’, Progress in Planning, vol. 74, pp. 53-106. Deng, H 2010, ‘A conceptual framework for effective knowledge management using information and communication technologies’, International Journal of Knowledge and Systems Sciences, vol. 1, pp. 48-60. Deng, H 2010, ‘Emerging patterns and trends in utilizing electronic resources in a higher education environment: An empirical analysis’, New Library World Journal, vol. 11, pp. 87-103. Dwivedi A & Butcher, T 2010, ‘Challenges in relating supply chain management and knowledge management: an introduction’, International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations, vol. 7, pp. 109-111. Dwivedi, A & Butcher, T 2010, ‘Special issue on supply chain management and knowledge management’, International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations (IJNVO), vol. 7, pp.112 - 294. Edwards, F & Mercer, D 2010, ‘Meals in metropolis: Mapping the urban foodscape in Melbourne’, Australia, Local Environment, vol. 15, pp. 153-168. Fudge, C & Fermenias, P 2010, ‘Retrofitting the city: reuse of non-domestic buildings’, Institution of Civil Engineers, Proceedings Urban Design and Planning, vol. 163, no. 3, pp. 117-126. Fünfgeld, H 2010, ‘Institutional challenges to climate risk management in cities’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 156-160. Gabriel , M, Watson, P, Ong, R, Wood, G & Wulff, M, 2010‘, The environmental sustainability of Australia’s private rental housing stock,’ Final Report No. 159, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Gabriel, M, Watson, P, Ong, R, Wood, G & Wulff, M. ‘The environmental sustainability of Australia’s private rental housing stock.’ Positioning Paper No. 125, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Gaunson, S 2010, ‘Cocksucker Blues: The Rolling Stones and some notes on Robert Frank’, Senses of Cinema, vol. 56. Gaunson, S 2010, ‘Dismantling the Dream Factory’, Media International Australia Incorporating Culture and Policy: Quarterly Journal of Media Research and Resources, pp. 156-157.

201 Gaunson, S 2010, ‘International Outlaws: Tony Richardson, Mick jagger and Ned Kelly’, Studies in Australasian Cinema, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 53-263. Gekara, V 2010, ‘Union renewal through cross-border merger: Rationale, processes and challenges’, European Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 16, pp. 385-394. Ghani, M, Bali, R, Naguib, R, Marshall, I & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Critical analysis of the usage of patient demographic and clinical records during doctor-patient consultations: A Malaysian perspective’, International Journal of Healthcare Technology and Management, vol. 11, no. 1/2, pp. 113-130. Gharaie, E, Wakefield, R & Blismas, N 2010, ‘Explaining the increase in the Australian average house completion time: Activity-based versus workflow-based approach’, The Australian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 34-49. Gidley, J, Hampson, G, Wheeler, L & Bereded-Samuel, E 2010, ‘From Access to success: an integrated approach to quality higher education informed by social inclusion theory and practice’, Higher Education Policy, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 123-14 Gidley, J, Hampson, G, Wheeler, L & Bereded-Samuel, E 2010, ‘Social inclusion: Context, theory and practice’, The Australasian Journal of University-Community Engagement, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 6-36. Goh, Y, Harris, J & Roddick, F 2010, ‘Reducing the effect of cyanobacteria in the microfiltration of secondary effluent’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 62, pp. 1682-1688. Goodman, R & Douglas, K 2010, ‘Life in a master planned estate - community and lifestyle or conflict and liability?’, Urban Policy and Research, vol. 28, pp. 451-469. Goodman, R, Buxton, M, Chhetri, P, Scheurer, J, Taylor, E & Wood, G 2010, ‘Planning reform, land release and the supply of housing’, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute Positioning Paper Series No. 126, pp. 1-42. Goodman, R, Buxton, M, Chhetri, P, Taylor, E & Wood, G 2010, ‘Planning and the characteristics of housing supply in Melbourne’, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute Final Report. Goodman, R, Douglas, K & Babacan, A 2010, ‘Master planned estates and collective private assets in Australia: Research into the attitudes of planners and developers’, International Planning Studies, vol. 15, pp. 99-117. Grierson, E 2010, ‘Building dwelling thinking and aesthetic relations in urban spaces: A Heideggerian perspective on relational pedagogy as a form of disclosure’, Access: Critical Perspectives on Communication, Cultural and Policy Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 25-40. Grierson, E 2010, ‘Scrutinizing studio art and its study: Historical relations and contemporary conditions’, Journal Of Aesthetic Education, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 111-123. Hamilton, A & Toh, K 2010, ‘A review of emergency organisations - The need for a theoretical framework’, International Journal of Emergency Management, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 111-123. Harris, V & Goldsmith, A 2010, ‘Gendering Transnational Policing: Experiences of Australian women in international policing operations’, International Peacekeeping, vol. 17, pp. 292-306. Harris, V 2010, ‘Building on Sand? Australian involvement in international police capacity building’, Policing and Society, vol. 20, pp. 79-98. Hayes, P 2010, ‘Sustainable Security in the Korean Peninsula: Envisioning a Northeast Asian Biodiversity Corridor’, The Asia - Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, pp. 1-28. Haynes, K, Handmer, J, McAneney, J, Tibbits, A & Coates, L 2010, ‘Australian bushfire fatalities 1900-2008: exploring trends in relation to the ‘Prepare, stay and defend or leave early’ policy’, Environmental Science & Policy, vol. 13, pp. 185-194. Hjorth, L 2010, ‘The game of being social: Web 2.0, social media and online games’, IOWA Journal of Communication, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 73-92. Hudson, C 2010, ‘Delhi: Global mobilities, identity, and the postmodern consumption of place’, Globalizations, vol. 7, pp. 371-381. Hudson, C 2010, ‘The Singapore arts festival and the aestheticisation of the urban landscape’, Access: Critical Perspectives of Communication, Cultural and Policy Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 1-10. Janjua, M, Thomas, I & McEvoy, D 2010, ‘Framing climate change adaptation learning and action: the case of Lahore, Pakistan’, International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 281-296. Kessuwan, K & Muenjohn, N 2010, ‘Employee satisfaction: Work-related and personal factors’, International Review of Business Research Papers, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 168-177. Khan, S & Rahman, S 2010, ‘Global suppliers’ selection in foreign-aid funded procurement using the quality function deployment matrix’, International Journal of Integrated Supply Management, vol. 5, pp. 302-321. Koay, Y, Xie, Y & Setunge, S 2010, ‘Investigation of various methods for minimising uneven displacements in pedestrian concrete pavements’, Road Materials And Pavement Design, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 479-488.

202 Kumar, D, Setunge, S & Patnaikuni, I 2010, ‘Prediction of life-cycle expenditure for different categories of council buildings’, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 556-561. Le, C & Cheong, F 2010, ‘Perceptions of risk and risk management in vietnamese catfish farming: An empirical study’, Aquaculture Economics and Management, vol. 14, pp. 282-314. Lewis, H Verghese, K & Fitzpatrick, L 2010, ‘Evaluating the sustainability impacts of packaging: The plastic carry bag dilemma’, Packaging Technology and Science, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 145-160. Lewis, J & Lewis, B 2010, ‘Transactions in Desire: Media Imaginings of Narcotics and Terrorism in Indonesia’, Cultural Studies Review, vol. 16. Lewis, T & Martin, F 2010, ‘Learning modernity: lifestyle advice television in Australia, Taiwan and Singapore’, Asian Journal of Communication, vol. 20, pp. 318-336. Lewis, T 2010, ‘Branding, celebritization and the lifestyle expert’, Cultural Studies, vol. 24, pp. 580-598. Magee, L 2010, ‘A framework for assessing commensurability of semantic web ontologies’, Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, Academic Conferences Limited, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 91-102 Marron, M, Sarabia-Panol, Z, Sison, M, Rao, S & Niekamp, R 2010, ‘The scorecard on reporting of the global financial crisis: Who’s to blame for the GFC? Insights from Southeast Asia’, Journalism Studies, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 270-283. Martin, J & Ling, H 2010, ‘International education and student mobility: curriculum design and delivery’, Global Studies Journal, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 119-128. Martin, J & Oswin, F 2010, ‘Mental health, Access and equity in higher education’, Advances in Social Network, vol. 11, pp. 48-66. Martin, J 2010, ‘Disaster planning and gender mainstreaming: Black saturday bushfires’, New Community Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 3-9 Martin, J 2010, ‘Stigma and student mental health in higher education’, Higher Education Research & Development, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 259-274. Martinovic, M 2010, ‘Increasing compliance on home detention based sanctions through utilisation of an intensive intervention support program’, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 413-435. McEvoy, D, Matczak, P, Banaszak, I & Chorynski, A 2010, ‘Framing adaptation to climate-related extreme events’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies For Global Change, vol. 15, pp. 779-795. McKay, E & Martin, J 2010, ‘Mental health and wellbeing: Converging HCI with human informatics in higher education’, Issues in informing science and information technology, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 39-351. McMurray, A, Karim, A & Fisher, G 2010, ‘Perspectives on the recruitment and retention of culturally and linguistically diverse police’, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 193-210. McMurray, A, Pirola-Merlo, A, Sarros, J & Islam, M 2010, ‘Leadership, climate, psychological capital, commitment, and wellbeing in a nonprofit organization’, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 436-457. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Becoming political: Asylum seeker activism through community theatre’, Local Global: Identity, Security, Community, vol. 8, pp. 142-149. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Border policing and sovereign terrain: The spatial framing of unwanted migration in Melbourne and Australia’, Globalizations, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 407-419. Mees, B 2010, ‘A Gaulish prayer for vengeance on a lamella from Lezoux’, Celtica, vol. 26, pp. 48-65. Meizler, A, Roddick, F & Porter, N 2010, ‘Continuous enzymatic treatment of 4-bromophenol initiated by UV irradiation’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 62, pp. 2016-2020. Millard, S, Molyneaux, T, Barnett, S & Gao, X 2010, ‘Dynamic enhancement of blast-resistant ultra high performance fibre-reinforced concrete under flexural and shear loading’, International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol. 37, pp. 405-413. Miller, P & Bowd, J 2010, ‘Do Australian teenagers contribute to housework’, Family Matters, vol. 85, pp. 68-76. Mitchell, S, Miles, C, Brennan, L & Matthews, J 2010, ‘Reliability of the school food checklist for in-school audits and photograph analysis of children’s packed lunches’, Journal Of Human Nutrition And Dietetics, vol. 23, pp. 48-53. Molla, A & Cooper, V 2010, ‘Green IT readiness: A framework and preliminary proof of concept’, Australasian Journal of Information Systems, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 140-160. Molla, A, Peszynski, K & Pittayachawan, S 2010, ‘The use of e-business in agribusiness: Investigating the influence of e-readiness and OTE factors’, Journal Of Global Information Technology Management, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 56-78. Moloney, S, Horne, R & Fien, J 2010, ‘Transitioning to low carbon communities - from behaviour change to systemic change: Lessons from Australia’, Energy Policy, vol. 38, pp. 7614-7623.

203 Moriondo, M, Bindi, M, Kundzewicz, Z, Szwed, M, Chorynski, A, Matczak, P, Radziejewski, M, McEvoy, D & Wreford, A 2010, ‘Impact and adaptation opportunities for European agriculture in response to climatic change and variability’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, vol. 15, pp. 657-679. Morris, B 2010, ‘Un/wrapping Shibuya: Place, media and punctualization’, Space & Culture, vol. 13, pp. 285-303. Mulligan, M & Nadarajah, Y 2010, ‘Turning to community in times of crisis: Globally derived insights on local community formation’, Community Development Journal, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 1-20. Murray, S 2010, ‘Taking the toys from the boys: Feminism and Australian women’s peace activism in the 1980s’, Australian Feminist Studies, vol. 25, no. 63, pp. 3-15. Nelson, A 2010, ‘Carbon emissions: prices and values’, Journal of Australian Political Economy, vol. 66, pp. 268-285. Nelson, A 2010, ‘Servant of the Revolution: the creative art of serving history and the imagination’, Hecate: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Women’s Liberation, vol. 36, pp. 137-152. Nguyen, S & Roddick, F 2010, ‘Effects of ozonation and biological activated carbon filtration on membrane fouling in ultrafiltration of an activated sludge effluent’, Journal of Membrane Science, vol. 363, pp. 271-277. Nguyen, T, Fan, L, Harris, J & Roddick, F 2010, ‘Identification of key water quality characteristics affecting the filterability of biologically treated effluent in low-pressure membrane filtration’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 62, pp. 1914-1921. Nyland, B 2010, ‘Infant-toddler programs and new early childhood curriculum documents in Australia’, The First Steps Nga Tau Tuatahi: Journal of Infant and Toddler Education, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 41-45. Nyland, B, Ferris, J & Deans, J 2010, ‘Young children and music: adults constructing meaning through a performance for children’, Australian Journal of Music Education, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 5-17. Parris, K, McCall, S, McCarthy, M, Minteer, B, Steele, K, Bekessy, S & Medvecky, F 2010, ‘Assessing ethical trade-offs in ecological field studies’, Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 227-234. Peacock, C 2010, ‘Nine steps to internationalise the law curriculum’, Journal of the Australasian Law Teachers Association, vol. 3, no. 1&2, pp. 113-126. Peacock, C 2010, ‘What is an input-taxed supply of used residential premises?’, The Tax Specialist, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 138-144. Peacock, C 2010, ‘Why simple GST treatment of real property is important’, Tax Specialist, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 216-222. Pehcevski, J, Thom, J, Vercoustre, A & Naumovski, V 2010, ‘Entity ranking in Wikipedia: utilising categories, links and topic difficulty prediction’, Information Retrieval, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 568-600. Phipps, P 2010, ‘Performances of power: Indigenous cultural festivals as globally engaged cultural strategy’, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, vol. 35, pp. 217-240. Pimpa, N 2010, ‘E-business education: a phenomenographic study of online engagement among accounting, finance and international business students’, IBusiness, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 311-316. Pita, Z, Cheong, F & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Strategic information systems planning (SISP): An empirical evaluation of adoption of formal approaches to SISP in Australian organisations’, International Journal of Strategic Design Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 28-61. Rahman, S Laosirihongthong, T & Soha, A 2010, ‘Impact of lean strategy on operational performance: A study of Thai manufacturing companies’, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, vol. 21, pp. 839-852. Rhode, D, Corcoran, J & Chhetri, P 2010, ‘Spatial forecasting of residential urban fires: A Bayesian approach’, Computer, Environment and Urban Systems, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 58-69. Richardson, J & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Using trigger that instant messaging to improve stakeholder communications’, Journal of Cases on Information Technology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 1-17. Roychowdhury, K, Jones, S, Arrowsmith, C & Reinke, K 2010, ‘A comparison of high and low gain DMSP/OLS satellite images for the study of socio-economic metrics’, IEEE Journal of selected topics in applied earths observations and remote sensing, pp. 1-8. Sahin, S 2010, ‘Timor-Leste in 2009: Marking ten years of independence or dependance on international ‘assistance’?’, Southeast Asian Affairs, pp. 345 - 364. Scerri, A & James, P 2010, ‘Accounting for sustainability: Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing ‘indicators’ of sustainability’, International Journal of Social Research Methodology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 41-53. Scerri, A & James, P 2010, ‘Communities of citizens and indicators of sustainability’, Community Development Journal, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 219-236. Scerri, A 2010, ‘Accounting for sustainability: Implementing a residential emissions reduction strategy using an approach that combines qualitative and quantitative indicators of sustainability’, Management of Environmental Quality, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 122-135. Sharp, K 2010, ‘Destination anywhere: Experiences of place in the work of Ed Ruscha and Andreas Gursky’, Access: Critical Perspectives on Communication, Cultural and Policy Studies, vol. 29, pp. 11-24.

204 Singh, S & Cabraal, A 2010, ‘Indian student migrants in Australia: Issues of community sustainability’, People and Place, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 19-30. Singh, S 2010, ‘Banking on the national broadband network’, Communication, Politics and Culture, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 91-107. Singh, S, Cabraal, A & Robertson, S 2010, ‘Remittances as a currency of care: A focus on ‘twice migrants’ among the Indian Diaspora in Australia’, Journal Of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 245-263. Siracusa, J 2010, ‘Averting Armageddon: In search of nuclear governance’, International Journal of Business and Globalization, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 250-263. Sison, M 2010, ‘Recasting public relations roles:Agents of compliance, control or conscience’, Journal of Communication Management, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 319-336. Smart, J 2010, ‘The politics of the small purse: The mobilization of housewives in interwar Australia’, International Labor and Working-Class History, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 48-68. Snell, D & Fairbrother, P 2010, ‘Les syndicats, acteurs de l’environement (Unions, environmental stakeholders)’, La Revue e l’ires (IRES Revue), pp. 152-172. Snell, D & Fairbrother, P 2010, ‘Toward a theory of union environmental politics: Unions and climate action in Australia’, Labor Studies Journal, vol. 36, pp. 83-103. Snell, D & Fairbrother, P 2010, ‘Unions as environmental actors’, Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, vol. 16, pp. 411 - 424. Sridharan, B, Deng, H & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Critical success factors in E-learning ecosystems: A qualitative study’, Journal of Systems and Information Technology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 263-288. Steger, MB & Patomaki, H 2010, ‘Social imaginaries and big history: Towards a new planetary consciousness?’, Futures: A Journal of Policy, Planning, and Future Studies, vol. 42, no. 8, pp. 1056-1063. Steger, MB & Patomaki, H 2010, ‘Social imaginaries and big history: towards a new planetary consciousness?’, Futures: A Journal of Policy, Planning, and Future Studies, vol. 42.8, pp. 1056-63. Steger, MB 2010, ‘What’s new about political ideologies in the age of globalization?’, Global Change, Peace & Security, vol. 22, pp. 1-7. Stevens-Ballenger, J, Jeanneret, N & Forrest, D 2010, ‘Preservice primary music: Where to begin?’, Victorian Journal of Music Education, vol. 1, pp. 36-41. Stewart, M, Ong, R, & Wood, G 2010, ‘Housing Taxation and Transfer’, Final Report, a Research Study for the Australian Treasury’s Henry Tax Review, available at: http://taxreview.treasury.gov.au/content/html/commissioned_work/downloads/Wood_Stewart_and_ Ong.pdf Stone, J & Mees, P 2010, ‘Planning public transport networks in the post-petroleum era’, Australian Planner, vol. 47, pp. 263-271. Strengers, S 2010, ‘Air-conditioning Australian households: The impact of dynamic peak pricing’, Energy Policy, vol. 38, pp. 7312 - 7322. Tabara, J, Dai, X, Jia, G, McEvoy, D, Neufeldt, H, Serra, A, Werners, S & West, J 2010, ‘The climate learning ladder. A pragmatic procedure to support climate adaptation’, Environmental Policy and Governance, vol. 20, pp. 1-11. Tan, C & Deng, H 2010, ‘A multi-criteria group decision making procedure using interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy sets’, Journal of Computational Information Systems, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 855-863. Tananitikul, K & Muenjohn, N 2010, ‘Re-designing banking services: The case of a government-owned bank in Thailand’, International Review of Business Research Papers, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 181-193. Thomas, I & Meehan, B 2010, ‘Student preparation for the international environmental profession’, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 91-107. Thomas, I 2010, ‘Environmental policy and local government in Australia’, Local Environment, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 121-136. Thomas, I, Sandri, O & Hegarty, K 2010, ‘Green jobs in Australia: A status report’, Sustainability, vol. 2, pp. 3792-3811. Toh, K, Welsh, K & Hassall, K 2010, ‘A collaboration service model for a global port cluster’, International Journal of Engineering Business Management, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 29-34. Tran, L 2010, ‘Embracing prior professional experience in meaning making: views from international students and academics’, Educational Review, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 157-173. Treyvaud, K, Rogers, S, Matthews, J & Allen, B 2010, ‘Maternal factors and experiences associated with observed parenting behaviour in mothers attending a residential parenting program’, Infant Mental Health Journal, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 58-70. Verghese, K, Horne, R & Carre, A 2010, ‘PIQET: The design and development of an online ‘streamlined’ LCA tool for sustainable packaging design decision support’, International Journal Of Life Cycle Assessment, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 608-620.

205 Ware, S & Hudson, C 2010, ‘Death in Borneo: Australian national identity, war and the transnational imagination’, Access: Critical Perspectives on Communication, Cultural and Policy Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 55-70. Watty, K, Jackson, M & Yu, X 2010, ‘Students’ approaches to assessment in accounting education: The unique student perspective’, Accounting Education: an International Journal, vol. 19, pp. 219 - 234. Whittaker, J & Handmer, J 2010, ‘Community bushfire safety: A review of post-black Saturday research’, The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 7-13. Wickramasinghe, N & Goldberg, S 2010, ‘Transforming online communities into support environments for chronic disease management through cell phones and social networks’, International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations, vol. 7, pp. 581-583. Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘The role for knowledge management in modern healthcare delivery’, International Journal of Healthcare Delivery Reform Initiative, vol. 2, pp. 1-9. Wickramasinghe, N Tatnall, A & Bali, R 2010, ‘Using actor network theory to facilitate a superior understanding of knowledge creation and knowledge transfer’, International Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation, vol. 2, pp. 30-42. Williams, L 2010, ‘Visualizing Subjectivity: Social Theory and the Role of Art as Metaphor of Self and Habitus’, Thesis Eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 35-44. Wilson, B, Stavros, C & Westberg, K 2010, ‘A sport crisis typology: establishing a pathway for future research’, International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 21-32. Wilson, E 2010, ‘Beyond dualism: Expanded understandings of religion and global justice’, International Studies Quarterly, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 733-754. Wilson, E 2010, ‘From apathy to action: Promoting active citizenship and global responsibility in global north populations’, Global Society, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 273-294. Wilson, E 2010, ‘Protecting the unprotected: Reconceptualising refugee protection through the notion on hospitality’, Local Global, vol. 8, pp. 100-123. Wintle, B, Runge, M & Bekessy, S 2010, ‘Allocating monitoring effort in the face of unknown unknowns’, Ecology Letters, vol. 13, pp. 1325-1337. Wood, G & Ong, R, 2010, ‘Factors shaping the decision to become a landlord and retain rental investments’, Final Report No. 142, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Xia, J, Evans, F, Spilsbury, K, Ciesielski, V, Arrowsmith, C & Wright, G 2010, ‘Market segments based on the dominant movement patterns of tourists’, Tourism Management, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 464-469. Yeh, C, Deng, H, Wibowo, S & Xu, Y 2010, ‘Fuzzy Multicriteria Decision Support for Information Systems Project Selection’, International Journal of Fuzzy Systems, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 170-179. Yooyanyong, P & Muenjohn, N 2010, ‘Leadership styles of expatriate managers: A comparison between American and Japanese expatriates’, The Journal of American Academy of Business, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 161-167. Zhang, J & Pimpa, N 2010, ‘Embracing Guanxi: The literature review’, International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management, vol. 1, no. 1.

Published Refereed Conference Papers 2010

A Hamid, R & Thom, J 2010, ‘Criteria that have an effect on users while making image relevance judgements’, in Scholer, F, Trotman, A & Turpin, A (eds), Proceedings of the 15th Australasian Document Computing Symposium, Melbourne, Australia, 10 December, 2010, pp. 1-8. Acker, A, Ferris, A & Nyland, B 2010, ‘Music at home and in the preschool: children and music participation in the early years’, in Lilari, B &Gluschankof, C (eds), International Society of Music Educators - Early Childhood Music Seminar, China, 26 - 30 July, 2010, pp. 13-17. Adam, A Molyneaux, T Patnaikuni, I & Law, D 2010, ‘Strength, sorptivity and carbonation in blended OPC-GGBS, alkali activated slag, and fly ash based geopolymer concrete’, in Nader Ghafoori (ed.), Challenges, Opportunities and Solutions in Structural Engineering and Construction, The Netherlands, 22-25 September 09, pp. 563-568. Adam, C, Cavedon, L & Padgham, L 2010, ‘”Hello Emily, how are you today?” Personalised dialogue in a toy to engage children’, in Yorick Wilks (ed.), Proceedings of the 2010 Workshop on Companionable Dialogue Systems, ACL 2010, United States, 15 July, 2010, pp. 19-24.

206 Ahmed, I & McEvoy, D 2010, ‘Post-disaster housing reconstruction: Post-cccupancy case studies from Sri Lanka’, in The Australia and New Zealand Architectural Science Association (ANZAScA) 44th Annual Conference, Auckland, New Zealand. Akama, Y & Ivanka, T 2010, ‘What community? Facilitating awareness of community through playful triggers’, in Bodkier, K, Bratteteig, T, Loi, D & Robertson, T (eds), PDC 2010: Participation, The Challenge, New York, USA, 29 November - 3 December, 2010, pp. 11-20. Al Hazmi, A & Nyland, B 2010, ‘Saudi international student’s experience of transitioning from a gender segregated culture to a mixed gender environment: “Mixing gender is the best” An emerged theme from the interviews’, in Huai, H, Kommers, P, Isaias, P, Rodrigues, L & Barbosa, P (eds), Proceedings of the IADIS Iinternational Conference on International Higher Education (IHE 2010), Perth, Australia, November 29 - December 1, 2010, pp. 1-9. Al Hazmi, A & Nyland, B 2010, ‘Saudi international students in Australia and intercultural engagement: A study of transitioning from a gender segregated culture to a mixed gender environment’, in Fallon, F (ed.), The 21st ISANA International Education Conference, Melbourne, Australia, November 30 - December 4, 2010, pp. 1-11. Al-Maqbali, H, Scholer, F, Thom, J & Wu, M 2010, ‘Evaluating the effectiveness of visual summaries for web search’, in Scholer, F, Trotman A & Turpin, A (eds), Proceedings of the Australiasian Document Computing Symposium, Australia, 10 December, 2010. Babacan, A 2010, ‘Assessing online law students: The promotion of deep learning through engaging online assessment activities’, in Gulsecen, S & Avvaz Reis, Z (eds), 3rd International Conference on Innovations in Learning for the Future 2010: e-Learninq, Istanbul, Turkey, 10-14 May, 2010, pp. 238-246. Bergmann, I, von der Heidt, T & Maller, C 2010, ‘Cognitive dissonance and individuals’ response strategies as a basis for audience segmentation in social marketing to reduce factory farmed meat consumption’, in Russell-Bennett, R & Rundle-Thiele, S (eds), Connecting Thought and Action. Proceedings of the 2010 International Nonprofit & Social Marketing (INSM) Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 15-16 July, 2010, pp. 32-35. Boateng, R, Hinson, R, Heeks, R, Molla, A & Mbarika, V 2010, ‘A resource-based analysis of e-commerce in developing countries’, in Kruger, N & de Villiers, C (eds), Proceedings of the 18th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS 2010), 6-9 June, 2010, pp. 1-12. Chen, G & Zhang, G 2010, ‘A proposed research area in project alliancing: cost management based on interorganizational settings’, in Tombesi, P (ed.), Australasian Universities Building Education Association (AUBEA) 35th Annual Meeting, Melbourne, Australia, 14-16 July, 2010, pp. 1-15. Chen, G Zhang, G & Xie, Y 2010, ‘A review and analysis of contempory literature on project alliancing’, in Wang, Y, Yang, J, Shen, G & Wong, J (eds), Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management, Brisbane, Australia, 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 279-284. Chen, G Zhang, G & Xie, Y 2010, ‘Overview of the Australia-based studies on project alliancing’, in Tombesi, P (ed.), Proceedings of Australiasian Universities Building Education Association (AUBEA), 35th Annual Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 14-16 July, 2010, pp. 1-15. Chen, S & Zhang, G 2010, ‘Estimating carbon emissions associated with manufacture and installation of HVAC systems in office buildings’, in Hang, Y (ed.), Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Construction and Project Management (ICCPM 2010), Chengdu, China, 16-18 November, 2010, pp. 391-395. Chen, S, Zhang, G & Cheong, F 2010, ‘Selecting HVAC systems for commercial buildings from a lifecycle assessment perspective: Literature review plus research proposal’, in Mohammad, MI et al (ed.), Proceedings of the CRIOCM 15th Annual Symposium: Towards Sustainable Development of International Metropolis, Johor, Malaysia, 7-8 August, 2010, pp. 527-536. Cheong, C, Tandon, R & Cheong, F 2010, ‘A project-based learning internship for IT undergraduates with social support from a social networking site’, in Ceccucci, W (ed.), 2010 ISECON Proceedings, Tennesee, United States, 28 - 31 October, 2010, pp. 1-10. Cheong, C, Tandon, R & Cheong, F 2010, ‘The effects of project-based learning environments on social networking site usage: A case study’, in Rosemann, M & Green P (eds), Procedings of ACIS 2010, 1 - 3 December, 2010, pp. 1-12. Chhetri, P, Butcher, T & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Characterising the logistics sector: what and where is the logistics-related employment in Australia?’, in Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2010), Kuala-Lumpur, Malaysia, 4-7 July, 2010. Chib, S & Cheong, F 2010, ‘Free and open source software adoption framework for Swiss small and medium sized tourist enterprises’, in Gretzel, U, Law, R & Fuchs, M (eds), ENTER 2010 Conference on Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, Lugano, Switzerland, 10-12 Februray 2010, pp. 1-5. Clune, S 2010, ‘Deep learning and industrial design education for sustainability’, in Forsyth, G (ed.), Proceedings of ConnectED, UNSW, 28th June - 1st July, 2010, pp. 1-5. Clune, S 2010, ‘Inverting the solution into the problem: Design, practice theory and behavioural change for sustainability’, in Lou, Y (ed.), Proceedings of Cumulus 2010, Shanghai, China, 29 September - 1st October, 2010, pp. 25-31.

207 Clune, S 2010, ‘Sustainability consideration in the Australian international design awards’, in Ceschin, C, Vezzoli, C & Zhang, J (eds), Sustainability in design: NOW! challenges and opportunities for Design Research, Education and practice in the XXI Century: Proceedings of the LeNS Conference, Sheffield, UK, 29 September - 1st October, 2010, pp. 1447-1456. Cole, C & Nelson, A 2010, ‘Literary communities: writers’ practices and networks’, in The Strange Bedfellows or Perfect Partners Papers: The Refereed Proceedings of the 15th Conference of the Australasian Association of Writing Programs. Colic-Peisker, V 2010, ‘Australian immigration and settlement in the 21st century: Who comes in and how do they fare?’, in TASA 2010 Conference Proceedings: Social Causes, Private Lives, Australia, 6-9 December, 2010. Davison, C, Singh, M & Cerotti, P 2010, ‘Social technologies: A six dimensions review of genre’, in Beath, C (ed.), Proceedings of the 16th Americas Conference on Information Systems, Lima, Peru, 12-15 August, 2010, pp. 1-17. Duan, X, Deng, H & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘A critical analysis of e-market adoption in Australian small and medium sized enterprises’, in Liang, T, & Chen, H (eds), Proceedings of Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems, Taipei Taiwan, 9-12 July, 2010, pp. 1719-1726. Duan, X, Deng, H & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘An Empirical Investigation of the Critical Determinants for the Adoption of E-Market in Australian Small and Medium Sized Enterprises’, in AISeL (ed.), Proceedings of the 21st Australian Conference on Information Systems, 1 - 3 December, 2010, pp. 1-11. Dwivedi, Y, Levine, L, Williams, M, Singh, M, Wastell, D & Bunker, D 2010, ‘Toward an understanding of the evolution of IFIP WG 8.6 research’, in Human Benefit through the Diffusion of Information Systems Design Science Research, IFIP WG 8.2/8.6 International Working Conference, Perth, Australia, 30 March - 1 April 1, 2010. Fernandes, J, Law, D, Molyneaux, T & Patnaikuni, I 2010, ‘The application of controlled permeability formwork to reduce the curing time of concrete’, in Setunge, S (ed.), Proceedings of the 21st Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and Materials (ACMSM21), Incorporating Sustainable Practice in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, London, UK, 10 December, 2010, pp. 849-854. Gekara, V 2010, ‘What about skills? A discussion of the role of skills in the strategic positioning of ports as essential catalysts of trade and economic growth’, in Barber, E (ed.), Proceedings of the 33rd Australasian Transport Research Forum, Western Australia, 29 September -1 October, 2010, pp. 1-17. Gharaie, E, Wakefield, R & Blismas, N 2010, ‘The effect of house design variation on the completion time in a production building operation’, in Proceedings of the COBRA Conference 2010, London, UK, 2-3 September, 2010, pp. 1-15. Gharaie, E, Wakefield, R & Blismas, N 2010, ‘The impact of construction commencement intervals on residential production building’, in Wong, J (ed.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management, Brisbane Australia, 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 1-8. Harris, M, Thom, J & Scholer, F 2010, ‘How consistent are human judgments of whether an open resource is educational material?’, in Zhou, X (ed.), Proceedings of the 21st Australasian Database Conference (ADC 2010), Australia, 18-22 January, 2010, pp. 9-18. Hayes, P & Von Hippel, D 2010, ‘DPRK “Collapse” pathways: Implications for the energy sector and for strategies of redevelopment/ support’, in Korean Unification Project Working Paper Series, 1st Annual Conference of the CSIS-USC Korea Project, Korean Studies Institute, University of Southern California August 20-21, 2010. Heslop, L, Toh, K & Hovenga, E 2010, ‘Foundations for a nursing services reference model’, in Proceedings of MEDINFO 2010 Partnerships for effective eHealth Solutions, 13th World Congress on Medical and Health Informatics, Cape Town, South Africa, 12- 15 September, 2010. Huang, W, Seitz, J & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Manifesto for e-health success’, in Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2010), Taipei, Taiwan, 9-12 July, 2010, pp. 684-692. Ijab, M, Molla, A, Kassahun, A & Teoh, S 2010, ‘Seeking the “green” in “green IS”: A spirit, practice and impact perspective’, in Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2010), Taipei, Taiwan, 9-12 July, 2010, pp. 433-443. Islam, M, Jollands, M & Setunge, S 2010, ‘Life cycle assessment of residential buildings: Sustainable material options in wall assemblies’, in Biggs, M (ed.), Chemeca 2010: Engineering at the Edge, Barton, ACT, 26-29 September, 2010, pp. 1-10. Iyer-Raniga, U & Wong, J 2010, ‘Retrofitting the existing for the future: Improving the energy construction of existing residential building stock with heritage values’, in Baird, G (ed.), Proceedings of New Zealand Sustainable Building Conference, Te PaPa, Wellington, New Zealand, 26 - 28 May, 2010, pp. 1-11. Iyer-Raniga, U, Arcari, P & Wong, J 2010, ‘Education for sustainability in the built environment: what are students telling us?’, in Egbu, C (ed.), Proceedings of 26th Annual ARCOM Conference, Leeds, UK, 6 - 8 September, 2010, pp. 1-10. Jin, X, Zuo, J & Zhang, G 2010, ‘Exploring critical factors for achieving successful risk allocationin public-private partnership projects’, in Wang, Y, Yang, J, Shen, G & Wong J (eds), Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management, Brisbane, Australia, 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 253-257.

208 Judson, P, Iyer-Raniga, U, Wong, J & Horne, R 2010, ‘Integrating built heritage and sustainable development: can assessment tools be used to understand the environmental performance of existing buildings with heritage significance?’, in Proceedings of XXIV FIG International Congress 2010: Facing the Challenges, Building the Capacity, Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April, 2010. Kanjanabootra, S & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Addressing knowledge capture issues for business continuity’, in Rowlands, B, Houghtom, L & Fernandez, W (eds), QualIT 2010 Proceedings, Brisbane Australia, November 29-30, 2010, pp. 1-13. Karanasios, S, Cooper, V, Deng, H, Molla, A & Pittayachawan, S 2010, ‘Antecedents to greening data centres: A conceptual framework and exploratory case study’, in Proceedings of the 21st Australasian Conference on Information Systems, Brisbane, Australia, 1 - 3 December, 2010, pp. 1-10. Kelly, P, Richardson, J, Corbitt, B & Lenarcic, J 2010, ‘The impact of context on the adoption of health informatics in Australia’, in Andreja Pucihar (ed.), Proceedings of 22nd Bled eConference, Bled, Slovenia, 21 June - 23 June, 2010, pp. 539-554. Kumsuprom, S, Corbitt, B, Pittayachawan, S & Mingmalairaks, P 2010, ‘Determinants of successful ICT risk management in Thai organisations’, in Ting-Peng Liang, Houn-Gee Chen (ed.), Proceedings of Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems, Taipei Taiwan, 9-12 July, 2010, pp. 1088-1099. Lang, J 2010, ‘Significance of a multimedia resource in the professional learning of preservice teachers’, in Sarah Howard (ed.), Making a Difference: AARE 2010 Conference Proceedings, Melbourne, Australia, 28 November-2 December, 2010. Le, C & Cheong, F 2010, ‘Relationship of the perceptions of risk and risk management with farm socio-economic characteristics in Vietnamese catfish farming’, in Saji Baby, Prof. Parvinder Singh Sandhu and Yi Hang (ed.), Proceedings of International Conference on Agricultural and Animal Science (CASS 2010), Liverpool, UK, 26-28 Februray 2010, pp. 303-311. Lenarcic, J & Sarkar, P 2010, ‘The tragedy of the virtual commons as manifested in the death of blogs’, in J. Berleur, M.D. Hercheui & L. M. Hilty (ed.), Proceedings of What kind of information society? Governance, Virtuality, Surveillance, Sustainability, Resilience, Berlin, Germany, 20-23 September, 2010. Liu, K, Roddick, F & Fan, L 2010, ‘Application of a UV-based advanced oxidation process for enhancing the biodegradability of reverse osmosis concentrate’, in Technical Committee of ozwater 2010 (ed.), Proceedings of Ozwater 10, Brisbance, Australia, March 8-10 2010. Loureiro-Koechlin, C & Butcher, T 2010, ‘The convergence of emerging groups via a Web 2.0 social networking software’, in Proceedings of the Social Networking in Cyberspace 2010, Wolverhampton, UK, 23 April, 2010. McLennan, B 2010, ‘Showing interdisciplinarity in a first-year textbook using case studies of real world research’, in Proceedings of the Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Annual Conference 2010, 28 November - 2 December, 2010, Melbourne. McMurray, A & White, C 2010, ‘The moderating role of consumer perceived value on broadband usage intentions’, in Rose, E (ed.), Proceedings of Global Business and Sustainable Development, Sydney, Australia, 15-17 April, 2010, pp. 1-14. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Global ideologies and urban landscapes’, in Spaces and Flows: International Conference on Urban and Extra Urban Studies, UCLA, USA, 6-7 December, 2010. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Migrant Mobilizations in Los Angeles: Illegality, Citizenship and the City’, in International Studies Association Convention, New Orleans, 17-21 February, 2010. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Opting out of citizenship? Sovereign logic and the autonomy of migration’, in Oceanic Conference on International Studies Conference Proceedings, Auckland, New Zealand, 30 June- 2 July, 2010. McNevin, A 2010, ‘Undocumented citizens? Undocumented migrants and contestations of citizenship in Los Angeles’, in True, J (ed.), Oceanic Conference on International Studies Conference Proceedings, Auckland, New Zealand, 30 June- 2 July, 2010, pp. 1-29. Mees, B 2010, ‘Corporate governance as a movement’, in Greg Patmore (ed.), Business Schools and History, Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference of AAHANZBS, Sydney, Australia, 16-17 December, 2010, pp. 1-8. Mees, P 2010, ‘Density and sustainable transport in US, Canadian and Australian Cities: Another look at the data’, in 12th World Conference on Transport Research, Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal, July 11-15 2010, pp. 1-20. Mees, P 2010, ‘Planning for major rail projects: The Melbourne metro and regional rail link’, in 33rd Australasian Transport Research Forum 2010 Proceedings, Canberra, Australia, 29 September - 1 October, 2010, pp. 1-19. Molyneaux, T, Jollands, M & Jolly, L 2010, ‘Our programs are good... because our students think they are’, in A.Gardner, L.Jolly (ed.), Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference for the Australasian Association for Engineering Education, Sydney, Australia, 5-8 December, 2010, pp. 263-272. Moore, T, Morrissey, J & Horne, R 2010, ‘Cost benefit pathways to zero emission housing: Implications for household cash-flows in Melbourne’, in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Sustainability Engineering and Science, Auckland, NZ, 30 Nov - Dec 3, 2010.

209 Morrissey, J, Iyer-Raniga, U, McLaughlin, P & Mills, A 2010, ‘Proposal of tiered conceptual framework for sustainable design and planning of large-scale development projects in the metropolitan context’, in Transitions to Sustainability, Auckland, New Zealand, 30 November - 3 December, 2010, pp. 1-12. Mosly, I & Zhang, G 2010, ‘Review of risks for the implementation of energy efficient and renewable technologies in green office buildings’, in Proceedings of SB10 New Zealand Sustainable Building Conference, Wellington, New Zealand, 26-28 May, 2010, pp. 1-13. Mosly, I & Zhang, G 2010, ‘Study on risk management for the implementation of energy efficient and renewable technologies in green office buildings’, in Carol Boyle (ed.), Proceedings of Transitions to Sustainability, Auckland, New Zealand, 30 november - 3 December, 2010, pp. 1-12. Muenjohn, N 2010, ‘Transformational leadership: A new force in leadership research’, in Dr. Zia Haqq (ed.), Proceedings of the 12th International Business Research Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 8-9 April, 2010. Nankervis, A Rigby, G & Butcher, T 2010, ‘Sustaining international service chains: Implications for the tourism & hospitality sector’, in Chaisawat, M (ed.), Proceedings of the 24th Annual ANZAM Conference, Adelaide, Australia, 8-10 December, 2010, pp. 1-14. Nguyen, T, Fan, L & Roddick, F 2010, ‘Removal of melanoidins from an industrial wastewater’, in technical committee of Ozwater 2010 (ed.), Proceedings of Ozwater 10, Brisbane, Australia, March 8-10, 2010. Othman, M, Bhuiyan, M & Molyneaux, T 2010, ‘Experiments in the use of quizzes to facilitate team work’, in Gardner, A & Jolly, L (eds, Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference for the Australasian Association for Engineering Education, Sydney, Australia, 5-8 DEC 2010, pp. 70-75. Petersen, T & Mees, P 2010, ‘A case of good practice: The Swiss ‘network’ approach to semi-rural public transport’, in Viegas, JM & Macario, R (eds), 12th World Conference on Transport Research, Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal, 11-15 July, 2010, pp. 1-25. Pimpa, N & Hooi, L 2010, ‘Change management and leadership: Singaporean and Thai organisational contexts’, in Jane, L (ed.), Proceedings of the 7th Asia Academy of Management Conference: Global Business and Sustainable Development, Macau, China, 12-14 December, 2010, pp. 1-22. Pimpa, N & Moore, T 2010, ‘Organisational culture and leadership styles in Thai and Australian public sectors’, in Welch, C, Evangelista, F, Gray, S, Jack, R & Tipton, B (eds), Proceedings of the 2010 Australia and New Zealand International Business Academy Conference: Global Business and Sustainable Development, Adelaide, Australia, 15-17 April, 2010, pp. 1-18. Pimpa, N 2010, ‘Management and culture: A study of Thai public sector organisations’, in Bruce Gurd (ed.), Proceedings of the 24th Annual Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management Conference: Managing for Unknowable Futures, Sydney, Australia, 8-10 December, 2010. Pimpa, N 2010, ‘Techniques in increasing students engagement in online international business and finance courses’, in Neal, M (ed.), International Conference on Business and Management Education, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 January, 2010, pp. 1-11. Raffe, W, Hu, J, Zambetta, F & Xi, K 2010, ‘A dual-layer clustering scheme for real-time identification of plagiarized massive multiplayer games (MMG) assets’, in Zhang, JB, Lin, C & Lin, B (eds), Proceedings of the 2010 5th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, New Jersy, USA, 15-17 June, 2010, pp. 307-312. Rahman, S, Khan, S & Abareshi, A 2010, ‘Competency gap assessment for operations managers: a case study of a large Australian logistics firm’, in Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2010), Kuala-Lumpur, Malaysia, 4-7 July, 2010. Ranjith, S, Setunge, S, Gravina, R & Venkatesan, S 2010, ‘Fuzzy logic based diagnostic tool for management of timber bridges’, in Ghafoori, N (ed.), in Challenges, Opportunities and Solutions in Structural Engineering and Construction, Leiden, Netherlands, 22 - 25 September 2009, pp. 795-804. Ratajczak, I 2010, ‘International climate financing: Governance challenges facing the adaptation fund’, in Climate Change Adaptation Program, Roundtable on Civil Society Actions and Needs to promote Climate Governance, Bangkok, Thailand, 10-13 November, 2010. Roychowdhury, K, Jones, S, Arrowsmith, C, Reinke, K & Bedford, A 2010, ‘The role of satellite data in census: Case study of an Indian State’, in Elvidge, C (ed.), Proceedings of the 30th Asia-Pacific Advanced Network Meeting, Hanoi, Vietnam, 9-13 August, 2010, pp. 1-12. Scerri, D, Hickmott, S, Padgham, L & Drogoul, A 2010, ‘An architecture for modular distributed simulation with agent-based models’, in van der Hoek, Kaminka, Lesperance, Luck & Sen (eds), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS), Toronto, Canada, May 10-14 2010, pp. 541-548. Scerri, D, Hickmott, S, Zambetta, F, Goud, F, Yehuda, I & Padgham, L 2010, ‘Bushfire blocks: A modular agent-based simulation’, in van der Hoek, Kaminka, Lesperance, Luck and Sen (ed.), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS) Demo track, Toronto, Canada, May 10-14 2010. Sergeyev, Y, Butcher, T & Grant, D 2010, ‘Design of an RFID-Enabled Fresh Meat Retail Supply Chain’, in Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2010), Kuala-Lumpur, Malaysia, 4-7 July, 2010.

210 Setunge, S & Zhang, G 2010, ‘A reliability based approachfor sustainable management of public buildings’, in M T R Jayasinghe, P A Mendis and R Dissannayake (ed.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment (ICSBE 2010), Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 12-14 December, 2010, pp. 1-7. Shlomo, G, Kamps, J, Lethonen, M, Schenkel, R, Thom, J & Trotman, A 2010, ‘Overview of the INEX 2009 ad hoc track’, in Geva S, Kamps, J & Trotman A (ed.), Focused Retrieval and Evaluation 8th International Workshop of the Initiative for the Evaluation of XML Retrieval, INEX 2009, Brisbane, Australia, December 7-9, 2009. Revised and Selected Papers, Berlin, Germany, December 7-9, 2009, pp. 4-25. Singh, M, Davison, C & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Organisational use of web 2.0 technologies: An Australian perspective’, in Proceedings of the Sixteenth Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS 2010), Lima, Peru, 12-15 August, 2010. Sison, M 2010, ‘In search of cultural values: Examining public relations campaigns in multicultural Australia’, in Cooren, F (ed.), 60th Annual Conference of the International Communication Association, Singapore, 22-26 June, 2010, pp. 1-23. Solikin, M, Setunge, S & Patnaikuni, I 2010, ‘A design experiment of mortar compressive strength with different water content and different ultra fine fly ash content’, in Saleh Pallu, M (ed.), Proceedings of the First Makassar International Conference on Civil Engineering (MICCE2010), Makassar, Indonesia, 9-10 March, 2010, pp. 195-202. Sridharan, B, Deng, H & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘The perceptions of learners on the effectiveness of e-learning in higher education’, in Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Education Technology and Computer, New Jersey, USA, 22-24 June, 2010, pp. 167-171. Sridharan, B, Deng, H Kirk, J & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Structural equation modelling for evaluating the user perceptions of e-learning effectiveness in higher education’, in Alexander, T, Turpin, M & van Deventer, JP (eds), Proceedings of the 18th European conference on Information Systems, Pretoria, South Africa, 6-9 June, 2010, pp. 1-13. Stone, J, Muhammed, I & Mees, P 2010, ‘Network planning for more effective public transport in New Zealand cities’, in Viegas, JM & and Macario, R (eds), 12th World Conference on Transport Research, Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal, July 11-15, 2010, pp. 1-23. Sulaiman, H & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Critical issues in assimilation of healthcare information systems’, in Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2010), Taiwan, 9-12 July, 2010, pp. 1774-1781. Tacchi, J 2010, ‘Open content creation: the issues of voice and the challenges of listening’, in Open Development: Technological, Organizational and Social Innovations Transforming the Developing World, Ottawa, Canada, 6-7 May, 2010. Teo, L, Singh, M & Cooper, V 2010, ‘The impacts of organisational learning and innovation on enterprise systems benefits of Australian organizations’, in Beath, C (ed.), Proceedings of the Sixteenth Americas Conference on Information Systems, Lima, Peru, 12 - 15 August, 2010, pp. 1-9. Teo, L, Teh, D & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘Service oriented architecture (SOA): Implications for Australian university information systems curriculum’, in Liang, T & Chen, H (eds), Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2010), Taipei, Taiwan, July 9-12, 2010, pp. 1286-1296 Teoh, S, Cai, S & Corbitt, B 2010, ‘A case study of healthcare information technology implementation: Agile-innovative capability development process’, in Liang, T & Chen, H (eds), Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2010), Taipei Taiwan, 9 - 12 July, 2010, pp. 661-671. Thanthri Waththage, K & Deng, H 2010, ‘Exploring the public value of eGovernment: An empirical study from Sri Lanka’, in The 23rd Bled eConference eTrust: Implications for the Individual, Enterprises and Society Proceedings, Bled, Slovenia, 20-24 June, 2010, pp. 286-300. Thanthri Waththage, K & Deng, H 2010, ‘Testing and validating a conceptual framework for evaluating the public value of e-government using structural equation modelling’, in The 21st Australiasian Conference on Information Systems, Brisbane, Australia, 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 1-10. Trinh, P, Molla, A & Peszynski, K 2010, ‘Enterprise systems and organisational agility: Conceptualizing the link’, in Rosemann, M, Green, P & Rohde, F (eds), Proceedings of the 21st Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS 2010), 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 1-10. Urbansky, D, Feldmann, M, Thom, J & Schill, A 2010, ‘Entity extraction from the web with webknox’, in Xhafa, F & Rezankova, H (eds), Proceedings of the AWIC’09 6th Atlantic Web Conference, Heidelberg, Germany, 09/09/09 to 11/09/09, pp. 209-218. Wibowo, S & Deng, H 2010, ‘Risk-oriented group decision making in multi-criteria analysis’, in Matsuo, T, Ishii, N & Lee, G (eds), Proceedings of the 9th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information Science, New Jersey, USA, 18-20 August, 2010, pp. 9-14. Wickramasinghe, N, Moghimi, F & Schaffer, J 2010, ‘Designing an intelligent risk detection framework using knowledge discovery techniques to improve efficiency and accuracy of healthcare care decision making’, in Kirn, S (ed.), Process of change in organisations through eHealth, Proceedings of the 2nd International eHealth Symposium 2010, Stuttgart, Germany, 7-8 June, 2010, pp. 31-44.

211 Wickramasinghe, N, Singh, M, Troshani, I, Hill, S, Hague, W & Goldberg, S 2010, ‘A pervasive technology solution for diabetes using gestational diabetes as a model’, in Luftman, J & Santana, M (eds), Proceedings of the Sixteenth Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS 2010), Lima, Peru, 12-15 August, 2010, pp. 1-9. Wickramasinghe, N, Troshani, I & Goldberg, S 2010, ‘DiaMonD: Developing a diabetes monitoring device in the Australian context’, in Pucihar, A (ed.), Proceedings of the 23rd Bled e-Conference, Bled, Slovenia, 20-23 June, 2010, pp. 210-233. Withanaarachchi, B, Setunge, S & Bajwa, S 2010, ‘Strategic planning to protect critical infrastructure systems’, in Proceedings for the 24th ARRB Conference (CD-ROM), Melbourne, Australia, 12-15 October, 2010, pp. 1-16. Wood, G 2010, ‘Care-full markets. A contradiction in terms?’, in Respondent in the Tanner Lecture Series delivered by Smith, S, Clare College, Cambridge University, UK, 3-4 November, 2010. Wood, G, 2010, ‘Movements in and out of housing affordability stress’, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute Research Seminar, Sydney, 21 October, 2010. Wood, G, 2010, ‘Sustaining Homeownership in the 21st Century’, in Centre for Research in Applied Economics (CRAE) Housing Policy Forum, Curtin University, Perth, 29 October, 2010. Wood, G, Baker, E, Beer, A & Raftery, P 2010, ‘Gatekeepers and pathways: The impact of administrative processes in shaping Access to housing assistance’, in 5th Australasian Housing Researchers Conference, Auckland, November, 2010. Wood, G, Goodman, R, Buxton, M, Chhetri, P & Taylor, E 2010, ‘Planning policy initiatives and housing supply in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia’, European Network for Housing Research 2010, Istanbul, 4-7 July, 2010. Wu, M, Turpin, A, Puglisi, S, Scholer, F & Thom, J 2010, ‘Presenting query aspects to support exploratory research’, in Calder, P & Lutteroth, C (eds), Proceedings of the Australasian User Interface Conference, United States, 18-22 January, 2010, pp. 23-32. Yuille, J, Macdonald, H, Akama, Y, Stewart, N, Vaughan, L & Viller, S 2010, ‘Dialogic Shifts: The rhythm and sequence of artifacts in aesthetically informed interaction design practice’, in Kraal, B & Viller, S (eds), Proceedings of OZCHI 2010, New York, United States, 22-26 November, 2010, pp. 192-195. Yun, Y, Huang, W, Seitz, J & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Evaluation of e-health in China’, in eTrust: Implications for the Individual, Enterprises and Society, Bled, Slovenia, 20-23rd June, 2010. Zhang, G, Kalutara, P, Setunge, S & Wakefield, R 2010, ‘Development of a monetary and engineering combined metric for community building valuation’, in Wang, Y, Yang, J, Shen, G & Wong, J (eds), Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management, Brisbane, Australia, 1-3 December, 2010, pp. 1-6. Zwicker, M, Seitz, J & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘Adaptations for e-kiosk systems to develop barrier-free terminals for handicapped persons’, in Kirn, S (ed.), Process of Change in Organisations Through eHealth, Germany, 7-8 June, 2010, pp. 67-80. Zwicker, M, Seitz, J & Wickramasinghe, N 2010, ‘An approach of a telematics infrastructure for the German electronic health card’, in The 23RD IEEE International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS 2010), New York, USA, 12-15 October, 2010, pp. 438-444.

Books 2011

Battersby, P, Siracusa, J & Ripiloski, S 2011, Crime wars: The global intersection of crime, political violence and international law, Praeger, Santa Barbara. Besserman, P & Steger MB, 2011, Zen radicals, rebels and reformers, Wisdom Publications, Somerville. Cope, B, Kalantzis, M & Magee, L 2011, Towards a semantic web: Connecting knowledge in academic research, Chandos Publishing, Oxford. Harris, V & Goldsmith, A (eds), 2011, Security, development and nation-building in Timor-Leste: Cross-sectoral perspectives, Routledge, London. Hjorth, L 2011, Games and gaming: An introduction to new media, Berg, London. Lewis, J 2011, Crisis in the global mediasphere: Desire, displeasure and cultural transformation, Palgrave-Macmillan, London. Lewis, T & Potter, E (eds), 2011, Ethical consumption: A critical introduction, Routledge, London. McNevin, A 2011, Contesting citizenship: Irregular migrants and new frontiers of the political, Columbia University Press, New York. Mendes, P, Johnson, G & Moslehuddin, B 2011, Young people leaving state out-of-home care: A research-based study of Australian policy and practice, Australian Scholary Publishing, Melbourne. Mulligan, M & Nadarajah, Y 2011, Rebuilding local communities in the wake of disaster social recovery in Sri Lanka and India, Routledge, New Delhi.

212 Peacock, C (ed.), 2011, GST in Australia: Looking forward from the first decade, Thomson Reuters, Sydney. Steger, MB & McNevin, A (eds), 2011, Global ideologies and urban landscapes, Routledge, London. Thomas, I & Murfitt, P 2011, Environmental management processes and practices for Australia, Federation Press, Annandale.

Book Chapters 2011

Berry, M, Dalton, T & Nelson, T 2011, ‘The impacts of the global financial crisis on housing and mortgage markets in Australia: A view from the vulnerable’, in Housing markets and the global financial crisis, Edward Elgar, London. Charlesworth, E & Nelson, A 2011, ‘Reconstruction as exclusion: Beirut’ in Gregner, M & Ziino, B (eds), in The heritage of war, Routledge, London. Cooke, F 2011, ‘Employment relations in China’, in International and comparative employment relations: Globalisation and change, Sage Publications, London. Cooke, F 2011, ‘Labour market disparities and inequality’, in China’s changing workplace: Dynamism, diversity and disparity, Routledge, London. Cooke, F 2011, ‘Social responsibility, sustainability and diversity of human resources’, in International human resource management, Sage Publications, London. Cooke, F 2011, ‘Talent management in China’, in Scullion, H & Collings, D (eds), Global talent management, Routledge, London. Fünfgeld, H 2011, ‘Introduction: Approaches to climate change adaptation in cities’, in Otto-Zimmermann, K (ed.), Resilient cities: Cities and adaptation to climate change, Springer, Amsterdam. Goldsmith, A & Harris, V 2011, ‘Out of step: Multilateral police missions, culture and nation-building’ in Harris, V & Goldsmith, A (eds), Security, development and nation-building in Timor-Leste: Cross-sectoral perspectives, Routledge, London. Harris, V & Goldsmith, A 2011, ‘The struggle for independence was just the beginning’, in Harris V & Goldsmith, A (eds), Security, development and nation-building in Timor-Leste: Cross-sectoral perspectives, Routledge, London. Harris, V & O’Neil, A 2011, ‘Timor-Leste’s futures: Security and stability 2010-2020’, in Harris, V & Goldsmith, A (eds), Security, development and nation-building in Timor-Leste: Cross-sectoral perspectives, Routledge, London. Hayes, P & Von Hippel, D 2011, ‘North Korea’s “Collapse” pathways and the role of the energy sector’, in Kim, S, Roehrig, T & Seliger, B (eds), The survival of North Korea: Essays on strategy, economics and international relations. Hjorth, L 2011, ‘Mobile specters of intimacy: A case study of women and mobile intimacy’, in Ling, R & Campbell, S (eds), Mobile communication: Bringing us together or tearing us apart, Transaction Books, Edison. Hjorth, L 2011, ‘Mum’s the word: A case study of students’ intergenerational new media literacy in Shanghai’, in Global media convergence and cultural transformation: Emerging social patterns and characteristics, IGI Global, Hershey. Horne, R, Maller, C & Lane, R 2011, ‘Remaking home: The reuse of goods and materials in Australian households’ in Lane, R & Gorman-Murray, A (eds), Material geographies of household sustainability, Ashgate, Surrey. Hudson, C 2011, ‘Delhi: Global mobilities, identity, and the postmodern consumption of place’, in Global ideologies and urban landscapes, Steger MB, & McNevin, A (eds), Routledge, London. Humphery, K 2010, ‘The simple and the good: Ethical consumption as anti-consumerism’, in Lewis, T & Potter, E (eds), Ethical consumption: A critical introduction, Routledge, London. James, P & Scerri, A 2011, ‘Auditing cities through circles of sustainability’ in Amen, M, Toly, N, McCarney P & Segbers, K (eds), Cities and clobal governance: New sites for international relations, Ashgate Publishing, Farnham. Lawry, R, Waddell, D & Singh, M 2011, ‘The characteristics, responsibilities and future of chief information officers in the public sector’, in Rahman, H (ed.), Cases on adoption, diffusion and evaluation of global e-governance systems: Impact at the grass roots, IGI Global, Hershey. Lewis, T & Potter, E 2011, ‘Introducing ethical consumption’, in Lewis, T & Potter, E (eds), Ethical consumption: A critical introduction, Routledge, London. Lewis, T 2011, ‘Globalising lifestyles? Makeover television in Singapore’, in The politics of reality television: Global perspectives, Routledge, London. Lewis, T 2011, ‘Mobile makeovers: Global and local lifestyles and identities in reality formats’, in Reality TV: Merging the global and the local, Nova Science, New York. Lewis, T, ‘You’ve put yourselves on a plate’: The labours of selfhood on MasterChef Australia’, in Skeggs, B & Wood, E (eds), Reality television and class, Palgrave MacMillan, London.

213 Maller, C 2011, ‘Practices involving energy and water consumption in migrant households’ in Urban consumption, CSIRO, Melbourne. Miller, P 2011, ‘Calculating babies: Changing accounts of fertility decisions among Italians in Melbourne, Australia’, in Baldassar, L & Gabaccia, D (eds), Intimacy and Italian migration: Gender and domestic lives in a mobile world, Fordham University Press, New York. Morris, B 2011, ‘The City’ in The Blackwell encyclopedia of literary and cultural theory, John Wiley, Brisbane. Mulligan, M & Shaw, J 2011, ‘Achievements and weaknesses in post-tsunami reconstruction in Sri Lanka’, in Karan, P & Subbiah, S (eds), The Indian Ocean Tsunami: The global response to a natural disaster, The University of Kentucky Press, Lexington. Mulligan, M 2011, ‘Rethinking community in the face of natural resources management challenges’ in Connell, D & Grafton, R (ed.), Basin futures: Water reform in the Murray-Darling Basin, ANU EPress, Canberra. Mulligan, M 2011, ‘Thinking and acting locally and globally’, in Social ecology: Applying ecological understandings to our lives and our planet, Hawthorn Press, London. Phipps, P 2011, ‘Performing culture as political strategy: The Garma Festival, north east Arnhem land’, in Festival places: Revitalising rural Australia, Channel View Publications, Bristol. Sahin, S 2011, ‘The rising politics of `emergencies’ in the global age: A critical reflection on the governance of (in)security in Australia’, in Counter terrorism and social cohesion, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle. Scerri, A 2011, ‘Rethinking responsibility? Household sustainability in the stakeholder society’ in Lane, R & Gorman-Murray, A (eds), Material geographies of household sustainability, Ashgate Publishing, Farnham. Smith, J, Mulligan, M & Nadarajah, Y 2011, ‘Scenarios for engaging a rural Australian community in climate change adaptation work’, in Ford, J & Berrang-Ford, L (eds), Climate change adaptation in developed nations, Springer, Amsterdam. Steger, MB 2011, ‘Bronner vs. Fukuyama: 1989, the end of history and the new internationalism’, in Thompson, M (ed.), Rational radicalism and political theory: Essays in honor of Stephen Eric Bronner, Lexington Books, Lanham. Teoh, S, Singh, M & Chong, J 2011, ‘An overview of E-health development in Australia’, in Handbook of research on e-services in the public sector: E-government strategies and advancements, IGI Global, Hershey. Verghese, K & Lockrey, S 2011, ‘Selecting and applying tools’ in Designing sustainable packaging, Springer, London. Von Hippel, D, Suzuki, T, Williams, J & Hayes, P 2011, ‘Evaluating the energy security impacts of energy policies’, in Sovacool, Benjamin, K (ed.), Routledge handbook of energy security, Routledge, London. Williams, L 2011 ‘Norbert Elias and the question of the non-human world’ in Goodbury, A & Rigby, K (ed.), Eco-critical theory: New european approaches, University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville. Williams, L 2011, ‘Shadows of the holocene: Traditions and transformations of the non-human world in science fiction film’ in Milner, A, Sellars, S & Burgmann, V (eds), Changing the climate: Utopia, dystopia and catastrophe, Arena Publishing, Melbourne.

Journal Articles 2011

Ahmed, I 2011, ‘Overview of post-disaster housing reconstruction in developing countries’, Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, vol. 2, no. 2. Allinson, G, Hagen, T, Salzman, S, Wightwick, A & Nugegoda, D 2011, ‘Effect of increasing salinity on the acute toxicity of a commercial endosulfan formulation to the bdelloid rotifer Philodina acuticornis odiosa’, Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 722-728. Arrowsmith, C, Bagoly-Simo, P, Finchum, A, Oda, K & Pawson, E 2011, ‘Student employability and its implications for geography curricula and learning practices’, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, vol. 35, pp. 365-377. Corcoran, J,Higgs, G, Rhode, D & Chhetri, P 2011, ‘Investigating the association between weather conditions calendar events and socio-economic patterns with trends in fire incidence: an Australian case study’, Journal of Geographical Systems, vol. 13, pp. 193- 226. Dejbakhsh, S, Arrowsmith, C & Jackson, M 2011, ‘Cultural Influence on Spatial Behaviour’, Tourism Geographies, vol. 13, pp. 91- 111. Dwivedi, Y, Singh, M & Williams, M 2011, ‘Developing a demographic profile of scholarly community contributing to the Electronic Government, An International Journal’, Electronic Government: an international journal, vol. 8, no. 2/3, pp. 259-270. Fan, L, Nguyen, T & Roddick, F 2011, ‘Characterisation of the impact of coagulation and anaerobic bio-treatment on the removal of chromophores from molasses wastewater’, Water Research, vol. 45, no. 13, pp. 3933-3940. Fien, J, Charlesworth, E 2011, Breaching the urban contract: Dividing Walls in/to the resilient city, International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment.

214 Fien, J, Charlesworth, E, Lee, G, Baker, D, Grice, T & Morris, D 2011, ‘Life on the edge: Housing experiences in three remote Australian indigenous settlements’, Habitat International, vol. 35, pp. 343-349. Gekara, V, Bloor, M & Sampson, H 2011, ‘Computer-based assessment in competence-based training: The case of maritime education and training license examinations for seafarers’, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 87-100. Gordon, A, Langford, W, Todd, J, White M, Mullerworth, D & Bekessy, S 2011, ‘Assessing the impacts of biodiversity offset policies’, Environmental Modelling and Software, vol. 144, pp. 558–566. Gordon, A, Langford, W, White, M, Todd, J & Bastin, L 2011, ‘Modelling trade offs between public and private conservation policies’, Biological Conservation, vol. 144, pp. 558-566. Gough, A 2011, ‘(W)rapping relationships between science education and globalisation’, Cultural Studies of Science Education, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 77-88. Gough, A 2011, ‘The Australian-ness of curriculum jigsaws: Where does environmental education fit?’, Australian Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 1-15. Halsey, N & Harris, V 2011, ‘Sensing the signs of generativity’, Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, vol. 44, pp. 7-93. Harris, V & Marlow, J 2011, ‘High yards and high hopes: The educational challenges of African refugee University students’, International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 186-196. Hayes, P & Bruce, S 2011, ‘North Korean Nuclear Nationalism and the Threat of Nuclear War in Korea’, Pacific Focus, vol. 26, pp. 65-89. Hayes, P & Tanter, R 2011, ‘Beyond the nuclear umbrella: Re-thinking the theory and practice of nuclear extended deterrence in east Asia and the Pacific’, Pacific Focus, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 5-21. Haynes, R Buxton, M, Mercer, D & Butt, A 2011, ‘Vulnerability to bushfire risk at Melbourne’s urban fringe: The failure of regulatory land use planning’, Geographical Research, vol. 49, pp. 1-12. Henseler, J, Fassott, G, Dijkstra, T & Wilson, B 2011, ‘Analyzing quadratic effects of formative constructs by means of variance- based structural equation modelling’, European Journal of Information Systems, pp. 1-14. Henseler, J, Fassott, G, Dijkstra, T & Wilson, B 2011, ‘Analysing quadratic effects of formative constructs by means of variance- based structural equation modelling’, European Journal of Information Systems, vol.36, pp. 1-14. Henseler, J, Wilson, B & Westberg, K 2011, ‘Manager’s perceptions of the impact of sport sponsorship on brand equity’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 20, pp. 9-23. Henseler, J, Wilson, B & Westberg, K 2011, ‘Managers’ perceptions of the impact of sport sponsorship on brand equity: Which aspects of the sponsorship matter Most?’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 7-21. Heydon, G 2011, ‘Silence: Civil right or social privilege? A discourse analytic response to a legal problem’, Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 2308-2316. Hjorth, L & Arnold, M 2011, ‘The personal and the political: Social networking in Manila’, International Journal of Learning and Media, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 29-39. Hjorth, L 2011, ‘Mobile@game cultures: The place of urban mobile gaming’, Convergence Journal, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 357-371. Hoare, L 2011, ‘Transnational student voices: Reflections on a second chance’, Journal of Studies in International Education, pp. 1-16. Hudson, C & Johal, S 2011, ‘A chill in the blogosphere: The state, the internet and the struggle for narrative control in Singapore’, Communication, Politics and Culture, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 33-44. Hudson, C 2011, ‘From rugged individual to dishy dad: Reinventing masculinity in Singapore’, Genders, no. 54, Online. Iyer-Raniga, U & Wong, J 2011, ‘Evaluation of whole life cycle assessment for heritage buildings in Australia’, Building and Environment, vol. 47, pp. 138-149. Langford, W, Gordon, A, Bastin, L, Bekessy, S, White, M & Newell, G 2011, ‘Raising the bar for systematic conservation planning’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 26, pp. 634–640. Lewis, T 2011, ‘Making over culture? Lifestyle television and contemporary pedagogies of selfhood in Singapore’, Communication, Politics & Culture, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 21-32. Lewis, T 2011, ‘The ethical turn in commodity culture: Consumption, care and the other’, Journal of Literature, Culture and Literary Translation, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-7. Lingard, H & Wakefield, R 2011, ‘The development and testing of a hierarchical measure of project OHS performance’, Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, vol. 18, pp. 30-49.

215 Liu, K, Roddick, F & Fan, L 2011, ‘Potential of UV/H2O2 oxidation for enhancing the biodegradability of municipal reverse osmosis concentrates’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 63, no. 11, pp. 2605-2611. Lockrey, S 2011, ‘The ecocraze, a case study: Negotiating a greener product design landscape’, Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 41-62. Maller, C & Horne, R 2011, ‘Living lightly: How does climate change feature in residential home improvements and what are the implications for policy?, Urban Policy and Research, vol. 29, pp. 59-72 Maller, C & Strengers, Y 2011, ‘Housing, heat stress and health in a changing climate: promoting the adaptive capacity of vulnerable households, a suggested way forward’, Health Promotion International, vol. 26, pp. 100-108. Maller, C, Horne, R & Dalton, T 2011, ‘Green renovations: Intersections of daily routines, housing aspirations and narratives of environmental sustainability’, Housing, Theory and Society, vol. 0, pp. 1-21. Marchant, R, Kefford, B, Wasley, J, King, C, Doube, J & Nugegoda, D 2011, ‘Response of stream invertebrate communities to vegetation damage from overgrazing by exotic rabbits on subantarctic Macquarie Island’, Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 404-413. Mbiti, T, Blismas, N, Wakefield, R & Lombardo, R 2011, ‘System archetypes underlying the problematic behaviour of construction activity in Kenya’, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 29, pp. 3-13. McLennan, B & Garvin, T 2011, ‘Increasing the salience of NRM Research with innovative methodologies: The example of oriented qualitative case study (OQCS)’, Society and Natural Resources, pp. 1-10. Meizler, A, Roddick, F & Porter, N 2011, ‘A novel glass support for the immobilization and UV-activation of horseradish peroxidase for treatment of halogenated phenols’, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 172, pp. 792-798. Molinari, D & Handmer, J 2011, ‘A behavioural model for quantifying flood warning effectiveness’, Journal of Flood Risk Management, vol. 4, pp. 23-32. Morrissey, J & Horne, R 2011, ‘Life cycle cost implications of energy efficiency measures in new residential buildings’, Energy and Buildings, vol. 43, pp. 915-924. Morrissey, J, Moore, T & Horne, R 2011, ‘Affordable passive solar design in a temperate climate: An experiment in residential building orientation’, Renewable Energy, vol. 36, pp. 568-577. Mulligan, M & Nadarajah, Y 2011, ‘Rebuilding community in the wake of disaster: Lessons from the tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka and India’, Community Development Journal, pp. 1-16. Mulligan, M & Smith, P 2010, ‘Art, governance and the turn to community: Lessons from a national action research project on community art and local government in Australia’, Journal of Arts and Communities, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 27-3. Nadarajah, Y & Mulligan, M 2011, ‘Building local responses to disaster: Lessons from the 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka and India’, India Quarterly, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 307-324. Nyland, B, Nyland, C Y Yan, Z 2011, ‘Preschool provision and children of migrants in Beijing’, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 77-89. Peacock, C 2011, ‘Residential land under Australian GST’, International VAT Monitor, vol. 22, pp. 255-258. Puspita, P, Roddick, F & Porter, N 2011, ‘Decolourisation of Secondary Effluent by UV-mediated Processes’, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 171, pp. 464-473. Reale, A & Handmer, J 2011, ‘Land tenure, disasters and vulnerability’, Disasters, vol. 35, pp. 160-182. Robertson, S 2011, ‘Cash cows, backdoor migrants, or activist citizens? International students, citizenship, and rights in Australia’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, pp. 1-20. Robertson, S 2011, ‘Student switchers and the regulation of residency: the interface of the individual and Australia’s immigration regime’, Population Space Place, vol. 17, pp. 103-115. Robertson, S, Hoare, L & Harwood, A 2011, ‘Returnees, student-migrants and second chance learners: Case studies of positional and transformative outcomes of Australian international education’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, pp. 1-14. Sahin, B 2011, ‘Building the nation in Timor-Leste and its implications for the country’s democratic development’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, vol. 65, pp. 220-242. Sampson, H, Gekara, V & Bloor, M 2011, ‘Water-tight or sinking? A consideration of the standards of the contemporary assessment practices underpinning seafarer licence examinations and their implications for employers’, Maritime Policy and Management, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 81-92.

216 Schaefer, R, Kefford, B, Metzeling, L, Liess, M, Burgert, S, Marchant, R, Pettigrove, V, Goonan, P & Nugegoda, D 2011, ‘A trait database of stream invertebrates for the ecological risk assessment of single and combined effects of salinity and pesticides in South-East Australia’, Science of The Total Environment, vol. 409, no. 11, pp. 2055-2063. Schluter, P & Martinovic, M 2011, ‘GPS tracking of offenders: Opportunities and challenges’, Information Age, Sep/Oct 2011, pp. 58-61. Shabani, B & Andrews, J 2011, ‘An experimental investigation of a PEM fuel cell to supply both heat and power in a solar-hydrogen RAPS system’, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 36, pp. 5442-5452. Singh, S & Morley, C 2011, ‘Financial Accounts, Money Management and Control in Intimate Relationships’, Journal of Sociology, vol. 47(1), pp. 3-16. Singh, S 2011, ‘Indian students in Melbourne: Challenges to multiculturalism’, Journal of Intercultural Studies, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 673-689. Sivaraman, D & Horne, R 2011, ‘Regulatory potential for increasing small scale grid connected photovoltaic (PV) deployment in Australia’, Energy Policy, vol. 39, pp. 586-595. Steger, MB 2011, ‘Three dimensions of subjective globalization’, Protosociology, vol. 28, pp. 53-70. Strengers, Y & Maller, C 2011, ‘Integrating health housing and energy policies: social practices of cooling’, Building Research and Information, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 154-168. Strengers, Y 2011, ‘Beyond demand management: Co-managing energy and water practices with Australian households’, Policy Studies, vol. 32, pp. 35-58. Strengers, Y 2011, ‘Negotiating everyday life: The role of energy and water consumption feedback’, Journal of Consumer Culture, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 319-338. Thangarajah, J & Padgham, L 2011, ‘Computationally effective reasoning about goal interactions’, Journal of Automated Reasoning, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 17-56. Thanthri Waththage, K, Deng, H & Singh, M 2011, ‘Measuring the pubic value of e-government: A case study’, Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 81-99. Tran, L & Nyland, C 2011, ‘International vocational education and training - the migration and learning mix’, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, vol. 51, pp. 8-31. Tran, L 2011, ‘Committed face-value hybrid or mutual adaptation? The experiences of international students in Australian higher education’, Educational Review, vol. 63, pp. 79-94. Trembath, A 2011, ‘Sex in contemporary Timor-Leste: Changes in youth culture and implications for gender equality’, Culture Health and Sexuality, vol. 13, pp. S21-S21. Westberg, K, Stavros, C & Wilson, B 2011, ‘Brand management and the sponsorship BtoB relationship: Exploring the impact of degenerative episodes’, Industrial Marketing Management, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 603-611. Westberg, K, Stavros, C & Wilson, B 2011, ‘The impact of degenerative episodes on the sponsorship B2B relationship: Implications for brand management’, Industrial Marketing Management, vol. 40, pp. 603-611. Williams, L 2011, ‘Human-animal studies in the field of the arts and humanities’ Philosophy, Activism, Nature, issue no. 8, pp. 2-4 -1443-6124. Wilson, B 2011, ‘Social inclusion: Universitities and regional development’, Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 98-114. Wilson, B, Vocino, A, Stewart, A & Jason, S 2011, ‘Investigating directionality for a media consumption construct: Establishing the utility of confirmatory vanishing tetrad analysis’, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, vol. 23, pp. 23-38. Wilson, E 2011, ‘Much to be proud of, much to be done: Faith-based organisations and the politics of asylum in Australia’, Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 24, pp. 548-564. Wood, G & Ong, R 2011, ‘Factors Shaping the Dynamics of Housing Affordability in Australia 2001-06’, Housing studies, vol. 26, no. 7-8, pp. 1105-1127. Wood, G, & Sommervoll, D 2011, ‘Home equity Insurance’, Journal of Financial Economic Policy, vol. 3, no. 1. Wood, G, Beer A, Baker E, & Raftery P 2011, ‘Housing Policy, Housing Assistance and the Wellbeing Dividend: Developing an Evidence based for Post-GFC Economies’, Housing studies, vol. 26, no. 7-8, pp. 1171-1192. Wood, G, Dockery, A & Ong, R 2011, ‘Measuring work disincentives: Taxes, benefits, and the transition into employment’, Australian Journal of Labour Economics, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 265-288. Yaqin, Z, Nyland, B & Xiaodong, Z 2011, ‘Early childhood kindergarten programs in China: issues of Access and funding’, Asia- Pacific Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 145-166.

217 Published Refereed Conference Papers 2011

Ahmed, I & McEvoy, D 2011, ‘A Framework for Assessment of Climate Change Risks and Adaptation Options for Coastal Secondary Cities in the Asia-Pacific Region’, in the International Conference on Industrial Transformation, Urbanization and Human Security in the Asia Pacific, Taipei, Taiwan, 14-15 January, 2011. Alaraifi, A, Molla, A & Deng, H 2011, ‘Information systems for data centres: Description and operational characteristics’, in Proceedings of the 15th Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2011), Brisbane, 7-11 July, 2011. Butcher, T, Christopher, M & Mangan, J 2011, ‘Skills and capabilities for agility: do we really know our supply chain managers?’, in Proceedings of the 9th ANZAM Operations, Supply Chain and Services Management Symposium, Geelong, 15-17 June, 2011. Cheong, F & Cheong, C 2011, ‘Social Media Data Mining: A Social Network Analysis of Tweets During the Australian 2010-2011 Floods’, in The Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2011), Brisbane, Australia, 7-11 July, 2011. Cook, N 2011, ‘Rethinking public participation: the role of non-experts in the development of third party objection and appeal in the NSW Environmental Planning and Assessment Act (1979)’, in State of Australian Cities National Conference 2011, Melbourne, Australia, 29 November - 2 December, 2011. Edirisinghe, R, Setunge, S, Zhang, G and Wakefield, R 2011, ‘Council building management practices, case study and road ahead’, in Mathew, J, Ma, M, Tan, A, Weijnen, M & Lee, J (eds) Engineering Asset Management and Infrastructure Sustainability: Proceedings of the 5th World Congress on Engineering Asset Management (WCEAM 2010), Germany, 25-27 October 2010, pp. 165-180. Gaunson, S 2011, ‘Past mistakes and future visions: The royal commission on the moving picture industry in Australia 1926-28’, in Screen Futures, Australian Centre of the Moving Image (ACMI), Melbourne, 9-12 July, 2011. Gaunson, S 2011, ‘The heroic villain: Gregor Jordan’s Ned Kelly, The Melbourne argus and the Jerilderie letter’, in Heroes and Villains, Justice and Punishment, Mansfield College, Oxford University, 10-12 September, 2011. Goodman, R & Moloney, S 2011, ‘Melbourne’s activity centre policy: A post-mortem’, in State of Australian Cities National Conference 2011, Melbourne, 29 November - 2 December, 2011, pp. 1-11. Goodman, R, Taylor, E, Leshinsky, R & Douglas, K 2011, ‘Appropriate dispute resolution and the owners Corporation Act 2006 (VIC)’, in State of Australian Cities National Conference 2011, Melbourne, 29 November - 2 December, 2011, pp. 1-13. Grant, D & Butcher, T 2011, ‘Investigating Pick-to-Voice Technology Implementation Factors in Warehousing’, in Proceedings of 16th Annual Conference of the Logistics Research Network, Southampton, UK, 7-9 September, 2011. Hashemi, A & Butcher T 2011, ‘Investigating product and demand characteristics as antecedents of supply chain complexity’ in Proceedings of the The 9th ANZAM Operations, Supply Chain and Services Management Symposium, Geelong, 15 - 17 June, 2011. Hashemi, A & Butcher, T 2011, ‘The relationship between product design and supply chain management: A systematic literature review’, in Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2011), Berlin, Germany, 10-13 July, 2011. Herd, N, Reason, M, Sinclair, C, Spurgeon, C, Brow, J, Poulton, M, Austin, S & Wilson, B 2011, ‘Plenary Session’, in Engaging Young Audiences Research Colloquium, Sydney, Australia, 17 November, 2011. Hurley, J, Taylor, E, Cook, N & Colic-Peisker, V 2011, ‘In the fast lane: Bypassing third party objections and appeals in third party planning process’, in State of Australian Cities National Conference 2011, Melbourne, Australia, 29 November - 2 December, 2011, pp. 1-10. Idris, E & Fünfgeld, H 2011, ‘Climate Change Risk Management for a Suburban Local Government: The Case of Kogarah, Australia’, in Otto-Zimmermann, K (ed.), Resilient Cities: Cities and Adaptation to Climate Change, in Proceedings of the Global Forum 2010, Heidelberg, Germany, 11-14 April, 2010, pp. 365-378. Islam, M, Jollands, M and Setunge, S 2011, ‘Life Cycle Assessment of a Residential Building: Quantity Take-off and data input techniques’, in Proceedings of 7th Australian Conference on Life Cycle Assessment, Melbourne, 9-10 Mar 2011, pp. 1-10. Iyer-Raniga, U, Wong, J & Horne, R 2011, ‘A Design Tool for Climate Change Adaptation’, in Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture (PLEA) - Architecture & Sustainable Development, Louvain-la-Neuve, Brussels, 13-15 July, 2011. Lokuge, W, Setunge, S & Sanjayan, J 2011, ‘Stress-strain model for high strength concrete confined with FRP’, in Fragomeni, S, Venkatesan, S, Lam, N & Setunge, S (ed.), Incorporating Sustainable Practice in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Netherlands, 7-10 December, 2010, pp. 481-486. McNevin, A 2011, ‘Taking a cut from ‘forced migration’: governance, corruption and categories of analysis in the case of Malaysia’, in International Association for the study of Forced Migration Convention, Kampala, July 3-6, 2011.

218 McNevin, A 2011, ‘The Global governance of migration: Towards a critical research framework’, in International Studies Association Asia-Pacific Regional Conference, University of Queensland, 29-30 September, 2011. Molla, A & Abareshi, A 2011, ‘Green IT adoption: A motivational perspective’, in Proceedings of the 15th Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2011), Brisbane, 7-11 July, 2011. Mulligan, M, 2011, ‘Towards a community development approach to disaster recovery’, in International Disaster Resilience Conference, Kandalama, Sri Lanka, July, 2011. Nirdosha, G, Setunge, S & Jollands, M 2011, ‘Design of experiments for investigating particleboard production using hardwood sawmill residue’, in Fragomeni, S, Venkatesan, S, Lam N & and Setunge, S (ed.), Incorporating Sustainable Practice in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Netherlands, 7-10 December, 2010, pp. 861-865. Nirdosha, G, Setunge, S & Jollands, M 2011, ‘Design of experiments for investigating particleboard production using hardwood sawmill residue’, in Fragomeni, S Venkatesan, S Lam, N & Setunge, S (ed.), Incorporating Sustainable Practice in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Netherlands, 7-10 December, 2010, pp. 861-865. Poles, R, & Cheong, F 2011, ‘An investigation on capacity planning and lead times for remanufacturing systems using system dynamics’, in Proceedings of the 44th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Science, Koloa, Kauai, 4-7 January, 2011. Rahman, S, Abareshi, A, Bakir, S & Ahmad, S 2011, ‘Research orientations of the selected supply chain management periodicals: A critical review’, in Proceedings of 16th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2011), Berlin, Germany, 10-13 July, 2011. Rahman, S, Subramaniam, N & Chan, C 2011, ‘Analytic hierarchy process and its applications in logistics research’, in Proceedings of 16th International Symposium on Logistics (ISL 2011), Berlin, Germany, 10-13 July, 2011. Roddick, F, Nguyen, T & Fan, L 2011, ‘Detection of microcystin-LR in lagoon-treated water by abraxis strip test’, in Proceedings of of Australia’s National Water Conference and Exhibition (OZWater’11), Adelaide, 9-11 May, 2011. Scerri, A 2011, ‘After dualism: Green citizenship, stakeholder citizenship?’, in Australian Political Science Association Conference, Canberra, 26-28 September, 2011. Singh, M & Hackney, R 2011, ‘Mobile technologies for public police force tasks and processes: A t-government perspective’, in Proceedings of the 19th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS2011) - ICT and Sustainable Service Development, Helsinki, Finland, 9-11 June, 2011. Sofoulis, Z & Strengers, Y’ 2011, Healthy engagement: Evaluating models of providers and users for cities of the future’, in Proceedings of Australia’s National Water Conference and Exhibition (OZWater’11), Adelaide, 9-11 May, 2011. Strengers, Y 2011, ‘Designing eco-feedback systems for everyday life’, in Proceedings of the 2011 Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2011), Vancouver, BC, May 7-12, 2011. Thangarajah, J, Jayatilleke, G & Padgham, L 2011, ‘Scenarios for system requirements traceability and testing’, in Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS 2011), Tapiei, Taiwan, 2-6 May, 2011. Wilson, B, Kent, R, Spilva, K & Hakim, S 2011, ‘Supporting artistic endeavour: Insights from experts at the cutting edge of youth culture’, in Engaging Young Audiences Research Colloquium, Sydney, Australia, 17 November, 2011. Wong, J, Iyer-Raniga, U & Sivaraman, D 2011, ‘Energy efficiency and environmental impacts of building with heritage values in Australia’, in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Heritage and Sustainable Development, Evora, Portugal, 22- 26 June, 2010. Wong, K, Setunge, S & Jollands, M 2011, ‘Particleboard production using mixtures of softwood and hardwood residues’, in in Fragomeni, S Venkatesan, S Lam, N & Setunge, S (ed.), Incorporating Sustainable Practice in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Netherlands, 7-10 December, 2010, pp. 839-842. Wong, W, Thangarajah, J & Padgham, L 2011, ‘Health conversational system based on contextual matching of community-driven question-answer pairs’, in Proceedings of the 20th ACM international conference on Information and knowledge management (CIKM ‘11), Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 24-28 October, 2011. Wood,G, Ong, R & McMurray, C 2011, ‘Housing tenure, energy expenditure and the principal-agent problem in Australia’ in 17th Pacific Rim Real Estate Society Conference, Gold Coast, 16-17 January, 2011.

219 220 Street art in the laneways of Melbourne, Australia, 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

221 9. Conferences and Forums

Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures Melbourne (Australia), February 2011 Speakers: Ralph Horne, Robin Goodman, Hartmut Fünfgeld, Jane Mullett, and Darryn Snell Ralph Horne’s talk ‘Contemporary Urban Sustainability Research Challenges’ introduced the field of research in Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures. Robin Goodman presented ‘Planning Policy and Characteristics of the Supply of New Housing in Melbourne’, the findings of a recent AHURI project. She examined the effects of planning policy on housing outcomes in Melbourne, policy that sought to establish whether planning initiatives achieved their stated aims on housing during the period 1990–2007. Hartmut Fünfgeld highlighted the framing of climate-change adaptation, providing a decision-making roadmap to better inform policy and practice by Victorian local and regional authorities. Jane Mullett discussed the impact of the 2009 heatwave on the critical infrastructure of Melbourne; namely, energy, transport, water, and telecommunications. She discussed some of the challenges faced in dealing with the effects of future heatwaves. Darryn Snell outlined political, economic, cultural and spatial dimensions of a carbon-constrained environment, the role and strategies of different social actors in relation to this transition and how the process of transition can be carried out in a just and socially sustainable way for the workers and communities who depend upon carbon-exposed industries for their livelihoods.

Approaches to Climate-Change Adaptation in Policy and Practice Framing Adaptation Melbourne (Australia), February 2011 Speakers: The event brought together project partners and stakeholders from more than twenty organizations, including Victorian State Government departments, regional local government alliances, local authorities, industry groups, and research institutions. The forum focused on creating an opportunity for dialogue between climate-change adaptation policy developers, practitioners and researchers, to explore the challenges and opportunities for establishing the meaning and purpose of climate change adaptation in various contexts, from the individual to state levels. It focused on creating an opportunity for dialogue between climate change adaptation policy developers, practitioners and researchers, to explore the challenges and opportunities for establishing the meaning and purpose of climate change adaptation in various contexts, from the individual to state levels.

The Changing Social Ecology of Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific Region Melbourne (Australia), May 2011 Speaker: Deane Neubauer, Political Science, University of Hawai’i The environment in which higher education operates is undergoing significant change along with almost every dimension of its operation. This discussion focused on the emergent social ecology of higher education in which most traditional roles and structures are undergoing transformation. In this presentation, Professor Neubauer outlined the key challenges facing higher education in the Asia- Pacific region drawing on extensive experience in higher education accreditation in North America and as co-ordinator of the East-West Center’s Education 2020 Program which brings together higher-education researchers from across the region to share views on issues of common concern.

222 City, Community and Globalization Melbourne (Australia), June 2011 Speakers: Siri Hettige from the University of Colombo, Supriya Singh, Yaso Nadarajah, Martin Mulligan and Chris Chamberlain from RMIT, as well as researchers from the School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, the Graduate School of Business and Law, and the School of Media and Communication.

This forum allowed participants to explore new theoretical and methodological approaches for the study of communities in cities. The aim was to complement the study of the city in terms of the built environment, design and planning, financial and knowledge networks by emphasizing the soft side of the concept of urbanization within the framework of globalization. The concept of community is an important bridge between personal experience and the physical environment of the city. Investigating the formation, re-formation and dissolution of a sense of community in these cities. The forum presented the lived experience of people in Melbourne, Colombo, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Port Moresby. The forum focused on four themes: rethinking community in changing cities; migration, mobility and care for strangers in global cities; community, modernity and urbanization in the Global South; and towards more inclusive and cohesive urban communities.

Between The Democratic and Democracy, or Politics in Democratic Theory Melbourne (Australia), June 2011 Speaker: Stephen Rosow, Professor of Political Science at the State University of New York, Oswego Is democracy the most political form of government, or does it promote a depoliticized citizenry? The relation between the subject and the state within the history of democratic theory presents this to us as a paradox, for democracy appears to be both. This raises a number of questions that Professor Rosow explored. How have political theories of democracy framed the relation between subject and state? How has democratic theory come to support forms of governing democratic subjects that depoliticize the subject, thereby making room for authoritarian, and undemocratic practices of governing inside the democratic state? How might alternative understandings of democratic subjectivity and democratic authority be framed, especially in the global context of contemporary politics, that contest and problematize the undemocratic governance of democratic states and that make room for alternative forms of democratic politics that resist or reject state sovereignty?

United We Stand: Towards Global Reconciliation Melbourne (Australia), July 2011 Speakers: Jason Mifsud from the AFL, Brad Sewell, AFL player at Hawthorn, Ishika Kawiratne from Sri Lanka Unites, and Pippa Grange from Bluestone Edge This event launched a film that we made called United We Stand. The documentary followed the journey of six AFL and VFL footballers into the heart of post-war and post-tsunami Sri Lanka. There they find themselves humbled by lessons of grace, grit and reconciliation among the local people. Filmed in a raw style against the sea of colour of the sub-continent, the documentary offers a candid look at how the players come to understand the power of sport to connect people and overcome tragedy. For some, the journey ignites a passion to spend their moment in the sun as celebrities doing something that might last a lifetime. As part of the Australian Football League multicultural round, the AFL in partnership with RMIT, Bluestone Edge, Global Reconciliation and Sri Lanka Unites invited the Melbourne community to come and celebrate multi-cultural Australia and the place of football in our hearts and lives. Alongside the film premiere there was a panel conversation.

223 From Cairo’s Tahrir Square to Istanbul’s Taksim Square Melbourne (Australia), July 2011 Speaker: Nevzat Soguk, Chair of the Department of Political Science, University of Hawai’i How do we comprehend the ongoing Arab uprisings? Are these reforms or revolutions? Will they produce genuine democratic changes or will they result in an authoritarianism of an Islamist variety? The best place to reflect on these questions instructively is not yet the Arab uprisings but Turkey, with its long and unique relationship with Islam as well as democracy. With the ‘moderately Islamist’ Justice and Development Party in power since 2002, Turkey has been negotiating these existential political questions for nearly a decade. In the process, a syncretic Turkish model anchored in both tradition and modernity has emerged. In this talk, Nevzat Soguk addressed the rise of the Turkish model, and gesture towards how, if at all, Turkey is relevant to the exhilarations in the Arab world either as an inspiration or as a cautionary tale.

International Conference on Building Resilience Kandalama (Sri Lanka), July 2011 Speakers: RMIT presenters included John Fien, Esther Charlesworth, Martin Mulligan, Yaso Nadarajah and Ifte Ahmed In partnership with the University of Salford Centre for Disaster Resilience and the UNISDR Making Cities Resilient Campaign, the Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures Program co-hosted the two-day International Conference on Building Resilience in Kandalama, Sri Lanka. Focusing on the theme of ‘Interdisciplinary Approaches to Disaster Risk-Reduction, and the Development of Sustainable Communities and Cities’. The conference was part of a long-term partnership between RMIT and the University of Salford in research on disaster management through the ANDROID project. ANDROID is a consortium of 64 partner organizations from 29 countries across Europe and Asia. ANDROID aims to promote co-operation and innovation to increase society’s resilience to disasters of human and natural origin, focusing in particular on the nature of resilience; what it means to society; and how societies might achieve greater resilience in the face of increasing threats from natural and human induced hazards.

Citizenship, Community and the Global City Melbourne (Australia), July 2011 Speaker: Hans Schattle, Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea The idea of ‘global citizenship’ as a series of habits, practices and dispositions has gained momentum alongside the most recent phases of globalization. And yet, as public recognition of global interdependence continues to rise and campaigns for civil rights and democracy around the world accelerate and intensify in the digital media age, the institution of national citizenship is tightening in many countries experiencing fierce backlashes against immigrant populations and multiculturalism. This presentation examined the competing forces now in play and focused on cities as key venues of contestation over the dimensions of citizenship and community. Also discussed were how concepts and themes such as community sustainability, urban adaptation and cultural change offer promising pathways for inquiry linking together the study of politics and the study of global cities.

224 Kicking Bodies and Damning Souls: The Danger of Harming ‘Innocent’ Individuals while Punishing ‘Delinquent’ States Melbourne (Australia), July 2011 Speaker: Toni Erskine, Professor of International Politics, Aberystwyth University, Wales and Honorary Professor, RMIT It is both possible and important to talk about institutions, in the sense of formal organizations, as moral agents in world politics. As moral agents, institutions can be assigned duties. They can also be blamed for failing to discharge them. But how can we respond to this type of failure? Punishment is a prominent and problematic response to institutional delinquency. This talk explored three potential problems with any attempt to punish an institution at the corporate level, each of which focuses on what such an attempt risks doing to the institution’s individual human constituents. Particular forms of punishment cannot represent morally coherent responses to culpability that is located at the corporate level of an institution. Punitive war waged against the ‘delinquent’ state, when responsibility for harm and wrongdoing is not distributive amongst its individual members, provides an extreme and consequential case of such incoherence.

Sustainable Urban Development and Climate Change Adaptation in Vietnam Tra Vinh (Vietnam), September 2011 The conference was organized jointly by the Climate Change Adaptation Program, RMIT International University Vietnam, Southern Institute of Sustainable Development (SISD), Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences (VASS), Tra Vinh University and United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). The purpose of this two-day event was to clarify some of the key concepts associated with climate change and cities and discuss the links between adaptation, mitigation and sustainable urban development. Showcasing international policy and research initiatives and providing case-study material to illustrate some of the key challenges and opportunities facing climate compatible development in different parts of the world, and the implications for decision-makers in Vietnam.

Urban Regeneration in Post-Apartheid Johannesburg Melbourne (Australia), November 2011 Speaker: Taffy Adler, CEO, Housing Development Agency, South Africa Taffy Adler is currently the founding Chief Executive Officer of HDA, a newly established, state-owned entity of the South African Government responsible for the acquisition of land to develop sustainable communities. The HDA has a mandate to provide housing services in the areas of informal settlement upgrade, blocked projects and emergency housing to provincial and local governments. In this presentation, the focus was on the establishment of social housing, the physical regeneration of neighbourhoods, and the development and consolidation of newly urbanizing communities. As Melbourne grapples with the complex and interwoven problems of accommodating an increasing population, growing inequalities and housing affordability issues, and multiple urban sustainability challenges, the knowledge to be gained from the experience of other cities and states becomes vital. South Africa, post-apartheid, provides us with an alternative perspective on urban development challenges.

225 Digital Media and Sociocultural Change in Emerging Economies Melbourne (Australia), December 2011 Speaker: John Postill, an anthropologist in Media at Sheffield Hallam University The growing strength and influence of the world’s ‘emerging economies’ is one of the more significant global developments of the past decade. Amidst protracted economic woes in developed countries such as the United States, Britain and Japan, the so-called BRIC group - Brazil, Russia, India and China - recovered swiftly from the 2008 financial crisis and are now enjoying high-growth rates once again. Although there is a bourgeoning literature on this global shift, the part that digital media may be playing in sociocultural change in emerging economies remains poorly understood. Missing from the existing scholarship is a common theoretical framework that will help to organize and compare existing research on digital change in emerging countries, as well as identifying gaps and generating new questions for future research. This presentation drew an outline of such a future framework in the context of efforts by the Media and Social Change network (http://mediasocialchange.net/) to foster and coordinate international research initiatives in this area.

Adapting to Climate Change: Showcasing New Perspectives from the Netherlands Melbourne (Australia), December 2011 Speakers: Hans de Moel, Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam and Rod Keenan, Director, Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research Climate change is projected to have various impacts in the Netherlands. Particularly adverse impacts related to flooding are of crucial importance to such a low-lying, densely populated country. The way in which the Netherlands is planning to cope with these changes offers lessons for other places in the world. This forum addressed the Dutch plans.

226 Shinjuku Station, Kabukicho, Tokyo’s red ligh district, Japan, 2009. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

227 Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Across the area, which includes rural districts, density at the time that this photo was taken was 6,540 persons per square kilometre. Kwun Tong district, with 54,530 persons per square kilometre, is the most densely populated district of the District Councils. (To give some sense of the difference, Melbourne’s density, depending on the region being measured, ranges from 520 persons per square kilometre for the whole area to 1,600 persons for Metropolitan Melbourne and 8,000 for the inner-city area.) Hong Kong, June 2010.

228 229 10. Postgraduate Students

Naveed Agro Is the compact city model the best option for city of Karachi (Pakistan) and could it be implemented? Mehrdad Arashpour Supply chain risk management for the implementation of smart and sustainable building technologies Venu Arora Young people’s sexualities, media content and impact: an exploration in the South Asian Context Naomi Bailey Breaking the cycle: pathways out of chronic homelessness Mihaela Balan Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) participation in multilateral and bilateral funded projects in developing countries Lesa Beel Home and queer/GLBTI lived experience Colin Brown The impact and effects of perceived age-discrimination on older Australian male workers and job seekers Roberto Colanzi How is Viet Nam managing its automotive industry alongside carbon minimisation & urban development vulnerabilities & pressures in its major cities? Earl de Blonville FRGS Into the wilderness: leadership for futures of global climate crisis Tommaso Durante The symbolic construction of the global imaginary in the contemporary Australian cities of Melbourne and Sydney Amir Yadollah Faraji Thermoelectric power generation using evacuated tube solar collector with internal storage system to supply base-load power Rosemary Fedele Australian aerosol and climate change Kent Goldsworthy The commodification of good intentions: the case study of voluntourism in international development Amirreza Hashemi Investigating product and demand characteristics as antecedents of supply chain complexity Ellis Paula Judson New directions for heritage buildings in an era of environmental transition Linda Fu The use and usefulness of the racial other: a study of the strategic deployment of racial tropes in print advertisements and branding materials within the context of globalisation Jeremy Liyanage Towards a subaltern approach to reconciliation in post-conflict Sri Lanka Yifang Lu The Domesticated animal- reconfiguring human-animal relations through contemporary art Mansi Mansi Relationship between spirituality and sustainable procurement in Australian Higher Education Sector Trevor McMahon White man’s garden, black man’s bank: a study of land, livelihood and development in Vanuatu Fumiko Noguchi Conceptual framework of education for sustainable development (ESD) in a local community context - walking with the Ainu, indigenous people, in Okhotsk Monbetsu, Hokkaido, Japan, and seeking the best way towards the sustainable development community Adjie Pamungkas Finding a framework of vulnerability assessment and modelling for Indonesian disaster risk management Fatemeh Poodat Assessment of ecological connectivity in urban environments: a multi-species approach Jen Rae Transforming ecologies: sustainability through public art and intervention Shrigandhi Ranjith Tools for diagnosis and prediction of deterioration of timber bridges in Australia Dave Scerri Validation and analysis of agent based models Rachel Sharples Spaces of solidarity: Karen identity in the Thai-Burma borderlands Stefan Siebel Cooperative economies in a global age Victoria Stead Land, power and change: the transformation of customary land tenures in Melanesia Colin Thomas Frontier violence and the politics of (re)presentation Tran Tuan Anh Developing sustainable housing options for the storm and flood-prone regions of Central Vietnam Kim Hong Tran Community based adaptation strategy under climate change context, case study is urban floods in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Laurens J. Visser America in Iraq during the first and second gulf war Fiona Wahr Conception change for ESD: engaging academics in academic development for education for sustainable development

230 Protest for free education at the University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, 22 June 2011. © Tommaso Durante, The Visual Archive Project of The Global Imaginary

231 Identity Image

The front-cover image was designed by Sarah Rudledge from Midnight Sky based on a brief to find a composite set of symbols that carried a dialogue between complexity and simplicity, between modern trajectories and mythological stories, and between existing realities and the possibilities of rethinking cities as places of sustainable living. We asked her to construct an image that abstracted from images found in the cities in which we were working but still carried an identifiable and concrete sense of those places. The source of inspiration for the ambiguous form that the city might take was to be the Tower of Babel. The image draws upon a number of elements.

• The building profiles used in the image include the • The graphic symbols include the Ashoka Chakra (white Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, 333 Collins Street in wheel) an ancient Indian depiction of the Dharmacakra, the Melbourne, and the Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai. Wheel of Life and Cosmic Order. The wheel has twenty- four spokes, each of which signifies a spiritual principle. A • The bridge in the image is the Donghai Bridge in Shanghai symbol from the Tamil language swirls at the bottom of the spanning the Zhejiang Gulf. image. Tamil is a language spoken predominantly by Tamils • The customary boat represents people living in cities by the in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Singapore, and is one of water. Historically some of the cities chosen as research the few living classical languages which has an unbroken locations for the Global Cities Institute were once fishing or literary tradition of over two millennia. The sign near the white trading villages. wheel is from the Cantonese language one of the five major Chinese languages, and is part of the old name for • The bicycle-rider and the person on bridge are Ho Chi Minh City - Sái Gón. representations of people inhabiting cities and either moving from the hinterlands to the cities or living in the cities in • The propellers of a wind power-generator represent different ways. It also links to the most appropriate alternative alternative sustainable energy sources in the context of forms of transport to the current emphasis on the car - climate change. namely walking and cycling. • The illustration of the Papua New Guinea crested Bird of • The tuk tuk is the Southeast Asian version of a vehicle known Paradise is derived from the Papua New Guinea national elsewhere as an auto-rickshaw or cabin-cycle. flag. This element is sitting in the tree profile, which itself represents the old-growth forest of Kuala Lumpur, the only • From a quite different context, the balloon and the light tower city in the world to have a million-year-old primary forest are silhouettes from the Melbourne Cricket Ground, past and within the heart of the city. present. The MCG opened in 1853. It is built on the site of the first ‘recognized’ Australian Rules game and the first Test cricket match between Australia and England in 1877. Hot-air balloons often grace the skies of Melbourne, and the light towers are a recent addition to the MCG allowing the hyper-commercialization of the two sports while transcending the previous limitations of night and day. This is signified also by the nineteenth-century Victorian street lamp, now a romantic reference to the supposedly elegant past of ‘Marvellous Melbourne’.

232 The Tower of Babel is one of the most enduring and ambiguous images amongst the various images that relate to cities. References to Babel occur in the Bible, the Torah and the Qur’an, the books of three of the world’s global religions. The story refers to the dispersal of the world’s languages occasioned, at least in the Christian and Judaic traditions, as God’s response to their hubris is attempting to build a city that reaches the heavens. Other traditions from South America have similar stories, including one about Montezuma who escaped a great flood, and attempted to build a house reaching to heaven, which the Great Spirit destroyed with thunderbolts. Given this ambiguity of aspiration, hubris and globalized pluralism, this image became the basis for thinking about how to represent graphically the concerns of the Global Cities Institute. www.rmit.edu.au www.global-cities.info